Professional Documents
Culture Documents
limbii chineze
Pinyin, din punct de vedere formal Hanyu Pinyin, este sistemul fonetic
official de transcriere n pronuna carcterelor chineze Mandarin n alfabetul
latin din China, Taiwan i Singapore. Este uneori folosit pentru predarea limbii
chineze standard, i silabisirea numelor n kimba chinez n publica iile de
politic strine sunt folosite ca medod incipient pentru a introduce n
calculator caractere vchinezeti.
Sistemul pinyin a fost dezvoltat n 1950 fiind bazat pe forme de
romanizare. A fost publicat de guvernul chinez n anul 1958 i a fost
The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s based on earlier forms of romanization. It was published by
the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times.[2] The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) adopted pinyin as the international standard in 1982.[3] The system was adopted as
the official standard in Taiwan in 2009, where it is used for romanization alone rather than for educational
and computer input purposes.[4][5]
Hny means the spoken language of the Han people and pnyn literally means "spelled-out sounds".[6]
number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script. While Song did not himself actually
create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of
schemes for phonetic scripts.
In the early 1930s, Communist Party of China leaders trained in Moscow introduced a phonetic alphabet
using Roman letters developed in the Soviet Oriental Institute of Leningrad. This Sin Wenz or "New
Writing", from which the present pinyin system differs only slightly, was much more linguistically
sophisticated than earlier alphabets, with the major exception that it did not indicate tones.
In 1940, several thousand members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao
Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy (in characters) for the masthead of
the Sin Wenz Society's new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sen's
son, Sun Fo; Cai Yuanpei, the country's most prestigious educator; Tao Xingzhi, a leading educational
reformer; and Lu Xun. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of
translations, biographies (including Lincoln, Franklin, Edison, Ford, and Charlie Chaplin), some
contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks. In 1940, the movement reached an apex
when Mao's Border Region Government declared that the Sin Wenz had the same legal status as
traditional characters in government and public documents. Many educators and political leaders looked
forward to the day when they would be universally accepted and completely replace characters. Opposition
arose, however, because the system was less well adapted to writing regional languages, and therefore
would require learning Mandarin. Sin Wenzi fell into relative disuse during the following years. [7]
Beginning in the early 1980s, Western publications addressing Mainland China began using the Hanyu
Pinyin romanization system instead of earlier romanization systems; [15] this change followed the
normalization of diplomatic relations between the United States and the PRC in 1979. [16] In 2001, the PRC
Government issued the National Common Language Law, providing a legal basis for applying pinyin. [14] The
current specification of the orthographic rules is laid down in the National Standard GB/T 16159-2012. [17]
Usage[edit]
Pinyin superseded older romanization systems such as Wade-Giles (1859; modified 1892) and Chinese
Postal Map Romanization, and replaced zhuyin as the method of Chinese phonetic instruction in mainland
China. The ISO adopted pinyin as the standard romanization for modern Chinese in 1982 (ISO 7098:1982,
superseded by ISO 7098:1991); theUnited Nations followed suit in 1986.[18] It has also been accepted by
the government of Singapore, the United States' Library of Congress, the American Library Association,
and many other international institutions.[19]
The spelling of Chinese geographical or personal names in pinyin has become the most common way to
transcribe them in English. Pinyin has also become the dominant method for entering Chinese text into
computers in Mainland China, in contrast to Taiwan where Bopomofo is most commonly used.
A school slogan asking elementary students to speakPutonghua is annotated with Pinyin, but without tonal marks.
Families outside of Taiwan who speak Mandarin as a mother tongue use pinyin to help children associate
characters with spoken words which they already know. Chinese families outside of Taiwan who speak
some other language as their mother tongue use the system to teach children Mandarin pronunciation
when they learn vocabulary in elementary school.[1][20]
Since 1958, pinyin has been actively used in adult education as well, making it easier for formerly illiterate
people to continue with self-study after a short period of pinyin literacy instruction. [21]
Pinyin has become a tool for many foreigners to learn the Mandarin pronunciation, and is used to explain
both the grammar and spoken Mandarin coupled with hanzi. Books containing both Chinese characters
and pinyin are often used by foreign learners of Chinese; pinyin's role in teaching pronunciation to
foreigners and children is similar in some respects to furigana-based books (with hiragana letters written
above or next to kanji) in Japanese or fully vocalised texts in Arabic ("vocalised Arabic").
