CHAPTER 1: LEARNING THEORIES AND THE

PRACTICE OF TEACHING
1.1

CONCEPTS USED IN THE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS

1.2

PEDAGOGY

1.3

DIFFERENT THEORIES APPLIED IN TEACHING AND LEARNING.

SUMMARY

Learning theories offer resources, tools for the teacher to better accomplish his duty and
also to understand the manifestations of learners. It is in this light that it is often said, Psychology
is a vital resource for the teacher. In this chapter, before studying the different learning theories,
attention will be focused on the concepts of pedagogy, learning, teaching and the pedagogical
triangle of Jean Houssaye.

CONCEPTS USED IN THE TEACHING AND LEARNING

PROCESS
TEACHING
Teaching according to Laberge, M.F (2003) is the process of imparting knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values. Teaching can be considered as a process of instilling, transmitting or
constructing knowledge. Teaching can also be defined as a process of transmitting knowledge to
learners; it involves several kinds of skills, classroom lesson planning, classroom management,
selecting subject content, use of specific methods to transmit the content, evaluating students and
discussing with students.
Teaching can be viewed from three angles:
If the relation Knowledge is privilege, then teaching becomes the act of transmitting
knowledge through exposes in clear and concise manner. Giving privilege to the relation

knowledge is giving privilege to the relation to the transmission of knowledge. This is relation is
the most dominant in secondary schools: the Tran missive model of teaching. In this model what
is important is the quality of what is transmitted to the learners. The major problem here is how
to put knowledge at the disposition of the students to ease their work of learners. This is referred
to as didactic transposition. The quality of what taught, the way it is taught is determinant for the
quality of what is received.
Teaching is a process whereby automatism is acquired. In this light teaching becomes a
process during which the reactions, attitudes, professional gestures and behaviours are instilled
into some one. The purpose of teaching is to train students to produce answers according to the
problems encountered. Here the teaching effort is centred on the activities that could bring
changes to the learners behaviour. The behaviourist theory tends to instill behaviour and
automatisms in the manner of resolving issues.
If the student relation is considered, then teaching becomes making someone learn, study,
guide or accompanying students carry out the activities proposed. When privilege is given to the
students relation, it is also a way of giving privilege to the acquisition process and knowledge
construction by the students. It also insists on the students activities in which they put in practice
the knowledge acquire through mastering of how to do. This is easily seen theories of
constructivism and socio-constructivism.

LEARNING
According to Encarta (2009) learning is the acquisition of knowledge or skills. It also
defines learning as a relatively permanent change in, or acquisition of knowledge, understanding
or behaviour. Learning is involved in acquiring new competences, changing the way of reacting.
Learning should be organized in such a way that, the learner always acquire knowledge in an
ascending order, that is going from the less complex situation to more complex or from the
known concept to the unknown. Learning can be considered as a stable and durable modification
of knowledge, know to do and know how to be of an individual. These modifications are a result
of training, apprentice or exercises carried out by the individual. According to LD. Crow and A.
crow (1963) learning supposes a changes, it has links with the acquisition of abilities, knowledge

and attitudes. It brings personal and social adjustment to individuals. The concept of change is
very important to learning; it implies any change in behaviour implies learning took place.
It is important to know the different phases of learning, so as to better structure learning
and attain objectives envisaged in a coherent manner. Robert Gagne suggested an approach in
which he says a learner passes through eight phases when learning. A judicious usage of these
phases will facilitate the work of the instructor. These phases are: - motivation, attention and
perception, codification, memorization, recognition, transfer and generalization, performance,
feed-back.
When these phases are applied by the teacher,
It arouses and maintains motivation of the learners
Facilitates the acquisition of new concepts
Facilitates information retention
Promotes transfer of knowledge
Enable performance
Enable feed- back of performance to be seen.
Some of the learning methods applied in education are:

LEARNING METHODS
Learning by teaching
Students act as teachers in order to improve the learning process, students teach other
students the subject using certain content, but also choose their own methods and didactic
approaches in teaching. The first attempts using the learning by teaching method in order to
improve learning started at the end of the 19th century.
Project-oriented learning

