The Ethics of Labour:

The Notion of Competitiveness

and Ethics in Hesiods Work
Konstantine Boudouris
Philosophy, University of Athens

ABSTRACT

This paper will investigate Hesiods (8th century B.C.) ethical

ideas about labour, competitiveness (rivalry) and economic
activity in connection with the state of affairs in the contemporary
world. To this effect the following concepts will be considered:
1. The socio-political and enterprising framework of Hesiods
era within which human creativity has been expressed
through labour, and how this is relevant to what is
happening today.
2. The form of economic activity in Hesiods time (and in
periods after him), and the form economic activity has
today.
3. How Hesiod understood the ethical framework through
which human creativity is expressed by work, and how this
relates to modern times.
4. The purpose of labour, and why labour as such is one of the
main constitutive principles of political society.
5. Hesiods meaning in proclaiming Justice (Dike) the supreme
ethical principle of political society and how Justice is
globally understood today.
6. Respect for and the enabling of human creativity,
industriousness, and a virtuous life, is important for the
well-being of political society, apart from individual
happiness.
7. The way in which meaning can be given to our being and a
just life through honest work, and what could this mean for
political societies of the 21st century.
What becomes clear through the analysis of Hesiods thought is
the value of poets and socio-political philosophers ideas today,
within the free and competitive society in which we live,
regardless of reasonable changes that could occur.
Phronimon, Vol 9 (2) 2008 __________________________________________________ 17

Taking this as our starting and main point, reference to the

ancient Greek thought and philosophy is of the utmost importance
for elucidation of problems of individual and public ethics.
The very beginning of the Greek culture is marked by two eminent
personalities: those of Homer and Hesiod. Of course, their importance as
poets and thinkers, as well as some of their mistakes, were recognized very
early, and Plato1 in the Republic already discusses and judges their ideas
and mentions how Homers followers consider him to be the pedagogue
and educator2 of Greeks. But, even though the importance of Hesiods
thought (which in many ways goes along with Homers) has been indicated
in ancient times, there are some contemporary researchers who consider
him to be the beginning of Greek philosophy3. Without any doubt, Hesiod is
headman of Greek naming (onomatothesia)4 and, in contrast to Homer who
represents the heroic epic poetry, he was regarded as an introducer of
didactic epic poetry, especially in his late work entitled Works and Days.
In this work, and in contrast to Theogony, he speaks about the subjects
closely connected to hard every-day life of the Greeks of his epoch,
observing them with utterly realistic, thoughtful, and philosophical judgment.
This being so, in Works and Days Hesiod expresses his views on sociopolitical and economical problems. Here, he expresses thoughts which do
not have an occasional character, but those that should rather be
understood as statements or beliefs with steady strength and validity.
Moreover, this is the reason that urges us to get involved with his ideas at
this Conference. That Hesiod himself attributed to his own ideas a broader
meaning and took them as principal directions of human socio-political life
is clear from the ideal that he adopts for the perfect, best (panariston) man.
Thus, he states:
That man is best who reasons for himself all matters,
When he has taken notice which is better in past and future;
But good also is he who obeys the man who speaks wisely;
But he who is neither wise himself nor hear another
And lay it up in his mind that man is surely useless.
(Works and Days, 293-297, transl. by D. Grene)

