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Xerox University Microfilms


300 North Z eeb R oad
Ann Arbor, M ichigan 48106

7 3-31,301
BEDE, John J e h a n g i r , 1940THE ARABS IN SIND, 712-1026 A.D.
U n iv e r s i t y o f U tah , P h .D ., 1973
H i s to r y , m edieval

University Microfilms, A XEROXC om pany, Ann Arbor, Michigan

Copyright 1973

John Jehangir Bede

A ll r ig h t s reserved

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.

THE ARABS IN
SIND, 712 - 1026 A.D.

by
Jo hn J e h a n g i r Bede

A d i s s e r t a t i o n s u b m itte d t o t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f U tah in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts
f o r t h e d e g re e o f

D o cto r o f P h ilo s o p h y

D epartm ent o f H i s t o r y
U n i v e r s i t y o f Utah
August 1973

T h is d i s s e r t a t i o n Cor th e
Doctor of Philosophy Degree

by
John J e h a n g i r Bede
has been approved
J u l y 1973

/Q f/K d
Chairman,

S u p e r v is o rI
y Committee
*

Member

Memb e r

Member

Member

Chairman, Mn rr D ooartn ien t

in. '"xkMu.i-dr&'fr'W'..

Dean o f tine G rad uate School

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am d eep ly in d e b te d t o Dr. Aziz S. A ti y a , D is tin g u is h e d


P r o f e s s o r o f H is to r y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f U tah, without*whose i n t e r e s t ,
encouragement and u n r e l e n t i n g g u id a n c e , t h i s r e s e a r c h could n ev er
have been com pleted.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

C h a p te r
I.
II.

INTRODUCTION.............................................................

THE SOURCES........................................................................................................7
H i s t o r i c a l .......................................................................................
G e o g ra p h ic a l...............................

III.

7
15

INDIA ON THE EVE OF THE ARAB INVASION.......................................... 20


K a s h m i r ................................................................................................. 21
E a s t e r n A f g h a n is ta n and P unjab ................... . . . .
26
S i n d . ...................................................................................................... 34
R a jp u ta n a and G u j a r a t ..............................................................
44

IV.

IMPERIAL EXPANSION:

CAUSES AND POTENTIAL................................52

Arab A rt o f W a r ............................................................................... 59
I n d i a n A rt o f W a r ...........................................................................71
V.

ARAB EXPEDITIONS AGAINST INDIA:


G57 A.D. 715 A. D................................................................................................................ 83
P hase I : Naval O p e r a t io n s A g a in s t t h e C o a s ta l
C i t i e s o f I n d i a 637
A.I j . - 638 A . D . .................................83
P h ase I I : M i l i t a r y O p e r a t i o n s A g a in s t
S i j i s t a n , Z a b u lis ta n
and Makran ..................................... 86
The C onquest o f S in d 711-715 A.D........................................... 94

V I.

ARAB ADMINISTRATION IN SINT).............................................................. 117


I s l a m i c I n s t i t u t i o n s ............................................................ 117
Arab A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ....................................................................134

V II.

WAR AND POLITICS IN SIND TO THE YEAR 1020 A.D.................... 156


A b b a ssid A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 750-871 A.D............................. 165
In d e p e n d e n t D y n a s tie s t o 1026 A.D.................................... 171

C h a p te r
V III.

COMMERCE A.\D CULTURE IN S I N D ......................................................... 183


Commerce............................................................................................183
...................................................^05
C u l t u r a l A chievem ents

IX.

CONCLUSION

APPENDIX I .

.............................................................................................223

HIIJEN TSIANG'S ACCOUNT OF SIND


AND MULTAN........................................................................................ 229
S in-T u ( S i n d h ) .................................................................229
M u - l o - s a n - p u - l u (M u lta n ).......................................... 231

APPENDIX t l :

LETTERS OF YUSUF IBN AL-HAJJAJ TO MUHAMMAD


IBN AL-QASIM, ARAB COMMANDER, IN S I N D ........................ 233

APPENDIX I I I :

AL-SHEIKH ABU ISHAQ AL-FARISI


ALISTAKHRI1S ACCOUNT OF SIND, 951 A.D.
TAKEN FROM HIS BOOK ENTITLED KITAB1UL
AQALIM............................................................................................. 235

APPENDIX IV:

IBN HAUQAL'S MAP OF SIND.......................................................... 246

APPENDIX V:

LETTER OF THE FATIMID CALIPH AL-MU'IZZ TO


HAL.AM IBN SHAIBAN, CHIEF ISMA'ILIAN DA11
IN SIND DATED 354 A.H. (965 A . D . ) ................................. 247

APPENDIX VI:

REFERENCES TO ARABS IN SIND IN SANSKRIT


INSCRIPTIONS................................................................................... 248

APPENDIX V I I:

ARAB GOVERNORS OF SIND WITH KNOWN DATES..................... 250

BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................... 252
VITA.......................................................................................................................................... 269

L i s t o f Maps
Sind and V i c i n i t y , 630-1020 A.D. . . .

ABSTRACT
In 712 A.D. an Arab f o r c e from i t s b a s e s i n S h i r a z i n s o u th e r n
P e r s i a advanced upon t h e kingdom o f S in d in p r e s e n t - d a y P a k i s t a n and
w i t h i n t h e e n s u in g t h r e e y e a r s o v e r r a n t h e e n t i r e a r e a from Daybul i n
t h e s o u th t o M ultan i n t h e n o r t h .

F or the. n e x t t h i r t y - f i v e y e a r s S ind

formed a p a r t o f t h e Umayyad C a l i p h a t e , w h ile from 750 A.D. t o 871 A.D.


t h e A bb asids e x e r c i s e d a

somewhat p r e c a r i o u s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e r e g i o n .

The b r i e f S a f f a r i d i n t e r r e g n u m l a s t i n g from 871 t o 900 A.D. s u b j e c t e d


S ind t o t h e c o n t r o l o f P e r s i a .

The f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r y w i t n e s s e d t h e

emergence o f l o c a l Arab d y n a s t i e s e s t a b l i s h e d a t M ultan i n t h e n o r t h


and a t Mansura i n t h e s o u th .

As e a r l y a? 963 A.D. S in d was t h r e a t e n e d

by t h e r i s i n g power o f t h e G haznavid T u r k s , b u t i t was n o t u n t i l t h e


b e g in n in g o f t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y t h a t t h i s t h r e a t assumed menacing
p ro p o rtio n s.

By 1026 A.D. M ultan and Mansura had b een s u c c e s s f u l l y

i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e r a p i d l y ex p an d in g G haznavid e m p ire .

Thus ended

t h e Arab a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e lo w er In d u s v a l l e y w hich had en d u red w ith


v a ry in g deg rees o f su ccess f o r n e a r ly th r e e c e n t u r i e s .
M edieval h i s t o r i a n s , A rabs and P e r s i a n s a l i k e , have te n d e d t o
view t h e a n n e x a tio n o f S in d i n p u r e l y p u n i t i v e te r m s - -A r a b com m ercial
v e s s e l s on t h e i r way from C eylon to t h e P e r s i a n G u lf h a v in g f a l l e n
v i c t i m s t o p i r a t i c a l a c t i o n from S in d .

S u b se q u e n t h i s t o r i a n s , on t h e

w h o le, hav e a g r e e d w i th t h i s p o i n t o f view .

However, t h i s c l i m a t e o f

o p in io n f a i l s t o convey a b a l a n c e d a s s e s s m e n t .

Behind t h e S ind e p is o d e l a y l a r g e r i s s u e s , b a s i c a l l y economic


i n sco p e.

The c a l i p h a t e ' s f i n a n c i a l s t r u c t u r e , s u b je c te d t o t h e r e c e n t

l y concluded c i v i l w ar, was i n an e m b a rra s sin g s t a t e .

The r i c h lands

o f S in d , co m p risin g t h e low er Indus v a l l e y w ith i t s t h r i v i n g t r a d e


c e n t e r s e x c i t e d t h e im a g in a tio n o f Arab p o l i c y m akers.

The f a r - f l u n g

Arab m a ritim e e n t e r p r i s e s , m oreover, needed a b a s e on t h e In d ia n c o a s t .


A f t e r le a v in g t h e P e r s i a n G u lf, Arab v e s s e l s were out o f I s la m ic w a te rs
Daybul, n e a r modem K a ra c h i, t h e main p o r t o f S in d , a c te d as t h e o u t l e t
f o r a m ajor p o r t i o n o f s e a - g o in g p r o d u c ts o f n o r th w e s te r n I n d i a .

With

t h e s u b ju g a ti o n o f S in d , com pleted i n t h e f a c e o f major o b s t a c l e s and


w ith a s s i s t a n c e from r e l i g i o u s and c o r p o r a t e i n t e r e s t s , b o th t h e s e
o b j e c t i v e s were r e a l i z e d .
In S ind th e H indu-B uddhist p o p u l a t i o n was extend ed de f a c t o
r e c o g n i t i o n as t h e " t o l e r a t e d c u l t s , " a c o n c e s s io n which by s t r i c t
d e f i n i t i o n had been g r a n te d t o t h e Jew s, t h e C h r i s t i a n s and t h e Zoroa s t r i a n s a lo n e .

In d ia n i n s t i t u t i o n s were i n t h e main p r e s e r v e d , thoug

I s la m ic l e g a l s t r u c t u r e was f o s t e r e d s i d e by s i d e t h e r e w i t h t o accommo
d a te t h e Muslims, b o th f o r e i g n e r s and n a t i v e c o n v e r ts a l i k e .

Cut o f f

from t h e p r o t e c t i n g arms o f a d ecay in g c a l i p h a t e , t h e Arabs d e g e n e ra te d


i n t o w a r r in g f a c t i o n s .

During t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y , S ind became an a re n a

f o r th e F a tim id -A b b asid c o n t e s t .

To d e p r iv e t h e i r r i v a l s o f l u c r a t i v e

Sind t r a d e and s im u lta n e o u s ly t o g a in a f o o th o ld on t h e In d ia n c o a s t ,


t h e F a tim id s d is p a tc h e d I s m a ' i l i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s who undermined th e
I s la m ic ortho do x y and w ith i t t h e Abbasid c o n n e c tio n s .
c o n n e c tio n l a s t e d u n t i l t h e coming o f t h e T u rk s.

The E g y p tian

Though t h e y f a i l e d t o expand t h e i r p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l over


n o r th e r n I n d i a , a t a s k l a t e r acco m plished by t h e C e n t r a l A sian T u rk s,
t h e A rabs, n e v e r t h e l e s s , l e f t t h e i r im pact on t h e s u b - c o n t i n e n t .

Islam

was p erm an en tly im p la n te d in t h e low er Indus V a lle y an d, ex c e p t f o r t h e


b r i e f B r i t i s h in te rr e g n u m , t h e a r e a h a s rem ained i n Muslim hands e v e r
s in c e .

The l e g a l s t a t u s o f t h e H indu-B uddhist p o p u l a t i o n under t h e

Arabs i n S in d was l a t e r ex ten d ed t o a l l o f n o r th e r n I n d i a by t h e T u rks.


I s la m i c m y s tic is m , o r s u f is m , one o f t h e most en gagin g and e n d u rin g
a s p e c t s o f In d ia n Isla m , was in t r o d u c e d v i a S in d .

The a c q u i s i t i o n o f

t h e low er Indus v a l l e y p ro v id e d a tremendous im petus t o Arab t r a d e w ith


I n d ia .

In consequence Muslim commercial c o l o n i e s sp ra n g up o v e r most

o f w e s te rn I n d i a - - a s i t u a t i o n which c a l l e d f o r p e a c e f u l i n t e r c o u r s e .
I t was t h e p r e v a le n c e o f t h i s a t t i t u d e t h a t re n d e re d i t p o s s i b l e f o r
t h e two g r e a t communities o f I n d ia t o l i v e p e a c e f u l l y s i d e by s i d e .
With t h e coming o f t h e T u rk s , how ever, t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s was r e
p l a c e d by an atm osphere o f g e n e r a l h o s t i l i t y .
th o u g h t and c u l t u r e was i m p r e s s i v e .

I n d ia n impact on I s la m ic

I n d ia n m e d ic in e , astronom y, mathe

m a tic s and l i t e r a t u r e were t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e I s la m ic world and beyond,


g e n e r a l l y th ro v g h S in d .

In d ia n t r a d e c o n n e c tio n s were h ig h ly v a lu e d .

T h is im p o rta n t c h a p te r i n t h e m ediev al a n n a ls o f t h e s u b - c o n t i
n e n t h a s h i t h e r t o r e c e i v e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n from h i s t o r i a n s who based
t h e i r i n q u i r y on e x tre m e ly ten u o u s e v id e n c e , u s u a l l y A rabic o r I n d ia n ,
b u t s c a r c e l y on b o t h .

In t h e p r e s e n t e s s a y , an a tte m p t has been made

t o f i l l t h a t la c u n a .

Though o u r b i b l i o g r a p h y in c l u d e s an a r r a y o f th o s e

s o u r c e s , i t s u f f i c e s h e r e t o n o te t h e Chachriami'h and v a r io u s e p i g r a p h i c a l e v id e n c e s on t h e I n d ia n s i d e and a l - B u l a d h u r i 1s K itab Futuh a l -

Buidan, a l - B i r u n i ' s Tahqiq ma l i 11-H ind, and ib n K haldun's Muqaddimah


on th e A rabic s i d e .

By w eighing t h e i r c o n f l i c t i n g s ta te m e n ts , i t i s

hoped t h a t we have been a b le t o p r e s e n t an a c c e p ta b le p o r t r a i t o f a


co m p lic a te d s i t u a t i o n

in t h e s e r v i c e o f h i s t o r i c a l s c h o la r s h i p .

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
I t i s c u sto m ary t o d a t e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p erm an en t M uslim
r u l e o v e r I n d i a a t 1206 A.D. when Qutb u d - d i n A ib ak , a l i e u t e n a n t o f
S u l t a n M u 'iz z u d - d i n o f Ghor i n modern A f g h a n i s t a n , p r o c la im e d h i m s e l f
t h e s u l t a n o f D e lh i f o l l o w i n g h i s m a s t e r s d e a t h . 1 Two c e n tu ries e a r l i e r
t h e T u r k i s h h o r d e s o f Mahmud o f Ghazna h ad r e p e a t e d l y d e a l t d e v a s t a t i n g
blow s t o t h e Hindu pow er i n n o r t h e r n I n d i a b u t had w ith d ra w n t o t h e
Afghan h i g h l a n d s w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g a p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t on t h e
G a n g e tic p l a i n s .

Both e v e n t s were amply r e c o r d e d , th o u g h n o t by t h e

I n d i a n s , and b o th command a r e s p e c t a b l e p o s i t i o n i n t h e a n n a l s

Mislim

In d ia .
The e x p a n s io n o f Arab arms i n S i n d , w hich at i t s g r e a t e s t e x t e n t
em braced t h e e n t i r e lo w e r In d u s v a l l e y , v a s t a r e a s o f t h e B a l u c h i s t a n
p l a t e a u , a s w e ll as s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n s o f R a j a s t h a n and G u j a r a t , h as
b een r e l e g a t e d a somewhat i n s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i o n by h i s t o r i a n s .

T h is i s

a l l t h e more s t r i k i n g i n view o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Arab c o n q u e s t p r e ^ u l t a n Mu i z z u d - d in b e lo n g e d t o t h e S h a n s b a n i d y n a s t y o f Ghor


i n A f g h a n i s ta n which had begun t o e x t e n d i t s pow er a t t h e ex p en se o f
t h e G haznavids as e a r l y as 1151 A.D. when A la u d - d i n H u s s a in c a p t u r e d
and b u rn e d t o t h e g rou nd t h e c i t y o f Ghazni and e a r n e d f o r h i m s e l f t h e
infam ous t i t l e , 'j e h a n s u z o r t h e w o rld b u r n e r .
I n 1191 A.D. t h e
G h orid s h ad in v a d e d I n d i a b u t w ere r o u t e d a t t h e b a t t l e f i e l d o f T a r o a r i
by a c o a l i t i o n o f I n d i a n p r i n c e s . The f o l l o w i n g y e a r , how ev er, t h e
I n d ia n s w ere overwhelmed b y t h e G h o rid s a t t h e same s i t e .
W ith in a
few y e a r s most o f n o r t h e r n I n d i a was a f f e c t i v e l y u n d e r t h e G h o rid sway.

d a t e s t h e Ghaznavid e p is o d e by r o u g h ly t h r e e c e n t u r i e s and the e s t a b l i s h


ment o f th e s u l t a n a t e o f D elhi by f i v e .

Thus t h e p r e t i g i o u s Cambridge

H i s to r y o f I n d i a , c o n c lu d in g a b r i e f c h a p t e r on t h e Arab c o n q u e s t o f
S in d , rem arks somewhat d e r o g a t o r i l y t h a t , " o f t h e Arab co n q u est o f Sind
t h e r e i s n o th i n g more t o b e s a i d .

I t was a mere e p is o d e i n t h e h i s t o r y

o f I n d i a and a f f e c t e d o n ly a sm a ll p o r t i o n o f t h e f r i n g e o f t h a t v a s t
c o u n try ." 2

A s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e was ta k e n by t h e renowned B r i t i s h o r i e n

t a l i s t , S t a n l e y L a n e-P o o le.

"But t h e meagure a n n a ls o f t h i s l i m i t e d and

i n e f f e c t u a l o c c u p a tio n o f an u n im p o rta n t P r o v i n c e ," he d e c l a r e s , "need


not d e ta in us.

The Arab c o n q u e st o f S in d le d t o n o t h i n g . . . " 3

Hindu

h i s t o r i a n s have a g reed w ith t h i s p o i n t o f view a lm o st w ith o u t e x c e p ti o n ,


w h ile t h e Muslim s c h o l a r s have done l i t t l e t o improve i t .
To what f a c t o r s can t h i s academ ic tem per be a t t r i b u t e d ?

By f a r

t h e g r e a t e s t impediment i n t h i s endeavor h as been t h e s c a r c i t y o f


h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s c o n c e rn in g S in d , which h a s t u r n e d s c h o l a r s to seek
more re w a rd in g u n d e r ta k in g s e ls e w h e re .

The T u rk s , t h e Afghans and t h e

Mughuls c r e a t e d an im p r e s s iv e body o f h i s t o r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e i n I n d i a .
The A rab s, g r e a t h i s t o r i a n s i n t h e i r own r i g h t , have a l s o l e f t abundant
l i t e r a r y monuments o f t h e i r p a s t g l o r y .

The c o n q u e st o f S p a in , f o r

exam ple, which c o in c id e d w ith t h a t o f S in d , was amply r e c o r d e d , and so


was t h e Arab o c c u p a tio n o f C e n tr a l A s ia .

Did S in d s ta n d so o b d u r a t e l y

o u t s i d e th e main c u r r e n t s o f Arab p o l i t i c a l and c u l t u r a l scen e so t h a t

2W olseley H a ig , e d . , The Cambridge H i s t o r y o f I n d i a (D e lh i: S.


Chand 5 C o ., 19S8), I I I , 10.
(London:

3S ta n l e y L a n e-P o o le, M edieval I n d i a Under Muhammedan Rule


T. F i s h e r Unwin L t d . , 1 9 1 7), p. 13.

i t d id n o t f i r e t h e im a g in a tio n o f Arab c h r o n i c a r s ?

Not so!

There i s

s t r o n g e v id e n c e t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e c o n q u e st o f S in d was w e ll r e c o rd e d
and so were t h e s u b se q u e n t e v e n ts o f t h e f o ll o w in g c e n t u r y . 1*

I t is

r e g r e t t a b l e , however, t h a t t h e s e o r i g i n a l works a r e no lo n g e r e x t a n t .
P o r ti o n s o f t h e s e l o s t works were ind eed co p ied by l a t e r m edieval
h i s t o r i a n s who sometimes added t h e i r own b r i e f knowledge o f a f f a i r s i n
S in d , m o stly s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t t h e i r voluminous u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r i e s .
These b r i e f r e f e r e n c e s were p e r i o d i c a l l y implemented by t h e i s o l a t e d
o b s e r v a t i o n o f rem ark ab le i n d i v i d u a l s g e n e r a l l y c a l l e d " g e o g r a p h e r s ,"
who v i s i t e d S in d d u r in g t h e n i n t h and t h e t e n t h c e n t u r i e s .
Of h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s from S in d i t s e l f we have no knowledge.
C e r t a i n l y t h e Ghaznavid s c h o l a r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e c e l e b r a t e d a l - B i r u n i ,
who w itn e s s e d t h e f i n a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f Arab power i n S in d , make no
r e f e r e n c e t o in d ig e n o u s c h r o n i c l e s .

I t is p o s s ib le , th en , th a t p r io r

t o t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y th e n a t i v e a c c o u n ts w ere, by some i n e x p l i c a b l e
phenomenon d e s tr o y e d .

There i s one o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o u r s e ; t h e

Arabs i n t h e c o u r s e o f tim e may have become so I n d ia n iz e d t h a t th e y


ad o p ted t h e Hindu te n d e n c y o f s a l u t a r y n e g l e c t tow ard s e c u l a r h i s t o r i o
grap hy .

T h i s , how ever, seems h i g h l y im p ro b a b le .

On t h e w hole, h i s t o r i

c a l d a t a on Arab S in d seem t o have been d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n even by t h e


m edieval Muslim h i s t o r i a n s .
C o n s e q u e n tly , no s ta n d a r d work on Arab S in d has y e t been com
p i l e d to t h i s d a t e .

Over t h e p a s t c e n tu r y f o u r main a tt e m p ts were made

t o r e c o n s t r u c t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f t h e Arab p e r i o d .

See below , c h a p t e r I , pp . 7 -8 .

N in e te e n th c e n tu r y

B r i t i s h o r i e n t a l i s t and long time In d ia n c i v i l s e r v a n t , S i r Henry


E l l i o t , in h i s c e l e b r a t e d work, The H is to r y o f I n d ia as Told by i t s
Own H i s t o r i a n s , devoted a b r i e f b u t h ig h ly v a lu a b le s e c t io n t o th e Arab
e p iso d e ,5

The o t h e r t h r e e works a l l appeared i n I n d ia d u rin g th e n i n e

te e n -th irtie s.

H. C. Ray i n h i s c l a s s i c work, The D yn astic H is to r y o f

N orthern I n d i a , p u b lish e d in 1931, c o n sid e re d t h e r i s e and f a l l o f Arab


power in Sind i n th e f i r s t c h a p te r o f th e b o o k .6

The same y e a r R. C.

