User Manual - Autonomous Robotics

Innovians Technologies
Autonomous Robotics User Manual
Implementing New Ideas & Technology
Robotics Study Guide

Workshop on Autonomous Robotics
Organized By
www.innovianstechnologies.com
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Email: info@innovianstechnologies.com
Web: www.innovianstechnologies.com
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Autonomous Robotics Study Guide
Table of Content
1. Introduction ... 3
2. Introduction to Basic Electronics ... 4
2.1. Voltage & Current .. 4
2.2. Resistors .. 5
2.3. Capacitors 8
2.4. Inductors . 10
2.5. Diode . .11
3. Motors 14
4. Introduction to Motor Drivers. 14
4.1. H-Bridge ...14
4.2. L239D Dual H-Bridge Motor Driver ...15
5. Introduction to AVR Series (Atmega 8/8L) Microcontroller16
5.1. Features 16
5.2. Pin Diagram ..17
5.3. Block Diagram ..18
5.4. PIN Description 18
6. Type of Switches...19
7. Installation of required software applications...20
7.1. Installation of Code Vision AVR .21
7.2. Installation of USBASP Programmer Drivers 26
8. Atmega 8L Pin Configuration ..34
9. Microcontroller Board Diagram 35
info@innovianstechnologies.com
In
1. Introduction
Robots and robotic technologies have an intellectual and emotional appeal that transcends any other type
of engineered product, and this appeal is felt no more so than with children and young adults. Robots and
robotic technologies represent a practical application of physics, computer science, engineering, and
mathematics, and provide a very powerful and flexible approach to demonstrate a variety of engineering
concepts. In addition, robotics appeals to a broad range of interests and allows multiple points of access to
science, mathematics, and engineering for many types of learners. As a result, robotic technology and
robots are being used by an increasing number of educators at the college level to reinforce computer
science and engineering theory, and to teach basic software and mechanical engineering at the grammar
school, middle school and high school levels. But perhaps most importantly for younger students, robots
and robotic technology inculcate an interest in science and increase selfesteem, as well as teach basic life
skills such as problem solving, decision making, goal setting and logical thinking.
As we are living in an age of Information Technology. Electronics is at the very foundation of the
Information and Computer Age and robotics. The giant strides that we have made in the areas of
Communications and Computers are possible only because of the great successes that we have achieved
in the field of Electronics. It is sometimes unbelievable, how many electronics gadgets that we carry these
days in our person
Digital Wrist-watch, Calculator, Cell-phone, Digital Diary or a PDA, Digital Camera or a Video
camera, etc.
The different type of Electronic equipments that has invaded our offices and homes these days is also
mind boggling. Many things we use at home and office are remote controlled, for example, Television
(TV), Air-Conditioners, Audio equipment, Telephone, etc. It is almost close to magic how even a child,
now-a-days, can switch channels, or increase decrease the volume of sound in a TV at home by just
clicking on a few buttons sitting at the comfort of a sofa away from the Television apparently without any
physical wiring or connection!
Again, we are astonished, how we are able to talk to our near and dear living several thousands of
Kilometers away, from wherever we are, at home, office, on the road in a car, or in a classroom by just
clicking a few n umbers on our palm sized cellular phones! Electronics has made deep impact in several
vital areas such as health care, medical diagnosis and Treatment, Air and space travels, Automobiles, etc.
In short, the technological developments of several countries of the globe are directly related to their
strengths in electronics design, manufacture, products and services.
Just as we teach physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics in our schools, it is high time we start
teaching our children at school, Electronics as a separate subject by itself. This brings us face to face to an
important question: How to teach the basic concepts of such an important subject like Electronics most
effectively? If one wants to gain a good understanding of electronics, he or she should build circuits and
test them independently. For this one should acquire a practical knowledge of the characteristics of
different devices and in constructing the various circuits. Let us try to learn such skills by the proven
scheme of
LEARNING BY DOING.
There is only one way to learn to do anything: and I found Robotics is the best way to learn all this.
So lets start doing Robotics!!!
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2. Introduction to Basic Electronics