Probably the most difficult aspect of project-oriented learning is the initial definition of
the project (and corresponding formulation of teams). The instructor can provide a list of
suggested topics which helps to give students an idea of possible projects. Alternatively, the
instructor can provide lists/descriptions of past projects (including links to the actual project
materials if available on the web).
In addition, students should be provided with a description of the criteria that will be used
to evaluate the projects to help them determine the appropriateness of their project ideas.
Collaboration learning
Collaboration can be as simple as a two-minute in-class exercise involving pairs of
students or as elaborate as a multi-year curriculum development project involving many groups
of students. Term-length projects done primarily outside the classroom are the most popular form
of collaboration since they require minimal changes to the usual classroom routine. This method
of learning can be applied in different domains for example, English students can review each
other's work, Computer Science students can develop or debug programs together, and soon. Email is one of the most important collaborative tools and it usually serves as the communication
backbone for all activities.
Cooperative learning
This method of learning involves hand on tasks in which students can develop their
professional skills. The crucial point is the modeling of learning as a byproduct of
comprehension. This underpins the constructivist approach to education. Learning by doing
works best because performing a task requires learner to think and comprehend at the most
testing level associated with problem solving and action.

PEDAGOGY
DEFINITION:
According to the Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary third edition, pedagogy is
defined as the study of the methods and activities of teaching. Pedagogy is sometimes seen as a

nebulous concept, it is essentially a combination of knowledge and skills required for effective
teaching. Pedagogy includes the complexity of relational, personal, moral and emotional,
aspects of teachers everyday acting with children or young people they teach (Van Manen
2002).
THE PEDAGOGIC TRIANGLE

Figure 1 Pedagogic triangle of Jean Houssaye

This triangle is essentially based on three pedagogic relations:
The learning process relation: it shows the direct relationship between Learnerknowledge. This relationship is favoured and the teacher is the organiser of external
learning processes. He is a mediator and there is a stronger bond between the learner
and knowledge.
The teaching process relation: the relationship privileged here is the teacher-knowledge
relationship. The teacher structures lessons for the learner. He looks for the content.
The training process relation: this relation is centred on the relation teacher-learner.
They are constantly in interaction. The teacher presents situations for the learner to
resolve and when the learner cant he turns to the teacher for remediation

DIFFERENT THEORIES APPLIED IN TEACHING AND

LEARNING.

THE TRANSMISIVE THEORY OF LEARNING

The transmisive model is the most renowned form of teaching theory put in place by John
Locke. For this theory; learning requires the attention of the learner. This therefore means that
for a child to learn, he should be attentive; listen, imitate; repeat and apply.
The teacher has a predominant and important role since he transmits know through his
lectures, demonstrations. Each notion is explain to the students. The students role is to listen
attentively and copy notes dictated by the teacher according to the level. The teachers role is to
transform knowledge such that it will be understood by the students by explaining every notion.
The teacher detains all the knowledge and has to transmit it to the student since the students
knows nothing. The student is just an empty vessel that the teacher fills progressively.
1.3.1.1 Conditions for implementation of the transmisive theory
This theory can only be implemented efficiently if the students are attentive, listen;
relatively motivated and already familiar with this mode of teaching. It requires students having
the pre-requisites to retain the speech of the teacher. It requires students having a mode of
functioning closer or similar to that of the teacher for the message to go through easily
(emission-reception). It requires students having autonomy during learning.
1.3.1.2 Advantages of the transmisive theory
Despite the criticisms of this theory; it how ever has some advantages. This model is
suitable for teaching and transmitting knowledge to a larger number of learners. The teacher has
to structure his lesson to be taught, this is why with this model the teacher has the obligation to
prepare his lesson very well. No interaction with students so less time consuming.
1.3.1.3 Disadvantages of the transmisive theory
The rhythm is imposed by the teacher; there is no individualization of the learning
rhythm for the learner. The learner is passive has no contribution to make. There students spirit
of criticism is dormant in this theory.