Majumdar s e t f o r t h t h e r e s u l t s o f h i s r e s e a r c h in The Decca U n i v e r s i ty


Supplement. 7

In d ia n Muslim h i s t o r i a n Sulaiman Nadvi, in a s e r i e s o f

a r t i c l e s e n t i t l e d "Muslim C olonies in I n d ia Before th e Muslim C onquest,"


p u b lis h e d i n I s la m ic C u ltu r e d u rin g 1934-35, d e a l t b r i e f l y w ith l o c a l
Arab d y n a s ti e s in th e lower Indus v a l l e y d u rin g th e n i n t h

and t e n t h

c e n tu rie s.8
The r e s e a r c h e s o f th e s e s c h o la r s have made s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i
b u tio n s t o Medieval Sind h i s t o r y .

Yet th e y ten d to be r e s t r i c t e d in

t h e i r scope and l im ite d i n t h e i r s o u rc e s , w h ile b a s in g their co n clu sio n s


on extrem ely tenuous e v id en ce.

For example, none i s a comprehensive

tre a tm e n t o f t h e s u b je c t from th e m iddle o f th e seventh ce n tu ry when

to rian s

5Henry E l l i o t , The H is to r y o f I n d ia as Told by i t s Own H is


(Rev. e d . , C a l c u t t a : S i s i r Gupta, 1956), V,

6H. C. Ray, The D y n astic H is to ry o f N orthern I n d ia ( C a lc u tta :


The Univ. P r e s s , 1931) I , c h a p te r I .
7R. C. Majumdar, "The Arab
Supplem ent, XV (1931), 1-64.

In v a sio n o f I n d i a , "

Dacca U n iv e r s ity

8Sulaiman Nadvi, "Muslim C olonies in I n d ia Before t h e Muslim


C onquest," I s la m ic C u ltu r e , V III (Oct. 1934), 601-621 and IX (Jan . 1935),
145-166.

t h e Arabs had become t h e w e s t e r n n e ig h b o r s o f S in d to th e e l e v e n t h


c e n t u r y when t h e G haznavid f o r c e s e x t i n g u i s h e d Arab do m inion o v e r t h e
area.

A ll a c c e p t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a c c o u n t f o r t h e Arab "Drang nach

o s t e n " - - t h e v i c t i m i z i n g o f Muslim com m ercial v e s s e l s by t h e p i r a t e s


o f Daybul and t h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e S in d m onarchy i n t h e w hole n a s t y
a f f a i r , w ith o u t q u e s tio n in g i t .

None en d e a v o u rs t o lo o k i n t o t h e p o s

s i b l e econom ic m o tiv e s b e h in d su c h a move.

M oreover, a l l t e n d t o view

i t a s an i s o l a t e d i n c i d e n t , r a t h e r t h a n a p a r t o f an o v e r a l l and lo n g p la n n e d s t r a t e g y o f g e n e r a l e x p a n s io n in t h e E a s t .

B e s id e s none r e a l l y

d e a l s e x h a u s t i v e l y o f b o t h t h e A r a b ic and t h e I n d i a n s o u r c e s o f t h e
two cam ps.
On t h e whole t h e p a r t i c u l a r t r e a t m e n t i s g e n e r a l l y s u b j e c t t o
p r e c o n c e i v e d p r e j u d i c e s m ain ly c o l o r e d by t h e r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k o f t h e
p a r t ic u la r au th o rs.

Hence E l l i o t t e n d s t o b e e x c e s s i v e l y h o s t i l e to

t h e Arabs w h ereas t h e r e v e r s e i s t h e c a s e w it h N ad v i.

The H indu h i s

t o r i a n s , th o u g h v ie w in g t h e Arab c o n q u e s t i n a g e n e r a l atm o sp h e re o f
h o s t i l i t y to w a rd I s l a m , te n d to b e l e s s b i a s e d t h a n e i t h e r E l l i o t o r
N ad v i.

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , t h e r e f o r e , i s t w o f o ld : t o r e

c o n s t r u c t a much n eed ed s y s t e m a t i c h i s t o r y o f Arab r u l e i n S in d a n d ,


s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , t o r e e v a l u a t e t h e m a jo r i s s u e s a t s t a k e d u r i n g t h a t
p e rio d .

C o n s e q u e n tly an a t t e m p t h a s b een made t o em p h asize t h e u s e o f

p r im a r y s o u r c e s , A r a b ic , P e r s i a n , C h in e s e , Greek and S a n s k r i t , w hich


h a v e been a n a ly z e d a t some l e n g t h i n C h a p te r I .

tVb

prevailing p o l i t i

c a l l a y o u t o f N o rth I n d i a on t h e eve o f t h e Arab i n v a s i o n form s t h e


b a s i s o f C h a p te r I I , w h i l e t h e c a u s e s b e h in d t h e e x p a n s io n and th e
m i l i t a r y b a l a n c e s betw een t h e two r i v a l s a r e t r e a t e d i n C h a p te r I I I .

The a c t u a l m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t v a r i o u s p a r t s o f I n d i a from 637


t o 715 A.D. a r e d e a l t w ith i n C h a p te r IV.

C h a p te r V i s d e v o te d t o t h e

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o l i c i e s o f an I s l a m i c governm ent in an area overw helm ing


l y non-Muslim.

The s u b s e q u e n t h i s t o r y o f S in d t o 1026 A.D. i s t r a c e d

i n C h ap ter VI.

F i n a l l y t h e r e i s a b r i e f c o n c lu d in g s e c t i o n summing up

th e fin d in g s.

A ll co m p u ta tio n s o f t h e Muslim c a l e n d a r a r e b a s e d on

G .S .P . F r e e m a n - G r e n v ille s b ook, The Muslim and C h r i s t i a n C a l e n d a r s . 9

9G .S .P . F r e e m a n - G r e n v ille , The Muslim and C h r i s t i a n C a le n d a rs


(London: Oxford U niv. P r e s s , 1963).

CHAPTER I I

THE SOURCES
The body o f l i t e r a t u r e c o v e rin g t h e Arab p e r i o d i n S ind i s
d e fic ie n t a t b e st.

T h is s c a r c i t y i s more s t r i k i n g i n view o f th e

abundance o f m a t e r i a l d e a l i n g w ith t h e Ghaznavid and p o s t-G h a z n a v id


p e r i o d s o f I s la m ic dom inatio n o v e r N orth I n d i a .

The o c c u p a tio n o f Sind

had been c a r r i e d o u t w ith t h e same s e n s e o f p u rp o se and en erg y t h a t had


e n a b le d t h e Arabs t o o v e rru n Spain on t h e one hand and C e n tr a l A sia on
th e o th e r.

The marvel o f i t a l l i s - t h a t a l l t h e s e r e g io n s were perma

n e n t l y o ccu p ied d u r in g t h e same d ecad e.

Whereas t h e con qu est and t h e

su b se q u e n t h i s t o r i e s o f S p ain and C e n tr a l A sia were amply r e c o r d e d , th e


r e c o r d s p e r t a i n i n g to S in d a r e meager and i n some c a s e s , n o n e x i s t e n t .
H is to ric a l
Known e v id e n c e p o i n t s t o a l o s s o f l i t e r a t u r e on S ind r a t h e r
th a n a com plete ab sen ce o f i t from t h e b e g in n in g .

Thus, th e Arab

h i s t o r i a n A li ib n Muhammad ib n A bdullah al-M adaini

(752-839 A.D.) i s

r e p u t e d t o have com piled no l e s s th a n t h r e e works on t h e Arab con


q u e s t s o f Makran and S i n d . 1

U n f o r tu n a t e l y , none o f th e s e a r e now

1See Ibn al-N adim , The F i h r i s t o f al-N adim ; a T e n th -C e n tu ry


S urvey o f Muslim C u l t u r e , t r a n s l a t e d and e d i t e d by Bayard Dodge (New
York: Columbia Univ. P r e s s , 1 970), I , 150. The works i n q u e s ti o n were
K itab F atah Makran, K itab T h a g h r a l- a l- H in d and K itab Ummal-al-Hind.

ex ta n t.

Even i f t h e s e works were a v a i l a b l e , th e y would n o t have r e

co rd ed th e e v e n ts beyond 839 A .D ., t h e d a t e o f a l - M a d a i n i 's d e a t h ,


w hereas t h e Arab h o ld o v e r t h e a r e a l a s t e d f o r a n o th e r one hundred and
e ig h t y - s e v e n y e a r s .

For a b r i e f b u t h i g h l y v a l u a b l e accou nt o f Arab

r u l e o v e r S in d , we a r e i n d e b te d to a n o t h e r Arab s c h o l a r , Ahmad
ib n J a b i r a l - B a l a d h u r i , who d ie d a t Baghdad in 892 A.D.

A s e c tio n of

B a l a d h u r i 's c e l e b r a t e d work, K itab Futuh a l - B u l d a n , co v ers t h e ev e n ts


i n S in d down t o t h e y e a r 842 A .D .2

The a u t h o r i s s a i d t o have h e ld

v e r b a l communication w ith a l-M a d a in i and, i n co n seq u en ce, i n c o r p o r a t e d


a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e l a t t e r * s m a t e r i a l on Sind i n h i s own work.
The ac c o u n t o f S in d , b e in g a summary o f a l - M a d a i n i 's l a r g e r n a r r a t i v e ,
la c k s in d e t a i l s , h a r d ly compensated by p r e c i s i o n .

I t is re g re tta b le

t h a t B a la d h u ri d id n o t b r i n g t h e e v e n ts c l o s e r t o 892 A .D ., t h e y e a r o f
h i s d e a th .

The b r e v i t y o f t h e s e c t i o n s on S in d n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g th e

a c c o u n t ta k e s up l e s s th a n f i f t e e n p a g e s happens t o be t h e most r e
l i a b l e ac c o u n t e x t a n t and as su c h , i n d i s p e n s i b l e t o h i s t o r i a n s .
For th e most d e t a i l e d , though by no means t h e most d e p e n d a b le ,
v e r s i o n o f Arab con qu est o f S in d , we must r e f e r t o what h a s commonly
been known as The Chachnamah o r t h e F atahn am ah .3

We do n o t

2A l- B a la d h u r i, K itab Futuh a l - B u l d a n , t r a n s l a t e d by F r a n c is C.
M urgotten and P h i l i p K. H i t t i (New York: Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1 916). For A rab ic v e r s i o n , s e e B e l a d s o r i , L ib e r e x p u g n a tio n is
regionum , e d i t e d by M ichael J a n deGoeje (Lugd. B a t a v . : E. J . B r i l l ,
1866). For an e v a l u a t i o n o f a l - B a l a d h u r i , s e e C a rl Brockelmann,
G e s c h ic h te d e r A rab isch en L i t t e r a t u r (Weimar: E. F e l b e r , 1898-1902),
I , 141.
3The Chachnamah, t r a n s l a t e d by K alichbeg Frendunbeg (K a ra c h i:
The C om m issioner's P r e s s , 1900).

know who th e a u th o r o f t h i s work was and n e i t h e r d id Muhammad A li ib n


Hamid ib n Abu Bakr K ufi, who re n d e re d t h e m an u sc rip t in P e r s ia n in
1220 A.D.

The o r i g i n a l A rabic v e r s i o n i s now l o s t .

The t r a n s l a t o r

inform s us t h a t he found th e m an u sc rip t w ith a Kazi I s m a 'i l b in A li


in S in d , who claim ed to have been a d i r e c t d escend ant o f e a r l y Arab
s e t t l e r s in th e a r e a .

A ccording t o Kazi I s m a ' i l , t h e work was

composed by one o f h i s a n c e s t o r s i n S in d .

There i s re a so n t o b e l i e v e ,

however, t h a t The Chachnamah i s no o t h e r th a n one o f t h e t h r e e works


o f al-M a d a in i a lr e a d y a l lu d e d t o . 4
main d e f e c t s .

The Chachnamah s u f f e r s from two

Being s t r i c t l y t h e acco un t o f t h e s u b ju g a t i o n o f Sind

i t ends when t h a t u n d e r ta k in g i s completed by 715 A.D.

It is,

moreover, a h ig h ly r o m a n tic iz e d acco un t which f a i l s t o convey a


b a la n c e d assessm ent and th e s ta te m e n ts o f which o c c a s i o n a l l y evoke
grav e d o u b ts.

Many o f i t s l a t t e r shortcom ings co uld have been

o ccasio n ed by t h e im a g in a tiv e mind o f t h e t r a n s l a t o r .


however, a r e ob vio us.

I ts m e rits,

The a u th o r d i s p l a y s an o u ts ta n d in g f a m i l i a r i t y

w ith t h e Arab and t h e In d ia n a r t s o f w a r f a r e , w ith t h e topography o f


S ind and o f s o u th e rn Punjab and w ith a wide ran g e o f v a r i e d elem ents
to u c h in g upon th e s u b j e c t as a whole.

From i t can be deduced th e

s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s and economic s t r u c t u r e s o f Sind d a t i n g


back to t h e e a r l y f i f t h c e n tu ry A.D.

For t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , see N. A. B aloch, " F a te h Nama and i t s


S o u r c e s ," The P ro ceedin gs o f th e P a k is ta n H i s t o r i c a l C o n fe re n c e ,
5 th S e s sio n (1955), 979-982. In th e o p in io n o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu ry
I n d o lo g i s t Henry E l l i o t , The Chachnamah was composed p r i o r to 750 A .D .,
and hence p r e d a te s M a d a in i's b i r t h . See Henry E l l i o t , The H is to r y
o f I n d ia As Told by i t s Own H i s t o r i a n s ( C a l c u t t a : S i s i r Gupta,
1956), I I , 37.

10

D u rin g t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y , two more Arab h i s t o r i a n s d e a l t


w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f S in d b r i e f l y .

K h a l i f a ib n Khayyat a l - ' U s f u r i

( d i e d 854 A .D .) , i n h i s u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r y , T a r i k h K h a l i f a ib n
K h a y y a t, c o v e r s t h e S in d e p is o d e i n l e s s t h a n f i v e p a g e s w h ile
Ahmad ib n Y a'qu b a l - Y a 'q u b i ( d i e d 897 A . D .) , i n h i s T a r i k h a l - Y a * q u b i ,
d o es no b e t t e r . 5

The g r e a t h i s t o r i a n Abu J a ' f a r Muhammad ib n J a r i r

a l - T a b a r i (8 3 9 -9 23 A .D .) , w h ile commenting upon t h e a n n e x a t i o n o f


S in d i n h i s monumental work T a r i k h a l - R u s u l w a 'l Muluk d o es so m erely
i n one l i n e . 6
A c l e a r l y d i s c e r n i b l e p a t t e r n i s e v i d e n t among t h e n i n t h
c e n t u r y Muslim h i s t o r i a n s i n t h e i r a c c o u n ts o f S in d .

A l l p r o v id e

s c a t t e r e d and i d e n t i c a l r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e Arab dom inion o v e r S in d


down t o t h e y e a r 842 A.D.

The d a t e i s n o t i n c i d e n t a l .

removed from a l - M a d a i n i 's d e a t h m e re ly b y a y e a r o r tw o.

I t is
As a l l t h e

a b o v e -m e n tio n e d h i s t o r i a n s seemed t o h av e u t i l i z e d a l - M a d a i n i 's


a c c o u n t o f S i n d , i t i s e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e t h a t none o f them w ere a b l e
t o , o r in d e e d w i l l i n g t o , a c q u i r e h i s t o r i c a l d a t a on t h e a f f a i r s o f
d i s t a n t S in d a f t e r 842 A.D.

The d a t e a l s o marks t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e

end o f A b b a s sid c o n t r o l o v e r t h e e a s t e r n s e c t i o n s o f t h e c a l i p h a t e
w here t h e T a h i r i d s o f K hurasan s u c c e s s f u l l y e x te n d e d t h e i r sway.
The T a h i r i d s w ere th e m s e lv e s r e p l a c e d by t h e S o cf a r i d s who annexed

5A l - ' U s f u r i , T a r i k h K h a l i f a ib n Khayyat (Negav:


a l- A d a b e , 1 9 6 7 ), A l - Y a 'q u b i , T a r i k h a l - Y a 'q u b i ( B a i r u t :
1960) .

Im p rim e rie
Dar S a d r ,

6A 1 - T a b a r i, T a r i k h a l - R u s u l W a'l M uluk, e d i t e d by M ichael


J a n de Goeje (Lugd. B a t . : E. J . B r i l l , 1 8 7 9 -1 9 0 1 ).

11

S in d t o t h e i r grow ing t e r r i t o r i e s by 871 A.D.

By 900 A.D. t h e

S a f f a r i d s i n t h e i r t u r n gave way t o two in d e p e n d e n t Arab d y n a s t i e s


i n t h e lo w er Indus V a lle y e s t a b l i s h e d by M ultan i n s o u th e r n P unjab
and a t Mansura i n S in d .

T h e s e , i n t u r n , were o v erth ro w n by t h e

G haznavids by 1026 A.D.

T h u s, f o r a p e r i o d o f a p p r o x im a te ly one

h u nd red and e i g h t y - f i v e y e a r s , S in d , s t a n d in g o b d u r a t e l y o u t s i d e
t h e main c u r r e n t s o f I s l a m i c p o l i t i c a l a r e n a , f a i l e d t o a t t r a c t t h e
n o t i c e s o r a r o u s e t h e c u r i o s i t i e s o f Muslim h i s t o r i a n s .
To t h e Ghaznavid h i s t o r i a n s b e lo n g s t h e c r e d i t o f

re c o rd in g ,

though m e a g e rly , t h e e v e n ts c o v e r i n g t h e l a s t t h i r t y y e a r s o f Arab


p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l o v e r S in d .

Of t h e s e we may m ention t h r e e :

a l - ' U t b i , a l - B i r u n i and a l - G a r d i z i .

Abu N asr Muhammad a l - J a b b a r

a l - * U t b i i n K ita b u l-Y a m in i c o v e rs t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e Ghaznavid


d y n a s ty from 975 t o 1030 A .D .7

A l - U tb i l a c k s h i s t o r i c a l p r e c i s i o n

and i s r e p e a t e d l y vague a b o u t d e t a i l s .
d i s c u s s e d by him a r e o f some v a l u e .

The Ghazna-M ultan r e l a t i o n s

Abu R aihan Muhammad ib n Ahmad

a l - B i r u n i i s c o n s id e r e d by some t o be t h e g r e a t e s t o f Muslim
s c h o la rs .8

His s p e c i a l s t u d i e s were i n t h e f i e l d s o f M athem atics and

Astronomy, which form t h e b a s i s o f h i s c e l e b r a t e d work on I n d i a ,

7The o r i g i n a l work i n A ra b ic was p u b l i s h e d i n 1883 A.D. i n


C a iro by a l - A z h a r , t o g e t h e r w ith Ibn a l - A t h i r ' s t e x t i n t h e m arg in s
A l - ' U t b i ' s work was t r a n s l a t e d i n t o P e r s i a n i n 1206 A.D. by N asih
b in J a ' f a r a l-Ju rb a d h a q a n i. A lith o g ra p h e d e d itio n o f t h i s t r a n s
l a t i o n a p p e a re d i n T ehran i n 1857. I t was t h e P e r s i a n t r a n s l a t i o n
w hich was u t i l i z e d by s u b s e q u e n t c o m p il e r s , w h e th e r i n Peis i a ,
C e n t r a l A s ia o r I n d i a .
8V a s i l l i i B a r t h o l d , T u r k e s ta n Down t o t h e Mongol I n v a s io n
(2nd e d . , London: M e ss rs . Luzac and C o ., L t d . , 1 9 5 8 ), p. 20.

12

Tahqiq ma l i 11-H ind.

I t i s m ostly to a l - B i r u n i ' s p a s s io n f o r

h i s t o r i a l r e s e a r c h t h a t we owe o u r meager knowledge o f t h e Shahi


d y n asty o f n o r th e r n Punjab and some a s p e c ts o f t h e I s m a ' i l i a n r u l e
o v er M u lta n .10
Around 1050 A .D ., Abu S a 'i d Abdul-Hayy a l - G a r d i z i , w r i t i n g
i n P e r s i a n , composed h i s work, K itab Z a in 11-Akhbar, d e a l i n g w ith th e
Ghaznavid p e r io d .

A l-G a rd iz i la c k s th e same s p i r i t o f h i s t o r i c a l

c r i t i c i s m one f in d s so ab u n d an tly m a n ife ste d in a l - B i r u n i .

He i s ,

however, more p r e c i s e when d e s c r i b i n g ev e n ts and d a t e s th a n a l - 'U t b i


though c o n s id e r a b ly b r i e f e r .
Thus i t i s t h a t between t h e works o f al-M ad ain i and a l - G a r d i z i
one a s p e c t o f S ind h i s t o r i o g r a p h y i s com pleted.

During t h i s time

s p a n , t h e Arabs were s t i l l th e h o ld e r s o f p o l i t i c a l power in S i n d . 11


Each w r i t e r in h i s own way was a b le to p ro v id e some a d d i t i o n a l h i s t o r i -

9T h is i s t h e c o r r e c t t i t l e o f th e work and n o t t h e commonly


y e t e r ro n e o u s ly known t i t l e s o f T a rik h al-H in d and T a r i k h - i - H i n d .
See Muhammad Nazim, The L if e and Times o f S u lta n Mahmud o f Ghazna
(Cambridge: The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 ] ), p. 10
. The work was
r e n d e re d i n t o E n g lis h by Edward Sachau under t h e t i t l e A l-B iru n i *s
I n d i a and p u b lis h e d i n London i n 1888 by T rub ner and Company.
10A 1-B iruni accompanied S u lta n Mahmud on some o f h i s In d ia n
e x p e d itio n s though i t must have been a f t e r 1017 A .D ., f o r i t was in
t h i s y e a r t h a t Khwarizon, whose r u l e r was a l - B i r u n i ' s p a t r o n , was
annexed and t h e g r e a t s c h o la r sn atc h ed away to Ghazna. A l - B i r u n i 's
a tte m p ts to d is c o v e r th e d y n a s t i c h i s t o r y o f th e S hahis were rem ark
a b l e . " I have been t o l d " he inform s u s , " t h a t t h e p e d ig r e e o f t h i s
r o y a l f a m ily , w r i t t e n on s i l k , e x i s t s in th e f o r t r e s s o f N agarkot,
and I much d e s ir e d t o make m y se lf a c q u a in te d w ith i t , b u t th e t h i n g
was im p o s s ib le f o r v a r io u s r e a s o n s ." Edward Sachau, A l - B i r u n i 1s I n d ia
(London: Trubner and Company, L t d . , 18S8), I I , 11. No doubt a
s i m i l a r i n v e s t i g a t i v e s p i r i t must have m a n ife ste d i t s e l f in t h e case
o f M ultan, b u t o b v io u s ly w ith o u t much s u c c e s s .
1JThough a l - G a r d i z i ' s work was n o t completed u n t i l 1052 A.D .,
t h e f a l l o f Mansura in 1026 A.D. o ccu rred d u rin g t h e a u t h o r 's l i f e t i m e .

cal d ata.