According to this statement, the perfect, best man is the one who reasons,
who knows of himself everything and concludes after the process of
thinking what is better, considering the past and the future. This best man
owes to reveal his thoughts to others through teaching5; and others, who are
convinced by his wise words, are, or become, virtuous men. Hesiod has the
Muses gift and he has lived through those conditions he is talking about. He
was thinking earnestly, and he is certain about what is better for men to do.
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His speech is poetic, but at the same time it is mythical, revealing and
didactical6.
The question is now: In which socio-political environment did Hesiod
live and work? Our poet lives in 8th century B.C. in Askra, a small
agricultural and stock-farming town in Boeotia, near Helicon. There, he is
an immigrant of a kind, because his father originally came from the
Euboian order to support his family. Hesiods description of his time is rather
gloomy and he places it in the fifth age, the Iron Age, which was the last
stage of decadence (if there is such a stage)7.
The preceding centuries, as well as his epoch, are marked by
migrations of population towards the places where they could find better
chances to earn a living and secure their lives in general. Without any doubt
these migrations are free, but dangerous. The agricultural way of life is
predominant in Greek inlands; it provides greater stability and security for
farmers than for others involved in trade or in the voyage of ships.
That is why Hesiod axiologically advances the agricultural work8. It
seems that he believes that involvement in both trade and maritime
enterprises, dangerousness of these works aside, could implicate people in
inferior situations if judged from the ethical point of view. The danger and
the situations that could emerge in those activities are more complicated
and, as such, are difficult to judge according to some stable criteria which
could be applied to agricultural9, stock-farming, or similar activities10.
Generally speaking, Hesiods socio-political and economical world is the
world of free settlement and transfers with strong establishment of
ownership. It is a place of production and trade of goods and a place of
free market and competitiveness, which was the case for all the Hellenic
world during ancient times.
The establishment and the development of the institution of polis, as
already pointed out in Homers work11, had started long ago even though
the procedures which internally supported the form and the quality of life of
the political society werent satisfactory cultivated and crystallized yet. So, as
we already said, there is a freedom of working and acting; there is a
freedom of settlement and trade; there is a freedom of earning and
undertaking, but the essential rules which secure these procedures havent
been completely and clearly established yet, nor assimilated by those
involved in these activities12. And, certainly, in every human action the
ethical life must have the priority against economical and practical life13. In
such a context, these freedoms as possibilities in general are significant, but
what is most important for Hesiod is the possibility for a human being to free
himself from the bonds of need and from famine through labor.
However, the economical and socio-political order, according to
Hesiod, is a kind of spontaneous order, as Hayek14 in our days noticed, and
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is, of course, governed by the logic of interest, the production of goods

through labor, and the principle of competitiveness whose dark side (i.e.
the illegitimate competitiveness)15 Hesiod does not omit to observe. But the
possibility to prescribe the rules and procedures in order to avoid the
dangerous and illegitimate competitiveness, the social injustice and
corruption, are difficult, if not impossible to attain. Thus, according to
Hesiod there is obviously a lack in this sphere and that is why it seems that
the poet ethically reflects upon the proper way of life within an open, free
and competitive socio-political and economical environment and announces
the principles which must govern this kind of political society. According to
this view, Hesiod could be interpreted as an early precursor of Adam Smith.
There are some commentators16 who tend to see Hesiods ideas as
authentic, valid, in addition to them being distinguished for their boldness
and realistic approach.
So, it seems that the main question for Hesiod is this: How should a
man live and what is the purpose of mans life as a human being in
general?17 Even though this question is not explicitly expressed by Hesiod, it
seems that his thought was preoccupied by it. In Works and Days he joins
together the mans good life with the order of things set by immortal gods
and with the rules and orders which should be kept within the political
society in order for people to prosper and flourish18.
That is why, almost from the beginning of the Works and Days after
the invocation of the Muses, he thinks that it is necessary to make a general
statement, with ontological meaning, about what stirs up the man to act and
accomplish his actions within the political society. This ontological
proposition says the following:
There is no single breed of Strife, but on earth there are two of her.
One of the two you have but to see and you will praise her at once,
The other draws only blame; the hearts of the two are different.
The one increases vile war and enmity; she is cruel.
No mortal loves her! Only under Necessity
Through designs of the Immortals do they honor her, this harsh Strife.
The other is the elder black night was her mother;
And the Sort of Cronos whose throne is on high, who lives in heaven,
Set her in earth in its roots; and for men she is far better.
This is the one that rouses even the shiftless to work;
For a man may look at another, a rich man, in haste to plow,
And to plant, set his house in good order:
And the shiftless, looking, longs for work.
So neighbor is jealous of neighbor hastening towards wealth.
This strife is good for men.
And potter has a grudge against potter, joiner against joiner,
And beggar envies beggar, and singer, singer.
(Works and Days, 11-26, transl. by D. Grene)
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In this mytho-ontological manner Hesiod emphasizes that man as such is