BEHAVIOURISTS THEORY OF LEARNING

This theory is based on observable changes in behaviour. Behaviourism focuses on a new
behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.The behaviourist school of thought
influenced by Thorndike (1913), Pavlov (1987) and Skinner (1974) stipulates as a principle that
learning takes place when there is a change in behaviour of the learner caused by an external
stimulus from the environment. This school of thought sees the human mind as a dark box it he
sense that the response to a stimulus can be observed in quantitative manner ignoring the mental
process that takes place. The experiments of the Behaviourists have identified conditioning as a
learning process. There are two types of conditioning: classic conditioning which occurs when a
natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most popular example is Pavlovs observation that
dogs salivate when they see food and operant conditioning which occurs when a response to a
stimulus is reinforced. A common example is Skinners experiment with a pigeon placed in a box
that showed a change in behaviour from random movements in search of food to the capability to
pressing just the lever to obtain food when hungry.
This theory has some advantages and disadvantages which could be grouped as follows:
1.3.2.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BEHAVIOURISM.
Behaviourism has some advantages and disadvantages.
1.3.2.1.1 Advantages of behaviourism:
Its enables a learner to know the objectives of a lesson that is he knows exactly what is
expected by the teacher. The pedagogy of slow movements facilitates comprehension. Teachers
go from least complex notions to more complex notions. It is an efficient theory for
overcrowded classes.

1.3.2.1.2 Disadvantages of behaviourism.

This theory is essentially interested on teaching rather than on learning and on observable
results rather than on learning process. Here the learner is passive; he is a receiver of external

reality. There is no creativity from the learner. The learner does not take part in the discovery
of the content to be taught, the teacher is the principal actor and the learner just at a permanent
receiving end. The psychological learning conditions are not taken into account.
There is mental representation of models or knowledge (e.g. if a process is taught using a
behavioural approach, and there is any system failure, learners will not necessarily have the
skills to interpret or adapt to the situation) The teacher uses the positive or negative
reinforcement to credit or discredit students activities .This theory is criticized for not
considering the processes that take place in the mind.
COGNITIVIST LEARNING THEORY
Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations established
through contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement,
although they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role
as a motivator. However, even while accepting such behaviouristic concepts, cognitive theorists
view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through
which humans process and store information." (Good and Brophy, 1990, pp. 187).
The cognitive theory which has as founding father Jean Piaget (1896-1980) stipulates that
learning takes place using memory, motivation and reasoning. Cognitive psychologists support
the view that the amount of intelligence acquired depend on the capacity of the learner to treat
information. Piaget is known for his longitudinal studies on child development and learning
which he has developed into four stages. These include:
Sensory motor stage (birth-2years old). At this stage the child builds concepts about the realities of
his contact with his or her environment and how these realities work. This is the stage where a
child does not know that physical objects still exist even when out of sight.
The preoperational stage (ages 2-7) during which the child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly
and needs concrete physical situations.
Concrete operations (7-11). Here, as physical experience accumulates, the child starts to
Conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical experiences. Abstract

problem solving such as arithmetic equations with numbers not just with objects is also possible
at this stage. Last stage which is the formal operation stage (beginning at ages 11-15) is the stage
when the childs cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning.
This theory influences learning in that the age and environment in which a child finds himself are
taken into consideration when designing curriculum and even when teaching.
Constructivism approach calls for the elimination of grades and standardized testing.
Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in
judging their progress.
CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF LEARNING
This theory resulted from the works of Jean Piaget (1964) whose theory says an
individual confronted to a given situation will mobilize a number of cognitive structures which
he calls operational designs. The learning of operational designs is done through two
complementary processes:
- Assimilation which is the process whereby the individual incorporates information from the
environment into the cognitive structure.
- Accommodation which transforms the cognitive structure of the individual in order to
incorporate new elements of experience.
In this case, knowledge is not given but it is being constructed by the learner through
mental activities. The learner adapts itself to knowledge through active learning and exploration.
The learner has to think and explain his way of reasoning to the teacher instead of memorizing
what was taught to him by the teacher. The learner is at the center of the learning process and his
knowledge is formed by his abilities to treat and interpret information. Teaching thus becomes an
interdisciplinary and the teacher plays only the role of a guide, facilitator. As suggested by
Isidore Lauzier and alii (2007), < The teacher (to remain in uniformity with what preceded) is an
adviser; it is the student that looks for means of acquisition of his knowledge>.
In this light, the role of the teacher is not to block the internal development process of the
student by imposing a teaching program, but rather consist in observing, diagnosing and practice
formative evaluation and differential pedagogy. Teaching should therefore be adapted to the
needs of the child. When constructivist theory is applied in the learning environment, the