The tone-marking diacritics are commonly omitted in popular news stories and even in scholarly works.
This results in some degree of ambiguity as to which words are being represented.
Overview[edit]
In Yiling, Yichang, Hubei, text on road signs appears both in Hanzi and in Pinyin
When a foreign writing system with one set of sounds and coding/decoding system is taken to write a
language, certain compromises may have to be made. The result is that the decoding systems used in
some foreign languages will enable non-native speakers to produce sounds more closely resembling the
target language than will the coding/decoding system used by other foreign languages. Native speakers of
English will decode pinyin spellings to fairly close approximations of Mandarin except in the case of certain
speech sounds that are not ordinarily produced by most native speakers of English: j, q, x, z, c, s, zh, ch,
sh, and r exhibiting the greatest discrepancies. (When Chinese speakers call out these letters, they read
them as: ji, qi, xi, zi, ci, si, zhi, chi, shi, and ri. The i in the last four sounds more like r and the use of i is
purely a matter of convention.)
In this system, the correspondence between the Roman letter and the sound is sometimes idiosyncratic,
though not necessarily more so than the way the Latin script is employed in other languages. For example,
the aspiration distinction between b, d, g and p, t, k is similar to that of English (in which the two sets are
however also differentiated by voicing), but not to that of French. Z and c also have that distinction,
pronounced as [ts] and [ts]. From s, z, c come the digraphs sh, zh, ch by analogy with English sh,
ch. Although this introduces the novel combination zh, it is internally consistent in how the two series are
related, and reminds the trained reader that many Chinese pronounce sh, zh, ch as s, z, c (and Englishspeakers use zh to represent // in foreign languages such as Russian anyway). In the x, j, q series, the
Pinyin use of x is similar to its use in Portuguese, Galician, Catalan, Basque and Maltese; and the
Pinyin q is akin to its value in Albanian; both Pinyin and Albanian pronunciations may sound similar to
the ch to the untrained ear. Pinyin vowels are pronounced in a similar way to vowels in Romance
languages.
The pronunciation and spelling of Chinese words are generally given in terms of initials and finals, which
represent the segmental phonemic portion of the language, rather than letter by letter. Initials are initial
consonants, while finals are all possible combinations of medials (semivowels coming before the vowel),
the nucleus vowel, and coda (final vowel or consonant).
Initials[edit]
In each cell below, the bold letters indicate pinyin and the brackets enclose the symbol in the International
Phonetic Alphabet.
Bilabial
Labiodental
Voiceles
Voiced
s
Alveolar
Alveolopalatal
Velar
m [m]
Nasal
Retroflex
n [n]
Unaspirated
b [p]
d [t]
g [k]
Aspirated
p [p]
t [t]
k [k]
Plosive
Unaspirated
z [ts]
zh []
j [t]
Aspirated
c [ts]
ch []
q [t]
Affricat
e
Fricative
f [f]
h [x]
l [l]
Lateral
Approximant
sh [] r [1~] x []
s [s]
the letters w and y are not included in the table of initials in the official pinyin system. They are an
orthographic convention for the medials i, u and when no initial is present. When i, u or are finals and
no initial is present, they are spelled yi, wu, and yu, respectively. The conventional order
(excluding w and y), derived from the zhuyin system, is:
b p m f d t n l g k h j q x zh ch sh r
z c
s
Finals[edit]
Standard Chinese vowels (with IPA and Pinyin)
Front
Central
Back
Close
Close-mid
Open-mid
i y ()
(i)
u
(e) o
(er)
Open
()
The following chart gives the combinations of medials and finals based
on an analysis that assumes just two vowel nuclei, /a/ and //;
[22]
In each cell below, the first line indicates IPA, the second indicates
pinyin for a standalone (no-initial) form, and the third indicates pinyin
for a combination with an initial. Other than finals modified by an -r,
which are omitted, the following is an exhaustive table of all possible
finals.1[23]
The only syllable-final consonants in Standard Chinese are -n and -ng,
and -r, which is attached as a grammatical suffix. A Chinese syllable
ending with any other consonant either is from a non-Mandarin
language (a southern Chinese language such as Cantonese, or a
minority language of China), or indicates the use of a non-pinyin
Romanization system (where final consonants may be used to indicate
tones).