I t i s t o be r e g r e t t a b l y n o ted t h a t sub sequent h i s t o r i a n s

have copied t h e i r meager accou nts o f S ind from th e ch ain o f h i s


t o r i a n s s t r e t c h i n g from al-M a d a in i to a l - G a r d i z i , adding l i t t l e o r
no in fo rm a tio n o f t h e i r own.

Of th ese-w e may m ention f o u r :

A t h i r , Ibn Khaldun, F a r i s h t a and Mir A li Sher Kani.

Ibn a l -

'I z z ad-Din

Abu'l-H usayn I b n - a l - A t h i r (d ie d 1232 A .D .), i n Al-Kamil f i a l - T a r i k h


cop ied t h e s e c t io n s d e a l in g w ith Sind alm ost v e rb a tim from a l B a l a d h u r i 's Futuh a l - B u l d a n . 12

For th e l a s t y e a r s o f Arab c o n tr o l

he r e l i e d h e a v i ly on a l - ' U t b i ' s K ita b u ' 1 -Y am ini.

He i s , however,

th e f i r s t w r i t e r t o m ention t h e I s m a i 'l i a n t a k e o v e r o f Mansura,


a f a c t o m itte d by a l - B i r u n i as w e ll as by a l - G a r d i z i .

F o u rte e n th

c e n tu ry North A f ric a n s c h o la r IVali Ad-Din Abu Zayd Abd ar-Rahman Ibn


Khaldun i n th e Muqaddimah p ro v id e s a r a r e and indeed t h e on ly glim pse
i n t o th e f in a n c e s o f Sind d u r in g th e e a r l y A bbassid period..13 S ix te e n th
c e n tu ry In d ia n h i s t o r i a n Muhammad Qasim F a r i s h t a , w r i t i n g in P e r s ia n
com pleted h i s work, T a r i k h - i - F a r i s h t a , in 1606 A .D ., which d e a ls w ith
th e r i s e o f t h e Muslim power in I n d i a . 11*
In c o v e rin g t h e f i n a l f i f t y y e a r s o f Arab r u l e i n S in d ,
F a r i s h t a r e l i e d m ainly on a l - G a r d i z i ' s Z a i n u 'l Akhbar and, to a l e s s e r
12Ibn a l - A t h i r , Al-Kamil f i a l- T a r ik h (L e id e n : E. J . B r i l l ,
1867-1876). Also p u b lis h e d in C ario by a l-A z h a r i n 1883.
13Ibn Khul^dun, The Muqaddimah: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o H i s t o r y ,
t r a n s l a t e d by Franz R osenthal (New York: Pantheon Books, 1958).
14F a r i s h t a ' s work has been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g lish by John
Brigg under th e t i t l e , The H is to r y o f t h e Rise o f Mohemedan Power
in In d ia ( C a lc u t ta : S. Day, 1966).

14

d e g r e e , on a l - * U t b i ' s K ita b u l Y am in i.

The work p r o v id e s some u s e f u l

h i n t s a b o u t t h e G h azn a-S h ah i-M u ltan d i p l o m a t i c f r o n t .


Mir A li S h e r Kani co m p iled h i s w ork, T u h f a t a l- K ira m i n
P e r s i a n a ro u n d 1770, which i s a s c a n t y t r e a t m e n t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f
S in d from a b o u t 400 A.D. down t o t h e m id d le o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h
c e n t u r y . 15

I t i s t h e o n ly work composed i n S in d i t s e l f , w i t h t h e

somewhat d o u b t f u l e x c e p t i o n o f The Chachnamah.

The a u t h o r was t h e r e

fo re in a p o s itio n to u t i l i z e n a tiv e v e rb a l t r a d i t i o n s n o t a v a ila b le


to o th e r w r ite rs .

He i s t h e s o l e w r i t e r who p r o v i d e s us w ith a

c o m p le te l i s t o f t h e r u l e r s o f t h e Rai d y n a s ty w hich was o v e rth ro w n


aro u n d 622 A .D ., t o g e t h e r w ith t h e e x a c t number o f y e a r s i t h e l d
power o v e r t h e a r e a .
Hindu s o u r c e s o f m e d ie v a l and p r e - m e d i e v a l I n d ia n h i s t o r y a r e
meager and i n t h e c a s e o f S i n d , n o n e x i s t e n t .

One can sy m p a th iz e

w ith a l - B i r u n i ' s c o n c e rn a s e a r l y as t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y .
" U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e Hindus do n o t pay much a t t e n t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r i
c a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s , " he la m e n ts .

"They a r e v e r y c a r e l e s s i n

r e l a t i n g t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l s u c c e s s i o n o f t h e i r k i n g s , and when th e y
a r e p r e s s e d f o r i n f o r m a t i o n an d a r e a t a l o s s , n o t knowing w hat t o
s a y , t h e y i n v a r i a b l y t a k e t o t a l e - t e l l i n g . " 16

K ashm ir, ho w ev er,

o f a l l t h e I n d i a n r e g i o n s , can p r o u d l y b o a s t o f a w r i t t e n c h r o n i c l e
which t r a c e s i t s h i s t o r y from t h e e a r l i e s t tim e s down t o t h e y e a r

15Mir A li S h e r K ani, T u h f a t a l - K i r a m , t r a n s l a t e d by J . P o s ta n s
( C a l c u t t a : B ish op s C o lle g e P r e s s , 1 8 4 3 ).
16S a c h a u , A1 B i r u n i s I n d i a , I I , 11.

15

1027 A.D.

The R a j a t a r i n g i n i was composed b y P a n d i t K alhana i n

S a n s k r i t aro un d 1148 A.D.

T h is volum in ou s work i n t h e form o f a

poem, assum es a f a i r l y r e l i a b l e a s p e c t f o ll o w i n g t h e fo u n d in g o f
t h e K a rk o ta d y n a s ty a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e v e n th c e n t u r y .

D uring

t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y Kashmir was i n c o n t r o l o f s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n s o f
n o r t h e r n P unjab and i n co n seq u en ce came i n t o c o n f l i c t w ith t h e Arabs
p u s h in g n o r t h from t h e i r b a s e s a t M u lta n .

The K ashm ir-A rab c o n f l i c t

and t h e r e s u l t a n t K ashm iri e m b a s s ie s t o t h e T 'a n g c o u r t o f C hin a t o


s o l i c i t a i d a g a i n s t t h e d a n g e r from t h e S o u th , a r e b r i e f l y a l l u d e d
t o by K alhana.
G e o g ra p h ic a l
I n t h e a b s e n c e o f a d e q u a te h i s t o r i c a l d a t a on S in d , t h e
a c c o u n ts o f c e r t a i n t r a v e l l e r s > :io p a s s e d th ro u g h I n d i a p e r i o d i c a l l y
and r e c o r d e d t h e i r im p r e s s i o n s assume param o un t im p o r ta n c e .

T hese

" v i s i t o r s " can b e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s - - r e l i g i o u s p i l g r i m s ,


m e r c h a n t - a d v e n t u r e r s , and g e o g r a p h e r s .

Of t h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y we

p o s s e s s t h e d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e C h in e s e B u d d h is t p i l g r i m
H iuen T s i a n g , who s p e n t no l e s s th a n t h i r t e e n y e a r s i n I n d i a , from
630 t o 643 A .D .17

T h is p i l g r i m ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t S in d i n p a r t i

c u l a r and I n d i a i n g e n e r a l , th o u g h much c o l o r e d by h i s r e l i g i o u s o u t
lo o k , a r e o f p r im a r y im p o rta n c e t o t h e s t u d e n t s o f S in d h i s t o r y .

17S i- Y u - K i, B u d d h is t R ecords o f t h e W estern W orld, t r a n s


l a t e d from t h e C h in e se o f Hieun T s ia n g b y Samuel Beal (JLondon:
T r u e b n e r and Company, L t d . , 1 9 0 0).

16

F o llo w in g t h e Arab c o n q u e s t , when t h e low er Indus V a lle y


and t h e s u r r o u n d in g t e r r i t o r y was drawn i n t o t h e v a s t netw ork o f
I s l a m i c commercial a c t i v i t i e s , numerous Muslim m e rc h a n ts f r e q u e n t e d
w e s t e r n and s o u th e r n I n d i a , th o u g h we have t h e w r i t t e n ac c o u n t o f
o n ly two o f them.

The f i r s t o f t h e s e rem ain s anonymous.

The a u th o r

o f Akbar a s - S i n w a 'l - H i n d com pleted h i s work i n 851 A .D ., which i s


an o n - t h e - s p o t o b s e r v a t i o n o f m a r itim e s t a t e s s t r e t c h i n g from S in d
t o C hina.

The work was e d i t e d and added t o by Abu Z a id , a m erch ant

from S i r a f in S o u th e rn P e r s i a around 915 A .D .18

Abu Zaid in fo rm s us

o f h is purpose:
H aving v e r y c a r e f u l l y examined t h e book I was
d e s i r e d t o p e r s u e , t h a t I m ight c o n firm what
t h e a u t h o r r e l a t e s so f a r as h e a g r e e s w ith
what I hav e l e a r n t c o n c e r n in g t h e a f f a i r s o f
n a v i g a t i o n , t h e kingdoms on t h e c o a s t , and
t h e s t a t e o f t h e c o u n t r i e s o f which he t r e a t s
and t h a t I m ight add what I have e ls e w h e re
c o l l e c t e d c o n c e rn in g t h e s e m a t t e r s : 1 f in d
t h a t t h i s book was composed i n t h e y e a r o f
t h e H e g ir a 237 (851 A .D .) , and t h a t t h e
a c c o u n ts g iv e n by t h e a u th o r a r e co nfo rm ab le
w ith what I have h e a r d from m erch an ts who
have s a i l e d from I r a k o r P e r s i a , th ro u g h
t h e s e s e a s . 19

18The b e s t e d i t i o n o f t h i s w ork, t o g e t h e r w ith a French


t r a n s l a t i o n ap p eared i n P a r i s i n 1948 u n d e r t h e t i t l e Akhbar a s - S i n
w a 'l H ind: R e l a t i o n de l a c h in e e t de 1 1Inde r d d ig g e en 8 5 1 , t r a n s
l a t e d and e d i t e d by J . S au v ag et ( P a r i s : S o c i e t e d ' l e d i t i o n "Les
B e l l e s L e tt r e s , " 1948). The E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w ith
Abu Z a i d 's ; e d i t i o n , was p u b l i s h e d i n Vol. I o f R o b ert K e r r, A^
G eneral H i s t o r y and C o l l e c t i o n o f Voyages and T r a v e l s (London:
W illia m Blackwood, 1824).
19K e rr, o p . c i t . , I , 6 8-69.

17

Both a c c o u n ts a r e p r i m a r i l y conce rned w i t h t h e m a r itim e


a c t i v i t i e s and u n d e r s t a n d a b l y s o.

Yet t h e y o c c a s i o n a l l y r e v e a l

v e r y u s e f u l i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s a s p e c t s
o f v a r i o u s a r e a s i n c l u d i n g S in d .
During t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y a P e r s i a n s e a c a p t a i n , Buzurg ibn
S h a h r i y a r , composed t h e work, A j a i b u l H i n d , b e i n g a c o l l e c t i o n o f
h i s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s on h i s many voyages t o I n d i a and t h e Far
E a s t , as w e l l as m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e d t o him by o t h e r merchants and
s a i l o r s . 20

R e f e r e n c e t o S i n d , thoug h r a r e , a r e o f p r i m a r y impor

tance.
I t i s t o t h e t h i r d c a t e g o r y o f t r a v e l l e r s t h a t we a r e most
indebted .

T h is c o n s i s t s o f Muslim geo g r a p h e rs who a c t u a l l y

v i s i t e d Sind between 915 and 985 A.D. 2-1


anc e t h e y i n c l u d e d A b u 'l Hassan, A l i

In o r d e r o f t h e i r a p p e a r

i b n Husayn a l - M a s ' u d i , who

p a s s e d t h r o u g h Sind i n 915 A.D. and r e c o r d e d h i s i m p r e s s i o n s in


Muruj a l - Z a h a b wa Ma*adin a l - J a w a h a r . 22

20Ibn S h a h r i y a r , A j a i b u l H in d , t r a n s l a t e d by Marcel Devic


(London: G. Ro utled ge and Sons, L t d . , 1928).
21Major A r a b ic g e o g r a p h i c a l works were c o l l e c t e d and e d i t e d
by Michael J a n de Goeje i n B i b l i o t h e c a Geographorum Arabicorum
(Le id en : E. J . B r i l l , 1870-1894). E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f o o r t i o n s
r e l a t i n g t o I n d i a can be found i n Henry E l l i o t , The H i s t o r y o f I n d i a
as Told by i t s Own H i s t o r i a n s , Vol. I : The Arab Geographers ( C a l
c u t t a : S i s i r Gupta, 1956). S e c t i o n s o f t h e s e a c c o u n t s can a l s o be
found i n Sulaiman Nadvi, "Muslim C o lo n ie s i n I n d i a Before t h e Muslim
C o n q u e s t ," I s l a m i c C u l t u r e , V I II (1934) and IX (1935).
22E l l i o t , o p . c i t . , Vol. I , 23-33. P o r t i o n s o f M a s ' u d i ' s work
were r e n d e r e d i n t o E n g l is h by Aloys S p r e n g e r u nder t h e t i t l e E lMasudis H i s t o r i c a l Encycl oped ia (London: O r i e n t a l T r a n s l a t i o n Fund,
1841), I . A ll r e f e r e n c e s t o Masu d i a r e from S p r e n g e r u n l e s s o t h e r
w is e s t a t e d .

18

Abu ' I s h a q Ibrahim i b n Muhammad a l - I s t a k h r i f o llow e d M as'u di


i n 951 A . D . , r e c o r d i n g h i s im p r e s s i o n s in Kitab Masalik al-M a m a l ik . 23
A b u 'l Qasim Muhammad Ibn Hauqal has t h e s o l e d i s t i n c t i o n o f t r a v e l l i n g
th ro u g h t h e lower Indus V a l l e y t w i c e , once i n 951 A.D. and a g a i n i n
976 A.D ., h o l d i n g v e r b a l communications w i th a l - I s t a k h r i on t h e
fo rm er o c c a s i o n .

His work, Kitab a l - M a s a l i k wa'1-Mamalik, c o n t a i n s

h i s im pre ssi on.' o f S i n d . 21* The l a s t o f t h e geo g r a p h e rs t o


t h e f a r - o f f S in d was Abdullah Muhammad ibn. Ahmad a l - M u q a d d i s i , con
s i d e r e d by some t o be one o f t h e g r e a t e s t ge ographers o f a l l t i m e . 25
The r e c o r d o f h i s v i s i t i n 985 A.D. i s t o b e found i n h i s work
Ahsan11-Taqasim f i M a ' a r i f a t a l - A q u a l i m . 25
The r e c o r d s o f t h e s e g e o g r a p h e r s , though l a c k i n g i n s u f f i
c i e n t d e t a i l s , c o n s t i t u t e t h e main b a s i s o f o u r knowledge o f t e n t h
century Sind.

Geography, p o l i t i c a l as w e l l as economic forms and

u n d e r s t a n d a b l y s o , t h e main p o r t i o n s o f t h e i r n a r r a t i v e s .

Yet

h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h i s n o t a l t o g e t h e r l a c k i n g and i n M as 'u di i t
finds considerable expression.
In enum erating t h e s o u r c e s , we must m ention t h e r o l e o f
epigraphy.

Hindu r u l e r s o f t h e I n d i a n s t a t e s o f R a j a s t h a n and

G u j a r a t c l a i m i n g t o be

champions o f Hinduism a g a i n s t t h e h a t e d

23DeGoeje, B i b l i o t h e c a Geographorum Arabicorum, I ;


op. c i t . , I .

E lliot,

2**De G oeje, B i b l i o t h e c a Geographorum Arabicorum, I I ;


E l l i o t , o p . c i t . , I ; Mid. E a st Lib. Univ. o f Utah, Gotha MSS> 312, 569AH.
25B a r t h o l d , o p . c i t . , p. 11.
26De Goeje, B i b l i o t h e c a Geographorum Arabicorum, I I I .

19

o u t s i d e r s , b o a s t f u l l y r e c o rd e d t h e s u c c e s s f u l outcome o f t h e i r
en c o u n t e r s a g a i n s t t h e Arabs on co pper p l a t e s .

This e p i g r a p h i c e v i

dence, mainly coming t o l i g h t over t h e p a s t f i f t y y e a r s , i s p r i m a r i l y


concerned w i th t h e e x p a n s i o n i s t p o l i c i e s o f t h e Arabs p r i o r t o 850 A.D.
The above i s a f a i r l y e x h a u s t i v e l i s t o f t h e s o u rc e s needed t o
r e c o n s t r u c t t h e h i s t o r y o f Arab S ind.

I t i s u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t more i s

no t a v a i l a b l e and one cannot b u t hope t h a t w ith t h e p as sag e o f t i m e ,


new e v id en ce w i l l come t o th e s u r f a c e , b r i n g i n g t o l i g h t t h o s e a s p e c t s
o f t h e Arab p e r i o d c o n cerning which o u r p r e s e n t knowledge i s r e l a t i v e l y
i n s u f f i c i e n t i n s p i t e o f ou r e f f o r t s i n th e p r e s e n t e s s a y .

CHAPTER I I I

INDIA ON THE EVE OF THE ARAB INVASION


On t h e eve o f t h e Arab i n v a s i o n o f Sin d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y A .D ., no c e n t r a l p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y had e x i s t e d
in India.

In

f a c t s i n c e t h e f a l l o f t h e Maurya Empire i n t h e f i r s t

century B .C .,

which had s u c c e s s f u l l y u n i t e d I n d i a from t h e Oxus i n

th e northw est

t o Ceylon i n t h e s o u t h , no empire had bee n a b l e t o

e x e r c i s e f u l l p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y o v e r most o f t h e I n d i a n s u b
c o n t i n e n t u n t i l t h e Mughal Empire r e a c h e d i t s g r e a t e s t e x t e n t i n t h e
second h a l f o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .

To be s u r e , a t t e m p t s were

made t o b r i n g n o r t h e r n I n d i a u n d e r one r u l e .

Hence t h e Kushan Empire

i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e second c e n t u r y A.D ., t h e Gupta Empire i n t h e


f o u r t h and f i f t h c e n t u r i e s and t h e empire o f Har sha i n t h e f i r s t h a l f
o f th e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y d i r e c t e d t h e i r e n e r g i e s toward a c h i e v i n g
p o l i t i c a l u n i t y f o r North I n d i a , w i t h mixed r e s u l t s .

The o u t l y i n g

p a r t s o f I n d i a i n t h e n o r t h w e s t , however, remained o u t s i d e t h e p a l e
o f t h e Gupta Empire and t h a t o f H ar sh a.

E a s t e r n A f g h a n i s t a n , Punjab

and S ind had t o b e a r t h e b u r d e n o f f r e q u e n t i n c u r s i o n s b y t h e P e r s i a n


Empire on one hand and by t h e nomadic h o r d e s o f v a r i o u s e t h n i c o r i g i n s
from C e n t r a l A s i a on t h e o t h e r .

At t h e i n c e p t i o n o f t h e e i g h t h

c e n t u r y A.D., p o w e r fu l l o c a l d y n a s t i e s began t o emerge i n t h e s e


r e g i o n s , as w e l l as i n Kashmir.

In t h e meantime, however, t h e Arabs

had o v e r r u n t h e P e r s i a n Empire and were waging s u c c e s s f u l campaigns

21

i n C e n t r a l A s ia.

The s t a t e s on t h e w e s te r n b o r d e r l a n d o f I n d i a now

f ac ed a s o l i d w a l l o f Arab arms.

The f o l l o w i n g a r e a s were p a r t i c u

l a r l y h a r d p r e s s e d by t h e Arab might:

Kashmir, e a s t e r n A f g h a n is t a n ,

Rajput ana, G u ja r a t and Sind.

Kashmir
One o f t h e most pow erful s t a t e s i n I n d i a a t t h e time o f t h e
Arab i n v a s i o n was Kashmir.

The t o t a l a r e a o f t h e s t a t e a t t h e time

o f t h e B r i t i s h wi thdra wal i n 1947 was 84,516 s q u a r e m i l e s , and i t s


p o p u l a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 1941 c e n s u s , was 3 , 6 4 6 , 2 4 3 . 1

At t h e

tim e of t h e Arab i n v a s i o n o f Sin d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e Kashmirian


monarchs extended over p a r t s o f n o r t h e r n Punjab as w e l l , and hence
cov er ed a l a r g e r a r e a t h a n i n 1947.
able fo r the eighth century.

No p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s a r e a v a i l

The geography o f Kashmir h e l p s t o

e x p l a i n t h e r e l a t i v e s e c u r i t y from f o r e i g n i n v a s i o n s which t h e s t a t e
has enjoyed o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s .

Lying i n t h e extreme n o r th w e s t

c o m e r o f t h e I n d ia n s u b - c o n t i n e n t , Kashmir i s n o r t h o f t h e main
i n v a s i o n r o u t e s which lead from C e n t r a l and Western Asia i n t o I n d i a . 2
Whereas most o f t h e I n d ia n s u b - c o n t i n e n t i s l o c a t e d s o u th o f l a t i t u d e

S t a t i s t i c a l A b s t r a c t f o r B r i t i s h I n d i a (London: His M a j e s t y ' s


S t a t i o n a r y O f f i c e , 1942), pp. 4-5 (based on t h e 1941 c e n s u s ) .
2The main i n v a s i o n r o u t e s from C e n t r a l and Western A s ia run
from Kabul th ro u g h th e Khaybar Pass t o Peshawar, t h en ce t o Raw alp in di,
Lahore and D e lh i . Somewhat l e s s e r i n importance i s t h e r o u t e run n in g
from Kabul t o Swat ( n o r t h o f t h e Khaybar) and th e n c e t o Raw alpindi.
Th is i s t h e r o u t e used by t h e main army o f Alexander t h e Gre at

22

33 N. , a l l o f Kashmir l i e s n o r t h o f t h a t l i n o .

The main d e f e n se o f

Kashmir a g a i n s t t h e f o r e i g n i n v a s i o n s has been f i v e mountain ranges


which run e a s t t o west thro ug h Kashmir.

The P i r P a n ja l r an ges

s e p a r a t e s Kashmir from t h e Punjab i n t h e s o u th .


180 miles long and about 30 miles wide.

Th is range i s n e a r l y

I t i s named a f t e r t h e famous

P i r P a n j a l Pass which i s 11,400 f e e t h i g h .

O ther p a s s e s in t h e

range i n c l u d e t h e B a n ih a l, 9,290 f e e t and Baramula, 5,191 f e e t h i g h . 3


The g r e a t Himalayan range l i e s about 50 m iles n o r t h o f t h e P i r P a n ja l
range.

