B.

Adsorption - the adhesion of atoms, ions, or

molecules from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a
surface.
Adsorption occurs in a series of three steps:
1. Diffusion to adsorbent surface
2. Migration into pores of adsorbent
3. Monolayer build up of adsorbate
Adsorption Forces
1. Physical
molecule is held to the solid surface by
weak forces of intermolecular cohesion
Readily reversible process
2. Chemical
a chemical bond is formed between the gas
molecule and adsorbent
Not easily reversed
Adsorber systems must have the following:

3. Synthetic Polymers
formed by crosslinking long chain
polymers that have a variety of
functional groups.
have very high adsorption capacities for
selected organic compounds, and they
can be desorbed more rapidly than
activated carbon adsorbents.

can be desorbed with hot air, hot

nitrogen, steam, indirect contact
heating, and microwaves.
main applications of this type of
adsorbent are the control of organic
compounds such as ketones, aldehydes,
and reactive monomers
Polymeric adsorbents - used for gas streams
containing high water vapor concentrations
(>50% relative humidity) because they are less
prone to adsorb water vapor than conventional
activated carbon adsorbents
4. Activated Alumina (Aluminum Oxides)

1. Multiple, fixed beds of adsorbent

2. Fluidized bed contactors with separate
desorption vessels
3. Rotary bed adsorbents that cycle continuously
between adsorption and desorption operations
A. Adsorbent - a bed or layer of highly porous
material where vapor phase compounds
(adsorbate) in the gas stream pass through
The most common types of adsorbents are the
following:
1. Activated Carbon
can be produced from a variety of raw
materials such as wood, coal, coconut,
nutshells, and petroleum-based
products.
used to control emissions of a wide
variety of organic solvents and toxic
gases.
2. Zeolites (Molecular sieves)
have a crystalline structure. The pores
are uniform in diameter.
can be used to capture or separate
gases on the basis of molecular size and
shape.
Its main uses have been to remove
moisture from exhaust streams, to
separate hydrocarbons in refining
processes, and to remove nitrogen
oxides compounds from air pollution
sources.

manufactured by heating alumina in an

inert atmosphere to produce a porous
aluminum oxide pellet.
Aluminum oxides are used primarily for
drying gases, especially under high
pressures, and as support material in
catalytic reactions.

The characteristics of the adsorbents

mentioned are summarized below:
B. Adsorption Systems
1. Nongenerative Adsorption Systems

bed areas are sized to control the air

flow through them from 20 to 60 ft/min
(6 to 18 m/min).
used mainly as air purification devices
for small air flow streams such as offices
and laboratory exhausts.

Two types of nongenerative adsorption

system:

Thin-bed adsorbers - have granules of

activated carbon retained by porous
support material, usually perforated
sheet metal.
Thick bed nonregenerative systems one system that can be used is
essentially a 55-gallon drum. The
bottom is filled with gravel to support a
bed of activated carbon weighing
approximately 150 lbm (70 kg). These
units are used to treat small flow rates
from laboratory hoods, chemical storage
tank vents, or chemical reactors.

2. Regenerative Adsorption Systems

can be categorized as fixed, moving, or
fluidized beds, depending on the
manner in which the vapor stream and
adsorbent are brought into contact.
used to control a variety of organic
vapors and are often regenerated by
low-pressure steam.
Regenerative fixed carbon beds are
usually from 1 to 4 ft (0.3 to 1.2 m)
thick.
Moving bed systems
can use a carbon bed more effectively
than a fixed-bed system
the solvent-laden air stream passes only
through the unsaturated portion of the
carbon bed, reducing the distance the
air stream travels through the bed;
therefore, the static pressure drop is
low.
One type of moving bed adsorber is the
rotary wheel zeolite adsorber. The
zeolite adsorbent is mounted in a
vertical oriented wheel that rotates at a
rate of approximately five revolutions
per hour. Three quarters of the wheel
are in adsorption service while one
quarter is being desorbed using hot air.
Rotary carbon fiber adsorber - uses activated
carbon fiber paper prepared in a corrugated
honeycomb arrangement. The system is
attractive for the pretreatment of dilute
solvent-laden air streams prior to incineration.
Fluidized bed - uses the motion of the solventladen air stream to entrain adsorbent material
and thereby facilitate good gas-adsorbent
contact. It also provides continuous operation
and more efficient utilization of the adsorbent.
beaded activated carbon - minimizes
attrition loss. The beaded shape is inherently

stronger and has better fluidity properties than

granular carbon.
C. Oxidation - used to destroy organic
compounds classified as volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and/or air toxic compounds.
All organic compounds can be oxidized to form
carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Oxidizers
Oxidation processes have two ways:
1. High temperature, gas phase oxidation
process
a.
b.
c.
d.