Nucleus
/a/
//
Final
Coda
/i/
/u/
/n/
[] [a] [ ] [n]
a
ai
ao
an
-a -ai -ao -an
/i/
[i]
ya
-ia
/u/
[u ] [u a]
wa wai
-ua -uai
//
/i/
/u/
/n/
[] [] [e] [o ] [n]
ang
e
ei
ou
en
-ang
-e
-ei -ou -en
[i ] [in] [i]
yao yan yang
-iao -ian -iang
[i]
ye
-ie
[io ] [in]
you yin
-iu -in
//
[]
eng
-eng
[]
[i]
ying
-ing
[i]
yi
-i
-i
Medial
/y/
[u n] [u ] [u ] 3 [u e]
wan wang wo wei
-uan -uang -uo/-o -ui
[u n] [u ], [] 4 [u]
wen
weng
wu
-un
-ong
-u
[yn]
yuan
-an 2
[yn]
yun
-n 2
[y]
yue
-e 2
[i]
yong
-iong
[y]
yu
- 2
[] is written er. For other finals formed by the suffix -r, pinyin does
not use special orthography; one simply appends r to the final that it is
added to, without regard for any sound changes that may take place
along the way. For information on sound changes related to final r,
please see Erhua#Rules.
2
is written as u after j, q, x, or y.
uo is written as o after b, p, m, or f.
Pronunciation of initials[edit]
Pinyin IPA
English
approximation[24]
Explanation
[p]
spit
unaspirated p, as in spit
[p]
pay
[m]
may
as in English mummy
[f]
fair
as in English fun
[t]
stop
unaspirated t, as in stop
[t]
take
[n]
nay
as in English nit
[l]
lay
as in English love
[k]
skill
unaspirated k, as in skill
[k]
kay
[x]
loch
roughly like the Scots ch. English h as in hay or, more closely in some American dialects, hero is an a
by very slowly making a "k" sound, pausing at the point where there is just restricted air flowing over
"k")
[t]
churchyard
No equivalent in English, but similar to an unaspirated "-chy-" sound when said quickly. Like q, but u
pronunciation of "Beijing". The sequence "ji" word-initially is the same as the Japanese pronunciation
No equivalent in English. Like punch yourself, with the lips spread wide with ee. Curl the tip of the to
aspirate. The sequence "qi" word-initially is the same as the Japanese pronunciation of () chi.
[]
push yourself
No equivalent in English. Like -sh y-, with the lips spread and the tip of your tongue curled downwar
"xi" is the same as the Japanese pronunciation of () shi.
zh
[t]
junk
Rather like ch (a sound between choke, joke, true, and drew, tongue tip curled more upwards). Voice
ch
[t]
church
as in chin, but with the tongue curled upwards; very similar to nurture in American English, but stron
sh
[]
shirt
as in shoe, but with the tongue curled upwards; very similar to marsh in American English
[],
[]
ray
Similar to the English z in azure and r in reduce, but with the tongue curled upwards, like a cross betw
sound is rendered with the letter "".
[ts]
reads
unaspirated c, similar to something between suds and cats; as in suds in a toneless syllable
[ts]
hats
like the English ts in cats, but strongly aspirated, very similar to the Czech, Polish and Slovak c.
[s]
say
as in sun
[w]
way
as in water.*
[j],[] yea
* Note on y and w
Y and w are equivalent to the semivowel medials i, u, and (see
below). They are spelled differently when there is no initial consonant
in order to mark a new syllable: fanguan isfanguan, while fangwan is fang-wan (and equivalent to *fang-uan). With
this convention, an apostrophe only needs to be used to mark an
initial a, e, or o: Xi'an (two syllables:[i.an]) vs. xian (one
syllable: [i in]). In addition, y and w are added to fully vocalic i,
u, and when these occur without an initial consonant, so that they are
written yi, wu, and yu.Some Mandarin speakers do pronounce
a [j] or [w] sound at the beginning of such wordsthat
is, yi [i] or [ji], wu [u] or [wu], yu [y] or [y],so this is an intuitive
convention. See below for a few finals which are abbreviated after a
consonant plus w/u or y/i medial: wen C+un, wei C+ui, weng
C+ong, and you C+iu.
