Review of control methods of electrical

drives
Introduction
High performance drive applications
usually require a fast torque response,
with dc drives preferred in the past. The
advantages of ac drives include
robustness, compactness, economy,
and low maintenance. Previously,
torque response control was a problem
[1-3].
However, advances in power switching
devices, electronic processing, and
control have led to great improvements.
Such controllers build upon good steady
state performance and can give
excellent transient behavior. Variablefrequency ac machine control can be
divided into scalar and field oriented or
VC. Scalar control uses magnitude and
frequency control. VC uses orientation
in addition. Variants include DTC, which
also exploits spatial orientation but
aims to control current and hence
torque by more directly switching
thevoltage rather than using PWM.[4-7]

Scalar control
Scalar control is based on steady state
relationships; usuallyonly magnitude
and frequency are controlled, not space
vector orientation. Making terminal
voltage magnitude proportional to
frequency results in an approximately
constant stator flux, this is desirable to
maximize capability of the motor. The
classical variable frequency V/f scheme
is a scalar control based on this

principle, with voltage boost at low

frequency
usually
introduced
to
counteract the larger effect of stator
resistance at low speeds. Scalar control,
often open-loop apart from stator
current monitoring for fault detection,
gives an economical drive with good
behavior, but transients may not be
well controlled. More sophisticated
variants can improve behavior, perhaps
with better handling of parameter
variations,
particularly
of
stator
resistance[3,8].

Vector control (VC):

In a dc drive the rotating commutator
acts as both current switch and rotor
position sensor. A dc drive is shown in a
schematic diagram in Fig. (1), where ia
is often chopper controlled. The
commutator maintains the main flux
and the armature MMF directions to be
approximately perpendicular under all
operational conditions. This basic
arrangement defines the aim of a VC
for a high performance ac drive, as
summarized in (1), where electrical
torque is shown as the product of
magnetic flux linkage and current
Tei(1)

Fig. (3)Block diagram of the ASD

with indirect rotor flux orientation
Fig.(1) Flux and MMF in DC drive
The VC usually separates current into
field and torque producing components.
The perpendicular field system makes
the relationships between the machine
variables simple, in principle. The flux is
a function of the field (producing
component) or d-axis current, the
torque is proportional to the product of
this flux and the torque (producing
component) or q-axis current. If the flux
is established and can be held constant,
the torque response is governed by the
current and can be fast and wellcontrolled.
Full advantages of VC are given only if
the instantaneous position of the rotor
flux vector can be established. The
usual IM cast cage rotor aids in
robustness and economy, but rotor
quantities are not accessible.

Fig. (2) Block diagram of the ASD with direct

rotor flux orientation

Precise speed and torque control of an

induction motor is now possible due to
the recent developments in power
electronics and digital signal processors
(DSP). Dynamic characteristic of an
induction motor can be controlled using
field oriented control technique. This
technique can be classified into two
methods. The first method is known as
direct field orientationFig. (2). It uses
Hall sensors mounted in the air gap to
measure the machine flux, and
therefore obtain the flux magnitude and
its angle for field orientation. The
second method is known as indirect
field orientationFig. (3). It uses the
rotor speed to achieve flux orientation
by imposing a slip frequency derived
from the rotor dynamic equations, Fig.
(4)Illustratedphasor diagram of indirect
field orientation.
Indirect field orientation method is
generally preferred than the direct one.
This is because direct method requires
a modification or a special design for
the machine. Moreover the fragility of
flux sensors often degrades the
inherent robustness of an induction
motor drive[2, 3, 8].