educators role is to facilitate and moderate rather than dispense information Huang (2002) used
in Collins (2008).In this environment both teacher and the student take part in the learning
process. Learners develop knowledge internally rather than passively receiving information
transmitted by an instructor. The implications of the constructivist theory for the educator is that
he has to take into account that learners bring with them prior knowledge and this knowledge
maybe used in constructing new meaning Proulx (2006) taken from Collins (2008). Learners
have a role to play in the learning environment, as their learning needs direct communication of
new information which is in turn individually constructed. Learning from mistakes can be a key
element of constructivist learning activities, as these mistakes provide opportunities for further
learning and are a natural part of the learning process Proulx (2006) taken from Collins
(2008).
Implications of the theory to the students
The student is actively implicated in constructing his knowledge.
Intellectual development is an internal and autonomous process, not very much sensitive to external
effects especially teaching ones
The student can assimilate new knowledge only if he has the mental structures which permit him to
do so.
Students reason logically immediately they attain the logical functioning level despite the content
of knowledge.
Implications of the theory to the teacher
Provides an enabling environment for students to discover by themselves obstacles involved in
learning a new concept. He doesnt impose knowledge on students rather he helps them in
building content by themselves. He adapts to the needs of the students.
Since the teacher is a guide, facilitator, and adviser, he defines the objectives and learning projects
which will be carried out by the learners and in so doing build knowledge on their own. He

encourages student in exploring the learning environment to look for solutions to problems to be
resolved. The constructivist approached in which the learner was actively involved in building
knowledge by himself did not consider the social environment of the learner, this paved way for
another approach in learning which included the social environment and the culture of the learner
in the learning process. The social constructivist approach was brought forth.
SOCIO - CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF LEARNING.
The promoter of this theory being Vygotsky emphasized on the social aspects of the
learner. To him the right direction of development of individuals is to go from the social to the
individual rather than from the individual to the social. In addition to the constructivist concepts,
the socio-constructivist theory introduces other dimensions, such as interactions, co-construction,
co-elaboration, team spirit in learning. Learning is therefore considered as the product of sociocognitive activities link to the didactic exchanges between teacher - students and studentsstudents. In this light, the social construction of knowledge is reinforced by the fact that
knowledge is self-constructed by the learners. We noticed that to Vygotsky the social interaction
plays an important role in the process of cognitive development, this is contrary to Piaget who
say child development precedes learning, Vygotsky says learning precedes development. This
theory considers that each function in the cultural development of the child appears twice:
starting with social aspect then the individual aspects. The development theory considers two
principles: the proximal zone of development and the more knowledgeable order.
The proximal zone of development refers to the situation where a learner can carry out a
task with the help of a teacher or collaborator and what the learner can do on its own. It is
believe that learning takes place in this zone. That is why Vygotsky calls it the zone of proximal
development. Here the task assign to the learner should not be complex or difficult, that is why
the term proximal is used to avoid discouragement or failure.
The more knowledgeable order refers to any person having a higher level of reasoning than the
learner. The more knowledgeable order is considered to be the teacher, the guide, the facilitator
an aged person it could equally be a younger person or even the computer.
Implications of the theory to learners

It gives an opportunity for the teacher to work in partnership with learner so they develop
their proper knowledge. The teacher is no longer the person who knows everything
but rather a guide or facilitator in the construction process by the students.
The teacher constitutes his learning environment into small groups to ease management
or forming a community of learners.
Implications of the theory to teachers.
The theory is totally against the traditional methods of teaching and learning, that is why
Vygotsky shows that teaching and learning strategies based on this theory are very efficient. The
theory proposes scaffolding, reciprocal and guided teachings. Scaffolding being a tentative
structure put in place by the teacher to enable a student carry out a task which he could not do on
his own. Reciprocal teaching is one in which students consider the teacher as a collaborator as he
poses questions or facilitates understanding.
From the theories outlined above and the different learning methods, is now clear that the
teaching of ICT must apply these theories and pedagogy to maximize the learners outcome. The
theories seen above will pave way to the next chapter which will treat the teaching of ICT and
will be particular concern with the didactics of ICT.

SUMMARY
This chapter deals with the fundamental elements used in teaching. The key elements are
teaching, learning and learning methods. After which the concept of pedagogy is elaborated
which leads to the presentation of the various theories used in teaching such as the Transmisive
theory, the behaviourist theory, the cognitive theory, the constructivist theory and the socioconstructivist theory.

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