** Note on the apostrophe
The apostrophe (') is used before a syllable starting with a vowel (a, o,
or e) in a multiple-syllable word when the syllable does not start the
word (which is most commonly realized as []), unless the syllable
immediately follows a hyphen or other dash.[25] This is done to remove
ambiguity that could arise, as in Xi'an, which consists of the two
syllables xi("") an (""), compared to such words as xian ("").
(This ambiguity does not occur when tone marks are used: The two
tone marks in Xn unambiguously show that the word consists of two
syllables. However, even with tone marks, the city is usually spelled
with an apostrophe as X'n.)
Pronunciation of finals[edit]
2.
3.
Pinyin
IPA
Explanation
-i is a buzzed continuation of the consonant following z-, c-, s-, zh-, ch-, sh- or r-.
-i
[], []
(n/a)
(In all other cases, -i has the sound of bee; this is listed below.)
[]
[], []
a diphthong consisting first of a back, unrounded semivowel (which can be formed by first pronounc
position of the tongue) followed by a vowel similar to English "duh". Many unstressed syllables in C
ai
[a]
ai
ei
[e]
ei
as in "hey"
ao
[ ]
ao
ou
[o ]
ou
as in "so"
an
[n]
an
en
[n]
en
as in "taken"
ang
[]
ang
as in German Angst (starts with the vowel sound in father and ends in the velar nasal; like song in so
eng
[]
eng
er
[]
er
[i]
yi
ia
[i]
ya
ie
[i]
ye
as i + ; but is very short; e (pronounced like ) is pronounced longer and carries the main stress (sim
iao
[i ]
yao
as i + ao
iu
[io ]
you
as i + ou
ian
[in]
yan
in
[in]
yin
as i + n
iang
[i]
yang
as i + ang
ing
[i]
ying
as i + ng
Finals beginning with u- (w-)
[u]
wu
ua
[u ]
wa
as u + a
uo, o
[u ]
wo
as u + o where the o (compare with the o interjection) is pronounced shorter and lighter (spelled as o
uai
[u a]
wai
as u + ai like as in why
ui
[u e]
wei
as u + ei;
uan
[u n]
wan
as u + an;
un
[u n]
wen
uang
[u ]
wang
as u + ang;
ong
[], [u ] weng
starts with the vowel sound in book and ends with the velar nasal sound in sing; as u + eng in zero in
Finals beginning with - (yu-)
u,
[y] (
ue, e [y]
uan
[yn]
listen)
yu
as in German "ber" or French "lune" (To pronounce this sound, say "ee" with rounded lips)
yue
yuan
as + + n;
un
[yn]
yun
as + n;
iong
[i]
yong
as i + ong
Interjections
[]
(n/a)
as in "bet".
[]
(n/a)
Approximately as in "office" in British accent; the lips are much more rounded.
io
[i]
yo
Orthography[edit]
Letters[edit]
Pinyin differs from other romanizations in several aspects, such as the
following:
Most of the above are used to avoid ambiguity when writing words of
more than one syllable in pinyin. For example uenian is written
as wenyan because it is not clear which syllables make
up uenian; uen-ian, uen-i-an and u-en-i-an are all possible
combinations whereas wenyan is unambiguous because we, nya, etc.
do not exist in pinyin. See the pinyin table article for a summary of
possible pinyin syllables (not including tones).
General
1.
3.
2.
Duplicated words
1.
2.
3.
3.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
Exceptions
are: Kngz (Master Confucius), Bogng (J
udge Bao), Xsh (a historical
person), Mngchngjn (a historical
person), among others
6.
4.
Verbs (dngc): Verbs and their suffixes (-zhe, -le and -guo)
are written as one: knzhe/knle/knguo (to
see/saw/seen), jngxngzhe (to implement). Le as it appears in
the end of a sentence is separated though: Huch do
le (The train [has] arrived).
1.
2.
5.
6.
Pronouns (dic)
1.
2.
7.
2.
3.
8.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
9.
2.
3.