forced to act by powers that could be found in his very nature; he is
governed by powers expressed by two sorts of Strife. The sort of Strife is
defined by the actions of each19 which are seen as good and miserable.
According to Hesiod, man is urged to act by zeal and rivalry and by enmity
and envy as well. The first urge, according to him, is noble and it is called
Good Strife, while the second is ill and blameworthy.
If we partly leave Hesiods mythological way of expression aside, then
it seems that Hesiod recognizes that human tendency to create and
accomplish certain deeds could have good or bad content. This content is
connected with the accomplishment of deed and, finally, with purpose
(ethical or not) adopted during the action. Using contemporary terminology
we can say that what Hesiod has in mind is rivalry (healthy competitiveness)
and illegitimate competitiveness, together with all the actions connected with
embezzlement and thefts of others property which are, of course, ethically
condemnable. That there are such conditions within the political society is
unquestionable, and, indeed, Hesiod has personal experience of it.
Now, the question is:: What has happened to Hesiod? Well, he is in
dispute with his brother Perses, who, every now and then, covets and robs
their fathers property, wastes his own life, loses his job, becomes poorer
and poorer and, in the end, a beggar, asks for Hesiods help. So, Hesiods
brother steals his property in a treacherous way and bribes judges to reach
the verdict in his favor, in order to secure the property as his own.. What
could be the explanation for this kind of behavior, when we know that two
brothers have a common origin and background? What is that which makes
Hesiod an inspired poet and his brother treacherous and a thief?
It goes without saying that every man has a unique personality.
However, as much as Hesiod and his brother differ as human beings, if they
had the same structural beliefs and values then, while Perses might not
become a poet, he would surely not become a thief. Thus, Hesiod reflects
upon exactly this kind of content which can define a common standard of
necessary socio-political convictions and beliefs and, knowing and revealing
the truth, he addresses his brother, and every man, i.e. man as such. That is
why he states that human beings, acting according to the principles of Labor
and Justice, should accept genuinely, adopt willfully and naturally this
content, and settle decisively and steadily their lives. Both these principles
have in common an axiological and ontological meaning, in the sense that
the immortal Gods command the things of the world, and that the order of
this world corresponds to the deeper essence of human beings and to the
rational structure of political society.
The political society differs from the animal society, because Zeus gave
Justice (the sense what is just) to people, which is the most excellent (pollon
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21

ariste) of all goods20, since it is the only functional principle of political society.
Consequently, if the principle of Justice is violated, then the political society,
regardless of its structure, is transgressive, namely it has slipped away from the
rational order of things. This principle of Justice, according to Hesiod, is the
highest ethical principle which should rule in the political society and, as such,
the importance of Justice has an exceptional place in his work.
Using mythological but clear language, Hesiod talks about Justice.
Justice (Dike) is Zeus daughter21. She is respected and glorious, sitting on
his right side and observes what is happening in the societies of men. She
observes where some injustice has been committed22 in the world of men
and goes to her father asking him to impose proper punishment. Of course,
Zeus punishment will come anyway and the guilty ones would not escape
his punishment. So, neither bribed judges who judge on crooked trials, nor
unjust masters, nor greedy kings would escape the punishment, and, what is
even worse, their cities (poleis) would be exterminated. That is the reason
why Hesiod advises his brother to listen to the mandate of Justice and to
avoid theft, violence and hubris23.
Contrary to this, in the cities where good government exist and where
the principle of Justice prevails, people live in harmony and peace; they are
not dying of starvation; the land gives out grains aplenty; sheep bear heavy
woolen fleeces; women bear good children and, generally speaking, there is
prosperity and well-being, and the polis blossoms24.
Certainly, Hesiods conceptions of Justice are remarkable, and they
will be broadly analyzed later by Solon25, Plato, and Aristotle, but his ideas
about the principle of Labor are unsurpassable. He names this principle
command26, namely commandment, order or, as some contemporary
thinkers emphasized, this is the categorical imperative of Labor27. The
principle of Labor has ontological priority, because without it a political
society could not be established. In other words, political society is
established because of the lack of goods and overcoming of this lack
happens through labor and distribution of work. This necessarily leads,
initially, to establishment of the society and, afterwards, to political society.
This ontological priority has axiological importance as well, for work is
related to creation, to making, to craft and to producing works and goods28.
According to Hesiod, the beginning of creation and working is Good Strife
that rules mans soul, connects him with the earth (i.e. with any fertile and
productive activity), and leads him to achieve deeds.
The person who does not work and is the idlest of the idle has been
fighting against his very nature and deserves ethical condemnation.
Therefore, labor manifests the principle of creativity or, in other words,
creativity contributes to the expression of abilities and to the manifestation of
the possibilities of human being (which could be correctly understood as a
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creative and inventive being). In addition, the exercise of this activity, when
being encouraged and enhanced by Good Strife (rivalry), gives form to
analogue human ethos and leads to the worthiness of human being within
any social community. Consequently, the violation of the principle of Labor
means (and has as its consequence) the opposition of the rational order of
things in political society, and thereby the ethical contempt of human beings.
Thus, for Hesiod, Labor is the utmost commandment. Here, we should
praise his originality and boldness, for he emphasizes the value of labor,
and any kind of work (namely, to be a farmer, a cattle breeder, a trader, a
tavern-keeper, a potter, a carpenter, a singer, etc.), as such. It seems that
this view is opposite to the ideas of some other thinkers who scorned manual
work. So contrary to this, Hesiod emphasizes that In work there is no
shame; shame is in idleness (Works and Days, 311), and this is the reason
why he gives an advice to his brother, saying:
But, Perses, do you remember all that I urge and work,
Work Perses, stock of Zeus, that hunger may hate you,
And Demeter love you, fair-garlanded, revered,
And fill your granary with grain for livelihood.
For the man who wont work, you notice, has hunger as constant companion.
The gods are angry with such a man, and men too, when he lives
Without working, in temper like stingless drones
Who eat, but wont work, wearing out the fruit of the bees labor;
Let it be dear to you to arrange your work in due measure
That your granaries may be filled with seasonable grain.
It is from the work they do that men become flockmasters
And rich, and, as they work, they are much dearer to the immortals;
So shall you be to mortals, too, for surely they hate the unworking.
(Works and Days, 298-310, transl. by D. Grene)