Recuperative Thermal Oxidizers

Regenerative Thermal Oxidizers
Boilers
Flares

Recuperator - a tubular or plate heat

exchanger where heat is transferred
through the metal surface
2. Catalytic Oxidation Systems
Catalyst - a substance that accelerates a
chemical reaction without undergoing a
change itself. In catalytic oxidation, a waste
gas is passed through a layer of catalyst
known as the bed.
D. Condensation - the change of the
physical state from gas phase into liquid phase.
The concentration of organic compounds (VOC and
air toxic compounds) in a gas stream can be
reduced by this process.
Condensers
1. Conventional condensers - simple,
relatively inexpensive devices that normally use
water or air to cool and condense a vapor stream.
Two basic categories:

Direct contact condensers - simple

devices such as spray towers or water
jet ejectors. These devices bring the
coolant, usually water, into direct
contact with the vapors.
Surface condensers - usually in the
form of shell-and-tube heat
exchangers. These devices consist of a
circular or oval cylindrical shell into
which the vapor stream flows.

2. Refrigeration and Cryogenic Systems

a. Refrigeration Systems - achieve low

operating temperatures by using coolants and
compressors.
b. Cryogenic Systems - use liquefied gases
such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide to cool the
waste gas streams to temperatures
approaching the freezing point of the
solvents..
Three general types of cryogenic
systems:

indirect contact- single heat

exchangers
indirect contact- dual heat
exchangers
direct contact

pollution

into

two

Inhalable coarse particles

found near roadways and dusty
industries,
larger than 2.5 micrometers and
smaller than 10 micrometers in
diameter
Coarse Particles (PM10)

What
they
are

How
theyre
made

smoke, dirt and

dust
from factories,
farming, and
roads

Fine Particles (PM2.5)

toxic organic
compounds

heavy metals

mold, spores, and

pollen
crushing and
grinding rocks
and soil
then blown by
wind

Fine particles
found in smoke and haze
2.5 micrometers in diameter and
smaller
These are called PM2.5
can be directly emitted from sources
such as forest fires, or they can form
when gases emitted from power
plants, industries and automobiles
react in the air.

A variety of particulate removal technologies, with

different physical and economic characteristics,
are available.

Particulate matter - also known as particle

pollution or PM, is a complex mixture of extremely
small particles and liquid droplets.
particle

about 25 to 100 times thinner than a

human hair).
These are called PM10
cause less severe health effects

a. Approaches to Emission Control

Particulate Emission Control

Technologies

EPA groups
categories:

driving
automobiles

burning plants
(brush fires
and forest
fires or yard
waste)

smelting
(purifying)
and
processing
metals

Inertial or impingement separators

rely on the inertial properties of the
particles to separate them from the carrier
gas stream

primarily used for the collection of

medium-size and coarse particles.
Cyclones - low-cost, low-maintenance centrifugal
collectors that are typically used to remove
particulates in the size range of 10100 microns
(mm). Cyclones are therefore often used as a
primary
stage
before
other
PM
removal
mechanisms.
Filters and dust collectors (baghouses)
collect dust by passing flue gases through a
fabric that acts as a filter.
The most commonly used is the bag filter,
or baghouse
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)
remove particles by using an electrostatic
field to attract the particles onto the
electrodes
efficient in collecting fine particulates and
can also capture trace emissions of some
toxic metals with an efficiency of 99%
ESPs have been used for the recovery of
process materials such as cement, as well
as for pollution control.
Wet scrubbers
rely on a liquid spray to remove dust
particles from a gas stream.
primarily
used
to
remove
gaseous
emissions, with particulate control a
secondary function.

