STATISTICS

- a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of
numerical data (Merriam-Webster)
- branch of mathematics that deals with the effective management and analysis of data.
- the science of collecting, analyzing, presenting, and interpreting data (Encyclopedia Britannica)
- the science of sampling (Marx, et al.)

BIOSTATISTICS

- the theory & application of statistical science to analyze public health problems and to further biomedical
research (Harvard School of Public Health)

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

- involves methods of organizing, summarizing and presenting data

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

- involves methods of using information from a sample to draw conclusions about the population

POPULATION
-

all the subjects of interest [result: PARAMETER (e.g. , 2)]

SAMPLE
-

part of the population; samples of interest [result: STATISTIC (e.g. , s2)]

Statistic is an estimate of the Parameter.

Variables measured characteristics of interest
Constants fixed
Examples:

Scenario 1: When all third year students were asked, it was found that, on the average, they sleep for
only 3.7 hours per day during exam week. But from a thirty (30) randomly selected third year students,
it was found to be 3.6 hours per day.
Population: all third year students
Sample: 30 randomly selected third year students
Parameter: 3.7 hrs
Statistic: 3.6 hrs
Variable: hours of sleep per day
Constant: degree program (MedTech), year level (3rd year), exam week
Scenario 2: From 100 randomly selected residents of Barangay Lamok, it was found that 16% of
them had dengue in the last 5 years. But according to DOH National Epidemiology Centers (NEC),
14% of Filipinos had dengue in the last 5 years.
Population: Filipinos
Sample: 100 randomly selected residents of Barangay Lamok
Parameter: 14%
Statistic: 16%
Variable: presence or absence of dengue
Constant: disease (dengue), time frame (last 5 years)

Scenario 3: 5% of Asian men suffers from red-green color blindness. From 250 randomly selected
men in the Philippines, it was found that 3% suffers from this type of color blindness.
Population: Asian men
Sample: Filipino men
Parameter: 5%
Statistic: 3%
Variable: presence or absence of red-green color blind
Constant: continent (asia), type of color blindness (red-green)
Scenario 4: A study was conducted involving two groups of Sprague-Dawley rats. Group I received
NSS while Group II received the 50% concentrated Moringa oleifera extract. At the end of 24 hours, it
was found that the triglyceride of group I increased while the other did not.
Population: effect of Moringa oleifera in triglycerides
Sample: effect of Moringa oleifera in triglycerides in Sprague-Dawley rats
Parameter: triglyceride level after 24 hours
Statistic: increased amount of triglyceride after 24 hours
Variable: amount of triglyceride
Constant: concentration (50%) of Moringa oleifera, type of test animal (Sprague-Dawley rats),
time frame (24 hours)
Sources of Data
1. Experiment investigators make an intervention on the samples/subjects
Example: Scenario 4
2. Survey / Interview investigators make an inquiry about profile and opinions
using a questionnaire
Example: Scenario 1
3. Observation - investigators observe to gather data
Example: Scenario 3
4. Existing Documents or Records investigators get records/charts/database
Example: Scenario 2
Data Presentations (Graphical Techniques)
1. Textual results are written in statement form
2. Tabular results are summarized in rows/columns
3. Graphs
a. Bar graph for comparison of means, counts or percentages between two or more
groups
b. Line graph for observation of trends
c. Pie graph to describe or represent parts of a whole
d. Scatterplot to describe the relationship of two quantitative variables
e. Statistical Maps presents statistical information with respect to
geographical location
f. Pictogram - an ideogram that conveys its meaning through its pictorial
resemblance to a physical object
g. Population Pyramid - a graphical illustration that shows the distribution
of various age groups between male and female in a population