2.1. Voltage and Current
Voltage and Current are vital to understanding electronics, but they are quite hard to grasp because we
can't see them directly.
Voltage is the Cause, Current is the Effect
Voltage attempts to make a current flow, and current will flow if the circuit is complete. Voltage is
sometimes described as the 'push' or 'force' of the electricity, it isn't really a force but this may help you to
imagine what is happening. It is possible to have voltage without current, but current cannot flow without
voltage.
Voltage and Current

The switch is closed making a
complete circuit so current can
flow.
Voltage but No Current

The switch is open so the circuit is
broken and current cannot flow.
No Voltage and No Current

Without the cell there is no
source of voltage so current
cannot flow.
Voltage, V
Voltage is a measure of the energy carried by the charge.

Strictly: voltage is the "energy per unit charge".
The proper name for voltage is potential difference or p.d.
for short, but this term is rarely used in electronics.
Voltage is supplied by the battery (or power supply).
Voltage is used up in components, but not in wires.
We say voltage across a component.
Voltage is measured in volts, V.
Voltage is measured with a voltmeter, connected
in parallel.
The symbol V is used for voltage in equations.
Connecting a voltmeter in parallel
Current, I
Current is the rate of flow of charge.

Current is not used up, what flows into a component must flow out.
We say current through a component.
Current is measured in amps (amperes), A.
Current is measured with an ammeter, connected in series.
To connect in series you must break the circuit and put the ammeter acoss the gap, as shown in
the diagram.
The symbol I is used for current in equations.
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2.2. Resistors
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit
element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals.
Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current through the
circuit is called resistance. This relation is represented by Ohm's law:
where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the

potential difference measured across the conductor in units of Volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms.
Electric current is simply the motion of electrons from one place to another through a wire. The more
electrons that are flowing, the higher the current. Resistors have an apt name: They resist the electrical
current going through them. You can think of resistors as brakes for electrons. By controlling the
electrons going through a resistor, you can make a circuit do different things. Resistors may be the
primary building block of circuits, so you see them quite a bit in electronics projects. Here are some of the
things you can use them for:
Limiting current to another component: Some parts, such as light emitting diodes (LEDs), eat
up current. Like a kid eats candy bars they try to gobble up as much as you give them. But LEDs
run into a problem they burn themselves out if they eat too much current. You can use a
resistor to limit the amount of current that reaches an LED.
Reducing voltage to part of the circuit: In many circuits, you need to provide different voltages
to different parts of the circuit. You can do this easily with resistors. Two resistors joined, as
Figure 4-1 shows you, form whats called a voltage divider. Assuming that you have two
identical resistors, that is, they apply their brakes in the same amount, the voltage in between the
two is exactly half that of the rest of the circuit.
Controlling the voltage/current going into another component: Combine a resistor and a
capacitor, for example, and you create a kind of hourglass timer. Or put a resistor at the input of a
transistor to control how much the transistor amplifies a signal.
Protecting the inputs of sensitive components: Too much current destroys electronic
components. By putting a resistor at the input of a sensitive transistor or integrated circuit, you
limit the current that reaches that transistor or circuit. Although not foolproof, this simple
technique can save you a lot of time and money that you would lose fixing accidental blow-ups of
your circuits.
Resistor Values
If resistors act like brakes, then you have to have some way to change how hard you push the pedal, in
order to have control over the flow of electrons. That control involves modifying the resistance of a
resistor. Electronics dabblers know the amount of resistance in a resistor as the ohm, typically represented
by the Greek capitalized letter omega: . The higher the ohm value, the more resistance the component
provides. To understand how you can adjust resistance, you should know that there are two basic types of
resistors, fixed and variable. Heres how they differ:
A fixed resistor supplies a pre-determined resistance to current. Color coding identifies the value
of most fixed resistors. The color coding starts near the edge of the resistor and is comprised of
four, five, and sometimes six bands of different colors.
A variable resistor, called a potentiometer, allows for the continual adjustment from virtually no
ohms to some maximum value. The potentiometer usually has the maximum value printed on it
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somewhere. See the section Dialing with potentiometers, later in this chapter, for detailed info
on these puppies.
Resistor Colors
Understanding resistor tolerance