Fig. (4)Phasor diagram explaining

indirect field orientation

Direct Torque Control (DTC)

DTC also exploits vector relationships,
but
replaces
the
coordinate
transformation concept of standard VC
with a form of bang-bang action,
dispensing with PWM current control
(Buja and Kazmierkowski, 2004). In
standard
VC
the
q-axis
current
component is used as the torque
control quantity. With constant rotor
flux it directly controls the torque. In a
standard 3- phase converter, simple
action of the 6 switches can produce a
voltage vector with 8 states, 6 active
and 2 zero. The voltage vector and
stator flux then move around a
hexagonal trajectory; with sinusoidal
PWM this becomes a circleFig. (5).
With either, the motor acts as a filter,
so rotor flux rotates continuously at
synchronous speed along a nearcircular track. In DTC the bang-bang or
hysteresis controllers impose the time
duration of the active voltage vectors,
moving stator flux along the reference
trajectory and determining duration of
the zero voltage vectors to control

motor torque. At every sampling time

the voltage vector selection block
chooses the inverter switching state to
reduce the flux and torque error.
Depending on the DTC switching
sectors, circular or hexagonal stator
flux vector path schemes are possible.
DTC has these features compared to
standard VC (Buja and Kazmierkowski,
2004):
No current control loops so current
not directly regulated

Coordinate
transformation
not
required
No separate voltage PWM
Stator flux vector and torque
estimation required
Depending on how the switching
sectors are selected, 2 different DTC
schemes are possible. One, proposed
by Takahashi and Noguchi (1986),
operates with circular stator flux vector
path and the second one, proposed by
Depenbrock (1988), operates with
hexagonal stator flux vector path
(Terzic and Jadric, 2001). There are
different types of DTC schemes as (Buja
and Kazmierkowski, 2004):
Switching-table based DTC (ST-DTC)
Direct Self Control scheme (DSC)
Constant switching frequency DTC
scheme
Basically, the DTC strategies operating
at constant switching frequency can be
implemented by means of closed-loop
schemes with PI, predictive/dead-beat
or Neuro-Fuzzy (NF) controllers. The
controllers calculate the required stator
voltage vector, averaged over a
sampling period. The voltage vector is
finally synthesized by a PWM technique,
which in most cases is the Space-Vector
Modulation (SVM). Therefore, differently

from the conventional DTC solution, in a

DTC-SVM
scheme
the
switching
harmonics are neglected in the control
algorithm[1-4].

Fig. (5).Block diagram of DTC drive

system

SensorlessControl
Conventionally,
a
direct
speed
sensor, such as a resolver or an
encoder, is usually mounted to the
motor shaft to measure its speed. The
use of direct speed sensor besides
being bulky and reduces the robustness
of the overall system, it adds extra cost
to the drive system. Speed sensor, also,
implies additional electronics, extra
wiring,
extra
space
and
careful
mounting which detracts from the
inherent robustness of the drive.
Many advantages are expected from
speed-sensorless
induction
motor
drives:
Reduced hardware complexity.
Low cost.
Reduced size.

Elimination of direct sensor

wiring.
Better noise immunity.
Increased reliability.
Less maintenance requirements.
Suitable for hostile environments,
including temperature.

Despite much effort and progress,

operation at very low speed is still
problematic particularly for an IM
sensorless drive.[1-3]
There is a lot of literatures that
classified
speed-sensorless
methods, One of these literatures
classified speed-sensorlesssystems
according to rotor model, stator
model, parasitic properties and
MRA( adaptive, observers, EKF,
Direct and ANN method)[10].
Other literature classified speedsensorless
systems
into
the
following three categories:
1. Methods based on detecting space
harmonics induced by slots. These
methods have the advantages of
being
independent
of
machine
parameters and give high accuracy
of speed estimation at low speeds;
however, they need high precision
measurements which increase the
hardware/software complexity.
2. Methods based on high frequency
signal injection into the motor
windings. The rotor position or the
flux direction is identified from the
current
response
to
this
superimposed high frequency signal.
Like the last category, these
methods
are
independent
of
machine parameters and give high
accuracy of speed estimation down
to zero speed; however, they also
need high precision measurements.
3. Methods based on the machine
model and its terminal variables. In
these
methods
the
motor
parameters along with its input
current and applied voltage are used
in different ways to estimate the

operating speed. These methods are

considered simpler than the previous
ones; however they still inaccurate
at low and zero speed [9,11].