I t i s n e a r l y 150 m iles long and i s p e r p e t u a l l y covered with

snow, b e i n g above t h e snow l i n e . 4


Lying between t h e P i r P a n j a l range i n t h e south and t h e Great
Himalayan range in t h e n o r t h i s t h e famous Vale o f Kashmir, a g r e a t
b a s i n about e i g h t y - f i v e m ile s by t w e n t y - f i v e . 5

The Vale with th e c i t y

o f S r in a g a r has been t h e p o l i t i c a l , c u l t u r a l and economic c e n t e r o f


Kashmir.6

The Vale i s d r a i n e d by t h e upper Jheluin r i v e r and has t h e

r ic h e s t s o il in the e n t i r e s t a t e .

Nearly t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f Kashmir's

i n 322 B.C. Yet a n o t h e r r o u t e l e a d s from Qandhar t o Q u etta and


th e n c e e i t h e r t o Multan and Lahore or t o S h i k a r p u r , Ferozpur and
D e lh i. The Q a n d h a r -Q u e tta -S h ik a r p u r r o u t e was us ed by t h e B r i t i s h
d u r i n g t h e F i r s t Afghan War i n 1840.
3Meneck B. P i t h a w a l l a , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Kashmir: I t s
Geology and Geography (Karachi: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1953),
p. 24.
4I b i d .
50. H. K. S p a t e , I n d ia and P a k i s t a n : A General and Regional
Geography (London: Methuen and Company, 1954), p. 371.
6S r i n i g a r was b u i l t by Maurya emperor Asoka, B.C. 273-232.
See Vincent Smith, The E a rly H i s t o r y of I n d ia (Oxford: Clarendon
P r e s s , 1904), p. 170.

a r e a l i e s n o r t h o f t h e Great Himalayan r a n g e , y e t i n 1941 i t c o n t a i n e d


only 311,300 p e o p l e out o f a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 , 6 4 6 , 2 4 3 . 7
mountain ranges run thro ug h t h e s e n o r t h e r n a r e a s .

Three

Immediately n o r t h

o f t h e Great Himalayan range i s t h e Zanskar range which c u t s Kashmir


n e a r l y i n t o two eq u al h a l v e s .

The Ladakh range s t r e t c h e s mostly

a c r o s s T i b e t , b u t i t s w es tern arm l i e s i n Kashmir.

Between t h i s

ra nge and t h e Zanskar range flows th e upper Indus.

The n o r t h e r n

most range i s t h e Karakoram range which s e p a r a t e s Kashmir from t h e


Chinese p r o v in c e o f S in k ian g .

The e n t i r e a r e a l y i n g n o r t h o f t h e

G reat Himalayan i s e x tr em ely co ld and mountainous.

I t c o n t a i n s some

o f t h e w o r l d ' s h i g h e s t peaks such as Godwin A u s t in , 28,178 f e e t ;


Gasherbrum, 28,100 f e e t ; Nanga P a r b a t , 26,620 f e e t ; and Masherbvum,
25,660 f e e t .
lands.8

Very l i t t l e c u l t i v a t i o n can be done i n such dry w a s t e

The r e l a t i v e s e c u r i t y which Kashmir has enjoyed from f o r e i g n

i n t r u s i o n s due to geography and phy siograp hy i s shown by t h e f a c t


t h a t i t was not u n t i l 1320 A.D. t h a t I s l a m i c r u l e was e s t a b l i s h e d
ov e r Kashmir, even though Sind had been conquered by t h e Muslims as
e a r l y as 715 A.D.

Even t h e Muslim dynasty which succeeded in e s t a b l i s h

i n g i t s r u l e ov er Kashmir i n 1320 A.D. was a l o c a l Kashmirian d y n a s t y . 9

7P i t h a w a l l a , o. c i t . , pp. 77-78.
0For d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e n o r t h e r n a r e a s o f Kashmir, see S p a t e ,
pp. 380-91; and P i t h a w a l l a , o j k c i t . , pp. 25-27.
9S. R. Sharma, Mughal Empire in I n d i a , Revised E d i t i o n (Agra:
Lakshmi Narain Agarwal, 1966), p. 200.

24

A c t u a l l y i t was n o t u n t i l 1563 t h a t Kashmir was annexed by t h e Grand


Mughal Akbar t o h i s em pire g o v e r n e d from A g r a . 10
The r e l a t i v e s e c u r i t y which t h e r u l e r s o f t h e Vale e n jo y e d
from f o r e i g n c o n q u e s t s d i d n o t mean t h a t t h e y p l a y e d a p a s s i v e r o l e
i n t h e power p o l i t i c s o f t h e i r s o u t h e r n n e i g h b o r s .

As a m a t t e r o f

f a c t , a lm o s t a hundred y e a r s b e f o r e t h e c o n q u e s t o f Sin d by t h e
Arab':, i n 715 A .D ., t h e r u l e r s o f Kashmir had begun a v i g o r o u s
campaign o f e x p a n s i o n i n t h e s o u t h and s o u t h w e s t o f Kashmir which
e v e n t u a l l y b r o u g h t them i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e Arabs i n S in d .

At t h e

b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y A . D ., D u r la b h a v a r d h a v a founded t h e
Kar ko ta d y n a s t y which l a s t e d u n t i l 855 A.D.

The d a t e o f t h i s

m o n a r c h 's a c c e s s i o n i s a m a t t e r o f some d i s p u t e and t h e d a t e s o f


589 and 602 have b e e n s u g g e s t e d . 11

D u r la b h a v a r d h a v a r u l e d f o r

t h i r t y - s i x y e a r s and d u r i n g h i s r e i g n h e w r e s t e d p a r t s o f n o r t h
w e s t e r n Punjab from t h e T u r k i S a h i d y n a s t y o f K a b u l . 12

I t was d u r i n g

t h e r e i g n o f t h i s monarch t h a t Hiuen T s i a n g , famous C hines e p i l g r i m ,


v i s i t e d Kashmir i n 631 A.D.

His a c c o u n t thro w s some l i g h t on t h e

c o n d i t i o n s i n Kashmir:

10I b i d .
11Gwasha K a u l , Kashmir Through t h e Ages ( S r i n a g a r :
Chronicle
P u b l i s h i n g House, 1954 ), p . 10; H. C. Ray, The D y n a s t i c H i s t o r y o f
N o r t h e r n I n d i a ( C a l c u t t a : The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 93 1 ) , I , 112;
K a l h a n a ' s R a j a t a r a n g i n i , t r a n s . from S a n s k r i t by M. A. S t e i n ( D e l h i :
M o t i l a l B a n a r s i d a s s , 19 61), I , 87.
Kal han a, a Kashmiri P a n d i t , w r o t e
t h i s c h r o n i c l e o f t h e k i n g s o f Kashmir i n 1149 A.D.
12S i - Y u - K i , B uddh is t Records o f t h e W es tern W or ld, t r a n s .
from C hines e o f Hiuen T s i a n g by Samuel Beal (London: T r u e b n e r and
Company, 19 0 0 ) , I , 136; Ray, o p . c i t . , I , 112.

25

The Kingdom o f Kashmir i s about 7,000 l i in


c i r c u i t ; and on a l l s i d e s i t i s e n c l o s e d by
m o u n t a i n s . These mountains a r e v e r y h i g h . . . .
The n e i g h b o r i n g s t a t e s t h a t have a t t a c k e d i t
have n e v e r suc ce ed ed i n sub duing i t . . . . T h e s o i l
i s f i t f o r p r o d u c i n g c e r e a l s and abounds with
f r u i t s and f l o w e r s . . . .The p e o p l e wear l e a t h e r
d o u b l e t s and c l o t h e s o f w h i t e l i n e n . . . .They a r e
l i g h t and f r i v o l o u s and o f a weak, p u s i l l a n i m o u s
d i s p o s i t i o n . There a r e b o t h h e r e t i c s (nonB u d d h i s t s ) and b e l i e v e r s among t h e m . 13
The f o u r t h r u l e r o f t h e Karkota d y n a s t y was Ch an drap ida who
p r o b a b l y d i e d i n 720 A . D . 11*

I t was d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f t h i s r u l e r

t h a t Kashmir came i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e A rabs.

The t h r e a t o f

the

Arabs from S in d f o r c e d t h e Kashmirian monarch t o s o l i c i t t h e a i d o f


t h e Tang emperor o f China i n 713 A . D . 15

King L a l i t a d i t y a - M u k d a p i d a

who r u l e d Kashmir from 725 t o 756 A.D. g r e a t l y expanded t h e kingdom


o f Kashmir.

Ac co rd ing to Kalhana, he conquered a l l o f e a s t e r n and

n o r t h e a s t e r n A f g h a n i s t a n , p a r t s o f C e n t r a l A s i a , and a l l o f n o r t h e r n
I n d i a and even p a r t s o f t h e D e c c a n . 16

S i r A u r c . S t e i n who e d i t e d

R a j a t a r a n g i n i r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t t h e s e e x t e n s i v e c o n q u e s t s as r e a l i t y ,
a r g u i n g t h a t such e x t e n s i v e campaigns were sim ply beyond t h e p o s s i
b i l i t i e s o f f e r e d by t h e manpower and r e s o u r c e s o f K a s h m ir . 17

How

e v e r , " h i s c o n q u e s t o f Kanauj i n t h e Ganga-Yamuna Doab, T u k h a r i s t a n

13S i - Y u - K i , I ,

148.

There a r e ab o ut 3 l i t o one m i l e .

11+The d a t e s o f t h i s r u l e r ' s r e i g n a r e a m a t t e r o f c o n s i d e r a b l e
d i s p u t e . See R a j a t a r a n g i n i , I , 67; Ray, op. c i t . , I , 112; Hermann
G o e tz , S t u d i e s i n t h e H i s t o r y and Art of~Tas hm ir and t h e I n d ia n
Himalaya (Weisbaden: O t t o H a r r a s s c w i t z , 1969) , pp. 8-12 .
15G oe tz,

0 .

c i t . , pp. 11-12; R a j a t a r a n g i n i , I , 67.

16R a j a t a r a n g i n i , I , 128-35.
17I b i d . , I , 82- 92 .

26

i n t h e u p p e r Oxus v a l l e y and Daraddesa i n t h e u p p e r Kishen Ganga


a p p e a r s t o be b a s e d on h i s t o r i c a l d a t a . " 18
German s c h o l a r , Herman G o e tz , however, a tt e m p te d t o show t h a t
L a l i t a d i t y a d id a c t u a l l y conquer a l l o f n o r t h e r n and c e n t r a l I n d i a ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h e a s t e r n A f g h a n i s t a n , and t h a t he even invaded e a s t e r n
T u r k i s t a n , and in d eed d i e d somewhere i n t h e Tarim b a s i n . 19

In

736 A.D. t h i s r u l e r s e n t an embassy t o t h e Tang c o u r t t o s o l i c i t


a i d a g a i n s t t h e A r a b s . 28

E a s t e r n A f g h a n is t a n and Punjab
At t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y t h e r e were two s t a t e s
l o c a t e d on t h e extreme n o r t h w e s t e r n c o r n e r o f I n d i a .
kingdom o f Z a b u l i s t a n and t h e kingdom o f K a p i s i.

These were t h e

The kingdom o f

K a p is i i n c l u d e d t h e t e r r i t o r y e n c lo s e d by t h e Indus on t h e e a s t , t h e
Hindukush mountains on t h e n o r t h and west and 34 N. on t h e s o u th i n

18Ray, 0 . c i t . , I , 112. The Ganga-Yamuna Doab and Daraddesa


c o r r e s p o n d r o u g h ly t o w e s t e r n and s o u t h e r n p o r t i o n s o f t h e I n d ia n
s t a t e o f U t t a r P rad es h.
19G o e tz , o p . c i t . , pp. 8-22.
28R a j a t a r a n g i n i , I , 67. L a l i t a d i t y a ' s prime m i n i s t e r was a
Buddhist T okha ri an (modern Badakhshan p r o v i n c e i n n o r t h e a s t e r n
A f g h a n i s t a n ) , Chankuna, who had been i n t h e Chinese s e r v i c e . He
might have p e r s u a d e d L a l i t a d i t y a t o form some kind o f an a l l i a n c e
w i t h t h e Tang emperor a g a i n s t th e Arabs i n C e n t r a l Asia and Sind.
See Goetz, o. c i t . , pp. 11-12.

27

modern A fgh an ist an and 32 N. i n modern West P a k i s t a n .

I t commanded

t h e main i n v a s i o n and t r a d e r o u t e s between C e n t r a l Asia and I n d i a . 21


The kingdom o f Z a b u l i s t a n was made up o f t h e t e r r i t o r y
w a te r e d by t h e Helmand River and i t s t r i b u t a r i e s in s o u t h e a s t e r n
A f g h a n i s t a n . 22

Here " t h e c o untr y f l a t t e n s and runs out among ja g g e d ,

i s o l a t e d h i l l s i n t o t h e R e g i s t a n , t h e g r e a t d e s e r t s t r e t c h i n g away
t o t h e P e r s i a n b o r d e r , unbroken save by t h e Helmand R i v e r . " 23
By 631 th e r u l e r s o f Kapisi had l o s t t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s l y i n g
e a s t o f th e Indus t o Kashmir.2*1

Between t h e Indus on t h e e a s t and

t h e S a f id Koh mountain range n e a r l y s i x t y m iles t o th e west l i e s t h e


f e r t i l e v a l l e y o f Peshawar c a l l e d Gandhara a t t h e b e g i n n in g o f t h e
e i g h t h c e n tu r y A.D.25

Gandhara was s e p a r a t e d from t h e wes tern

21 P a r t o f t h i s kingdom lay i n modern West P a k is t a n and i n c l u


ded the d i s t r i c t s o f Peshawar, Kohat and Bannu o f the p r e s e n t - d a y
North Western F r o n t i e r P ro vin ce . In A f ghanistan i t in c lu d e d t h e
a r e a s around Kabul and J a l a l a b a d . See Si-Y u-K i, I , 54-55; a l s o
R. C. Majumdar, "The Arab I n v asio n o f I n d i a , " Dacca U n i v e r s i t y
Supplement, No. XV (1931), 5- 7.
22Si-Y u-K i, I ,

190.

23William K. F r a s e r - T y t l e r , A f g h a n is ta n . A Study o f P o l i t i c a l
Developments in C e n t r a l and Southern A s i a , T h ir d e d i t i o n (London :
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966), p. 8. This a r e a corre sp on ds roughly
t o S i j i s t a n o f t h e Arab g e o g r a p h e rs . See G. Le S t r a n g e , Lands o f t h e
E a s t e r n C a l i p h a t e (London: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1905), Chapter
x xiv.
2llThis i n f o r m a t i o n i s p r o v id e d by Hieun Tsiang who v i s i t e d
t h e s e t e r r i t o r i e s , now mainly t h e Rawalpindi d i s t r i - t o f th e Punjab,
i n 631 A.D. and observed t h a t f o rm erly th ey were p a r t o f t h e kingdom
o f K a p is i. S i-Y u-K i, I I , 136-47.
25Gandhara was t h e home o f t h e famous Indo-Greek s c u l p t u r e
which f l o u r i s h e d i n n o r th w e s t e r n I n d i a between th e second c e n tu r y
B.C. and 300 A.D.

28

p o r t i o n o f t h e kingdom o f K a p i s i by t h e b a r r e n mountain r a n g e o f t h e
S a f i d Koh.

Today t h e s e m o u n ta in s form t h e b o r d e r betw een A f g h a n i s t a n

and P a k i s t a n , and t h e famous Khaybar P as s i s l o c a t e d h e r e t w e l v e


m i l e s w e s t o f Pesh aw ar.

West o f t h e Khaybar P a s s , t h e Bamiyan V a l l e y

and t h e Kabul V a l l e y were t h e r i c h e s t s e c t i o n s o f t h e kingdom o f


K apisi.

Both t h e s e v a l l e y s a r e e n c l o s e d by h i g h m o u n tain s which

p r e s e n t f o r m i d a b l e b a r r i e r s t o i n v a d i n g a r m i e s . 26
When Hieun T s i a n g p a s s e d t h r o u g h n o r t h e r n A f g h a n i s t a n i n
630 A.D. he found t h e t e r r i t o r i e s
t h e r u l e o f t h e Western T u r k s .

l y i n g n o r t h o f t h e Kindukush u n d e r

The p i l g r i m met t h e Khakan o r Yabghu

o f t h e W este rn Turks on t h e s h o r e o f t h e l a k e I s s i k - k u l .

T a k in g

a d v a n t a g e o f t h e campaigns which Khusru P a r v i z (590-628 A . D . ) , t h e


P e r s i a n monarch, was waging a g a i n s t t h e B y z a n tin e Emperor H e r a e l i u s ,
t h e W estern Turks had e x t e n d e d t h e i r dominions s o u th w a rd s t o t h e
p r o v i n c e o f G a n d h a r a . 27

Soon a f t e r Hieun T s i a n g ' s d e p a r t u r e , C e n t r a l

A s i a became a b a t t l e ground b e tw e e n f o u r c o n t e n d i n g g r o u p s :
A r a b s , t h e C h i n e s e , t h e Turks and t h e I n d i a n s .

the

T h i s f o ur- w ay c o n t e s t

l a s t e d f o r more t h a n a h u n d r e d y e a r s . 28
26There a r e some p a s s e s which l e a d t h r o u g h t h e s e m o u n tain s
i n t o t h e Kabul V a l l e y .
In t h e n o r t h t h e s e i n c l u d e t h e Khawak P a s s ,
11 ,640 f e e t ; t h e Qipchak P a s s , 13,900 f e e t ; t h e S a l a n g P a s s , 14,237
f e e t , and t h e Kaoshan P a s s .
In t h e west a re t h e Kharzar P ass, th e
S h i b a r P a s s , t h e H a j i Gak Pass and t h e Unai P a s s .
In t h e s o u th i s
t h e Khurd Kabul P a s s . Bamiyan V a l l e y can be a p p r o ach ed from t h e n o r t h
by p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e Ak Robat P a s s , 12,650 f e e t , and from t h e west
t h r o u g h t h e N i l P a s s . See F r a s e r - T y t l e r , o p . c i t . , pp. 10-1 3.
27H. A. R. G ib b , The Arab Conquests i n C e n t r a l As ia (London:
Royal A s i a t i c S o c i e t y , 1923), pp. 3 - 1 1 ; Per cy S ykes, A H i s t o r y o f
A f g h a n i s t a n (London: Macmillan and Company, 19 4 0 ) , I , 151.
28See H.A.R. Gibb, The Arab Con qu es ts i n C e n t r a l A s i a (London :
The Royal A s i a t i c S o c i e t y , 19 23) .

29

On t h e west t h e kingdoms o f Kap is i and Z a b u l i s t a n were


b o r d e r e d by t h e S a s s a n i d em pire .

Z a b u l i s t a n was b o r d e r e d on t h e

so u th w e st by S a s s a n i d t e r r i t o r i e s and on t h e s o u t h e a s t by t h e k i n g
dom o f S i n d . 29
As mentioned e a r l i e r , t h e p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y o f t h e kingdoms
o f Kap isi

and Z a b u l i s t a n from t h e s i x t h t o t h e t e n t h c e n t u r i e s i s

ex t r e m e l y

obscure.

Hieun T s i a n g , who p a s s e d t h ro u g h K a p is i

in

631 A.D ., has l e f t us a b r i e f acc oun t o f i t :


I t prod uce s c e r e a l s o f a l l s o r t s and many
kin d s o f f r u i t t r e e s . The shen h o r s e s a r e b r e d
h e r e . . . . H e r e a r e a l s o found o b j e c t s o f merchan
d i s e from a l l p a r t s . The c l i m a t e i s c o l d and
windy. The p e o p le a r e c r u e l and f i e r c e ; t h e i r
language i s c o a r s e and r u d e ; t h e i r m a r ri a g e
r i t e s a mere i n t e r m i n g l i n g o f t h e s e x e s . For
c l o t h i n g th e y use h a i r g a r m e n t s . . . . In commerce
th e y use g o ld and s i l v e r c o i n s , and a l s o l i t t l e
copper c o i n s . . . . T h e k in g i s a K s h a t t r y a by
c a s t e . He i s o f a shrewd c h a r a c t e r and, b e i n g
b r av e and d e t e r m in e d , he has b r o u g h t i n t o s u b j e c
t i o n t h e n e i g h b o r i n g c o u n t r i e s , some t e n s o f
which he r u l e s . 30
The most c o n t r o v e r s i a l s t a t e m e n t o f t h e above ac count i s
the s e n t e n c e , "The k i n g i s o f t h e K s h a t t r y a c a s t e . "

The o r i g i n s o f

t h e r u l i n g house o f Kap isi a r e shrouded i n m y s t e r y .

In 1893 M.A.

S t e i n u p h e ld t h e view t h a t t h e r u l i n g house o f K apis i a t t h e time

0 Q

B. D. M ir chandani, "Chach-Nama: R e f e r e n c e s t o P e r s i a ,
Za bu l, Kashmir and K a n a u j J o u r n a l o f I n d i a n H i s t o r y , XLIII (lgbS) .
371.
30S i-Y u -K i, I , 54-55.
t h e Kabul V a lle y .

This a cco u n t a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y t o

30

o f Hieun T s i a n g ' s v i s i t was Kushan by r a c e . 31

The Kushans were a

bran ch o f t h e Yue Chi t r i b e o f t h e T u r k i nomads who g r a d u a l l y


s ucc ee ded i n c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e i r power o v e r t h e Punjab and A f g h a n is
t a n d u r i n g t h e f i r s t two c e n t u r i e s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a .

The

g r e a t e s t r u l e r o f t h e Kushan d y n a s ty was Kanishka who r e i g n e d from


120 A.D. t o 160 A.D.

32

Kanishka became a Buddhist and un der h i s

p a t r o n a g e Gandhara, as w e ll as t h e Kabul V a l l e y , became g r e a t


c e n t e r s o f Buddhist l e a r n i n g . 33
Kanishka and h i s immediate s u c c e s s o r s borrowed t h e term
"King o f Kings" from t h e P e r s i a n s and us ed i t on t h e i r c o in s with
Greek

l e t t e r s ">A0NAN0^A0'.34

The te r m a p p a r e n t l y came t o d e n o te

t h e l a t e r p e t t y Kushan p r i n c i p a l i t i e s which spru ng up i n w e s t e r n


Punjab and e a s t e r n A f g h a n is t a n a f t e r t h e d e a t h o f Kanishka.

Thus

Gupta emperor, Samudra Gupta, who r e i g n e d from 335 t o 375 A . D , ,


claimed a c t s o f homage from t h e " S a h i - S a h a n u s a h i " o f e a s t e r n

31M. A. S t e i n , "Der G e s c h i c h t e d e r S a h i s von Kabul,"


F e s t g r u s s an Rudolf von Roth zum Doktor J u b i l 3 u m . D is cu ss ed i n
Ray, 0 . c i t . , I , 61.
32Smith,

0 .

c i t . , pp. 263-67.