The last band of the resistor indicates its tolerance. Tolerance takes into account unavoidable
variations in resistor manufacturing. Though a resistor may have a 2,000 ohms marking, for
example, its actual value may be slightly higher or lower. You refer to the potential variation in
value as tolerance, expressed as a percentage (for example, +5-percent tolerance means the
resistor value may vary plus or minus 5 percent from the stated value). In most cases, being a
little off doesnt significantly affect the operation of the circuit. Knowing the tolerance of the
resistor lets you decide if a resistor is adequate for a particular circuit.
Resistor Heat and Power Resistors
Whenever electrons flow through something, they generate heat. The more electrons, the higher
the heat. Resistors also come rated by their power. Power is measured in watts the higher the
watts, the higher the heat. Electronic components can only stand so much heat (how much
depends on the size and type of component) before they sizzle into a charred mass. The power
rating tells you how many watts can safely go through the resistor. You calculate watts by using
this formula:
P=IxV
P stands for power, measured in watts; I represent the current, in amps, going through the
resistor; and V represents the voltage as measured across the resistor. For example, suppose that
the voltage is 5 volts, and 25 milliamps of current go through the resistor. To calculate watts,
multiply 5 by 0.025. You get 0.125, or 18 watt. Unlike the value in ohms, the component
seldom has the resistor wattage printed on it, either written out or as part of the color code.
Instead, you have to figure out the wattage by the size of resistor, or, if you know where you
bought the resistor, check with the manufacturer. Resistors that you use wattages than those
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resistors that you use in low-current applications. The majority of resistors that you use for
hobby electronics are rated at 14 or even 18 watt. High-wattage resistors take many forms,
some of which you can see in Figure 4-3. Resistors over five watts commonly come encased in
epoxy or other waterproof and flameproof coating and have a rectangular, rather than
cylindrical, shape. Higher-wattage resistors may even include their own metal heat sink where
the fins help draw heat away from the resistor.
Variable Resistors
The variable resistor is a resistor whose value can be adjusted by turning a shaft or sliding a
control. These are also called potentiometers or rheostats and allow the resistance of the device
to be altered by hand. Variable resistors can be inexpensive single-turn types or multi-turn types
with a helical element.
Some variable resistors can be fitted with a mechanical display to count the turns.
Variable resistors can sometimes be unreliable, because the wire or metal can corrode or wear.
Some modern variable resistors use plastic materials that do not corrode and have better wear
characteristics.
Calculations
Power dissipation
The power dissipated by a resistor is the voltage across the resistor times the current through the
resistor:
All three equations are equivalent, the last two being derived from the first by Ohm's
Law. The total amount of heat energy released per unit time is the integral of the power:
Series and parallel resistors

In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage across each
resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen across the network is
the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum of those resistances:
As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R, is given
by NR.
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage), however
the currents through them add. The conductances of the resistors then add to determine the conductance
of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be computed:
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The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in
geometry) as a simplified notation. Occasionally two slashes "//" are used instead of "||", in case the
keyboard or font lacks the vertical line symbol. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be
calculated using:
2.3. Capacitors
Capacitors store electrons by attracting them to a positive voltage. When the voltage is reduced or
removed, the electrons move off. When a capacitor removes or adds electrons to the circuit in this
fashion, it can work to smooth out voltage fluctuations. In some cases you can use capacitors combined
with resistors as timers. Capacitors make possible all kinds of circuits, such as amplifiers and thousands
of others.
Some types of capacitors.
Capacitors are used for all sorts of neat applications, including