1. Rotor Slot Harmonics Methods

Rotor slot harmonics methods of

speed
estimation
are
based
on
detecting space harmonics induced by
rotor slots. The rotor slots generate
space harmonic components in the air
gap magneto motive force (mmf) that
modulate the stator flux linkage at a
frequency proportional to the rotor
speed, and to the number of rotor slots.
To isolate the signal that represents the
mechanical angular velocity of the
rotor, a band pass filter is employed
having its center frequency adaptively
tuned to the rotor slot harmonic
frequency. The signal is shown in the
lower trace of the oscillogram of Fig.
(6). As mentioned earlier, this approach
needs high precision measurements
which increase the hardware/software
complexity.
The sensorless control methods utilizing
the rotor slot harmonics, which are
caused by the structure of IM, has been
proposed The speed information of slot
harmonics has high robustness for any
drive condition and motor parameter
deviation because the slot harmonics
are based on the structure of
IM[10,12].

2. Signal Injection Methods

It is well known within the community

of sensorless control that rotor position
detection at very low speeds and at
standstill is only possible with signal
injection
methods,
because
at
vanishing speeds the different methods
using the induced voltage (back EMF
methods) are not suitable.

Fig.(6)Speed estimation based on

rotor slot harmonics
Speed estimation scheme as shown in
Fig. (7)is based on signal injection. A
high or low frequency voltage signal,
superimposed on the fundamental
voltage, is typically used to excite the
anisotropic phenomena of the motor
and the rotor position or flux direction is
identified from the current response.
Signal-injection methods based on
spatially anisotropic models have
several
well-known
problems.
Anisotropies depend on the motor
design, and they are usually weak in
standard induction motors. The signal
carrying useful information may be
distorted due to interference with other
signals of the same kind. Furthermore,
the spatial variation of the leakage
inductance depends on load and flux
level, often leading to difficulties at high
loads. A common drawback of signal-

injection methods is that their dynamic

response is usually only moderate.

and its parameters are used in some

way to estimate its operating speed.
This
category
can
be
classified
according to the algorithm used for
speed estimation. They include the use
of simple open loop speed calculation,
Model Reference Adaptive Systems
(MRAS),
adaptive
flux
observer,
Extended Kalman Filters, artificial
intelligence techniques and sliding
mode observer[18].

Direct Calculation Methods

Fig. (7)Speed estimation based
on signal injection
In SI methods the machine is injected
with extra, low level signals usually at
high frequency. The much higher
frequency and low magnitude of the
injected
signals
result
in
the
fundamental behavior of the machine
being little changed. The injected
signals may be periodic or alternating in
a particular spatial direction. These
signals
are
modulated
by
the
orientations
of
the
machine
asymmetries, and are then processed
and demodulated to yield the required
measurement. Such asymmetries occur
more naturally in SMs [10,13,14].
Sliding mode observer has proved
to be more robust than the model
reference adaptive speed observer
when parameter variations of the
IM occur[22].

3. Machine Model Methods

A great deal of research interest is

given to the third category of speed
estimation, which is based on machine
model, for its simplicity. In this
category, the motor terminal variables

Fig.(8)
illustrates
the
direct
calculation
method
for
speed
estimation.
Assuming
the
motor
parameters are completely known, the
instantaneous speed can be calculated
directly.
The
process
of
speed
estimation is illustrated in the block
diagram. As shown a rotor flux
estimation process is essential for
speed calculation. This is the main
drawback of this method.

Fig.(8)Block diagram of rotor speed

estimation structure
There are three problems related
to the rotor flux estimation;
1. The first is the need of ideal integral,
2. The second one is its sensitivity to
parameters variation specially stator
resistance RS which has large
influence at very low speed, and

3. The third one is the use of the actual

stator voltage which is difficult to
measure due to the PWM and the
influence of dead-time.
These
problems
become
more
serious as the frequency speed
approaches zero. Some of the following
approaches succeeded to avoid some of
these problems by using back emf or
the magnetic energy instead of rotor
flux[16-18].