Tones[edit]
The pinyin system also uses diacritics to mark the four tones of
Mandarin. The diacritic is placed over the letter that represents
the syllable nucleus, unless that letter is missing (see below). Many
books printed in China use a mix of fonts, with vowels and tone marks
rendered in a different font from the surrounding text, tending to give
such pinyin texts a typographically ungainly appearance. This style,
most likely rooted in early technical limitations, has led many to believe
that pinyin's rules call for this practice and also for the use of a Latin
alpha () rather than the standard style of the letter (a) found in most
fonts. The official rules of Hanyu Pinyin, however, specify no such
practice.
1.
( )
2.
( )
3.
( )
4.
( )
5.
a () e i o u A E I O U
(In some cases, this is also written with a dot before the syllable;
for example, ma.)[citation needed]
These tone marks normally are only used in Mandarin textbooks
or in foreign learning texts, but they are essential for correct
pronunciation of Mandarin syllables, as exemplified by the
following classic example of five characters whose pronunciations
differ only in their tones:
The four main tones of Standard Mandarin pronounced with the syllable 'ma':
MENU
0:00
Traditional characters:
m m m m ma
Simplified characters:
m m m m ma
The words are "mother", "hemp", "horse", "scold" and a question
particle, respectively.
Tone
Tone Mark
Example
using
tone mark
Example
using
number
IPA
First
macron ( )
ma1
Second
acute accent ( )
ma2
Third
caron ( )
ma3
Fourth
grave accent ( ` )
ma4
no number
5
0
ma
ma
ma
ma5
ma0
No mark
"Neutral
or dot before syllable
"
()
coda is a vowel, it is the coda rather than the medial which takes
the diacritic in the absence of a written nucleus. This occurs with
syllables ending in -ui (from wei: (wi -u) and in -iu (from you:
yu -i.) That is, in the absence of a written nucleus the finals
have priority for receiving the tone marker, as long as they are
vowels: if not, the medial takes the diacritic.
An algorithm to find the correct vowel letter (when there is more
than one) is as follows:[27]
1.
2.
3.
Worded differently,
1.
2.
Phonological intuition[edit]
The placement of the tone marker, when more than one of the
written letters a, e, i, o, and u appears, can also be inferred from
the nature of the vowel sound in the medial and final. The rule is
that the tone marker goes on the spelled vowel that is not a
(near-)semi-vowel. The exception is that, for triphthongs that are
spelled with only two vowel letters, both of which are the semivowels, the tone marker goes on the second spelled vowel.
Specifically, if the spelling of a diphthong begins with i (as in ia)
or u (as in ua), which here serves as a near-semi-vowel, this letter
does not take the tone marker. Likewise, if the spelling of a
diphthong ends with o or u representing a near-semi-vowel (as
in ao or ou), this letter does not receive a tone marker. In
a triphthong spelled with three of a, e, i,
o, andu (with i or u replaced by y or w at the start of a syllable), the
The sound[edit]
An umlaut is placed over the letter u when it occurs after the
initials l and n in order to represent the sound [y]. This is
necessary in order to distinguish the front high rounded vowel
in l (e.g. / donkey) from the back high rounded vowel
Pinyin in Taiwan[edit]
IPA
a e ou n n i
iou
in
in
Pinyin
ai ei ao ou an en ang eng er yi ye
ying
Tongyong
Pinyin
o e
ai ei ao ou an en ang eng er yi ye
ying
WadeGiles
o eh o/ ai ei ao ou an n ang ng rh i
yeh yu
yen yin
ying
Zhuyin
example
Vowels u, y
IPA
Pinyin
ue
un u y
yn
yn
wu wo/o
wei
yuan yun
yong
wei
yuan yun
yong
WadeGiles
wu wo/o
wei
yung
Zhuyin
example
t
ny
ly
Non-sibilant consonants
IPA
pu pu mu f
tio
tue
tun
k
x
ger
ke
he
Pinyin
bo
po
mo
feng diu
dui
dun
te
Tongyong
Pinyin
bo
po
mo
fong diou
duei
dun
te
nyu lyu
ger
ke
he
WadeGiles
po
p'o
mo
fng tiu
tui
tun
t'
krh
k'o
ho
Zhuyin
example
Sibilant consonants
IPA
ti
ti y
ts tsu ts ts ts s
ti
s
n
n
n
Pinyin jian jiong qin xuan zhe zhi che chi she shi re
ri ze
zuo zi
Tongyo
syua
shi
ng
jian jyong cin
jhe jhih che chih she
re
n
h
Pinyin
rih ze
zuo zih ce
cih se
sih
jih ts
tz'u s
szu
Zhuyin
exampl
ci
se
si
Tones
m m
m
m
Pinyin
ma
Tongyong Pinyin
ma
WadeGiles
ma1
ma2
ma3
ma4
ma0
Zhuyin
IPA
ce
example (traditional/simplified) / / / / /
Other languages[edit]
See also: SASM/GNC romanization and Tibetan pinyin
Pinyin-like systems have been devised for other variants of
Chinese. Guangdong Romanization is a set of romanizations
devised by the government of Guangdong province
forCantonese, Teochew, Hakka (Moiyen dialect), and Hainanese.