Creating timers: A kind of electronic metronome, a timer most often pairs up with a resistor to
control the speed of the tick-tick-tick.
Smoothing out voltage: Power supplies that convert AC current to DC often use capacitors to
help smooth out the voltage so that the voltage stays at a nice, constant level.
Blocking DC current: When connected inline (in series) with a signal source, such as a
microphone, capacitors block DC current but pass AC current. Most kinds of amplifiers use this
function, for example.
Adjusting frequency: You use capacitors to make simple filters that reject AC signals above or
below some desired frequency. By adjusting the value of the capacitor, its possible for you to
change the cut-off frequencies of the filter.
Physics of the capacitor
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Though they many sound complicated because of all the things that you can use them for, capacitors are
really very simple devices. The typical capacitor has two metal plates inside it. The plates dont touch.
Instead, a dielectric material, which is a fancy term for an insulator, separates the plates. The charge is
stored at the surface of the plates, at the boundary with the dielectric. Because each plate stores an equal
but opposite charge, the total charge in the capacitor is always zero.
Capacitance of a capacitor
The capacitors capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) stored on each plate for a given
potential difference or voltage (V) which appears between the plates:
In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of charge causes a potential
difference of one volt across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of capacitors are
usually expressed in microfarads (F), nanofarads (nF) or picofarads (pF). The capacitance is
proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate and inversely proportional to the distance between
the plates. It is also proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric (that is, non-conducting) substance
that separates the plates.
Stored energy
As electric charge accumulates on the plates of a capacitor, a voltage develops across the capacitor due to
the electric field of the accumulated charge. Ever increasing work must be done against this ever
increasing electric field as more charge accumulates. The energy (measured in joules , in SI ) stored in a
capacitor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the voltage across the capacitor, and
therefore the electric field. The energy stored is given by:
where V is the voltage across the capacitor.
Capacitor networks
A capacitor can be used to block the DC Current flowing within the circuit and therefore have important
applications in coupling of ac signals between amplifier stages, whilst preventing dc from passing.
Capacitors in a parallel: in this configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To find
their total equivalent capacitance (C):
Capacitor in Series: The current through capacitors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each
capacitor can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To
find their total Capacitance:
One possible reason to connect capacitors in series is to increase the overall voltage rating. In practice, a
very large resistor might be connected across each capacitor to divide the total voltage appropriately for
the individual ratings.
How to determine the value of capacitors with printed bodies

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Example: 151K = 15 X 10 = 150pF +/- 10%

Capacitor Types
Designers of electronic circuitry specify capacitors for projects by the dielectric material in
them. Some materials are better in certain applications: Just like bananas in a banana split, they
provide a better match. The most common dielectric materials are aluminum electrolytic,
tantalum electrolytic, ceramic, mica, polypropylene, polyester (or Mylar), paper, and
polystyrene. If a circuit diagram calls for a capacitor of a certain type, you should be sure to get
one that matches. Table below lists the most common capacitor types, their typical value range,
and common applications.
2.4. Inductors
An inductor is a passive electrical device that stores energy in a magnetic field, typically by combining
the effects of many loops of electric current.
Physics of the inductor

Inductance is a physical characteristic of any system of conductors (including an inductor), which creates
a voltage proportional to the instantaneous rate of change in current flowing through it. The symbol L is
used for inductance in honor of the physicist Heinrich Lenz. The SI unit of inductance is the Henry (H).
Energy
The energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored in an inductor is equal to the amount of work required to
establish the current flowing through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic field.
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This is given by:
where I is the current flowing through the inductor.