MRAS Methods
Among the techniques for speed sensorless
control of IM proposed in literature, the MRAS
based estimation is one of the best methods due to
its good performance and straightforward
stability approach. The method is realized using
the concept proposed by (Landau), whose basic
idea is to compare the outputs of a reference
model and of an adjustable model and to find out
an adaptation mechanism to minimize theerror
between two models. Applied MRAS to
speedestimation, the reference model is the IM
itself, and the adjustable model is a suitable
equation where the rotor speed it involved.
Suitable equations may be a function of flux, or
of back e.m.f.s, or outer product of stator current
and the back e.m.f.s[15].
The MRAS speed estimation structure consists
basically of a reference model, adjustable model
and an adaptive mechanism. The reference model,
which is independent of the rotor speed, calculates

Fig.(9)Rotor speed estimation structure

using MRAS

Rotor
speed
estimation
structure using back EMF based
MRAS
Simple motional EMF sensing schemes
have limitations:
a) sensing is not possible at low
speeds;
b) filtering and phase shift needs
limit dynamic range;
c) upper limit on the useful speed
range when assumed rapid decay of
switched off current no longer
happens;
d) Phase EMF measured, for a star
connection an extra lead is needed.
The third-harmonic component of the
EMF waveform of a trapezoidal PM
machine can be used reducing the
phase-shifting problem with the basic
scheme, making operation possible at
higher speedsFig.(10)

the state variable, , from the terminal voltage

and current. The adjustable model, which is
dependent on the rotor speed, estimates the state

x
variable, . The error
between calculated and
estimated state variables is then used to drive an
adaptation mechanism which generates the

r
estimated speed, , for the adjustable model as
shown in Fig. (9).

Fig.(10)Rotor speed estimation structure

using back EMF based MRAS

Rotor
speed
estimation
structure using rotor flux based
MRAS
Where inductance is a function of
rotor position then position can be
deduced from winding current and its
rate of change. This applies even at
stand-still where motional EMF is zero.
There are problems: with surfacemounted magnets, inductance variation
with position is only from magnetic
saturation; at higher speed motional
EMF dominates; inductance variation
has two cycles per electrical cycle of
the PMM, giving a sensed position
ambiguity. Shi et al use an adaptive
controller for a sensorless PMM drive
using maximum torque control [23].
In the rotor flux-based MRAS, the
rotor flux is used as an output value for
the model to estimate the rotor speed.
As shown in Fig. (11), when the rotor
flux of the adjustable model is in
accordance with that of the reference
model, the rotor speed of the adjustable
model represents the real motor speed.
In rotor flux based MRAS, the
presence of an open integration in the
stator leads to problems with initial
conditions and drift. A low pass filter
may be used instead of the pure
integration; however, it has a degrading
effect on speed estimation at low
speeds and introduces a time delay.

using rotor flux based MRAS

Kalman Filter Approach

Fig. (12)shows a typical structure of a Kalman
filtering approach. The inputs to the plant are fed
into a prediction model. The output of the plant is
compared with the output from the model, and the
resulting error is fed into a correction Kalman
gain stage to reduce the error in the estimated
states from the prediction model.
Kalman filter algorithm is characterized by its
high ability of noise rejection. It is suitable drive
systems which encounter noise from different
sources such as current ripple due to PWM, noise
due to modeling errors, measurement errors, and
so forth.

Fig. (12)Kalman filter structure

Akin et al [32] summarizes the drawbacks to a

conventional EKF:
a) Costly: costly calculation of Jacobian
matrices;
b) Bias: biased estimates;
c) Dynamics: instability due to linearization
and erroneous parameters;
d) Assume: white Gaussian noise;
e) Tuning: lack of analytical methods for
model covariance selection.
They advocate the unscented KF, overcoming
some drawbacks; low speed tests were not
reported, since it can be more susceptible to
measurement noise[19-21,25]

Artificial Intelligence Techniques

Fig. (13)Illustrates the structure of a speed
estimation algorithm based on Artificial Neural
Networks (ANN). It has two independent flux
observers; the first defines the voltage equations

Fig.(11)Rotor speed estimation structure

r
that do not involve
as a reference model and
the second defines the current equations involving
r

as an adjustable model. The output of the

ANN is defined as the estimated speed , which

is subsequently used as an input for the adjustable
model. If the estimated speed deviates from the
real speed, an error occurs between the flux from

r
the adjustable model

and the flux from the

r
reference model . Then, the error is back
propagated to the ANN and the weights of the
ANN are adjusted online to reduce the speed
estimation error.
Methods based on ANN gives good speed
estimation however, they are relatively
complicated and require large computation
time[26-29].