All of these are designed to use Latin letters in a similar way to
pinyin.
In addition, in accordance to the Regulation of Phonetic
Transcription in Hanyu Pinyin Letters of Place Names in Minority
Nationality Languages ()
promulgated in 1976, place names in non-Han languages
like Mongolian, Uyghur, and Tibetan are also officially transcribed
using pinyin in a system adopted by the State Administration of
Surveying and Mapping and Geographical Names Committee
known as SASM/GNC romanization. The pinyin letters (26 Roman
letters, , ) are used to approximate the non-Han language in
question as closely as possible. This results in spellings that are
different from both the customary spelling of the place name, and
the pinyin spelling of the name in Chinese:
Customary
Shigatse
Xigaz
Rkz
Urumchi
rmqi
Wlmq
Lhasa
Lhasa
Ls
Hohhot
Hohhot
Hhhot
Golmud
Golmud
G'rm
See also[edit]
Bopomofo
Combining character
Erhua ()
Legge romanization
Pee h-e-j
Pinyin table
Romanization of Japanese
Simplified Wade
Tibetan pinyin
Tone number
Tongyong Pinyin
WadeGiles
References[edit]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
23. Jump up^ You can hear recordings of the Finals here
24. Jump
up^ http://hua.umf.maine.edu/Chinese/topics/pinyin/pinyin.ht
ml
25. ^ Jump up to:a b "Apostrophes in Hanyu Pinyin: when and
where to use them".
26. Jump up^ "Use of the Hyphen; Abbreviations and Short
Forms". Pinyin.info. Retrieved 2012-04-06.
27. Jump up^ Swofford, Mark. "Where do the tone marks go?".
Pinyin.info. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
28. Jump up^ Nathan Dummitt, Chinese Through Tone & Color
(2008)
29. Jump up^ "Hanping Chinese Dictionary color scheme".
2013-01-10. Retrieved 2013-01-10.
30. Jump up^ Huang, Rong. " ""
"YU"". Retrieved 29 August 2012.
31. Jump up^ Li, Zhiyan. """
"LYU"". Retrieved 23 August 2012.
32. Jump up^ "Google Reader". Google.com. Retrieved 201005-17.
33. Jump up^ Taylor, Insup and Maurice M. Taylor
(1995), Writing and literacy in Chinese, Korean, and
Japanese, Volume 3 of Studies in written language and
literacy, John Benjamins, p. 124.
Further reading[edit]
Uy, Dr. Tim and Jim Hsia (ed.) (2009). Webster's Digital
Chinese Dictionary: Advanced Reference Edition. Mountain
View, CA: Loqu8 Press.
External links[edit]
pinyinAID
Pinyin Chart for iPad Pinyin Chart app for iPad, every
available tones in the Chinese language included.
Pinyin Chart for iPhone Pinyin Chart app for iPhone, every
available tones in the Chinese language included.
Preceded by
Gwoyeu Romatzyh
Succeeded by
current
Preceded by
Wade-Giles
Succeeded by
current
Preceded by
Tongyong Pinyin
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Introduccin
0.1. Etimologa
FONTICA: del griego phonetiks "relativo al sonido", derivado de phn "hago or la voz,
hablo", y ste de phon "voz" .
FONOLOGA: v. phno. -loga-: tomado del griego lgos "argumento, discusin", "razn".