Inductor networks
Inductors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To find
their total Equivalent inductance (Leq):
The current through inductors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each inductor can be
different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To find their total
Inductance:
2.5 Diodes
The diode is the simplest form of semiconductor. You use semiconductors in a circuit to control
the flow of electrons. A diode has two terminals, each with a high resistance to current in one
direction and low resistance to current in the opposite direction. Or put another way, diodes act
as a one-way valve for electrons. Electrons can go through the diode in one direction
but not in the other. A variety of applications use diodes and these diodes fall into numerous
subtypes.
Here is a list of the most common diodes:
Zener: These puppies limit voltage to a pre-determined amount. You can build a voltage
regulator for your circuit cheaply and easily with a zener diode.
Light-emitting diode (LED): All semiconductors emit infrared light when they conduct
current. LEDs emit visible light. Now available in all the colors of the rainbow.
Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR): The SCR is a type of switch used to control AC or DC
currents. Theyre common in light dimmer switches.
Rectifier: This basic diode transforms (referred to as rectifying) AC current to provide
DC current only. (Remember: AC current alternates between both positive and negative values.
DC current does not alternate, and is only positive or negative. See Figure 4-6 for an example.)
Diodes are often referred to as rectifiers because they perform this rectifying function.
Bridge rectifier: This component consists of four diodes, connected one to the other to
form a kind of box shape; it rectifies AC to DC with maximum efficiency.
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Important ratings for diodes

Peak voltage and current: Except for zeners, diodes dont have values like resistors and
capacitors. A diode simply does its thing in controlling the flow of electrons. But that doesnt
mean all diodes are the same. Diodes are rated by two main criteria: peak inverse voltage (PIV)
and current. These criteria specify the kind of diode that you should use in a given circuit.
The PIV rating roughly indicates the maximum working voltage for the diode. For
example, if the diode is rated at 100 volts, you shouldnt use it in a circuit that applies more than
100 volts to the diode.
The current rating is the maximum amount of current the diode can withstand. Assuming a
diode is rated for 3 amps, it cant safely conduct more than 3 amps without overheating and
failing.
Diodes are identified by an industry-standard numerical system. A classic example is the
1N4001 rectifier diode, which is rated at 1.0 PIV and 50 volts. A 1N4002 is rated at 100 volts, a
1N4003 is rated at 200 volts, and so on.
Anode and Cathode
All diodes have what amounts to positive and negative terminals. The terminals go by special
names: The positive terminal is called the anode, and the negative terminal is called the cathode.
You can readily identify the cathode end of a diode by looking for a red or black stripe near one
of the leads.
Figure below shows a diode with a stripe at the cathode end. This stripe corresponds with the
line in the schematic symbol for the diode. Its important that when you follow a schematic to
build a circuit you orient the diode with the line facing the specified way.
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Light-Emitting Diodes
If bright lights turn you on, you can appreciate the curious behavior of semiconductors: They
emit light when you apply an electric current to them. This light is generally very dim and only
in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The light-emitting diode (LED), such as
the light that glows yellow or green when your computer is on, is a special type of
semiconductor expressly designed to emit copious amounts of light. Most LEDs are engineered
to produce red, yellow, or green visible light, but some special-purpose types emit infrared,
blue, and even white light.
LEDs carry the same specifications as any other diode, but they usually havea pretty low
current rating. An LED has a PIV rating of about 100 to 150 volts, with a maximum current
rating of under 50 milliamps. If more current passes through an LED than its maximum rating
allows, the LED burns up.
Resistors, meet LEDs
You use a resistor, such as the one in Figure below, to limit the current to the LED. You select
the value of the resistor to maintain the current below the maximum current rating of the LED.
The calculation is simple, and for most LEDs and 5 or 12 volt circuits, you can use common
resistor values that get you in the right ballpark.
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We list common resistor values in Table below. The values are selected based on the ratings of
most LEDs.
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3. Motors
An electric motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
There are two types of motor:
1. AC Motors (Run on AC Electric Power).
2. DC Motors (Run on DC Electric Power).
Introduction to Motor Driver