Low speed operation is the main area where

difficulties arise. The problems can include:
a) Signal Acquisition Errors: These are a basic
limitation for very low speed operation, minor DC
components in the signals used in (3) can produce
substantial offsets in the estimated flux linkage
even if a pure integrator could be used.

Fig. (13)Structure of the speed

estimation using Neural Network

b) Inverter: The inverter introduces nonlinear

dead-time effects; very good performance at low
speed will require compensation. Further
nonlinearities come from power device forward
voltage drops and may also require modeling.
Additional effects include the sensitivity of
voltage drop and dead time compensation to the
exact point of current reversal. Estimating the
stator voltage vector from the PWM index can
then become inaccurate.
c) Model Parameters: Parameters can be
determined in a commissioning phase, either
offline or using the inverter to self-test aiding
accuracy of estimation.. This might include
finding a good initial value of the stator resistance
using a DC test.[18]
Previous methods of speedsensorless control based on how to
measure or estimate speed, so you
have infinite methods to achieve
this,depending on machine type,
parameters of the machine and the
speed region at which you want to
control.

Complexity
Algorithms

of

the

Although the basic schemes for the

sensorless control of ac machines are
essentially not extremely complex, their
realization in industrial drives has to
face the requirementsthat arise in
different environmentsand operating
conditions. Regardlessof the chosen
scheme (with or withoutinjection), their
implementationin commercial drives
considers thefollowing aspects:
The automatic parameter tuning
and compensation of their
variations on function of current
and temperature.

The acoustic noise as well as the

additional ripple in current and
torque because of the injection.
A suitable starting procedure in
case of SM drives.
The interaction with the standard
control.
a seamless switching between
control with and without sensors.
The optional switching of operation
between the mode with sensor and
the one without sensor.
An encoder emulation based on the
calculated speed.
For
many
manufacturers,
the
complexity as well as the quality of the
control is in a process of evolution
based on the experiences acquired in
new applications [4].

Intelligent
controllers
In
recent
years,
scientists
and
researchers have acquired significant
development on various sorts of
control theories and methods. Among
these control technologies, intelligent
control methods, which are generally
regarded as the aggregation of fuzzy
logic control, neural network control,
genetic algorithm, and expert system,
have exhibited particular superiorities.
The fuzzy logic controller (FLC) method
can be utilized in systems that have
vagueness or uncertainty.
The main advantages of intelligent
controllers are: their designs do not
need the exact mathematical model of
the system and theoretically they are
capable of handling any nonlinearity of
arbitrary complexity. Over the last
decade
researchers
have
done

extensive research for application of

controllers
for
HPVSD
systems.
Simplicity
and
less
intensive
mathematical design requirements are
the
main features of
intelligent
controllers, which are suitable to deal
with nonlinearities and uncertainties of
electric motors [27-34].

Intelligent control techniques

Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC)
The development of fuzzy logic was
motivated in large measure by the
need for a conceptual frame-work
which can address the issue of
uncertainty and lexical imprecision.
Some of the essential characteristics of
fuzzy logic relate to the following
(Zadeh, 1992):
In fuzzy logic, exact reasoning is
viewedas
a
limiting
case
of
approximate reasoning.
In fuzzy logic, everything is a matter
ofdegree.
In fuzzy logic, knowledge is
interpreted acollection of elastic or,
equivalently, fuzzyconstraint on a
collection of variables.
Inference is viewed as a process of
propagationof elastic constraints.
Any logical system can be fuzzified.
There are two main characteristics of
fuzzy systems that give them better
performance for specific applications.
A-Fuzzy systems are suitable for
uncertain or approximate reasoning,
especially for the system with a
mathematical model that is difficult to
derive.
B- Fuzzy logic allows decision making
with
estimated
values
under
incomplete or uncertain information.