33I b i d . , pp. 272-85.


31fRay, oja. c i t . , I , 55; Sm ith, o. c i t . , " C o n t e n ts o f p l a t e
o f I n d ia n c o in s (1) i n t h e B r i t i s h Museum," pages unnumbered ( a t
the beginning o f the book).

31

A f g h an istan and w e s te r n P u n j a b . 35

As l a t e as 450 A.D. th e coin s o f

t h e s e l a t e r Kushans b e a r t h e word

^AONANOPAO. 36

The Arab g e o g r a p h e r - h i s t o r i a n A l- B alad h u r i i n Kitab Futuh


Al-Bui dan r e f e r s t o t h e r u l e r o f Kabul i n 670 as "Kabul S h a h . " 37
At t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e l e v e n t h c e n tu r y A r ab iciz ed Turkish s c h o l a r
A l- B ir u n i p r o v id e d a somewhat meager account o f t h e r u l e r s o f e a s t e r n
A f g h a n ista n and w e s te rn Punjab:
The Hindus had kings r e s i d i n g i n Kabul, Turks
who were s a i d t o be o f T i b e t a n o r i g i n . The f i r s t
o f them, B a r h a ta k in , came i n t o t h e c o untry and
e n t e r e d a cave i n K a b u l . . . . H e wore T urkish d r e s s ,
a s h o r t t u n i c open in f r o n t , a high h a t , boo ts
and a r m s . . . . H e bro u g h t t h o s e c o u n t r i e s under h i s
sway and r u l e d them under t h e t i t l e o f a s h a h iy a
o f Kabul. The r u l e remained among t h e d es ce nden ts
f o r g e n e r a t i o n s , t h e number o f which i s s r i d t o be
about s i x t y . . . . O n e o f t h i s s e r i e s o f k i n g s was
Kanik, t h e same who i s s a i d t o have b u i l t th e
Vihar a ( B u d d h is t ic monastery) o f P u r u s h a v a r . . . .
The l a s t k in g o f t h i s r a c e was Lagaturman and h i s
V a z ir was K a l l a r , a Brahman.. . t h e l a s t k i n g o f
t h i s T ib e ta n house a f t e r i t had h e ld t h e r o y a l
power f o r so long a p e r i o d , l e t i t by de gree s l i p
from h i s h a n d s . . . . N o w th e v i z i r p u t him i n chains
and im prisoned him f o r c o r r e c t i o n , b u t t h e r e he
h i m s e l f found r u l i n g s wee t, h i s r i c h e s en ab led
him t o c a r r y out h i s p l a n s , and so he occupied
t h e r o y a l t h r o n e . 38

35Ray,

0.

c i t . , I , 55 and 57.

36Numismatic C h r o n i c l e , 3rd Ser . , XIII (1893), 167-69.


37A 1 - B a la d h u r i , Kitab Futuh A l-Buldan , p a r t I I , t r a n s . from
Arabic by F r a n c i s C. Murgotten and P h i l i p K. H i t t i (New York:
Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1916), p. 147.
38A1 B e r u n i s I n d i a , t r a n s . by Edward Sachau (London: Trubner
and Company, 1888), I I , 10-13.

32

Kanik d o u b t l e s s l y r e f e r s t o th e Kushan emperor Kanishka who


did b u i l d a g r e a t monastery at Pes ha war .39

The u s u r p a t i o n o f th e

Brahmin V a z i r , K a l l a r , supposedly took p l a c e i n t h e middle o f th e


n i n t h c entury A.D.46

Thus, ac co rd in g t o A l - B i r u n i , th e r u l e r s o f

e a s t e r n Af gh an istan p r i o r t o t h e middle o f t h e n i n t h century were


des ce nden ts o f t h e Turki t r i b e o f t h e Kushans and a r e a c c o r d in g ly
known as the T u r k i - S h a h i.

The view t h a t t h e Turki Shahis were th e

des ce nd en ts o f t h e Kushan r u l e r s was upheld by Vincent Smith and


M. A. S t e i n . 41
" p r o b a b l e . " 42

Ray only p o i n t s out t h a t t h i s connection i s


Percy Sykes f a i l s t o touch t h e i s s u e a l t o g e t h e r . 43

F r a s e r - T y t l e r s t a t e s t h a t Hieun Tsiang found in Kapisi a "Turkish


(or E p h t h a l i t e ) r u l e r . " 44

I f t h e r u l e r was an E p h t h a l i t e , he could

not have been a Kushan.45

Majumdar merely d e s c r i b e s th e r u l e r as

"an I n d ia n , K s h a t t r i y a by c a s t e . " 46
39Smith,
Ray,

0.

0 .

c i t . , p. 277.

40The e x a c t d a t e o f t h e event i s s u b j e c t t o d i s p u t e .
c i t . , I , 72-76.

See

41Smith, o p . c i t . , p. 388; S t e i n , "Die Geschichte d e r Sahis


von Kabul," i n Ray, oj>. c i t . , I , 62.
42Ray, o]D. c i t . , I , 71.
43Sykes, o. c i t . , I , 154.
44F r a s e r - T y t l e r , o p . c i t . , p. 24.
45The E p h t h a l i t e or Huns (Arabic H a y ta l, Chinese Ye-Tha) were
a nomadic peo ple who o r i g i n a l l y l i v e d t o the n o r th o f t h e Great Wall
o f China. In 425 A.D. th e Huns b u r s t upon C en tr al As ia, and w i t h i n
f i f t y y e a r s t h e i r empire i n clu d ed a l l o f C e n t r a l Asia, Afghanistan
and a g r e a t e r p a r t o f n o r th w e s te r n I n d i a . The ir power was f i n a l l y
crushed by th e combined e f f o r t s o f Khusru Anushirvan, t h e P e r s i a n
monarch, and t h e w estern Turks around 554 A.D. See Sykes, o p . c i t . ,
I , 143.
46Majumdar, o. c i t . , p. 9.

33

As was a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , Hieun T s i a n g d e s c r i b e s t h e r u l e r
o f K a p is i as a " K s h a t t r y a . "

S i n c e K s h a t t r i y a i s t h e second c a s t e o f

Hinduism, c o u l d t h e r u l e r be o f Hindu o r i g i n ?

None o f t h e s c h o l a r s

m e n t io n e d i n t h i s p a p e r a c c e p t s t h e t h e o r y o f t h e Hindu o r i g i n s o f
th e r u l e r s o f K apisi.

Ray b r u s h e d t h i s i d e a a s i d e i n a few s e n t e n c e s :

By t h i s t h e p i l g r i m p r o b a b l y meant n o t h i n g
more t h a n t h a t t h e k in g b e l o n g e d t o t h e Brahmanical
f a i t h ; b u t ev-en i f he was r i g h t i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n
o f t h e c a s t e o f t h e p r i n c e i t p r e s e n t s no i n s u p e r a b l e
d ifficu lties.
The h i s t o r y o f t h e g r a d u a l a s s i m i l a
t i o n o f t h e Yueh -ch i h o r d e s i n t h e f o l d o f Hinduism
i s w e l l kn o w n .. . . T h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t
t h i s p r o c e s s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n d i d n o t c o n t i n u e amongst
t h e s u c c e s s o r s o f t h e G r e a t Kusans; and i t i s q u i t e
l i k e l y t h a t some o f t h e i r c h i e f s even c l a i m e d
K s a t r i y a r a n k . 47
The c a p i t a l o f t h e kingdom o f K a p i s i a t t h e tim e o f Hieun
T s i a n g ' s v i s i t was t h e c i t y o f K a p i s i , l o c a t e d on t h e banks o f t h e
Ghorband R i v e r some f o r t y m i l e s n o r t h o f t h e p r e s e n t c i t y o f K a b u l . 48
The h i s t o r y o f t h e kingdom o f Z a b u l i s t a n which l a y s o u t h o f
t h e kingdom o f K a p i s i i s e x t r e m e l y o b s c u r e .
t h e kingdom i n 630 A.D.

Hieun T s i a n g v i s i t e d

He c a l l e d i t T s a o - t a o r T s a o - l i :

T h is c o u n t r y i s a b o u t 7000 l i i n c i r c u i t ,
t h e c a p i t a l o f which i s c a l l e d Hosina (Ghazna)
. . . . M o u n t a i n s and v a l l e y s s u c c e e d each o t h e r ,
w ith p la in s in te rv e n in g , f i t f o r c u l t i v a t i o n . . . .
The c l i m a t e i s c o l d ; t h e r e a r e f r e q u e n t h a i l and
snow s t o r m s . The p e o p l e a r e n a t u r a l l y l i g h t
h e a r t e d and i m p u l s i v e . . . . T h e i r w r i t i n g and langua ge
d i f f e r from t h o s e o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . Althoug h

47Ray, o p . c i t . , I , 6 1 - 6 2 .
48 F r a s e r - T y t l e r , 0 . c i t . , p . 9.
A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t i n 328 B.C.

The c i t y was founded by

34

t h e y worsh ip a hundred s p i r i t s , y e t th e y a l s o
g r e a t l y r e v e r e t h e t h r e e p r e c i o u s ones (Buddhism).
The r e i g n i n g s o v e r e i g n . . . i s t h e s u c c e s s o r o f a
long l i n e o f k i n g s . ***
The c a p i t a l o f t h i s kingdom, Ho-Si-Na, has been i d e n t i f i e d
by some s c h o l a r s w i th modem G h a z n i . 50

Numismatic ev id en ce p o i n t s

out t o a l i n e o f powerful r u l e r s i n Z a b u l i s t a n d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t h
c e n t u r y A.D.

The t i t l e o f Shahi i s used by t h e s e r u l e r s .

One o f

them, Shahi T i g i n , c a l l s h i m s e l f l o r d o f Takan ( I n d i a ) and Khurasan.


Another r u l e r , Vasudeva, c a l l s h i m s e l f t h e r u l e r o f Z a b u l i s t a n and
Multan.

The c o in s o f t h e s e two k in g s u s e b o t h t h e P a h la v i and t h e

I n d ia n s c r i p t .

The word Z a b u l i s t a n a p p e a r s on t h e c o in s o f some

k in g s who r u l e d t h e t e r r i t o r y w a te r e d by t h e Helmand R iv e r and i t s


t r i b u t a r i e s . 51

The c o n n e c t io n between t h e Shahis o f Kapisi and

t h o s e o f Z a b u l i s t a n i s p r e s e n t l y n o t known.

Sind
The p r e s e n t s t a t e o f Sind i n West P a k i s t a n cover s an a r e a
o f 57,117 s q u a r e m i l e s and has a p o p u l a t i o n o f 6 , 4 2 4 , 6 9 9 . 52
^ S i-Y u -K i, I I , 283-84.
50Thomas W a t t e r s , On Yuan Chwang's T r a v e l s i n I n d i a (629-645
A.D.) , I n d ia n e d i t i o n (D el hi: Munshi Ram Manohar L a i , 1961), I I , 625.
Also, Smith, oj>. e f t . , map f a c i n g p. 354. Cunningham, however, i n
c lu d e s Kandhar which i s n e a r l y 200 m i le s s o u t h o f Ghazni i n t h e
t e r r i t o r i e s o f t h e kingdom o f K a p i s i. Alexander Cunningham, Ancient
Geography o f I n d i a (London: Trubner and Company, 1871), pp. 19-20.
510n t h e c o i n s o f Z a b u l i s t a n , see Alexan de r Cunningham, L a t e r
I n d o - S c y t h ia n s ( V a r a n a s i , I n d i a : I n d o l o g i c a l B o o ks tore , 1962), pp. 269272, 291.
52Kazi Saied- Uddin Ahmad, " S i n d , " Encycl oped ia B r i t a n i c a , 1972
e d . , Vol. XX, 559.

35

Almost th e whole o f t h e c e n t r a l p l a i n from


t h e Panjnad t o th e Arabian Sea i s marked by t h e
changes i n t h e co urse o f t h e Indus o r i t s
t r i b u t a r i e s . . . . A r i d i t y l i m i t s f o r e s t s t o about
1,200 sq ua re m ile s n e a r t h e Indus from Chotki t o
th e m i d - d e l t a . . . .The c l i m a t e i s a r i d and extreme.
The w i n t e r s a r e m ild and t h e summers v e r y h o t ,
t h e te m p e r a tu re f r e q u e n t l y r i s i n g t o 114 f a h r e n h e i t
and o c c a s i o n a l l y t o 120 f a h r e n h e i t . . . . R a i n f a l l i s
both s c a n t y and i r r e g u l a r , t h e mean annual f o r
Hyderabad b e i n g n in e i n c h e s . The c l i m a t e o f th e
c o a s t a l s t r i p i s eq uable and h u m id .53
P r e s e n t - d a y Sind i s b o r d e r e d on t h e n o r t h and west by th e
P a k i s t a n p r o v in c e s o f t h e Punjab and B a l u c h i s t a n r e s p e c t i v e l y and
on t h e e a s t and s o u t h e a s t by th e I n d ia n s t a t e s o f R a jas th an and
Gujarat.

The Arabian Sea makes i t s s o u th e r n boundary.


At t h e time o f t h e Arab i n v a s i o n i n 712 A . D . , Sind was b e in g

r u l e d by t h e Brahmin dynas ty which had bee n founded by a Brahmin


named Chach i n 622 A.D.

This d y r a s t y had been prec ed ed by t h e Rai

dy n as ty which had r u l e d Sind s i n c e 450 A.D.


mentions t h r e e r u l e r s o f t h e Rai d y n a s t y ,

The Chachnamah5t|
namely, Diw aj i, h i s son

53I b i d . , p. 560. For i n f o r m a t i o n on th e geography o f Sind,


s e e a l s o H. T. S o r l e y , G a z e t t e e r o f t h e Province
Sind ( 1907) (L a h o r e :
G a z e te e r C e l l , Board o f Revenue, 1968-69); Manekj i P i t h a w a l l a , A
P h y s i c a l Economic Geography o f S in d , t h e Lower Indus D e l t a ( K a r a c h i :
S indhi Adabi Board, 1959).
51*The Chachnamah i s t h e e a r l i e s t ac count o f Sind which con
t a i n s i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e Rai and t h e Brahmin d y n a s t i e s . The
work was t r a n s l a t e d from Arabic i n t o P e r s i a n by Muhammad A li b i n
Hamid b i n Abu Bakr Kufi i n 1216 A.D. According t o t h i s t r a n s l a t o r ,
he found t h e m a nusc ri pt i n Sind with Maulana Kazi Ism ail whose
a n c e s t o r s had come t o Sind w it h t h e Arab army i n 712 A.D. The manu
s c r i p t had been w r i t t e n , ac c o r d in g t o Kazi I s m a i l , by one o f h i s
ancestors.

36

S i h r a s and S i h r a s ' son S a h a s i . 55

However, two a d d i t i o n a l names a r e

m e n ti o n e d i n l U h f a t a l - K i r a m , a P e r s i a n work w r i t t e n by A l i S h e r Kani
i n 1774-75 i n I n d i a , namely S i h r a s I I , son o f S a h a s i , and S a h a s i I I ,
s o n o f S i h r a s I I . 56

T h i s work a l s o a s s i g n s a p e r i o d o f 137 y e a r s t o

t h e f i v e r u l e r s o f t h e Rai d y n a s t y . 57
The o r i g i n s o f t h e Rai d y n a s t y h av e b e e n much d e b a t e d by t h e
histo rian s.

S i r A. Cunningham was t h e f i r s t p e r s o n t o advance t h e

view t h a t t h e r u l e r s o f t h e Rai d y n a s t y were c e r t a i n l y d e s c e n d e n t s


o f t h e Huns who had i n v a d e d I n d i a i n t h e t h i r d q u a r t e r o f t h e f i f t h
c e n t u r y A . D . 58

The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a s u p p o r t e d Cunningham's

v i e w , 59 and so d i d Henry Cousens i n The A n t i q u i t i e s o f Sind and


B a l u c h i s t a n p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 2 9 . 60

A. F. H o e r n le i n 1889 b e l i e v e d t h a t

55Chachnamah, t r a n s . from P e r s i a n by M ir za Fredunbeg


K a l ic h b e g ( K a r a c h i: The C o m m is s i o n e r 's P r e s s , 1 9 0 0 ) , pp. 12- 13 ;
Also H. M. E l l i o t , The H i s t o r y o f I n d i a as T o ld by i t s Own
H i s t o r i a n s , Revised e d i t i o n ( C a lc u tta :
S i s i r Gu pta, 1 9 5 6 ) , c h a p t e r
i i i , "Chach-Nama," I I I , 38-39.
56A l i S h e r K ani, T u h f a t a l - K i r a m , t r a n s . by J .
( C a l c u t t a : B i s h o p ' s C o l l e g e P r e s s , 1 8 4 3 ) , p . 5.

Postans

57I b i d . , p . 6.
58Cunningham s e t f o r t h h i s views a b o u t t h e Rai d y n a s t y i n a
p a p e r he r e a d b e f o r e t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r i e n t a l Congress i n London
i n 1892. See S i r A. Cunningham, " L a t e r I n d o - S c y t h i a n s , White Huns
o r E p h t h a l i t e s Numismatic C h r o n i c l e , XII ( 1 8 9 4 ) , 243-93.
59Impe ri a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a , XXII ( C a l c u t t a :
o f Government P r i n t i n g , 1 9 0 8 ) , 177.

Supritendent

80Henry C o u s e n s , The A n t i q u i t i e s o f S i n d w i t h H i s t o r i c a l
O u t l i n e , Vol. 4 6 , i n The A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Survey o f I n d i a , I m p e r i a l
S e r i e s ( C a l c u t t a : C e n t r a l P u b l i s h i n g B r a n c h , 1 9 2 9 ) , p. 7.

37

Sind was a c t \ i a l l y conquered by t h e Huns and h i n t e d a t t h e Hunnish


o r i g i n s o f t h e Rai d y n a s t y . 61

I n d ia n h i s t o r i a n s a r e e i t h e r s i l e n t

about t h e o r i g i n s o f t h i s d y n a s ty o r do n o t agr ee w ith t h e Western


sch o lars.
N e i t h e r R. C. Majumdar n o r H. C. Ray d i s c u s s e s t h e o r i g i n s
o f t h e Rai d y n a s t y . 62

In 1921 C. V. Vaidya advanced t h e view t h a t

i t was o f Mauryan o r i g i n and hence i t s r u l e r s were t h e d e s c e n d e n ts


o f t h e i l l u s t r i o u s Maurya d u n a s ty which was e s t a b l i s h e d i n I n d i a
im m ediate ly a f t e r t h e i n v a s i o n o f A lexan de r t h e G r e a t about t h r e e
c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e C h r i s t . 63

In 1964, B. D. Mirchandani i n an a r t i c l e ,

"S in d and t h e White Huns," ar gued t h a t S in d was n e v e r conquered by


t h e Huns.

He r e j e c t e d t h e t h e o r y o f t h e Hunnish o r i g i n s o f t h e Rai

d y n a s t y , b u t f a i l e d t o e s t a b l i s h any new b a s i s f o r i t s o r i g i n s . 64
The Rai d y n a s ty r u l e d Sind f o r a p e r i o d o f 137 y e a r s . 65

The

c a p i t a l o f t h e kingdom was a t Alor n e a r t h e modem c i t y o f Rohri

61 For H o e m l e ' s view see P roceeding s o f t h e A s i a t i c S o c i e t y


o f Bengal f o r 1889, p. 229.
62R. C. Majumdar, "The Arab I n v a s i o n o f I n d i a , " Decca U n iv e r
s i t y Supplement , B u l l e t i n XV (1931); H. C. Ray, The D y n a s tic H i s t o r y
o f N o r t h e rn I n d i a , Vol. I , c h a p t e r i , " D y n a s ti c H i s t o r y o f S i n d . "
63C. V. Vaidya, H i s t o r y o f Medieval Hindu I n d i a (Poona:
O r i e n t a l Book Supp ly in g Agency, 1921-1926), I , 19.
64B. D. M irch an dan i, "S in d an<;. t h e White Huns," J o u r n a l o f
t h e A s i a t i c S o c i e t y o f Bombay, N.S. v o l . XXXIX (1964 ), 61 -9 3.
65Kani, o p . c i t . , p. 6. This i s t h e only work which a c t u a l l y
men tions t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e Rai d y n a s t y , though i t does n o t mention
any d a t e s .

(N. l a t i t u d e 27 3 9 ' , E. l o n g i t u d e 68 5 9 ' ) .

I t was "a l a r g e c i t y

adorned w it h a l l kin ds o f p a l a c e s and v i l l a s , gardens and g r o v e s ,


r e s e r v o i r s and s tr e a m s , p a r t e r r e s and f lo w e r s .

I t was s i t u a t e d on

th e banks o f t h e Sihun (In du s) which th e y c a l l M ih r a n , " 66

At t h e

time o f t h e overthrow o f th e Rai dy nasty i n 622 A.D. t h e kingdom o f


Sind exten ded from t h e Arabian Sea i n t h e so u th t o beyond t h e c i t y
o f Multan i n th e n o r t h - - a d i s t a n c e o f more th a n 500 m i l e s .

It

s t r e t c h e d out a p proxim a te ly a hundred miles e a s t and a hundred m i le s


west from th e banks o f t h e I ndus .

I t was d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r p r o v in c e s

with h e a d q u a r t e r s a t Brahamanabad, S i w i s t a n , Iskandah and M u lt a n . 67


The l a t t e r two were i n t h e s o u th e r n Punjab.

The g e o g r a p h ic a l l o c a

t i o n o f t h e kingdom o f Sind i s o l a t e d i t from t h e main


developments o f North I n d i a .

political

Sind d i d n o t form a p a r t o f any o f t h e

g r e a t I n d ia n empires a f t e r t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a .

The Kushan Empire i n

t h e second c e n tu r y A.D., t h e Gupta Empire i n t h e f o u r t h and f i f t h


c e n t u r i e s A.D. and t h e empire o f Harsha i n t h e se ven th c e n tu r y A.D.

66The Chachnamah, p. 11.


67I b i d . , p . 12. With th e e x c e p t i o n o f Multan which has been
p o s i t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d , t h e l o c a t i o n s o f o t h e r s i t e s has given r i s e
t o much c o n t r o v e r s y . See Shahpurshah Hodivala, S t u d i e s in IndoMuslim H i s to r y (Bombay: H odivala, 1939), I , 78-88; II. T. Lambrick,
S in d , A General I n t r o d u c t i o n (Hyderabad: Sindlii Adabi Board, 1964),
pp. 156, 159, 161, 164; Malcolm R. Haig, Indus D e l t a Country (London:
K. P a u l , Trench, Trubner and Company, L t d . , 1894), pp. 50-70;
Malcolm Haig, "On t h e S i t e s o f Brahmanabad and Mansurah in S i n d , "
J o u r n a l o f th e Royal A s i a t i c S o c i e t y , N.S. XVI (1884), 281-94;
Henry Cousens, A n t i q u i t i e s o f S i n d , pp. 59-60, 67.