Sampling Techniques
- ways of obtaining samples with size n from population with size N
1. Random or Probability Sampling
- every member of the population has equal chance of being selected
- requires the frame (complete list of the entire population)
- uses random number (Excel: =RAND( ); Sci Cal: RAN#)
a) Simple Random Sampling
- get random number N*RAND() n times
b) Systematic Random Sampling
- uses j = N/n, and use k + j, where k is a random number from 1, 2, , j
c) Proportion to Population Sampling
- samples must be proportion to the population and selected randomly
d) Cluster Sampling
- select groups of samples randomly
e) Multistage Sampling
- any combination of (a), (b), (c), (d)
2. Non-Random or Non-Probability Sampling
- biased sampling
a) Purposive Sampling
b) Convenience Sampling
c) Snowball Sampling
d) Quota Sampling
Note that: In experiments, randomization is applied not in the selection, but in the assignment.
Experimental Study Designs
1. Completely Randomized Design
- samples or subjects are assigned randomly to groups to study the effects of one primary factor
X to one response variable Y.
Example 1: An experimenter wanted to study the effect of the treatments (blank, methanol,
vancomycin and crude extract) to the zones of inhibition of S. Aureus.
Response Variable Y: zone of inhibition
Factor X: applied treatment
Example 2: An experimenter wanted to study the effect of the E.hirta extract in the platelet
count of the three groups of rats (ethanol-induced thrombocytopenia (TCP),
vehicle and time control) at one point in time.
Response Variable Y: Platelet Count
Factor X: condition of rats (ethanol-induced TCP, vehicle & time control)
2. Factorial Design
- samples or subjects are assigned randomly to groups to study the effects of two or more
factors (X1, X2, , Xn) to one response variable Y.
Example 1: Randomly assigned rats received 25%, 50%, and 100% concentrated Moringa
oleifera extract. Another group received the same concentrations, but with Momordica
charantia extract. The experimenter was interested in the effect of the treatments to
the SGPT of rats only after 12 hours.
Response Variable: SGPT of rats after 12 hours
Factors (X1 and X2): Treatment (Moringa olefira / Momordica charantia)
and Concentration (25%, 50%, and 100%).
Example 2: An experimenter wanted to study the effect of the treatments (blank, methanol,
vancomycin and crude extract) to the zones of inhibition of S. Aureus and S.
epidermis.
Response Variable: zones of inhibition
Factors (X1 and X2): Treatment (blank, methanol, vancomycin and crude

extract) and Bacteria (S. Aureus and S. epidermis).

3. Repeated Measure Design
- samples or subjects are assigned randomly to groups to study the effects of one primary factor X
across time (Y1, Y2, , Yn)
Example: An experimenter wanted to study the effect of the the E.hirta extract to three
groups of rats (ethanol-induced TCP, vehicle control and time control). Platelet
counts were measured after the induction of TCP, after 7 days, and after 14 days.
Response Variables: platelet counts upon induction (Y1) after 7 days (Y2),
14 days (Y2)
Factor: condition of rats (ethanol-induced TCP, vehicle & time control)
Observational Study Designs
1. Cross-Sectional
- involves the collection of data on the study participants current status at one point in time
Example: A barangay health clinic reported that out of 15,000 households, 351 (2.3%) had a
dengue during May 2013.
2.

Case Control
- involves the collection of data about the study participants current outcome status and past
exposure status
Example: A Dutch otolaryngologyst claimed that those who are exposed to traffic-related air
pollutants are 1.4 times more likely to have otitis media as compared to those who
are not.

3.

Cohort
- involves the collection of data at more than one point in time, following the participants
forward to identify the outcomes
Example: Dr Javate is an opthalmologist who claimed that, for patients diagnosed with bilateral
dry eye, that the retention rates of the Punctal PlugTM are 100% after one month,
97.1% after two months, 95.7% after three months.

Levels of Measurement

Quantitative Data expressed in numerical form (discrete or continuous)

Levels:
Ratio gives the most information among other levels of measurement
- has absolute zero
Examples: Score in entrance test, number of hours of sleep,
platelet count of a dengue patient
Interval has no absolute zero
Examples: Temperature (in Celsius / Farenheit), IQ
Qualitative Data expressed in text
Levels:
Ordinal data may be but may be arranged in ascending or descending order
Examples: Masbate residents severity of blood lead levels,
stage of Non-hodgkins lymphoma, five-point Likert-scale response
Nominal data Examples: Presence/Absence of otitis media, normal/abnormal of MPV,
type of color blindness