It is important to point out that Hesiod came to this idea after a very
thorough examination, as he said himself, of what is good for man. He does
not simply put forth some untested, ordinary thoughts, but he scrutinized
and judged things as a philosopher of human affairs. He revealed the truth
about rational order of things of the world and of political society and, thus,
he is able to come out with well-grounded formulations which he ought to
say to others, since that is the role of any responsible socio-political poet
and philosopher within the community.
Addressing his brother, and every other man for that matter, Hesiod
says in good will that, as it seems, the road to Goodness is a difficult one;
the gods themselves did not reveal to people how to achieve their goals or
how to easily satisfy their needs:
What I say to you, great fool Perses, is said from good will.
Badness is there and, easily, for crowds to choose it;
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But for Goodness the gods immortal have placed sweat in its way.
The road is long and sheer that leads to it, and rough
At first; but when you are come to the high point, then thereafter
It is easy but still it is hard enough.
(Works and Days, 286-292, transl. by D. Grene)

That is why the only right way is work. Thus, I urge work. This is a
commandment and this is the demand to consciousness of every human
being who lives within the political society: .
So, labor or work is the only possibility for a human being to liberate
himself from the need of survival, to escape from the chains of poverty, and
to win his life. Motivated by the inner urge for survival and for distinction,
and by following the Good Strife (i.e. by being engaged in the noble battle,
or legitimate competitiveness) human beings are turning to good deeds
which aim at the principle of Justice.
But human beings, as free and responsible beings, could follow the
Bad Strife and turn to bad deeds, to enmity, to war, to stealing, and they can
try to get away from famine through illegal competitiveness, injustice and
theft. Undoubtedly, this possibility exists and, indeed, sometimes has been
adopted by the powerful (who identify their authority and the power which
stems from it with justice29) as the myth of the hawk and nightingale clearly
shows. But this view is not in accordance with the rational order of things of
the political society which should be steadily focused on the principle of
Justice, on rivalry (healthy competitiveness) and on honest work through
which human being frees itself from the pressure of satisfaction of primary
needs.
Hesiod believes that gods did not reveal to human beings the means
of overcoming the problems, but they, according to Xenophanes, through a
search of many years, find what is best for them. But this search demands
struggle and laboriousness and, in consequence, involvement in research
and competitive situations which are very complicated nowadays because of
the form of contemporary political society.
Through honest work the human being earns for his life. He increases
the production of goods. Again, through saving and accumulation of goods
he acquires wealth and goodness, virtue, excellence within the political
society, without turning himself to theft, violence or usurpation of someone
elses property.
Of course, this could take place only when human beings carefully
consider the ways for covering their needs and the increase of productivity.
For example, Hesiod himself gives advice to farmers on how to do every
thing in the right season, how to preserve and take care of the means of
production (such as their plows or livestock) and how to think rationally and
economically in general, in order to settle their homes in good manner. So,
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while it seems that work may be considered as a kind of divine curse