39

d id n o t in c l u d e Sind i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s . 68

As a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t ,

th e conquest o f Sind by t h e Huns is a m a t t e r o f c o n t r o v e r s y .

Sind

under t h e Rai dyn as ty and l a t e r under t h e Brahmin d y n a s ty , however,


came i n t o c o n f l i c t with t h e S assa nids o f I r a n and w ith th e p e t t y
s t a t e s o f s o u th e r n Punjab i n t h e n o r t h .

The p r e s e n t P a k i s t a n - I r a n

b o r d e r seems t o have been a c o n s t a n t bone o f c o n t e n t i o n between


I r a n and S i n d . 69

Rai S i h r a s I I , the f o u r t h r u l e r o f t h e Rai d y n a s ty ,

l o s t h i s l i f e i n a campaign a g a i n s t th e P e r s i a n s i n Makran.70
The f e r t i l e lands o f s o u t h e r n Punjab i n t h e n o r t h , however,
were more rew ar ding th an t h e dry lands o f Makran and S i s t a n in t h e
w es t.

The c i t y o f Multan i n p a r t i c u l a r was a s p e c i a l t a r g e t f o r t h e

S in d ia n expansion i n t h e n o r t h .

As has been p o i n t e d o u t , two o f t h e

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t e r s o f th e kingdom o f Sind were l o c a t e d in s o u th e r n


Punjab.

Chinese Buddhist p i l g r i m , Hiuen T s ia n g , who was i n t h e

neighborhood o f Sind i n 642, found t h a t Multan was n o t a p a r t o f


Sind b u t was a dependency o f t h e kingdom o f Cheka with h e a d q u a r t e r s

68For t h e e x t e n t o f t h e s e e m pire s, see Smith, Ea r l y H i s t o r y


o f I n d i a , pp. 274, 300 and t h e map f a c i n g i t showing th e e x t e n t o f
th e Gupta em pire , and 354 and t h e map f a c i n g i t showing th e e x t e n t
o f H a r s h a ' s empire.
69P r e s e n t - d a y P a k i s t a n - I r a n boundary s t a r t s a t 61 E. l o n g i
tu d e on t h e c o a s t o f t h e Arabian Sea and runs i n a n o r t h - e a s t e r l y
d i r e c t i o n t o appro ximately 63 E. l o n g i t u d e and 27.50 N. l a t i t u d e .
I t then proce ed s i n a n o r t h - w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n t o 61 E. l o n g i t u d e
and 30 N. l a t i t u d e .
70The Chachnamah, p. 13; Kani, o j j . c i t . , p. 5. N e i t h e r o f
t h e s e works g iv e s any d a t e f o r t h i s i n c i d e n t . For a d i s c u s s i o n
s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e P e r s i a n Monarch who d e f e a t e d S i h r a s I I was
p r o b a b ly Khusru P a r v iz (590-628 A .D .) , see M irchandani, o p . c i t . ,
p . 82.

40

a t t h e modern c i t y o f S i a l k o t i n n o r t h e a s t e r n
b o r d e r s o f K a s h m ir . 71

Pakistan clo se to the

According t o t h e Chachnamah, Multan was one

of the a d m in is tra tiv e cen ters o f S ihras I I , th e fo u rth r u l e r o f the


Rai d y n a s t y . 72

By 622 A .D ., however, Multan was a g a i n i n t h e p o s s e s

s i o n o f t h e r u l e r o f S i n d . 73

Sihras II l o s t h i s l i f e a g a in s t the

P e r s i a n s and a b r i e f chaos f o ll o w e d a f t e r which h i s s o n , S a h a s i I I ,


s a t on t h e t h r o n e . 74

Upon t h e d e a t h o f S a h a s i I I , a n o t h e r p e r i o d o f

chaos f o llo w e d and pea ce was n o t r e s t o r e d f o r a t l e a s t a n o t h e r


q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y . 75

I t i s t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l e t o conclude t h a t

d u r i n g t h e s e c h a o t i c ti m e s Multan was l o s t by S in d t o t h e kingdom


o f Cheka and n o t r e c o v e r e d u n t i l a f t e r t h e v i s i t o f Hiuen T s ia n g i n
642 A.D.
S a h a s i I I d i e d w i t h o u t any h e i r and t h e t h r o n e was s e c u r e d
by a Brahmin m i n i s t e r , Chach, who m a r r i e d t h e widow o f t h e d e c e a s e d
k i n g . 76

The d a t e o f Chach s s u c c e s s i o n i s a c t u a l l y give n in

T u h f a t a l- K ir a m as b e i n g " a b o u t t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e H i j e r a . " 77
T his d a t e has p r e s e n t e d h i s t o r i a n s w ith a s e r i o u s pr oblem.

When

Hiuen T s i a n g v i s i t e d t h e kingdom o f Sin-T u i n 642 A .D ., he o b s e rv e d

71S i - Y u - K i , I I , 274.
72The Chachnamah, p. 12.
73I b i d . , p. 28.
74I b i d . , p. 13.
75I b i d . , pp. 21-36.
76I b i d . , pp. 18-22; Kani, . c i t . , pp. 6 - 7 .
77Kani, o p . c i t . , p. 7.

41

t h a t " t h e k i n g i s o f t h e Sudra c a s t e . " 78

According t o t h e Chachnamah

Chach r u l e d f o r f o r t y y e a r s and was succ ee de d by h i s b r o t h e r Chandar


who r u l e d f o r e i g h t y e a r s . 79

A f t e r C h a n d a r's d e a t h t h e kingdom was

d i v i d e d between h i s son Duraj , who r u l e d a t Brahamanabad, and D a h i r ,


t h e younger son o f Chach, who r u l e d a t A lo r .

A f t e r a y e a r , Duraj

was o u s t e d by D a h a r s i a h , t h e o l d e r son o f Chac h.80

For t h e nex t

t h i r t y y e a r s t h e kingdom o f Sind was d i v i d e d between Dahir and


D a h a r sia h .

A f t e r D a h a r s i a h ' s d e a t h t h e kingdom was r e - u n i t e d by

Dahar who r u l e d f o r e i g h t more y e a r s b e f o r e he was a t t a c k e d by t h e


king o f Ram al .81

The Chachnamah t a k e s up t h e Arab i n v a s i o n o f Sind

imm ed iately a f t e r t h e a t t a c k by t h e k i n g o f Ramal.

The d a t e s f o r

t h e r u l e r s o f t h e Brahmin d y n a s ty can be a r r a n g e d as f o l l o w s : 82
Chach
Chandar

(Dahir
Duraj
fDahir

40 y e a r s . . . A.D.

622-662

8 years . . .A .D .

662-669

1year

. . .A .D .

669-670

30 y e a r s . . . A.D.

670-700

(Dah arsiah
D ahir

8 years
+ X y e a r s . . . A.D. 700-708
+ X years
Total =

87 y e a r s + X y e a r s

78S i - Y u - K i, I I , 272.
79The Chachnamah, p. 39.
80I b i d . , p. 42.
81I b i d . , p. 55.
82Majumdar, "The Arab I n v a s i o n , " p. 12.

42

Dahir was k i l l e d by th e Arabs in 712 A.D.83

Supposing t h a t

as l i t t l e as one ye a r had p a s s e d between t h e Ramal e p iso d e and th e


d eath o f Da hir, th e t o t a l number o f y e a r s f o r t h e Brahmin dyn as ty
adds up t o 88 s o l a r y e a r s o f I n d i a o r 90 l u n a r y e a r s o f t h e I s l a m i c
calendar.

Thus t h e d a t e in Tub f a t al-Kira m f o r t h e a c c e s s i o n o f

Chach seems t o be c o r r e c t , i . e . , 622 A.D.


On t h e b a s i s o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s u p p l i e d by t h e Chinese
pilgrim s

c e r t a i n h i s t o r i a n s concluded t h a t Chach could n ot have

ascended t o th e t h ro n e u n t i l a f t e r 642 A.D.

Cunningham, Vaidya and

Smith up held t h i s v i e w . 01* Ray simply s t a t e d t h a t

"as i t i s supposed

t h a t Yuan Chwang could n o t have committed so p a l p a b l e a m ist ake as


t o d e s c r i b e a Brahman as a Sudra, t h e p e r i o d o f t h e r u l e o f t h e Rai
dy nas ty i s extended t i l l t h e middle o f th e s eventh c e n t u r y A.D."85
Majumdar c a l c u l a t e d t h e d a t e o f Chach's a c c e s s i o n as 622 A.D. and
ob se rved t h a t t h e p i l g r i m s d i d not a c t u a l l y v i s i t S i n d . 85

The p r o b

lem was d e a l t with i n some d e t a i l by B. D. Mirchandani in 1964 when


he argued with c o n s i d e r a b l e f o rc e t h a t t h e kingdom o f Sin-Tu which th e
Chinese p i l g r i m s had v i s i t e d was n o t t h e same as S ind, b u t was a
smal l kingdom in w e s te rn Punjab s i t u a t e d on t h e n o r th w e s t

o f S i n d . 87

B3The Chachnamah, pp. 142-43.


81*For Cunningham, see M irchandani, o j d . c i t . , p. 69; Vaidya,
Medieval Hindu I n d i a , I , 19; Smith, E a rly H i s to r y o f I n d i a , p. 369.
85Ray, The D yna stic H i s to r y o f Northern I n d i a , I , 5.
86Majumdar, "The Arab I n v a s i o n , " pp. 25-26.
87Mirchandani, "S in d and t h e White Huns," pp. 85-93. "The
long narrow s t r i p o f c o u n tr y bounded on t h e west by t h e Sulaiman
mountains and on t h e e a s t by t h e r i v e r I nd us, e x t e n d i n g below t h e
S a l t Range t o t h e p o i n t where t h a t r i v e r i s j o i n e d by t h e w a te r s o f
t h e Punjab, now known as Deraj a t , co rre sponds t o t h e p i l g r i m ' s
Sin-Tu kingdom."

43

The p i l g r i m ' s

o b s e r v a t i o n about t h e c a s t e o f t h e king o f Sin-Tu,

t h e r e f o r e , has no b e a r i n g on th e d a t e o f Chach's a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e
th ro n e o f Sind which took p l a c e , ac co rding t o Mirchandani, in 622 A.D.
Chach seems t o have been a vigorous r u l e r .

When he ascended

th e t h r o n e , t h e p r o v i n c i a l governors r e f u s e d t o acc ep t h i s a u t h o r i t y .
Chach proceeded t o p a c i f y t h e country and i n so doing g r e a t l y
expanded the a r e a o f t h e c o u n t r y . 88

On th e b a s i s o f in fo r m a tio n

s u p p li e d by th e Chachnamah, t h e kingdom o f Sind a t t h e time o f


Chach's death i n c l u d e d a g r e a t e r p a r t o f s outher n and c e n t r a l Punjab,
most of p r e s e n t - d a y P a k i s t a n i Buluch is tan i n c l u d i n g e a s t e r n Makran,
as wel l as th e e n t i r e p r e s e n t - d a y p r ovin c e o f S i n d . 89

In t h e n o r th

t h e kingdom o f Sind now bo r d ered on th e t e r r i t o r y o f Kashmir, i n t h e


no rthw es t

on Z a b u l i s t a n and in t h e e a s t i t sh are d a common f r o n t i e r

w ith p e t t y Rajput s t a t e s .

In th e n o r t h e a s t the e x p a n s i o n i s t p o l i c i e s

o f North India n Emperor Harsha, whose r u l e extended from 606 to 647


A.D., br ought him i n t o c o n f l i c t with Sind.

The r e s u l t was probably

"a b r i l l i a n t co n clu s io n o f h o s t i l i t i e s . " 90

Even d u r in g t h e l i f e t i m e

88For a d e t a i l e d account o f th e campaigns o f Chach, see The


Chachnamah, pp. 25-39.
89For i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p l a c e s mentioned i n The Chachnamah
in connection with th e campaigns o f Chach, see Cunningham, Ancient
Geography, pp. 270-94; Haig, Indus D e l t a Country, pp. 57-79; Cousens,
A n t i q u i t i e s of S i n d , pp. 48-70, 76-79; Le S t r a n g e , ?.ands o f th e
E a st e r n C a l i p h a t e , pp. 330-33, 347; A l - B a l a d h u r i ,
c i t . , pp.
210-13.
90R. S. T r i p a t h y , H i s t o r y o f Kanauj t o t h e Muslim Conquest
(Delhi: M o ti lal B a n a rs id a s s , 1959), p. 114. The d a te f o r t h i s
c o n f l i c t i s not known.

44

o f Chach t h e Arabs had overrun P e r s i a and had become t h e w estern


neig hbo rs o f Sind.

Rajputana and G u ja r a t
At t h e time o f t h e Arab i n v a s i o n , Sind was bordere d on th e
e a s t and s o u t h e a s t by numerous p e t t y kingdoms.
powerful o f t h e s e s t a t e s was t h a t o f Kanauj.

One o f t h e most
Emperor Harsha Verdhana,

who r u l e d a l a r g e p a r t o f n o r t h e r n I n d ia from h i s c a p i t a l a t Kanauj,


had d ied in 647 A.D.91
gloom surrounds i t s

For th e n e x t h a l f c e n t u r y , "an im pen etra ble

(Kanauj) h i s t o r y . " 92

"When t h e o b s c u r i t y l i f t s

we f i n d a powerful monarch, Yasovarman, occupying i t s t h r o n e . " 93


The d a te s o f Yasovarman's r u l e a r e s u b j e c t t o d i s p u t e , b u t " h i s
r e i g n may be p la c e d between A.D. 700 and 740. " 9lf

The t e r r i t o r i a l

am bitions o f Yasovarman brought him i n t o c o n f l i c t wit h t h e Chalukya


dy nas ty o f t h e Deccan in t h e south and t h e Kashmirian r u l e r
L a lita d ity a in the north.
run by L a l i t a d i t y a . 95

Yasovarman's dominions were f i n a l l y o v e r

However, b e f o r e t h e Kashmir-Kanauj c o n f l i c t

9 M a r s h a ' s empire in c lu d e d most o f t h e t e r r i t o r y l y in g n o r t h


o f t h e Narmada R iv er , b u t excluded Kashmir, Western Panjab, Sind and
Rajputana.
92R. C. Majumdar, e d . , The C l a s s i c a l Age, Vol. I l l in t h e
s e r i e s H is to r y and Cul tu re o f the I ndia n P e o p le , ed. by R. C. Majumdar
(Bombay: Bharatya Vidhya, 1955), p. 128.
9 3I b i d .
9tfI b i d . , p. 131. For o t h e r views on t h i s c o n t r o v e r s y , see
Rama S. T r i p a t h i , H i s to r y o f Kanauj t o t h e Muslim Conquest, pp. 19497; Smith, "The H i s to r y o f th e City o f Kanauj and o f King Yasovarman,"
J o u r n a l o f Royal A s i a t i c S o c ie ty (1908), p. 784.
95Majumdar, The C l a s s i c a l Age, pp. 130-31; Goetz, 0 . c i t . ,
pp. 3-8; T r i p a t h i , o jd . c i t . , pp. 197-98; R a j a t a r a n g i n i , I , 144-46.

45

Yasovarman r e a l i z e d t h e Arab t h r e a t from S in d and a c c o r d i n g l y , i n


c o o p e r a t i o n w ith K ashm ir, to o k m i l i t a r y and d i p l o m a t i c s t e p s t o check
it.

Kanauj was conquered by t h e G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a s o f R a jp u ta n a

"som etim e b e f o r e t h e y e a r 836 A .D ."96

Under t h e G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a

Kanauj became a p o w e rfu l kingdom and e f f e c t i v e l y b lo c k e d t h e Arab


advance t o t h e e a s t . 97
The G a n g e tic V a lle y where t h e c i t y o f Kanauj was l o c a t e d i s
s e p a r a t e d from S in d by t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f R a ja s th a n o r R a jp u ta n a
in In d ia .

Most o f R a jp u ta n a and p a r t o f S ind l i e i n t h e G re a t I n d ia n

D e s e rt o r T har c o v e r in g a p p ro x im a te ly 100,000 s q u a re m i l e s . 98
Except i n t h e extrem e s o u t h , r a i n f a l l i s
u n d e r , g e n e r a l l y w e ll u n d e r , 10 i n c h e s . Mean
m onthly te m p e r a t u r e s ra n g e from 60 F a h r e n h e it
(J a n u a ry ) t o 95 F a h r e n h e it (May) b u t d i u r n a l
r a n g e s a r e n a t u r a l l y h i g h - -2 0-30 a t a l l s e a s o n s .
V e g e ta tio n i s e x tre m e ly s t u n t e d and th o rn y
open s c r u b , l a r g e l y a c a c i a : " th e term 't r e e *
i s r a t h e r a c o u r te o u s acknowledgement o f d e s c e n t
th a n an i n d i c a t i o n o f s i z e " . . . . P a s t o r a l i s m i s
i m p o r t a n t , sh eep and g o a ts p r o v id i n g raw m a t e r i a l s
f o r t h e c r a f t s o f t h e few to w n s ; and t h e camel
i s s t i l l one o f t h e c h i e f means o f t r a n s p o r t . 99
In t h i s v a s t s t r e t c h o f t h e d e s e r t no c e n t r a l i z e d a u t h o r i t y
e x i s t e d a t t h e tim e o f t h e Arab i n v a s i o n o f S in d .

V ario u s R ajp u t

c h i e f s had c a rv e d o u t in d e p e n d e n t kingdoms f o r th e m s e lv e s .

96Ray, o p . c i t . , I , 72.
97See b elo w , c h a p t e r V I I , p . 162.
98S p a t e , . c i t . , p . 567.
" i b i d . , p . 568.

46

The most im p o rta n t R ajput s t a t e was t h a t o f t h e G u r ja r a P r a t h i h a r a s founded by H a ric h a n d ra abo ut t h e m idd le o f th e s i x t h


c e n tu r y .

I t c e n t e r e d around Jodhpur i n p r e s e n t - d a y R a j a s t h a n . 100

C hinese B uddhist p i l g r a i m Hiuen T sian g v i s i t e d t h i s kingdom d u r in g


t h e f o u r t h decade o f th e sev en th c e n tu r y A .D .:
The c o u n try i s 5000 l i o r so i n c i r c u i t ,
th e c a p i t a l , which i s c a l l e d P i - l o - m o - l o i s
30 l i o r so a r o u n d . . . . The p o p u la t io n i s d e n s e ;
th e e s ta b lis h m e n t s a re r i c h and w e ll s u p p lie d
w ith m a t e r i a l s ( w e a lth ) . They m o stly a re
u n b e l i e v e r s ; a few a re a t t a c h e d t o t h e law o f
B uddha.. . .The king i s o f t h e K s h a tr iy a c a s t e .
He i s j u s t tw en ty y e a rs o ld ; he i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d
f o r wisdom, and he i s cou rageou s. He i s a deep
b e l i e v e r i n t h e law o f Buddha; and h ig h ly honours
men o f d i s t i n g u i s h e d a b i l i t y . 101
The young r u l e r m entioned by t h e p i l g r i m ,fmay be i d e n t i f i e d
w ith King T a ta , son o f N agabhata, about whom i t i s s a i d i n a r e c o rd
o f th e fa m ily t h a t , c o n s id e r i n g l i f e t o be e v a n e s c e n t as l i g h t i n g ,
he a b d ic a te d in fa v o u r o f h i s younger b r o t h e r , B hoja, and h i m s e l f
r e t i r e d t o a h e r m i t a g e . " 102

T a ta and h i s t h r e e s u c c e s s o rs p ro b a b ly

r u l e d between 640 and 720 A .D .103


g r e a t- g r a n d s o n o f T a ta .

The n e x t k i n g , S i l u k a , was t h e

He u n d erto ok a v ig o ro u s campaign o f expan

s i o n which e v e n t u a l l y made t h e G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a kingdom supreme

100E p ig r a p h ia I n d i c a , XVIII, 87-90, "The Jodfipur I n s c r i p t i o n


o f P r a t i h a r a Bauka."
101S i-Y u-K i, I I , 269-70.
K iu - c h e - lo .

Hiuen T siang c a l l s t h i s kingdom

102Majumdar, The C l a s s i c a l Age, p . 153.


103I b i d . , p. 154.

47

i n R a jp u ta n a .10** E i t h e r S i l u k a o r h i s s u c c e s s o r was on th e th ro n e
when th e Arabs o f Sind swept o v e r a g r e a t e r p a r t o f R ajp utan a and
G u ja ra t between 724 and 738 A .D .105
Of a l l th e R ajput s t a t e s t h a t o f J a is a l m e r was n e a r e s t t o
th e Arab t e r r i t o r i e s in S in d , and as such was th e f i r s t to b e a r th e
b r u n t o f th e Arab arms from S i n d . 106

At th e tim e o f th e Arab con

q u e s t o f S in d , t h e c l a n o f B h a t ti was r u l i n g i n J a i s a l m e r .
o r i g i n o f t h i s c la n i s n o t c l e a r . 107

The

The f i r s t B h a tti r u l e r who

came i n t o c o n f l i c t w ith th e Arabs o f Sind d u rin g th e f i r s t q u a r t e r o f


th e e i g h th c e n tu ry was T u n n o .108

Hard p r e s s e d by th e Arabs on t h e i r

w e ste rn b o r d e r , t h e B h a t t is were com pelled to expand eastw ard


1Q1+I b id . The Gurj a r a - P r a t h i h a r a kingdom now in c lu d e d th e
R ajput s t a t e o f B ikaner as w e ll.
105I b i d . The d a te s o f t h i s r u l e r a r e a m a tte r o f c o n tr o v e rs y .
According t o K rishna Kumar, " th e Arab in v a s io n took p la c e when e i t h e r
Yasovardhana or h i s so n , Canduka, was r u l i n g on th e th ro n e a t
J o d h p u r." " I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f B h a tti and D evaraja on th e Jodhpur
I n s c r i p t i o n o f P r a t i h a r a Bauka," In d ia n H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , XV
(1939), 601. Yasovardhana and Canduka were g r a n d f a t h e r and f a t h e r
re s p e c tiv e ly o f S ilu k a.
106On th e eve o f In d ia n independence i n August 1947, th e
p r i n c e l y s t a t e o f J a i s a l m e r was t h e most w e s t e r l y s t a t e o f R ajp u tan a
and i t b o rd e re d on t h e p ro v in c e o f Sind i n th e n o r th w e s t, west and
s o u th w e st. The c i t y o f J a i s a l m e r i s l e s s th a n 100 m iles from t h e
S in d -R ajp u tan a b o r d e r .
107A ccording to t h e b a r d i c t r a d i t i o n s o f J a i s a l m e r , th e
B h a t t is were members o f a t r i b e c a l l e d Yadu which l e f t I n d ia and
s e t t l e d in Z a b u li s t a n . C e n tu rie s l a t e r th e y r e - e n t e r e d I n d ia and
s e t t l e d i n w e ste rn R ajp u tan a. No d a te s have been a s s ig n e d to th e s e
movements. See James Tod, Annals and A n t i q u i t i e s o f R ajasth an o r
th e C e n tra l and Western R ajput S ta t e s o f I n d ia (London: Oxford
U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1920), Vol. I I , Book v i i , "Annals o f J a i s a l m e r , "
1169-1189.
108Tod, o p . c i t . , 1191-1193.