The major types are venturi scrubbers, jet

(fume) scrubbers, and spray towers or
chambers. Venturi scrubbers consume large
quantities of scrubbing liquid (such as
water) and electric power and incur high
pressure drops.
Jet or fume scrubbers - rely on the kinetic energy
of the liquid stream. The typical removal efficiency
of a jet or fume scrubber (for particles 10 mm or
less) is lower than that of a venturi scrubber.
Spray towers - can handle larger gas flows with
minimal pressure drop and are therefore often
used as precoolers.
1. Inertial
or
separators

impingement

Cyclones and Multi-Cyclones

Cyclone - a popular, economical, and effective
means of controlling particulates
- reasonably efficient for large particle
collection, and are widely used as the first stage of
dust removal.
Cyclones are sized on the basis of desired
centrifugal acceleration. Consider a particle
moving radially, from the central axis of the
cyclone to the outside wall. The velocity of this
movement, assuming laminar flow and spherical
particles, is

( s ) r 2 d 2
18
v R=

The centrifugal acceleration is equal to the

square of the tangential velocity divided by the
radius, or

r 2=

2
tan

Substituting for

r 2 in first equation,

2
( s ) d 2 v tan
18
r
v R =
However,

( s ) d 2 v
=
18
g

where v is the settling or gravitational

velocity, so that
2

v v tan
v R=
g r
The separation factor S for a cyclone is
defined as

v R v 2tan
S= =
g
rg

Where

v R = radial velocity (in m/s ) ,

s

density

of

particle

(in

kg/m3),

P=

= density of air (in kg/m3),

= radial distance (in m),

The pressure drop through a cyclone can be

calculated by an empirical relationship

= rotational velocity (in rads),

= particle diameter (in m), and

= viscosity of air (in kg/m-s).

3950 K Q2 P
T

where

= pressure drop, in meters of water,

3

Q = m /s of gas,
P = absolute pressure (in atm),

= gas density (in kg/m3),

T = temperature (in K), and

K = proportionality factor, a function of

cyclone diameter.
Table 5.1. Values of K for Calculating Cyclone
Pressure Drop.

H = height of the inlet (in m),

L1 = length of cylinder (in m), and
L2 = length of cone (in m).
2.
Filters
(baghouses)

Typical pressure drops in cyclones are

between 1 and 8 in. of water.
The cut diameter is

2 N vi ( s)
9 b

d c =

b = cyclone inlet width (in m),

N = effective number of outer turns in
cyclone (usually about four),
vi = inlet gas velocity (in m/s ) ,

= particle density (in kg/m3), and

= gas density (in kg/m3), usually

collectors

Fabric filters - (also commonly referred to as bag

houses) used for controlling particulate matter
and operate like a vacuum cleaner.
sparklers - large burning particles of fly ash

s .
turns

These droplets collect particles by using

one or more of several collection mechanisms:
Impaction

Impaction
is
the
predominant
collection mechanism for scrubbers
having gas stream velocities greater
than 0.3 m/s (1 ft/s)
dust particles will tend to follow the
streamlines of the exhaust stream.
Impaction increases as the diameter
of the particle increases and as the
relative

can

also

be

velocity between the particle and

droplets increases.
Impaction also increases as the
size of the liquid droplet decreases
because the presence of more
droplets within the vessel increases
the probability that particles will
impact on the droplets.

Diffusion

dust

Droplets are produced by several methods:

1. Injecting liquid at high pressure through
specially designed nozzles
2. Aspirating the particle-laden gas stream
through a liquid pool
3. Submerging a whirling rotor in a liquid
pool.

= gas viscosity (in kg/m-h),

of

and

Wet Scrubbers - capture relatively small dust

particles with large liquid droplets

Where

The number
approximated as

( 2 L2L1 )
H

where

Cyclone diameter (in.)

29
16
8
4

negligible compared to

N=

diffusion is the primary collection

mechanism in wet scrubbers for
particles smaller than 0.1 m.

The rate of diffusion depends on the

following:
1. The relative velocity between
particle and droplet
2. The particle diameter
3. The liquid-droplet diameter.

the

For both impaction and diffusion,

collection efficiency increases with
an increase in relative velocity
(liquid- or gas-pressure input) and
a decrease in liquid-droplet size.
However, collection by diffusion
increases as particle size
decreases. This mechanism
enables certain scrubbers to
effectively
remove the very tiny particles (less
than 0.1 m).