because the gods wanted to punish Prometheus slyness for stealing the fire,
now we can see that Labor, as Hesiod conceives it, combined with Justice,
becomes a eulogy for human beings, for the production of divine goods.
Thus, work is directly connected to morality, for it is something accordant
with creative human nature; in other words, it is something good as such
and independent of the economic status of a person. Similarly, it is related
to morality if we judge it by the results of actions it prevents immoral acts,
theft and jealousy, for example. In addition, work and its fruits offer
autonomy, redemption from needs and beggary, and create wealth that
gives the ease to do good to others, offering to the doer the moral
satisfaction30.
In our global society we also accept the principles of freedom and
competitiveness as basic principles and, of course, we question the
relationship between the production of goods and justice. The existing
conception is that, without the principle of Justice, any production using
technical means (which are far away from Hesiods plow) could not lead to
individual and social welfare within the context of certain political society.
In Hesiod the foundation of society relies on work, while today it relies
on production and distribution of produced goods. Essentially, work still
remains a basic parameter, only the means of production have changed.
For Hesiod, Justice is universal, because she is a Goddess and, in addition,
represents a broader socio-political principle. From Plato and after, Justice
would be closely connected to soul and consciousness. Plato showed the
genuineness and the purity of this sense of Justice in The Republic in the
well-known myth of Gyges. Of course, Justice (in spite of its grades) is still a
universal value and it did not lose its effect.
This is something which philosophers like Hesiod know and that is why
anybody who did not betray, willfully or not, the philosophers job would
agree with him that work has its own ethos. So, work as goodness or as
universal characteristic and structural condition of any society becomes valid
only in direct connection to Justice which could not only have a national or
international dimension, but also a universal one.
It is not surprising that Hesiods imperatives: You listen to Justice
and do not foster violence31, and Do remember all that I urge work32,
expressed already in 8th century B.C., could be important even today.
What we should recognize today is the special characteristic of creative
man that is related to what we call the ethos of work. We should see work
not only as a value but as something closely intertwined with our life and our
relationship with other human beings. It could help us to understand our
relationship with other living beings of our planet as well. That is why the
connection of Labor and Justice should be an internal one. Consequently,
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when we are talking about the ethics of work or labor, we can only see it
within the complex network of all the notions that establish our ethical world.