Fonologa
>
Fontica
fonemas
>
sonidos
0.2. Oralidad
francs
mademoiselle
headboard
camin
zgria
conjointement
achievement
ordenador
transferabil
ingls
espaol
rumano
El lenguaje natural humano no es el nico elemento del que nos servimos para transmitir y
para atribuir a una cadena fnica un significado concreto: intervienen tambin otros procesos
extralingsticos (pero igualmente significativos, como por ejemplo el contacto visual o la
gesticulizacin) que contribuyen al entendimiento entre emisor y receptor. Asimismo, una
palabra aislada de su contexto puede no tener ningn sentido a pesar de ser claro su
significado.
Todo texto oral nace de un propsito (saludar, contar algo, preguntar, etc.) y se realiza en una
determinada situacin de comunicacin que condiciona a su vez el mensaje. Por ejemplo,
generalmente nos expresamos de distinta manera cuando estamos en familia (registro
informal) que cuando estamos hablando en el trabajo con un superior (registro formal). El
proceso de comunicacin pone en funcionamiento todo un sistema de habilidades
involuntarias que actan durante la percepcin del texto oral.
seleccionar
Anticipar lo que creemos que ser dicho con ayuda del contexto, tema... (no escuchamos
linealmente sino que anticipamos).
Inferir: completamos la comprensin con otros factores no verbales del hablante (la
entonacin, sus gestos, la posicin ...).
Retener: factor importante porque el texto puede hacer referencia a l mismo con
posterioridad.
Qu quieres?
Y?
En este dilogo ficticio, el joven empieza su intervencin en el momento adecuado (sabe que
su padre no hace nada importante y que le va a escuchar), es decir, conoce las rutinas de
conversacin; el padre y el hijo saben cundo deben tomar la palabra (habilidades de
conduccin: despus de una pregunta pero tambin cuando el hijo deja frases sin acabar,
en el aire; esto es interpretado por el padre como un signo de que puede intervenir). El
padre, a su vez, entiende que el hijo quiere pedirle algo probablemente de alguna
importancia para su hijo, pero no obstante finge que no entiende (Y?); por su experiencia
de vida el padre sabe que su hijo le va a pedir permiso para salir, pero no se lo da a
entender, con lo cual el hijo tiene que explicitar su propsito (pedir permiso). Decimos
entonces que el hijo debe renegociar el significado de su texto, pues tiene que plantearlo
de una manera ms clara. El hijo, desde el principio y conociendo el estado de la relacin
con su padre, formula sus peticiones de la manera que cree ms conveniente, evitando ir
directamente al grano y escogiendo las palabras que cree mejores para transmitir lo que
quiere decir. Por consiguiente, planifica su intervencin.
Hay que sealar que estas habilidades y conocimientos actan inconscientemente, sin que
nos demos cuenta. Por ejemplo, generalmente sabemos cuando nos han cedido la palabra
sin que sea necesario que nos digan ahora es tu turno, puedes hablar. Del mismo modo,
escogemos la manera en que queremos expresarnos y cmo lo queremos expresar (por
ejemplo, si con un registro coloquial o si con uno ms elaborado) etc. Es importante resaltar
que cuando nos comunicamos oralmente la actividad cerebral es mxima e inconsciente. Un
ltimo ejemplo: en una conversacin telefnica, es habitual que el oyente diga s aunque no
se le haya preguntado nada. No obstante, estos s tienen una clara funcin comunicativa
(comunicar al hablante que seguimos su discurso). De la misma manera no es extrao que el
oyente no preste mucha atencin a lo que dice el hablante y slo cundo aparece un
elemento nuevo, inesperado, sorpresivo para l, interrogue al hablante. Es decir, el oyente
selecciona lo que le interesa del conjunto del texto del hablante. En el proceso de
comunicacin intervienen procesos y habilidades de naturaleza distinta a la puramente
lingstica pero que ayudan al entendimiento entre hablante y oyente. Estas habilidades
actan de manera inconsciente: cuando empezamos a hablar no planificamos lo que diremos
ni cmo lo diremos de manera consciente. En cambio, insconscientemente seleccionamos
cmo vamos a expresarnos, qu vamos a expresar, con qu fin, etc. Estas habilidades son el
objeto de estudio de la pragmtica.