48

and c o n s e q u e n tly came i n t o c o n f l i c t w ith t h e G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a s o f


Jo d h p u r.

T his c o n f l i c t p rov ed d i s a s t r o u s t o t h e R a jp u t s t a t e s .
At t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e e i g h t h c e n tu r y A.D. t h e G u r j a r a -

P r a t h i h a r a s had e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r r u l e i n two o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f
w e s te rn I n d i a as w e l l - - s o u t h e r n G u j a r a t and w e s te rn Malwa.

The e x a c t

d a t e o f t h e fo u n d in g o f G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a d y n a s t i e s i n t h e s e two
r e g io n s i s n o t known.

However, i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t " t h e G u r ja r a s

o c c u p ie d t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s in G u j a r a t n o t lo n g a f t e r A.D. 610, and


e v e n t u a l l y Malwa, o r a t l e a s t a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f i t , a l s o p a s s e d
i n t o t h e i r h a n d s . " 109

In s o u th e r n G u j a r a t t h e G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a

c a p i t a l was t h e c i t y o f N a n d i p u r i. 110

At t h e tim e o f t h e Arab

i n v a s i o n s o f S in d , J a y a b h a t a I I I was r u l i n g i n N a n d i p u r i . 111

In

W estern Malwa t h e G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a c a p i t a l was t h e c i t y o f A vanti


(modem U j j a i n ) . 112

P r a t h i h a r a s o f N a n d ip u ri and A vanti were a b l e

t o o f f e r s u c c e s s f u l r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e Arabs from S ind betw een 724


and 738 A.D.
The s t a t e o f G u j a r a t l i e s i n t h e s o u t h e a s t o f S in d .

Here

two in d e p e n d e n t kingdoms had b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d a t th e tim e o f t h e


Arab i n v a s i o n o f S i n d - - t h e kingdom o f V alab h i and t h e G u r j a r a P r a t h i h a r a kingdom w ith i t s c a p i t a l a t N a n d ip u r i.
109Majumdar, The C l a s s i c a l Age, p p . 6 6 -6 7.
110Bombay G a z e t t e e r , Vol. I , P t . I I (1 8 7 7 ), 313.
111L. D. B a r n e t t , A n t i q u i t i e s o f I n d i a (London: P. L. W arner,
1 9 1 4 ), p . 71.
112S. R. Sharma, The C r e s c e n t i n I n d i a (Bombay:
1 9 5 4 ), p . 71.

Hind K ita b ,

49

The kingdom o f V a la b h i had b een founded by t h e d e s c e n d e n ts


o f B h atark a who was t h e g o v e rn o r o f S a u r a s h t r a o r K athiaw ar P e n i n s u l a
d u r in g t h e t h i r d q u a r t e r o f t h e f i f t h c e n tu r y A.D. u n d e r t h e Gupta
e m p i r e . 113

The e x a c t e x t e n t o f t h i s kingdom i s n o t known, b u t s i n c e

B h a ta rk a was t h e g o v e rn o r o f S a u r a s h t r a i t may be presumed t h a t i t


ro u g h ly c o rre s p o n d e d t o t h a t p r o v in c e which i n c l u d e s a l l o f t h e
K athiaw ar P e n in s u la :
Most o f K ath iaw ar l i e s below 600 f e e t , b u t
t h e r e a r e two h i l l m a s s e s , E o f R ajk o t i n t h e
N (1100 f e e t ) and t h e h i g h e r and b o l d e r G ir
Range (up t o 2100 f e e t ) i n t h e S. These two
d i s s e c t e d p l a t e a u s have a p e r f e c t r a d i a l
d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n ; th e y a r e l i n k e d by a narrow
and s in u o u s neck o v e r 600 f e e t s e p a r a t i n g
t h e two m ajo r r i v e r s o f K a th ia w a r, t h e Bhadar
(110 m ile s lo n g ) flo w in g W and t h e S h e t r u n j i
E ....T h e r a i n f a l l is p re c a rio u s , v a r i a b i li t y
b e in g everyw here o v e r 50%. Mean t e m p e r a tu r e s ru n
h i g h , 80-85 F. i n J a n u a ry and 90-95 i n May, when
mean maxima i s around 110. The n a t u r a l co v er o f
most o f t h e r e g i o n i s d ry t h o r n f o r e s t , v e ry open
and s t u n t e d , w ith sm a ll p a t c h e s o f dry d ecid u o u s
on t h e G ir and G i r h a r H i l l s . . . .Mangroves a re
e x p l o i t e d f o r f u e l a lo n g t h e c o a s t . . . .W ater i s o f
c o u r s e t h e p rim a ry d e t e r m in a n t o f a g r i c u l t u r e . . . .
The l a r g e r b lo c k s o f c u l t i v a t i o n a r e th u s l o c a t e d
a t t h e f o o t o f t h e r i d g e s o r low p l a t e a u s , o r on
t h e b r o a d e r i n t e r f l u v e s . 114
The kingdom o f V alab h i was o c c a s i o n a l l y a t odds w ith i t s
s o u th e r n n e i g h b o r , t h e G u r ja r a P r a t h i h a r a kingdom o f N a n d ip u r i.

The

V alab h i k i n g , D harasena IV, who ascen d ed t h e th r o n e ab o u t 644 A.D.


and S i l a d i t y a I I I who r u l e d from 662 to 684 A .D ., b o th d e f e a t e d t h e i r

113Majumdar, The C l a s s i c a l Age, p . 61.


114S p a t e , o p . c i t . , p p. 596-97.

50

s o u th e r n n e ig h b o r , b u t i n b o th c a s e s th e V alab h i o c c u p a tio n o f th e
G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a kingdom seems t o have been o f a s h o r t d u r a t i o n . 115
From 691 t o 762 A.D. S i l a d i t y a IV and S i l a d i t y a V r u l e d o v e r
V a la b h i.

The d a te o f t h e a c c e s s io n o f S i l a d i t y a V to t h e t h r o n e i s

n o t known w ith c e r t a i n t y . 116

In 733 A.D. t h e V alabhi t e r r i t o r i e s

were in vaded by a corrbined f o r c e o f t h e Chalukyas o f Deccan and th e


G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a s o f N a n d ip u r .117

The V alabh i r u l e r was d e f e a t e d

and was com pelled t o s u r r e n d e r a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f h i s t e r r i t o r y in


t h e s o u th t o t h e a l l i e s . 118

T his t e r r i t o r y , known as L a ta , was

p l a c e d u n d e r T a y asray a P u l i k e s i n , a member o f th e r o y a l house o f th e


C h a lu k y a s. 119
A s tu d y o f th e w e s te rn s t a t e s o f I n d i a on th e eve o f t h e Arab
i n v a s i o n o f Sind t h e r e f o r e shows t h a t po w erful d y n a s ti e s were r u l i n g
o v er t h e s e s t a t e s which were i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n and some
even o f e x p a n s io n .

The e x p a n i o n i s t p o l i c i e s o f some o f t h e s e s t a t e s

were d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e s e c u r i t y o f I n d i a in th e fa c e o f an Arab
th ru st.

K a p is i, Z a b u li s t a n and S in d , s t a t e s which fa c e d a s o l i d w a ll

115Majumdar, The C l a s s i c a l Age, pp. 147-48.


115K rishnakum ari V i r j i i n h i s A n cien t H is to r y o f S a u r a s h t r a
(Bombay: Konkan I n s t i t u t e o f A rts and S c ie n c e , 1952), p. 97, p la c e s
th e d a t e o f S i l a d i t y a ' s a c c e s s io n i n 740 A.D. B a r n e t t , 0 . c i t . ,
p . 72 p l a c e s i t in 722 A.D. Majumdar s.imply s t a t e s t h a t i t p r o b a b ly
was d u r in g t h e r e i g n o f S i l a d i t y a V t h a t V alabhi was inv aded by th e
A rab s, The C l a s s i c a l Age, p . 150.
Jll7The Chalukya d y n a sty r u le d o v e r t h e Deccan from 550 t o
753 A.D.
110V i r j i , o. c i t . , pp. 94-95.
119E p ig ra p h ia I n d i c a , Vol. X XIII, 1, n o te I .

51

o f Arab arms from th e Hindukush m ountains in th e n o r th to th e Arabian


Sea

i n th e s o u th took no u n i t e d s ta n d a g a i n s t a common enemy.

Only

when t h e Arabs had overrun Sind and had e s t a b l i s h e d a nominal supremacy


ov er K apisi and Z a b u lis ta n d id th e rem ain der o f w estern In d ia n s t a t e s
a tte m p t t o ta k e some k in d o f j o i n t a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e Arabs.

CHAPTER IV

IMPERIAL EXPANSION:

CAUSES AND POTENTIAL

The an n e x a tio n o f Sind to t h e c a l i p h a t e i n 715 A.D. and th e


B r i t i s h empire in 1843 p r e s e n t s a s t r i k i n g p i c t u r e o f analogous
im p e r ia l e x p an sio n .

The v e ry l o c a t i o n o f S ind re n d e re d i t a w retched

v i c t i m o f th o s e f o r c e s o f ex p ansionism , b o th Umayyad and B r i t i s h , which


were determ in e d to devote t h e f u l l s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r m i l i t a r i s m in
p l a c i n g th e f r o n t i e r s o f t h e i r em pires on t h e Ind us.

Both S i r

C h arles N ap ier and a l - H a j j a j , c h i e f p r o t a g o n i s t s o f S ind campaigns,


were m erely t o o l s in t h e e x e c u tio n o f t h i s p o l i c y . 1

U nlike

N a p ie r, who r e m o r s e f u lly n o te d , "I have S i n d ," a l - H a j j a j had no


second th o u g h ts about h i s a c t i o n s by h i s v e r y n a t u r e he was n o t
i n c l i n e d t o do s o . 2

^ i r C h arles N ap ier was th e B r i t i s h g e n e ra l i n command o f


th e Sind e x p e d i t io n o f 1843. A l- H a jja j was th e Umayyad v ic e r o y
o f I r a q and hence a d m i n i s t r a t o r o f a l l A ra b ' t e r r i t o r y e a s t o f t h e
E u p h r a te s .
2Also i n t e r p r e t e d to mean, " I have s in n e d ," t h e B r i t i s h
in v a s io n o f S in d b e in g e n t i r e l y unprovoked. The p la y upon words
is s ig n if ic a n t in th e p re se n t in sta n c e .

53

The im m ediate casu s b e l l i b etw een t h e c a l i p h a t e and S ind were


t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f I n d ia n p i r a t e s o f f Daybul*

Arab p a s s e n g e r s on

t h e i r way from Ceylon h a v in g been c a p tu r e d by t h e m . 3

The demand o f

H a j j a j t h a t D a h ir, t h e S in d ia n monarch, f r e e t h e p a s s e n g e r s and


p u n is h t h e p i r a t e s was as u n r e a s o n a b le as t h e l a t t e r s r e p l y t h a t
such a s t e p was beyond h i s c o n t r o l was r e a s o n a b l e .

S u b je c t as th e y

were t o p e r i o d i c a l r a i d s upon t h e i r t e r r i t o r y by t h e Arab p r e f e c t s


o f S i j i s t a n and Makran, t h e S in d ia n r u l e r s were to o w e ll aware o f
e x p a n s i o n i s t d e s ig n s o f t h e i r w e s te r n n e i g h b o r s . 4

The t h w a r t i n g o f

t h i s Drang nach O s te n , d i p l o m a t i c a l l y i f p o s s i b l e , m i l i t a r i l y i f
n e c e s s a r y , h a v in g become t h e c h i e f co ncern o f S in d ia n p o l i c y m akers.
Punishm ent o f p i r a t e s , had i t been w i t h i n t h e i r pow er, would be in
c o n f o rm ity w ith t h e i r s t r i c t p o l i c y o f a v o id in g any a n t a g o n i s t i c
a c t s tow ards t h e i r n e i g h b o r s , a f a c t o f g r e a t in c o n v e n ie n c e t o Muslim
h i s t o r i a n s who have endeavo red t o p l a c e t h e blame s q u a r e l y upon th e
Hindu r u l e r o f S i n d . 5

3F or d e t a i l s , s e e below , C h a p te r i i i .
4S i j i s t a n and w e s te r n Makran had b een o v e rru n by t h e Arabs
p r i o r t o t h e a n n e x a tio n o f S in d . From h e r e o c c a s i o n a l f o r e y s were
cond ucted a g a i n s t S in d ia n t e r r i t o r i e s .
See below , C h a p te r V , pp.
4 -1 1 .
5Muslim h i s t o r i a n s have n e v e r a d m itte d t h e v a l i d i t y o f any
o t h e r argum ent. See a l - B a l a d h u r i , o p . c i t . , p . 216; The Chachnamah,
pp . 69 -70 ; T u h fa t a l- K ir a m , p . 10. Eminent In d ia n Muslim s c h o l a r
Syed Amir A l i , i n h i s H is to r y o f t h e S a r a c e n s , h a s t h i s t o say :
"About t h e same tim e Mohammad, t h e son o f Kasim, g o v ern o r o f Makran,
h a r a s s e d by t h e p r e d a t o r y t r i b e s who i n h a b i t e d t h e c o u n try between
S ind and B a l u c h i s t a n , le d an e x p e d i t i o n i n t o I n d ia which ended i n t h e
a n n e x a tio n o f S in d , M ultan and p a r t o f th e Punjab as f a r as t h e B e a s ,"
p . 104.

54

C on sequ en tly we must s e a rc h f o r d e e p e r m otives b e h in d t h e Arab


d r i v e t o t h e In du s.

Econom ically t h e c a l i p h a t e was i n a s e r i e s o f

s e r i o u s c r i s e s , fa c e d as i t had been w ith two decades o f c o n s ta n t


i n t e r n a l u p h e a v a ls .

The r i s i n g d i s c o n t e n t o f t h e "Mawali" o r non-

Arab Muslims demanding t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l i n j u n c t i o n s a g a i n s t any


form o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w ith in th e Umma o r I s la m ic community, economic
as w e ll as s o c i a l , be obeyed t o t h e v e ry l e t t e r , t h r e a t e n e d t o throw
th e Umayyad f i n a n c i a l machinery o u t o f g e a r . 6

The Mawali sim ply

r e f u s e d t o pay th e ta x e s above t h e r a t e p a i d by t h e Arabs and


clam oured f o r l i f e p e n s io n s i n r e t u r n f o r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e .

The

Umayyad a tte m p t t o s u b o r d in a t e t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e Umma a t l a r g e t o


th o s e o f t h e Arab h o p e l e s s l y f a i l e d in th e end, p u l l i n g down th e
d y n a sty w ith i t i n 750 A.D.

But th e p o l i c y makers o f 700 A.D. were

convinced o f t h e r ig h t e o u s n e s s o f t h e i r a c t s .

Mawali g r ie v a n c e s

e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f p o l i t i c a l d i s c o n t e n t were r u t h l e s s l y c r u s h e d . 7
I r o n i c a l l y t h e v ery g r ie v a n c e s which had i n s p i r e d r e b e l l i o u s a c t s
were now m u l t i p l i e d - - t h e Umayyads demanding " j i z i a h " even from th e

6For a d i s c u s s i o n o f p o l i t i c s , economics and r e l i g i o n un der


th e Umayyads in g e n e r a l and H a j j a j in p a r t i c u l a r , s e e belo w , C h apter
VI., P a r t I , " I s l a m i c I n s t i t u t i o n s . "
7P h i l l i p K . H i t t i , H is to r y o f t h e A rab s, Tenth e d i t i o n (New
York: M acmillan and Company, L t d . , 1970), pp . 206-08; Bernard Lewis,
The Arabs in H i s t o r y , R evised e d i t i o n (New York: H arper Torchbooks,
1960), p p. 75-76; Ameer A l i , A S h o rt H is to r y o f t h e S aracen s (London:
M acmillan and Company, 1921), pp. 9 0-96; J u l i u s W ellhausen, The Arab
Kingdom and i t s F a l l , T r a n s l a t e d by M argaret Weir ( C a l c u t t a : U n iv er
s i t y o f C a l c u t t a , 1927), pp. 113-200; C a rl Brockelman, H is to r y o f th e
I s la m ic P e o p l e , T r a n s l a t e d by J o e l Carm ichel and Moshe Perlman (New
York: C apricon Books, 1960), pp. 77-80.

55

Mawali, p u t t i n g s e v e re r e s t r i c t i o n s upon t h e i r movements and a c t u a l l y


d is c o u r a g in g co n v ersio n t o t h e I s la m ic f a i t h .
By 710 A.D. th e t e m p ta tio n t o seek e x t e r n a l s o u rc e s o f revenue
i n t h e form o f new t e r r i t o r i a l a c q u i s i t i o n s had become an o b s e s s io n
w ith H a j j a j .

Beyond t h e Arab f r o n t i e r a t Makran la y t h e In d ia n

kingdom o f S in d , as y e t unconquered.

H a jja j e n t e r t a i n e d no f a l s e

i l l u s i o n about th e w e a lth o f t h i s s t a t e - - o n e can see t h a t i n h i s


promise to d e p o s it tw ice t h e amount s p e n t on t h e e x p e d i t io n in th e
c e n tra l tre a s u r y .8

That t h e Sind e n t e r p r i s e was n o t u n d ertak en in

answer to a need f o r an e x t e r n a l d i v i s i o n a r y symbol i s c l e a r l y shown


by th e d i s p a t c h o f s i x thousand S y r ia n , r a t h e r th a n I r a q i , tro o p s to
S in d ; t h e former p r o v id in g t h e b a s i s o f Umayyad m l l i t a r y regime w h ile
t h e l a t t e r c l e a r l y in sympathy w ith th e M aw ali.9
R e lig io u s s a n c t io n s t o be su re were in v o lv e d i n th e name o f
p l a n t i n g Islam on t h e v e ry d o o rs te p o f I d o la tr o u s I n d ia .

Yet i t i s

d i f f i c u l t t o conceive o f H a jja j as d is c o u r a g in g co n v ersio n a t home,


b u t a tte m p tin g t o save s o u ls in d i s t a n t Sind.
The v alu e o f m aritim e t r a d e a c t i v i t y d i l i g e n t l y pursued by p r e and p o s t - I s l a m i c Arabs l i k e , was n o t l o s t on H a j j a j ' s m in d .10

I t is

8The Chachnamah, p . 74.


9 In 700 A.D. a f o r c e o f Kufan and Basrans under Abd ar-Rahman
ib n a l-A sh a th was d i s p a tc h e d by H a jja j a g a i n s t Kabul. The army f a i l
in g i n i t s m is s io n , tu rn e d a g a i n s t th e Umayyads and alm ost succeeded
in o v erth ro w in g them. See below, C hapter V , P a r t I I , " M i l i t a r y
O p e ra tio n s A gainst S i j i s t a n , Z a b u lis ta n and Makran."
10See below , C h ap ter V I I I , pp. 183-205.

S6

t o be n o te d t h a t p r o v i n c i a l g o v e rn o rs exposed t o t h i s t r a d e were more


e n t h u s i a s t i c ex p o n e n ts o f a n n e x a tio n s o f I n d ia n c o a s t a l a r e a s th a n
t h e c e n t r a l governm ents a t Madina and D am ascus.11

The i n c l u s i o n o f

D aybul, one o f t h e c h i e f p o r t s o f t h e w e s te r n c o a s t o f I n d i a and t h e


f i r s t m ajo r one f o r s h i p s l e a v i n g B asra f o r t h e E a s t , i n t h e I s l a m ic
e m p ire , f a c i l i t a t e d and s t r e n g t h e n e d Arab commercial i n t e r e s t s w ith
I n d i a . 12
As a g e n e r a l r u l e , g r e a t Arab c o n q u e s ts have fo llo w e d a more
o r l e s s s e t p a t t e r n , t h a t o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n and e x p a n s io n .

The

e x p u l s i o n o f t h e B y z a n tin e s from S y r i a and Egypt on t h e one hand


hand and t h e o v e rth ro w o f t h e P e r s i a n em pire on t h e o t h e r were r e a l
iz e d o n ly a f t e r th e Muslim t e r r i t o r y had been c o n s o l i d a t e d i n t h e
A rab ian p e n in s u la ^

In t h e second round o f e x p a n s io n , a l l North A f r i c a

west o f Egypt was annexed t o t h e Arab Empire by C alip h Muawiya


(661-681 A .D .) , who had v i g o r o u s l y p ro c e e d e d t o r e o r g a n i z e t h e a f f a i r s
o f t h a t em pire f o ll o w i n g t h e f i r s t c i v i l war i n t h e a n n a ls o f I s l a m i c
h i s t o r y . 13
^ T h e Arab g o v e rn o r o f B ah rain and Uman had d i s p a t c h e d n a v a l
e x p e d i t i o n s a g a i n s t I n d ia n c o a s t a l c i t i e s as e a r l y as 637 A.D. He
was s e v e r e l y rep rim an d ed by C a lip h Umar. See below , C h a p te r V , P a r t
I , "N aval O p e r a tio n s A g a in s t t h e C o a s ta l C i t i e s o f I n d i a , 637-638 A.D."
H a j j a j ' s e n th u sia s m f o r a n n e x a tio n o f S in d was n o t s h a r e d by t h e C a lip h
a t Damas c u s .
12See b elo w , C h a p te r V I I I , pp. 197-205.
13Muawiya, s c i o n o f t h e p o w erfu l c l a n o f Beni Umayya had been
a p p o in te d g o v e rn o r o f S y r i a by C a lip h Umar in 639 A.D. His app o in tm en t
was co n firm ed by Umar's s u c c e s s o r , Uthman, a f e llo w clansman o f Muawiya.
The m y s te r io u s c ir c u m s ta n c e s le a d i n g t o t h e m urder o f Uthman in 656
A.D. and t h e s u b s e q u e n t " e l e c t i o n " o f A li as t h e C alip h were looked
upon by Muawiya w ith g r e a t s u s p i c i o n , and c o n s e q u e n tly he r e f u s e d t o
pay a l l e g i a n c e t o A l i . The r e s u l t a n t c i v i l war d rag ged on u n t i l t h e
m urder o f A li i n 661 A .D ., le a v in g Muawiya th e u n d is p u te d m a s te r o f
t h e I s l a m i c em p ire .