Whenever a robotics hobbyist talk about making a robot, the first thing comes to his mind is
making the robot move on the ground. And there are always two options in front of the designer
whether to use a DC Motor or a stepper motor. When it comes to speed, weight, size, cost... DC
motors are always preferred over stepper motors. There are many things which you can do with
your DC motor when interfaced with a microcontroller. For example you can control the speed
of motor, you can control the direction of rotation, you can also do encoding of the rotation
made by DC motor i.e. keeping track of how many turns are made by your motors etc. So you
can see DC motors are no less than a stepper motor.
4.
In this part of tutorial we will learn to interface a DC motor with a microcontroller. Usually Hbridge is preferred way of interfacing a DC motor. These days many IC manufacturers have Hbridge motor drivers available in the market like L293D is most used H-Bridge driver IC. Hbridge can also be made with the help of transistors and MOSFETs etc. rather of being cheap,
they only increase the size of the design board, which is sometimes not required so using a
small 16 pin IC is preferred for this purpose.
4.1
H-Bridge
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4.2 L293D Dual H-Bridge Motor Driver

L293 series of chips are power H-bridge motor drivers. The L293B and D have been used for
several years in many MIT robot controller boards, such as the 6.270 Rev 2.1 board and
miniboard. Unfortunately, they are often hard to find and usually can't be bought in single
quantity.
The L293B and D chips are both in 16-pins dip packages, and both have two h-bridge drivers.
An H bridge is typically capable of running one DC motor bidirectional (forward, backwards,
off), or two separate motors unidirectional (forward, off). Thus a L293 chip can run two motors
bidirectional, or 4 unidirectional.
L293 chips take logic-level inputs to direct the H-bridges, and have a separate pin for the motor
supply (which is often higher than the standard 5V logic supply).
The L293B and D chips have identical pinouts, but have two differences. The first is that the
L293D can run motors up to 600 ma, while the L293B can only run all the way up to 1 amp per
H-bridge. The other, and perhaps more important difference, is that the L293D has protection
diodes which shunt the current spikes produced by inductive loads (such as DC motors) when
they are turned on or off (such as during the armature contact switching or pulse-width
modulation). The L293B has no such diodes, so the user must usually add his own. An
approach used on the MIT 6.270 board is to piggyback the two types of chips: the two give
about 1.6A, and the D chip has the protection diodes.
Interfacing
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Pin Diagram of L293D
5. Introduction to AVR Series (Atmega 8/8L) Microcontroller

5.1. Features
High-performance, Low-power AtmelAVR 8-bit Microcontroller
Advanced RISC Architecture
130 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution

32 8 General Purpose Working Registers
Fully Static Operation
Up to 16MIPS Throughput at 16MHz
On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier
High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments
8Kbytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory
512Bytes EEPROM
1Kbyte Internal SRAM
Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM
Data retention: 20 years at 85C/100 years at 25C
Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits In-System
Programming by On-chip Boot Program
True Read-While-Write Operation
Programming Lock for Software Security
Peripheral Features
Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler, one Compare Mode
One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture Mode
Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
Three PWM Channels
8-channel ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package Eight Channels
10-bit Accuracy
6-channel ADC in PDIP package Six Channels 10bit Accuracy
Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface
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Programmable Serial USART

Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator
On-chip Analog Comparator
Special Microcontroller Features
Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
External and Internal Interrupt Sources
Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, and Standby
I/O and Packages
23 Programmable I/O Lines
28-lead PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad QFN/MLF
Operating Voltages
2.7V - 5.5V (ATmega8L)
4.5V - 5.5V (ATmega8)
Speed Grades
0 - 8MHz (ATmega8L)
0 - 16MHz (ATmega8)
Power Consumption at 4Mhz, 3V, 25C
Active: 3.6mA
Idle Mode: 1.0mA
Power-down Mode: 0.5A
5.2.PIN DIAGRAM
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5.3.Block Diagram
5.4.Pin Description ATmega8/8L
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VCC : Digital supply voltage. Magnitude of the voltage range between 4.5 to 5.5 V for the ATmega8 and
2.7 to 5.5 V for ATmega8L.
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GND: Ground. Zero reference digital voltage supply.