Fuzzy control is a methodology to

represent and implement a (smart)
humans
knowledge
abouthow
to
control a system. A fuzzy controller is
shown in Fig. (14).the fuzzy controller
has several components:

The rule-base is a set of rules about

how to control.
Fuzzification is the process of
transforming the numeric inputs
into a form that can be used by the
inference mechanism.
The inference mechanism uses
information about the current
inputs (formed by fuzzification),
decides which rules apply in the
current
situation,
and
forms
conclusions about what the plant
input should be.
Defuzzification
converts
the
conclusions
reached
by
the
inference
mechanism
into
a
numeric input for the plant.

Fig. (14)Basic Configuration of a

fuzzy logic system
Another author describes the
principle fuzzy control as follows:
[37]
1- Simple the output signal of the plant
2-Calculate the error and change of
error
3- Determine
the fuzzy subset and membership
function for error and change of error

4- Determine the change of control

action according to the individual fuzzy
rule
5- Calculate the actual change of
control
action
by
defuzzification
operation
6- Send the change of control action to
control the converter
7- Go to step 1
. Disadvantages
A simple fuzzy controllerimplemented in
the motor drive speed controlhas a
narrow speed operation and needs
muchmore manual adjusting by trial
and error if highperformance is wanted
[30-34].

Artificial Neural Network

(ANN)
Recently, the re-emerging artificial
neural network (ANN) techniques have
been widely applied in the field of
system identification and control [39].
The capabilities of ANNs for the
identification and control of nonlinear
systems were investigated in depth by
Narendra and Parthasarathy[40].
Artificial neural networks are circuits,
computer algorithms, or mathematical
representations loosely inspired by the
massively connected set of neurons
that form biological neural networks.
Artificial neural networks are an
alternative computing technology that
have proven useful in a variety of
pattern recognition, signal processing,
estimation, and control problems, Fig.
(15)shows a basic configuration of a
neural-network system.
Artificial neural networks emerged after
the introduction of simplified neurons
by
McCullochand
Pitts
in
1943
(McCulloch
&
Pitts,
1943).These

neurons were presented as models

ofbiological
neurons
and
as
conceptualcomponents for circuits that
could performcomputational tasks. The
basic model of theneuron is founded
upon the functionality of abiological
neuron. "Neurons are the basicsignaling
units of the nervous system" and
"eachneuron is a discrete cell whose
several processesarise from its cell
body"[35-38].

condition. High computation burden

leads to low sampling frequency, which
is not sufficient for implementation [4146].

Fig. (16) Structure of Nero Fuzzy

Controller

Comparison between FLC, ANN

and NFC
Fig. (15)Basic Configuration of a
Neural-Network system

Neuro-Fuzzy Control (NFC)

The FLC and ANN have their own
advantages and drawbacks. In order to
get the advantages of both FLC and
ANN, researchers developed neurofuzzy controller (NFC) for motor drive
applications
Neuro-fuzzy
controllers
(NFCs)Fig.
(16), which overcome disadvantages of
fuzzy logic controllers and neural
network controllers, have been utilized
by authors and other researchers for
motor drive applications.
Despite many advantages of NFCs, the
industry has been still reluctant to
apply these controllers for commercial
drives due to high computational
burden caused by large number of
membership functions, weights and
rules,
especially
on
self-tuning

Among the intelligent controller FLC

is the simplest for speed control of high
performance IPMSM drive. In contrast to
conventional control techniques, FLC is
the best in complex ill-defined process
that can be controlled by a skill human
operator without much knowledge of
their underlying dynamics. Recently
researchers have worked to develop
FLCs for motor drives to mimic human
thinking as closely as possible. Works
have already been reported on the use
of FLCs for conventional dc motors,
switched reluctance motors and IM
drives. The use of neural network in
control systems is very attractive
because of their ability to learn, to
approximate functions, to classify
patterns
and
their potential
for
massively
parallel
hardware
implementation.
The conventional FLC has a narrow
speed operation and needs much more
manual adjusting by trial and error if

high performance is wanted. On the

other hand, it is extremely tough to
create a serial of training data for ANN
that can handle all the operating
modes. The more advanced intelligent
controller is NFC, which is the
combination of FLC and ANN controller.
The NFC utilizes the transparent,
linguistic representation of a fuzzy
system with the learning ability of
artificial neural networks. Thus it takes
advantages of both FLC and ANN. They
used structure learning and parameter
learning. But it is not suitable to
implement in industry because of a lot
of computational burden. Furthermore,
they
didnt
consider
the
flux
control[41].

