Chapter 2

Patterns in the
SkyMotions
of Earth
21st CENTURY ASTRONOMY
FOURTH EDITION
Kay | Palen | Smith | Blumenthal

2013 W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

 Our focus:
Earths daily rotation.
Earths annual orbit.
The Moons monthly
orbit.
Consequences of the
relationship/alignment
of Earth, the Moon,
and the Sun (phases
of the Moon,
eclipses).
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 Constellations are arbitrary patterns of stars

in the sky.
Culturally important products of human
imagination.
Ancient cultures built structures to study them
and other astronomical phenomena.

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 Just because stars are grouped in the same

constellation does not mean they are near
each other in space.
Some stars move in different directions.
The constellations slowly change shape on
timescales larger than human lives.

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 As viewed from above

the North Pole, Earth
rotates (spins)
counterclockwise on
its axis.
One rotation takes
24 hours.

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 Celestial sphere:
projection of Earths
axes and equator onto
space.
A useful fiction.
Points on the sphere
correspond to directions,
not distances.

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 Celestial sphere rotates

around the north and
south celestial poles
once each day.
Celestial equator:
midway between.
Ecliptic: path of the
Sun, inclined 23.5
degrees to celestial
equator.
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 At Earths north pole, you would see half the

celestial sphere.
The north celestial pole is directly overhead.
Stars rotate counterclockwise in 24 hours.
No star rises or sets: all are circumpolar.

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 At the equator, all stars rise and set.

The celestial poles are on the northern
and southern horizons.
Observers can see the whole celestial sphere
as it rotates.

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At an intermediate latitude, one pole is above the horizon.

The angle to the horizon from that pole equals the latitude.
Some stars are circumpolar.
Some stars rise and set.
Some stars are never visible.

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The Size of Earths Orbit

The average distance of Earth to the Sun is

called the astronomical unit, or AU.
1 AU = 150 million km.
Earth revolves counterclockwise around the
Sun as viewed from above.

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 The Suns motion on the ecliptic reflects Earths

orbit around the Sun.
Earth revolves around the Sun once a year.
As Earth moves, the Sun is seen against
different constellationsthe zodiac.

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Earths Axis

Earths axis is not perpendicular to the ecliptic

plane.
Instead, it is at an angle of 23.5 degrees.
This is why there are seasons.

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Earths Axis

The angle of sunlight is closer to

perpendicular in summer.
Energy is more concentrated.
The southern hemisphere is opposite the
northern hemisphere.

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 Earths obliquity of 23.5 is the reason for

the seasons.
If the tilt were larger or smaller, life would
most likely be different due to the difference
in seasonal variation.
The differences in climate over the surface of
Earth have resulted in a broad diversity of
life, specifically adapted to those locations.
The changes in climate over the course of the
year most likely greatly influenced the
behavior of life, including migratory patterns.
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Special Days of the Year

Summer solstice: Sun

farthest north.
Autumnal equinox: Sun
on the equator, moving
southward.
Winter solstice: Sun
farthest south.
Vernal equinox: Sun on
the equator, moving
northward.
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Changing'Al*tude'of'the'Sun'

The'Analemma'

Credit: Robert Polzl

Credit: Tunc Tezel

Precession

Currently, the north

celestial pole is near
the bright star
Polaris.
Earths axis wobbles
with a period of
26,000 years.
Location of the poles
slowly shifts.

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 Earth wobbles like a top, slowly.

Since the axis shifts, the equator shifts.
Positions of the equinoxes precess as well.

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The Moon!
What causes moon phases?!
Why do we only see one side of the Moon?!
How are tides generated?!
How do eclipses work?!

How'Big'is'the'Moon?'
1/4th the diameter of Earth
1/50 the volume of Earth
1/81st the mass of Earth
1/6th the gravity of Earth

How'Far'is'the'Moon'From'Earth?'
Average distance ~ 235,000 miles (385,000 km)

(Earth, Moon, and their separation are scaled in the above

animation. The yellow line represents the scaled speed of light.)
Moons orbital eccentricity - 0.0549
Perigee 363,000 km, Apogee 405,000 km
42,000 km distance change Moon can change in size by ~10%

How'Far'is'the'Moon'From'Earth?'

Far'Side'of'the'Moon''Not'the'Dark'Side'

Does'the'Moon'Rotate?''What'
happens'if'it'doesnt?''

The side shaded red is the side we observe from Earth.

Does'the'Moon'Rotate?''G'What'if'it'
rotates'but'at'the'wrong'rate?'

The side shaded red is the side we observe from Earth.

Does'the'Moon'Rotate?''What'
happens'if'it'rotates'at'just'the'right'
rate?'

The side shaded red is the side we observe from Earth.

Lunar'Libra*on''Allows'us'to'see'up'to'59%'of'the'
lunar'surface'from'Earth'(but'only'50%'at'any'give'*me)'

Phases of the Moon

The Moon shines

because of reflected
sunlight.
Half of the Moon
is always bright.
The phase is
determined by how
much of the bright
side we see.

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Phases of the Moon

New moon: moon

between Earth and
the Sun.
Waxing crescent.
Quarter moon:
moon at right
angles with Earth
and the Sun.
Waxing gibbous.
Full moon: moon
on opposite side
of Earth from Sun.
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Phases of the Moon

After a full Moon,

the amount of
brightness begins
waning.
In the northern
hemisphere, the
Moon fills in from
right to left and also
fades out from right
to left.

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Orbital Period of the Moon

The Moon takes 27.3

days to orbit once with
respect to the stars
(sidereal period).
Lunar phases repeat
every 29.5 days (synodic
period).
The Moons rotational
period equals its sidereal
period.
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 Throughout history, humans have made

calenders based on the seasons (with
respect to the Sun) or the Moons cycle of
phases.
The number of calendar days (365) does not
fit neatly into months (29.5 days) or years
(365.24 days).
Humans creatively made calendars to deal
with this.
Today the Gregorian calendar, which
includes leap years to keep it on track, is
used.
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Solar Eclipses

Solar eclipses happen at new Moon.

Moon passes between Earth and the Sun.
Only a small portion of Earth can witness
each one.

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 Three types of solar

eclipses:
Total: The Moon
completely blocks
the Suns light.
Partial: Only part
is blocked.
Annular: The Sun
appears as a bright
ring surrounding the
Moon.
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Total'Solar'Eclipse'

Annular'Solar'Eclipses''Annular'solar'
eclipse'shadow'from'the'ISS'

Solar'Eclipses'from'Space'

Par*al'Solar'Eclipse'

Annular'Solar'Eclipse'

 The part of the Moons shadow you are in

determines which type of solar eclipse you
see.
Umbra: Total or annular.
Penumbra: Partial.

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 Lunar eclipses happen at full

Moon.
Earth is between the Sun and the
Moon.
Visible over a wider area of Earth.
Last a lot longer than solar
eclipses.

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Lunar'Eclipses'

Penumbral'Lunar'Eclipse'

Total'Lunar'Eclipse'

Total'Lunar'Eclipse'from'the'Moon'

 Eclipses do not occur every month because

the Moons orbit is tilted 5.2 with respect to
Earths orbit around the Sun.
Intersection: line of nodes.

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Eclipses'on'Other'Planets'