Other collection mechanisms

Electrostatic attraction - particles are
captured by first inducing a charge on them.
Then, the charged particles are either attracted
to each other, forming larger, easier-to-collect
particles, or they are collected on a surface.

some types of dust cannot be separated. In some

venturis it is possible to vary the width of the
throat section, thus allowing the separator to be
adjusted for varying flow volumes thus retaining
a high yield.
An L/G ratio of 5 to 13 m per 1 000 Nm can be
used as a guideline figure.
Efficiency
Venturi scrubbers have a high yield (70 to 99%).
Advantages and disadvantages
For particulate control, wet scrubbers (also
referred to as wet collectors) are evaluated
against fabric filters and electrostatic
precipitators (ESPs).

Condensation of water vapor on particles

promotes collection by adding mass to the
particles. Other mechanisms such as gravity,
centrifugal force, and direct interception slightly
affect particle collection.

Some advantages of wet scrubbers over these

devices are as follows:

Wet scrubbers have the ability to handle

high temperatures and moisture.

Removed components
Dust, particles: fine, sticky, hygroscopic
Inorganic gaseous component

In wet scrubbers, flue gases are cooled,

resulting in smaller overall size of equipment.

Wet scrubbers can remove both gases and

particulate matter.

Wet
scrubbers
neutralize corrosive gases.

Venturi scrubber (a.k.a. Vortex or

Cyclone Scrubber) - consists of a
converging section, a throat (the narrowest
part of the venture tube) and a diffuser. The
dust/gas mix flows through the venturi tube
and reaches top speed in the throat section.
Thereafter, the mixture passes into the
diffuser where the speed drops again. Liquid
is added to the gas flow either in the throat
section or prior to it. Intensive mixing takes
place between the gas and the liquid in the
throat section of the venture tube. Due to the
high speed realised by the gas and liquid,
water is released in fine water droplets.
The venturi scrubber itself has a low
volume. The dimensions of the installation are
primarily determined by the droplet separator,
which can be a few times larger than the
scrubber.
Venturi scrubbers can be used to remove
small particles (< 1 m) from a gas stream.
However, they can also be used for larger
particles, though energy use is relatively high in
such cases. Even at very high pressure drops,

can

Some disadvantages of wet scrubbers include

corrosion, the need for entrainment separation or
mist removal to obtain high efficiencies and the
need for treatment or reuse of spent liquid.
Wet scrubbers have been used in a variety of
industries
such
as acid
plants, fertilizer plants, steel mills, asphalt plants,
and large power plants.

Relative advantages and disadvantages of wet scrubbers compared to other control devices
Advantages

Small space requirements: Scrubbers reduce the

temperature and volume of the unsaturated exhaust
stream. Therefore, vessel sizes, including fans and
ducts downstream, are smaller than those of other
control devices. Smaller sizes result in lower capital
costs and more flexibility in site location of the
scrubber.

No secondary dust sources: Once particulate

matter is collected, it cannot escape from hoppers or
during transport.

Disadvantages

Corrosion problems: Water and

dissolved pollutants can form highly
corrosive acid solutions. Proper
construction materials are very
important. Also, wet-dry interface areas
can result in corrosion.

High power requirements: High

collection efficiencies for particulate
matter are attainable only at high
pressure drops, resulting in high
operating costs.

Handles high-temperature, high-humidity gas

streams: No temperature limits or condensation
problems can occur as in baghouses or ESPs.

Water-disposal problems: Settling

ponds or sludge clarifiers may be needed
to meet waste-water regulations.

Minimal fire and explosion hazards: Various dry

dusts are flammable. Using water eliminates the
possibility of explosions.

Difficult product recovery: Dewatering

and drying of scrubber sludge make
recovery of any dust for reuse very
expensive and difficult.

Ability to collect both gases and particulate matter.

Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)

a particle control device that

employs electric fields to separate
particles from the gas stream on to
collector plates from where they
can be removed.
The ESP has two components: the
charging and collecting sections. In the charging
section, the PM in the flue gases pass by an
ionizer that imparts a positive electric charge to
PM. The positively charged PM is collected on
negatively charged plates in the collecting
section, thereby removing PM from the flue
gases. At periodic intervals, the particles from the
negatively charged plates are removed by
rappers or hammers or vibrators, depending on
the design, and collected into the bottom hopper
for removal.

widely used to trap fine particulate

matter in applications where a
large amount of gas needs
treatment and where use of a wet
scrubber is not appropriate. In an
electrostatic precipitator, particles
are removed when the duty gas
stream passes across high-voltage

wires, usually carrying

negative DC voltage.

large