Genetic Algorithm
During the last thirty years there has
been a rapidly growing interest in a
field called Genetic Algorithms (GAs).
However, if ANN provides good results,
why reject them? It would be enough
to find a method that justifies the
output offered by ANN based on the
input values. This method would have
to be able to be applied to networks of
any type, meaning that they would
have to comply with the following
characteristics (Tickle, 1998):

Independence
of
the
architecture.
The
method
for
extracting rules should be able to be
applied
independently
from
the
architecture of the ANN, including
recurrent architectures.
Independence of the training
algorithm. The extraction of rules
cannot depend on the algorithm used
for the ANNs learning process.

Correction. Many methods for

extracting
rules
only
create
approximations of the functioning of
the ANN, instead of creating rules as
precisely as possible
Eloquence. The language used to
describe the rules extracted must
represent the knowledge obtained
from the ANN as eloquently as
possible.
To gain a general understanding of
genetic algorithms, it is useful to
examine its components. Before a GA
can be run, it must have the following
five components:
1. A chromosomal representation of
solutions to the problem.
2. A function that evaluates the
performances of solutions.
3. A population of initialized solutions.
4. Genetic operators that evolve the
population.
5.
Parameters
that
specify
the
probabilities by which these genetic
operators are applied[47].

Fig. (17) Roulette Wheel Selection

Advantages of GA:
1-they are derivative-free technique

2-they can be used for both continuous

and discrete optimization problems
3-they use stochastic operators instead
of deterministic rules to search for an
optimum solution
4-they consider many points in the
search space simultaneously, not a
single point. Thus there is a reduced
chance of converging to local minima.
5-they are ideal for parallel processor,
thus the operations can be speeded up.
Genetic Algorithm Steps
1-Random
initialization
of
population:
An
initial
population
is
created
randomly or heuristically. In general,
there are n individuals (point in the
research space) in the population and
even numbers of n. An individual is
characterized by a fixed-length binary
bit
string,
which
is
called
a
chromosome. Each of the string is
decoded into a set of parameters that is
represents. The initial population is then
a collection of randomly generated
individual binary string.
2-Evaluation
of
fitness
of
individuals in the population:
In this step, all the individuals of the
initially
created
population
are
evaluated by means of a fitness
(objective or evaluation) function (f)
(the function to be minimized or
maximized). The fitness function is then
used in the next step, to create a
genetic pool.
3-New population generation;
After evaluating the fitness of the
individuals of the initial population is
created, the creation of a new
generation is performed basically in
three stages, reproduction, crossover,
and mutation. The overall goal of this

step is to obtain a new population with

individuals which have fitness values.as
shown in Fig. (18).

Fig. (18)Simplified flow chart of a

Genetic Algorithm

The steps involved in creating and

implementing a genetic algorithm
are as followsFig. (17):
1-Generate
an
initial,
random
population of individuals for a fixed
size;
2-Evaluate their fitness;
3-Select the fitness members of the
population;
4-Reproduce
using
a probabilistic
method (e.g. roulette wheel);
5-Implement crossover operation on the
reproduced chromosomes (choosing
probabilistically both the crossover site
and the mates);
6-Execute mutation operation with low
probability;
7-Repeat step 2 until a predefined
convergence creation is met.
The convergence criterion of a genetic
algorithm is a user-specified condition
e.g.
the
maximum
number
of
generations or when the string fitness
value exceeds a certain threshold.

Applications of GA on control
systems[48,49]
A genetic algorithm has many
applications in control systems,
which can be summarized in the
following points:
- In a fuzzy logic system, GA can be
used to search for the best number and
shape of membership function of fuzzy
logic controller for a certain control
problem. It can also use tune the two
inputs and one output scaling factors of
madman-type fuzzy controller.
- In a neural network, GA can be used to
search for appropriate architecture of a
neural network. It may be also to tune
the weights of the neural network.
- In a PID controller, GA can be used to
turn the parameterskp, ki and kd of a
PID controller, to give the desired
response.

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