1. Xenophanes criticism of Homer and Hesiod is well known. See also Platos views on
Homer and Hesiod in the second and the third book of The Republic. For Homer, see
also book ten (600a9-601a2 and 606o1-4).
2. Plato says that encomiasts of Homer recognize that this poet has been the educator
of Hellas, and that for the conduct and refinement of human life he is worthy of our study
and devotion (Republic, 606e1-4).
3. See: O. Gigon Der Ursprung der grieschischen Philosophie. Vom Hesiod bis
Parmenides, Basel, 1945.
4. The great list of Greek names is present in Hesiods works. Many of those names
are used in Greece even today, such as Kymothoe, Nireus, and some of them, like
Eudora (the name of the well-known software), are used internationally.
5. It is obvious that Hesiod, being a poet, sees himself as a paradigm of the best man
and thats why he speaks, teaches and reveals his ideas about the socio-political life.
Compare: P. Patriarchea, The Categorical Imperative of Labor according to Hesiod and
Its Climax in Platos Works, Athens, 1969, pp. 30-32 and 85-87. Moreover, that Hesiod
as a poet understands his mission as a human being who knows the true justice and that
he feels he owes to reveal it, is clear from this: For whoever knows the right and is ready
to speak it, far-seeing Zeus gives him prosperity (Works and Days, 280-281, transl. by
Hugh G. Evelyn-White).
6. For the responsible role of poets in the ancient Greek thought which is mostly
understood as the truth concerning mortals and which must be revealed, see Joanne
Waugh, Poetry, Philosophy and Truth in K. Boudouris (ed.), Greek Philosophy and
Epistemology, Vol. II, Ionia Publications, Athens, 2001, p. 189.
7. Compare Works and Days (109-126) where he describes in intense and negative
way the peoples life and the state of society.
8. Thus, Hesiods views are in agreement with those of precapitalistic society and
economics and that is why they are timely and have great importance. For this see: Ch.
Baloglou, The Beginnings of Economic Science in Hesiod Works, in: Year-Book of
Boeotian Studies, Vol. I, Athens, 2001, p. 189.
9. The agricultural way of life, by its nature conservative, turns away from the dangers
of maritime enterprises.
10. In Works and Days Hesiod speaks of many professions: farmers, stock-farmers,
craftsmen, potters, blacksmiths, traders, sailors, etc.
11. See: K. Boudouris, Lectures in Political Philosophy, Athens, 1984, pp. 22-34.
12. Besides, this happens in every political society, for regulative arrangements are
created because of the new situations and almost never before them. That is the reason
why Hesiod sees, as the very first pillar of community (economic life included), the ethical
life which is based on home (oikos) (See: Ch. Baloglou , The Ancient Greeks About
Economical Dangers and Its Coverings, PAA, 2003, Vol. 78, p. 150) and is symbolized
by the demand for the rule of Justice (Dikaiosyne).
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13. For this reason the first part of Works and Days is the most important, because it
exalts the ethical life (for that matter see P. Mavrommatis, Hesiods Works and Days:
Moral or Practical Teaching?, available on Internet at http://64.223.183.104/Hesiod,
Works and Days. Pdf Fall 2004).
14. Compare Hayeks notion of spontaneous order which governs free and open
society, in A. Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty, Vol II, Routledge and Keagan Paul
1976, pp. 33, 55.
15. According to Hesiod the illegitimate competitiveness is destructive. Hesiod says So,
after all, there was not one kind of Strife alone, but all over the earth there are two. As
for the one, a man would praise her when he came to understand her; but the other is
blameworthy: and they are wholly different in nature. For one fosters evil war and battle,
being cruel: her no man loves; but perforce, through the will of the deathless gods, men
pay harsh Strife her honour due.
16. For example see A. Kanellopoulos, Contemporary Economical Thoughts of Ancient
Greeks, Livanis, Vol. I, Athens 1996, pp. 144-148 and Ch. Baloglou, The Beginnings of
Economic Science in Hesiod Works, in: Year-book of Boeotian Studies, Vol. I, Athens
2001, p. 182.
17. That the question of the purpose of human life makes sense contrary to some
thinkers is shown by R. Polansky in his recent proceeding during the 19th International
Conference in Philosophy, Samos, 2007.
18. See P. Patriarchea, ibid., pp. 51-52.
19. This is the reason why, later on, Heraclitus will talk about one and only power, the
Strife, which was the moving cause of all things and all states and which he saw as
something just and necessary.
20. See these important Hesiods verses (Works and Days, 274-280, transl. by D.
Grene):
Perses, do you lay up these things in your mind
And listen to Justice, forgetting entirely violence.
For this is the Rule for men, that the son of Cronos has given
For the fish and the beasts and the winged birds,
That they should devour one another, for they have no Justice among them
But to man he has given Justice and she proves to be far the best.
21. See: Works and Days 256-257: And there is virgin Justice, the daughter of Zeus,
who is honored and reverenced among gods who dwell on Olympus (Transl. By H.G.
Evelyn White).
22. Ibid., 219.
23. Compare: Works and Days 213.
24. Hesiod says, verses 225-237 (transl. by D. Grene):
But those who give straight decisions to strangers and citizens
And in no way transgress the limits of Justice
Their city blooms and the folk blossom in it.
Peace, that rears the young men, is in their land, nor against them does
Loud-voices Zeus set savage war as witness of his judgment, nor ever does
Famine attend them, those men that deal in straight justice,
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Nor yet infatuate blindness; at their feasts

They eat their lands crops, on which they spent their care.
For them the land gives a generous crop; in the mountains the top of the oak tree
Bears acorns, and its middle, the honey bees.
Their wooly sheep are weighted down with heavy fleeces.
Their women give birth to children like their parents.
With all good things, utterly, they prosper, nor do they voyage on ships but
The grain-giving earth yields them its fruits.
25. Solon remarks that the important problem is the assembling of Justice with violence.
For this matter see: K. Boudouris, ibid., p. 77.
26. Compare Works and Days, 298. The term command does not simply mean urge,
but order, commandment, demand.
27. See P. Patriarchea, ibid., pp. 39, 40-42.
28. From the nature of things, whether we have in mind human nature or the nature of
political society, it is clear that Hesiod introduces the notion of needful purpose. It seems
that Greek thinkers are not concerned about the existence of the alleged gap between
Being (einai) and Ought (deon). However, we could say, as the problem of two kinds of
Strife shows, that from the beginning they distinguish Being from Ought and good from
bad. For Hesiod, who thinks in a rather mythological way, these do not have a common
root.
29. This is clearly shown in the myth of hawk and nightingale.
30. Hesiod says (Works and Days, Verses 357-358, transl. D. Grene):
A man who gives ungrudgingly is glad
At heart, rejoicing in his gift.
31. Ibid., 213.
32. Ibid., 298-299.

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