PORTB (PB7.. PB0) : PORTB is a port I / O two-way (bidirectional) 8-bit with internal pull-up resistor
can be selected. This port output buffers have symmetrical characteristics when used as a source or
sink. When used as an input, the pull-pin low externally will emit a current if the pull-up resistor is
activated it. PORTB pins will be in the condition of the tri-state when RESET is active, although the
clock is not running.
PORTC (PC5.. PC0) :PORTC is a port I / O two-way (bidirectional) 7-bit with internal pull-up resistor
activated it. PORTC pins will be in the condition of the tri-state when RESET is active, although the
PC6/RESET: If RSTDISBL Fuse programmed, PC6 then serves as a pin I / O but with different
characteristics .. PC0 to PC5. If Fuse RSTDISBL not programmed, then serves as input Reset PC6. LOW
signal on this pin with a minimum width of 1.5 microseconds will bring the microcontroller into reset
condition, although the clock is not running.
PORTD (PD7.. PD0): PORTD is a port I / O two-way (bidirectional) 8-bit with internal pull-up resistor
activated it. PORTD pins will be in the condition of the tri-state when RESET is active, although the
RESET: Reset input pin. LOW signal on this pin with a minimum width of 1.5 microseconds will bring
the microcontroller into reset condition, although the clock is not running. Signal with a width of less than
1.5 microseconds does not guarantee a Reset condition.
AVCC: AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the ADC, PC3 .. PC0, and ADC7 .. ADC6. This pin should
be connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, AVCC should be connected to
VCC through a low-pass filter to reduce noise.
Aref: Analog Reference pin for the ADC.
ADC7 - ADC6: ADC analog input. There is only on ATmega8 with TQFP and QFP packages / MLF.
6. Types of Switches
Switches are essentially binary devices: they are either completely on ("closed") or completely off
("open"). There are many different types of switches:
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7. Installation of required software applications

7.1. Installation of Code Vision AVR
Please insert the Supplied CD to your CD ROM. You will found the following Item in the CD.
Double Click on the Software Folder.
Under Software Folder, double click on the Code Vision AVR Folder, then you will find 2 folder of 32Bit & 64-Bit. So based on the type of Operating System whether it is 32-Bit or 64-Bit O.S. then install the
Code Vision AVR accordingly.
20
In
Double Click on the Setup File.
Then Follow the Steps:
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In
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In
7.2. Installation of USBASP Programmer drivers:

Please navigate to the software folder then follow the steps below:
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8. ATMEGA 8L Pin Configuration
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9. Microcontroller Board Diagram
35

User Manual - Autonomous Robotics

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Innovians Technologies

Autonomous Robotics User Manual

Robotics Study Guide

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

So lets start doing Robotics!!!

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

2. Introduction to Basic Electronics

Voltage and Current

Voltage but No Current

No Voltage and No Current

Voltage is a measure of the energy carried by the charge.

Connecting a voltmeter in parallel

Current is the rate of flow of charge.

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Understanding resistor tolerance

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Series and parallel resistors

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Capacitors are used for all sorts of neat applications, including

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

where V is the voltage across the capacitor.

How to determine the value of capacitors with printed bodies

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Example: 151K = 15 X 10 = 150pF +/- 10%

Physics of the inductor

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

This is given by:

where I is the current flowing through the inductor.

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Important ratings for diodes

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Introduction to Motor Driver

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

4.2 L293D Dual H-Bridge Motor Driver

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Pin Diagram of L293D

5. Introduction to AVR Series (Atmega 8/8L) Microcontroller

130 Powerful Instructions Most Single-clock Cycle Execution

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Programmable Serial USART

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

5.4.Pin Description ATmega8/8L

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

GND: Ground. Zero reference digital voltage supply.

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

7. Installation of required software applications

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Double Click on the Setup File.

Then Follow the Steps:

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

7.2. Installation of USBASP Programmer drivers:

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide

Autonomous Robotics Study Guide