colectividad lingstica
Por ejemplo, a las hablas propias de colectivos urbanos de nivel socio-cultural bajo y a las
maneras de hablar acadmicas corresponde una sola lengua (el espaol, el rumano) a
pesar de sus evidentes diferencias. Los rasgos comunes que comparten constituyen la
lengua, que es un modelo abstracto. Este modelo abstracto se actualiza en cada hablante
(habla). Cuando hablamos de la lengua espaola, catalana, rumana, francesa en realidad
nos referimos a ese modelo abstracto que se concretiza cada vez que alguien lo utiliza. Por
ello decimos que la lengua es un fenmeno social (modelo abstracto compartido por los
individuos) y el habla individual (actualizaciones individuales de ese modelo abstracto). Por
colectividad lingstica entendemos el conjunto de hablantes de una lengua.
0.3.3. El lenguaje
El signo lingstico est compuesto por el significante y el significado (Saussure, F., Curso de
lingstica general,1969, Ed. Losada , Buenos Aires)
En cada lengua identificamos un significante (lo que percibimos u omos) y un significado que
atribuimos a cada significante Los dos constituyen el signo lingstico. As, en la palabra
casa distinguimos el significante ['kasa] y el significado edificio para habitar.
Expresin oral
nivel semntico
nivel gramatical
nivel lxico
nivel fonolgico
nivel fontico
nivel acstico
Comprensin auditiva
Reglas categoriales: establecen las estructuras sintcticas bsicas que sin el lxicon no
podramos llenar de contenido lxico. Una vez cubiertas estas estructuras, tenemos
la estructura profunda (las reglas categoriales llenas de material lxico).
Estructura superficial: la estructura profunda que ha sufrido algunos cambios, llevados a cabo
por las reglas transformacionales. Por ejemplo, si alguien dice qu dices?, el cambio
provocado por el modo interrogativo (el modo enunciativo postula el orden sujeto-verboobjeto, t dices qu) es una regla transformacional. Permiten la elipsis (Mi coche es verde;
el (coche) tuyo marrn). Ahora tenemos oraciones todava no pronunciadas.
Nivel fonolgico: lleva al campo fsico estas oraciones. Antes de pronunciarlas, nuestro
cerebro crea lo que sera su forma ideal, antes de que entren en juego las reglas del nivel
fontico, que pueden comportar algunos cambios (por ejemplo, el caso visto anteriormente
de la palabra dado, en que fonticamente aparecen dos sonidos distintos correspondientes a
un nico fonema /d/).
Por tanto, la fonologa opera en el nivel lxico (aporta la informacin mnima para que las
unidades no se confundan, es decir, caracteriza los fonemas de cada palabra) y en el nivel
fonolgico dando la forma de la oracin a pronunciar antes de que entren en juego los
cambios que se producen en el nivel fontico (as, el nivel fonolgico no recoge las distintas
realizaciones o sonidos de un mismo fonema).
Cuando observamos las lenguas, encontramos, en efecto, muchos rasgos que implican la
existencia de una naturaleza comn fundamental. Entre las cosas comunes a toda la
humanidad estn, en primer lugar, las bases fisiolgicas. Los rganos del habla son los
rasgos esenciales semejantes en todas las razas. Parece que las pequeas diferencias que
evidentemente se pueden observar en el arco del paladar, en la medida y en la forma de la
cavidad nasal, etc. no tienen ninguna importancia. Nadie ha conseguido sealar un solo
rasgo lingstico que se pueda atribuir a estas causas anatmicas.
Tambin est demostrado que, por ejemplo, los nios de origen europeo que pasan la
infancia entre los esquimales de Groenlandia o entre los bants de Sudfrica acaban
hablando la lengua groenlandesa o zul tal como los nativos y al revs.
Cmo aprendemos el idioma o idiomas maternos? Los estudios sobre el lenguaje infantil
demuestran que el nio est dotado de un mecanismo que le permite aprender
perfectamente el idioma materno sin necesidad de estudiarlo, como hacemos los adultos a la
hora de aprender un nuevo idioma. Al nacer (o antes?) se filtran todos los ruidos a travs de
este mecanismo que le ayuda a discriminar lo que es experiencia lingstica (lengua) de lo
que no lo es (ruidos). La informacin lingstica resultante de este filtro es la gramtica.