57

C i v i l s t r i f e and r e b e l l i o n s a g a in r e n t t h e I s l a m i c em pire f o r
alm ost two decades and p eace was n o t f u l l y r e s t o r e d u n t i l t h e l a s t
y e a r s o f C a lip h A b d u l-M a lik 's r e i g n (685-705 A .D .)-

Under C a lip h

a l- W a lid (705-715 A .D .) , th e Arabs e n t e r e d t h e t h i r d p h a s e o f


i m p e r i a l ex p a n s io n and i n so d o in g e x te n d e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f h i s
re a lm t o i n c l u d e S p a in , C e n t r a l A s ia and S in d .

I t i s n o t in c o n

c e i v a b l e t h a t H a j j a j , who h ad p la y e d a m ajo r r o l e i n th e c o n s o l i d a
t i o n o f t h e c o n q u e s ts made betw een 685 and 705 A .D ., would have
a c c e p te d D a h i r 's e x p l a n a t i o n w ith a more r e a s o n a b l e a t t i t u d e th a n
he a c t u a l l y d i d , had t h e I s l a m i c em pire been a t r i f l e more u n s t a b l e
th a n i t was.

As i t w as, t h e t h i r d p e r i o d o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n was

o v e r , and f u r t h e r ex p a n s io n was t o f o llo w i t .

S in d , S p a in , and

C e n t r a l A sia became v ic t im s o f t h i s c y c l e .
The co n q u est o f S in d can a l s o b e r e g a r d e d as t h e i n e v i t a b l e
r e s u l t o f Arab o c c u p a tio n o f t h e I r a n i a n p l a t e a u .

Over th e c e n t u r i e s

t h e I n d ia n s u b c o n t i n e n t has b een in v a d e d by t h e h o rd e s o f v a r i o u s
e t h n i c groups o f p e o p le who have p o u re d i n t o i t s p l a i n s th ro u g h t h e
m ountain p a s s e s o f t h e N o rth w e st, i n s e a r c h o f b e t t e r p a s t u r e s .
H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e s e in v a d in g arm ie s have always f i r s t c o n s o li d a t e d
t h e i r h o ld s on t h e m ountains o f t h e Hindukush i n t h e n o r th o r on
t h e B a l u c h i s t a n p l a t e a u in t h e s o u th .

Once i n c o n t r o l o f t h e s e

m o u n ta in s , t h e u rg e t o swarm down on t h e r i c h p l a i n s o f I n d i a was


irre s istib le .

T h is u rg e c o u ld be checked o n ly i f a s t r o n g c e n t r a l

power from w i t h i n I n d ia was c a p a b le o f la u n c h in g a c o u n t e r movement


tow ard t h e N o rth w e st.

Hence t h e M auriyan em p ire i n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y

58

B .C ., p u r s u in g a v ig o ro u s e x p a n s i o n is t p o l i c y , e v i c t e d t h e Greek
g a r r i s o n s l e f t b eh in d by A lexander t h e G reat i n n o r th w e s te r n I n d i a .
Long a f te r w a r d s t h e s e t a c t i c s r e c u r r e d w ith th e same s u c c e s s .
During th e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n te e n th c e n t u r i e s t h e Mughul em pire
s u c c e s s f u l l y d efend ed t h e n o r th w e s te r n i n v a s io n r o u te s a g a i n s t th e
P e r s i a n s and t h e T u rk s.

More r e c e n t l y i n s e a r c h o f a " s c i e n t i f i c

f r o n t i e r , " th e B r i t i s h o ccu p ied A fg h a n ista n t w i c e , i n 1840 and


ag a in i n 1878, and annexed B a lu c h is ta n t o t h e i r B r i t i s h In d ia n
em p ire.

I t happened, however, r a r e l y t h a t an In d ia n government was

s t r o n g enough to p u rsu e a v ig o ro u s n o r th w e s te r n p o l i c y .

As soon as

t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e Northwest had p a s se d i n t o t h e hands o f a m i l i


t a r i l y p o w erfu l and h o s t i l e p e o p le and a t t h e same tim e I n d ia lack ed
a u n i f i e d c e n t r a l government, t h e s t a g e was s e t f o r an i n v a s i o n o f
th e Indus V a lle y .

Such a c o n d it i o n e x i s t e d on t h e eve

o f th e Arab

i n v a s i o n o f S in d .

As seen i n t h e f o re g o in g p a g e s , no c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y

had e x i s t e d in I n d i a a t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , b u t f o u r
r e g i o n a l kingdoms --nam ely Kashm ir, K a p is i, Z a b u l i s t a n and S in d -- h a d
been e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e N o r t h w e s t .11* The Arabs had o v e rru n P e r s i a
and were i n p a r t i a l c o n t r o l o f t h e Hindukush.

By th e v e ry l o g i c o f

e v e n ts th e y co u ld n o t be e x p e c te d t o s i t q u i e t l y and gaze upon th e


r i c h lan d s o f I n d i a i n t h e i r e a s t e r n p r o x im ity .

As i t was by t h e i r

n a t u r e and d e s e r t t r a i n i n g , th ey were b e t t e r s u i t e d t o in v ad e I n d ia
th ro u g h t h e s o u th e r n r o u t e , and i n so doin g t h e y s u c c e s s f u l l y o v e r-

11+See abo ve, C h ap ter I I I .

59

ra n th e kingdom o f Sind s i t u a t e d a t t h e s o u t h e r l y end o f t h e a f o r e


mentioned b o r d e r s t a t e s .
The an n e x a tio n o f S in d , t h e r e f o r e , can be a s c r i b e d , in v a r y
in g c o n te x ts t o t h e above-m entioned f a c t o r s ; and i t remains very
d o u b tfu l w hether t h e r e was a n y th in g so u nu sual about p i r a t i c a l a c t i
v i t y o f f Daybul as t o j u s t i f y so s h a t t e r i n g a blow.

Arab A rt o f War
The phenomenal r i s e o f t h e Arab empire from i t s b i r t h p l a c e
in t h e d e s e r t o f A rabia to th e b o r d e rs o f I n d ia on th e one hand, and
t o th o se o f s o u th e rn France on th e o t h e r , w i t h i n a s i n g l e c e n tu ry
i s one o f t h e m ir a c le s o f h i s t o r y .

The Arab " b l i t z k r i e g " which o v e r

whelmed th e arm ies o f t h e P e r s i a n s , th e B y z a n tin e s , t h e T urks, th e


In d ia n s and th e V is ig o th s has f a s c i n a t e d and i n t r i g u e d h i s t o r i a n s
over t h e c e n t u r i e s .

What were t h e main f a c t o r s u n d e r ly in g t h i s

" b l i t z k r i e g " which counted Sind among i t s v ic tim s ?


A stu dy o f t h e Arabian a r t o f war from th e r i s e o f Islam t o
th e f a l l of S ind r e v e a l s t h a t though th e Arabs m o d ified a few o f
t h e i r t e c h n iq u e s , t h e e s s e n t i a l elem ents remained a p p ro x im a te ly th e
same.

The Arab m i l i t a r y machine on th e eve o f I s la m ic expansion

was summed up by S i r John Glubb, a s o l d i e r - s c h o l a r who was th e


b u i l d e r and t h e supreme commander o f th e renowned Arab Legion in
Jo rd a n f o r a number o f y e a r s :

60

I t seems to me m is le a d in g , i n d e s c r ib in g
th e s e e a r l y Arabian b a t t l e s , t o speak as some
European h i s t o r i a n s h ave, o f arm ie s, g e n e r a ls
and s o l d i e r s . In A rabia every man was in an
emergency expected t o f i g h t f o r h i s t r i b e . Apart
from such c r i s e s th e r e were no s o l d i e r s , n o r was
any t r a i n i n g deemed n e c e s s a ry . The w a r r io r s
fought n o t in companies o r b a t t a l i o n s , but
grouped by t r i b e s and c l a n s , each commanded by
i t s c h i e f . B a ttle s norm ally commenced by
s in g le combats between champions, watched by
th e fo rces o f b o th s id e s drawn up o p p o s ite each
o t h e r . F in a l ly th e r i v a l war p a r t i e s charged,
and th e is s u e was d ecid ed in a w ild melde, con
s i s t i n g o f a g r e a t number o f confused h a n d -to hand e n c o u n te r s . 15
In p r e - I s l a m i c Arabia where nomadic t r i b e s formed the
e s s e n t i a l elem ents o f a l l p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , economic and even
r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s , s ta n d in g armies could have h a r d ly been t h e
o r d e r o f th e day.

T r ib a l l o y a l t i e s were c o n sid e re d above and beyond

a l l o th e r s and as a r e s u l t th e e a r l y Isla m ic m i l i t a r y machine was


geared to s u i t t h i s n e c e s s i t y .
A f l e e t i n g survey o f th e f i r s t two b a t t l e s o f Islam a g a in s t
th e Meccan f o r c e s , Badr fought in 624 A.D. and Uhad fought a y e a r
l a t e r , goes to show t h e a r t o f w a rfare o r th e lack o f i t among th e
Arabs o f th e e a r l y seventh c e n t u r y . 16

The supreme commander o f

15S i r John B. Glubb, The Great Arab Conquests (London:


Hodder and Stoughton, 1963), p. 65.
16For an e x c e l l e n t documentary account o f th e s e b a t t l e s , see
M. Hamidullah, "The B a tt l e F ie ld s o f t h e Prophet Muhammad," I s 1 amic
Review, XL (October 1952), 13-19. For a m i l i t a r y a n a l y s i s , see S i r
John Glubb, 0 . c i t . , Chapter i i i , "The Well B ucket," pp. 55-81. For
o th e r n a r r a t i v e s , see Montgomery W att, Muhammad a t Madina (London:
Oxford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1953), pp. 1-50; W illiam Muir, L ife o f Mahomet,
T h ird E d itio n (London: Smith E lder and Company), 1894), pp. 207-31.
For t r a d i t i o n a l accounts s e e A. G uillaum , The L ife o f Muhammad: A
T r a n s l a t io n o f I s h a q 's S i r a t Rasul A llah (London: Oxford U n iv e r s ity
P r e s s , 1955), pp. 435-581. The a u th o r o f t h i s work, Muhammad ibn
Is h a q , pro bably d ied a t Baghdad i n 768 A.D. I t i s , however, b e s t

61

t h e Muslim f o r c e s on b o th o c c a s io n s was t h e P ro p h et h i m s e l f .

The

Meccans outnum bered t h e Muslims by one th o u sa n d t o t h r e e h u n dred a t


Badr and by t h r e e th o u sa n d t o sev en hun dred a t Uhud.

Both arm ies

were grouped t o g e t h e r a c c o r d i n g t o t r i b a l a f f i l i a t i o n s , b e in g d i s
t i n g u i s h e d by d i s t i n c t b a n n e r s and commanded by t h e i r own c h i e f s .
O th e r t h a n t h e supreme commander, Muhammad, i n t h e c a s e o f Muslim
f o r c e s no o t h e r h i e r a r c h y o f coirmand e x i s t e d , n e i t h e r were t h e r e
any u n ifo r m s .

In b o th c a s e s t h e c a v a l r y formed t h e most im p o r ta n t

b ra n c h o f c o n te n d in g f o r c e s .

S in c e each s o l d i e r was t o p r o v id e h i s

own weapons and m ount, o n ly t h e w e l l - t o - d o c o u ld be e x p e c te d t o


f ig h t in th e c a v a lry ra n k s.

Muslim i n f a n t r y , which in c l u d e d a

number o f a r c h e r s , a c t u a l l y outnum bered t h e c a v a l r y .

However, i n

l a t e r b a t t l e s o f Isla m t h i s p r o p o r t i o n was r e v e r s e d .

The p r i n c i p a l

weapon was t h e sw ord, th e one im p o rte d from I n d i a b e i n g most h i g h l y


p riz e d .

L a n ces, s p e a r s and j a v e l i n s were a l s o e x t e n s i v e l y employed.

"C o v erin g f i r e " was s u p p l i e d by a rro w s .

At Badr t h e P r o p h e t 's o r d e r s

as t o t h e u s e o f t h e weapons w ere e x p l i c i t .

"Do n o t w a s te y o u r

arrow s w h ile t h e enemy i s s t i l l beyond r e a c h ; d i s c h a r g e y o u r arrow s


o n ly when t h e t a r g e t i s w i t h i n r e a c h ; when t h e enemy ap p ro ach es
b e g in t o throw s t o n e s w ith y o u r h a n d s ; on h i s n e a r e r appro ach u s e
l a n c e s and s p e a r s , t h e sword b e in g drawn o n ly f i n a l l y f o r h a n d - t o hand f i g h t i n g . " * 7__________
known by i t s e d i t o r Ibn Hisham who d ie d i n Egypt i n 833 A.D. H ere
i n a f t e r i t w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o as Ibn Hisham; A l-W aq id i, K itab a l
M aghazi, e d i t e d by Marsden J o n e s (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1 9 6 6 ), Vol. I , 1 9-200; Muhammad ib n S a 'a d , a l - T a b a q a t a l-K u b ra
( B a i r u t : Dar S a d r , 1 9 5 7 ), Vol. I I , 11-100.
17Quoted in H am id u llah ,

o jd .

c i t . , V ol. XL, 18.

62

D e fe n siv e armour was h i g h l y p r i z e d and was im p orted from


P e r s i a , Byzantium and I n d i a .
and a c o a t o f c h a i n - m a il.
o f m ail and a h e lm e t.

I t n o rm a lly c o n s i s t e d o f a p o t helm et

At Uhud t h e P rop het was w e a rin g two c o a ts

During t h e b a t t l e he r e c e i v e d a blow on t h e

head which f o r c e d h i s h elm et down i n t o h i s f o r e h e a d . 18

Had th e blow

been a t r i f l e more s e v e re w orld h i s t o r y m ight have been d i f f e r e n t .


I t i s , how ever, a p p r o p r i a t e t o p o i n t out t h a t t h e h ig h c o s t o f
armour p r e v e n te d a m a j o r i t y o f Arab w a r r i e r s from o b t a i n i n g i t .
Among t h e m a r t i a l t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e i r a g e , t h e A rab s, Muslims
and non-Muslims a l i k e , o b se rv e d two w ith t h e utm ost o f s c r u p l e s - i n d i v i d u a l combat and e x h o r t a t i o n by women, i n d i c a t i n g a manner o f
w a r fa r e a t once c h i v a l r o u s and ro m a n tic .

As t h e Muslim and Meccan

f o r c e s were a r ra y e d a g a i n s t each o t h e r t h r e e w a r r i o r s from t h e l a t t e r


s te p p e d o u t o f t h e i r b a t t l e l i n e s and c h a lle n g e d t h e Muslims.
Muslim w a r r i o r s a c c e p te d t h e c h a l l e n g e .

Three

I t was on ly a f t e r th e s e

i n d i v i d u a l combats were o v er t h a t r e g u l a r b a t t l e s commenced.


Arab women f r e q u e n t l y accompanied t h e w a r r i o r s t o t h e b a t t l e
fie ld s .

At Uhud th e y p ro c e e d e d t o ro u se t h e e n th u sia s m o f th e Meccans

as b o th f o r c e s drew tow ards one a n o t h e r .

They b e a t upon tam bo urin es

r e c i t i n g m a r t i a l p o e t r y and l e t t i n g down t h e i r long h a i r . 19

18I b i d . ,

p. 17; Glubb,

0 .

In

c i t . , pp. 72-73.

19I b i d . ,
p. 71. A ccording t o one a u t h o r i t y t h e Arab women
accompanied t h e w a r r i o r s w ith bows and arrow s and p a r t o f t h e i r duty
was " t h e p u r s u i t
and punishm ent o f d e s e r t e r s and ev en , i f circu m
s ta n c e s w a r r a n t e d , w ith p u t t i n g them t o d e a t h . " J a c q u e s Boudet,
The A ncient Art o f W arfare (London: The C r e s s e t P r e s s , 1 966), p .
178.

63

many l a t e r b a t t l e s o f Islam t h i s a c ti o n by Arab women played n o t an


in s ig n ific a n t ro le .
At Badr th e Prophet was a b le t o p o i n t out almost th e exact
s p o ts where r i v a l Arab commanders would f a l l in b a t t l e . 20

There was

n o th in g s u p e r n a tu r a l about h i s p r e d i c t i o n s , however, as th ey were


prompted by th e o ld Arab p r a c t i c e o f l e a r n i n g as much as p o s s i b le
about th e t a c t i c s o f enemy fo rc e s as w e ll as about th e in d i v i d u a l
b e h a v io rs o f r i v a l commanders.

In t h e i r l a t e r b a t t l e s a g a i n s t th e

B y zan tin es, t h e P e r s i a n s , th e Turks and th e In d ia n s , the Arabs


u t i l i z e d t h i s p r a c t i c e w ith c o n s id e ra b le s u c c e s s .
From th e b e g in n in g , i t was obvious to th e Arab commanders
t h a t t h e i r fo rc e s could n o t s ta n d up t o th e b e t t e r armed and d i s
c i p l i n e d Byzantine and P e r s ia n fo rc e s i n co n v en tio n al w a r fa r e .

The

Arabs, t h e r e f o r e , r e l i e d on t h r e e main f a c t o r s to win t h e i r b a t t l e s - h a ra ssm e n t, speed and in d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e .

They made i t one o f

t h e i r fundamental p r i n c i p l e s n e v e r t o fa c e f r e s h l y a r r i v e d enemy
tro o p s and p a r t i c u l a r l y a t a s i t e s e l e c t e d f o r b a t t l e by t h e i r r i v a l s .
The enemy fo rc e s had to be h a r a s s e d i n a manner which Glubb l a b e l s
as " th e p i r a t e s t r a t e g y . " 21

C on sid erin g t h e d e s e r t as an ocean where

th e y could s a i l a t w i l l , th e Arabs attem pted t o l u r e th e enemy f o rc e s


a t th e edge o f th e d e s e r t .

From h e r e , th e Arabs could c a r r y out

p e r i o d i c a l r a i d s a g a i n s t d i f f e r e n t s e c tio n s o f t h e main enemy fo rc e s

20Hamidullah, o. c i t . (October 1952), p. 17.


21Glubb, o. c i t . , C hapter v i , " P i r a t e S t r a t e g y , " pp. 123-36.
See a ls o Bernard Lewis, The Arabs in H i s t o r y , Rev. ed. (New York :
Harper Torchbooks, 1960), p. 55.

64

w ith o u t b e i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y p u r s u e d i n t o t h e d e s e r t .
l i n e s were t h e main t a r g e t f o r Arab " p i r a t e s . "

Enemy su p p ly

Only when t h e enemy

was th o r o u g h ly e x h a u s te d and c o n fu se d would t h e Arabs engage i n t h e


main b a t t l e .
The c h i e f s e c t i o n o f Arab f o r c e s was t h e c a v a l r y which
e n a b le d them t o g a in s u p e r i o r i t y i n sp eed and m o b i l i t y o v e r t h e i r
riv a ls .

T here were no c o n v e n t i o n a l b a t t l e f o r m a t i o n s - - i n d i v i d u a l

commanders u se d t h e i r own d i s c r e t i o n a c c o r d in g t o tim e and s p a c e .


However, s i n c e t h e Arabs were a lm o st always on t h e o f f e n s i v e t h e i r
b e s t t r o o p s w ere c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e c e n t e r f o r t h e main a t t a c k on
t h e enemy f o r c e s . 22

The r i g h t and l e f t wings were e x tr e m e ly m ob ile

and c a p a b le o f e x e c u t in g maneuvers which s u r p r i s e d and shocked t h e


enemy.

A c e r t a i n number o f w a r r i o r s were alw ays k e p t as r e s e r v e

and i n c a s e o f p o s s i b l e r e v e r s e s were throw n i n t o b a t t l e w ith m o stly


f a v o r a b l e r e s u l t s . 23

At Badr t h e Muslims would have won t h e d ay,

had i t n o t been f o r t h e Q u ra ish r e s e r v e c a v a l r y c h a rg e u n d e r K halid


ib n a l- W a lid which t u r n e d t h e t a b l e s a g a i n s t t h e M uslim s . 2t* The
t e r r i b l e f o r c e o f t h e Arab c a v a l r y c h a rg e a g a i n s t th e c e n t e r u s u a l l y
b ro k e t h e enemy f o r m a t i o n s .

In c a s e

t h i s was n o t a c c o m p lish e d ,

22C h a rle s Oman, A H i s t o r y o f t h e A rt o f War i n t h e Middle


Ages, Second e d i t i o n ( New York: B. F r a n k l i n , 1 9 5 9 ), Vol. I , 213.
23"The g e n e r a l s o f t h e E a st had a l r e a d y d i s c o v e r e d th e
g r e a t p r e c e p t which modern m i l i t a r y s c i e n c e h a s claim ed as i t s own,
t h a t i n a c a v a l r y combat t h e s i d e which h o ld s back t h e l a s t r e s e r v e
must w i n ." I b i d . , I , 213.
24H am id u llah , o p . c i t . (November 1 9 5 2), p . 17; G lubb, o p . c i t . ,
p . 72.

65

t h e Arab m obile columns would a t t a c k t h e enemy from t h e r e a r .

If

th e e l e p h a n ts were t h e main o b s t a c l e s , th e n methods were d e v is e d t o


f r i g h t e n them.

These i n c lu d e d c u t t i n g o f f t h e i r t r u n k s , p o k in g t h e i r

eyes w ith s p e a r s o r th ro w in g f i r e arrow s a t them.

The Arabs p r e f e r r e d

t o f i g h t w ith t h e d e s e r t a t t h e i r b a c k s , s in c e t h i s was t h e haven


w ith which th e y were b e t t e r a c q u a in te d and t o which th e y could r e s o r t
i f tem po rary f l i g h t became a d v i s a b l e .

They p a id d e a r l y a t t h e B a t t l e

o f t h e B ridge i n 636 A.D. a g a i n s t t h e P e r s i a n s when t h e Arab commander


made t h e m is ta k e o f c r o s s i n g t h e r i v e r , th e r e b y p l a c i n g h im s e lf
betw een t h e enemy i n f r o n t and t h e r i v e r a t t h e back w ith l i t t l e space
f o r r a p i d movem ents.25
p h a n ts n o r a d e s e r t .

At Tours i n 732 A.D. t h e r e were n e i t h e r e l e


The Arabs were fo rc e d t o f i g h t a t c lo s e form a

t i o n s a g a i n s t f r e s h l y a r r i v e d F ra n k is h f o r c e s .

The F ra n k is h c e n t e r

was composed o f f o o t s o l d i e r s d r e s s e d i n w o lf s k in s w ith t h e i r long


h a i r f a l l i n g on t h e i r s h o u l d e r s . These f o o t s o l d i e r s formed a huge
hollow s q u a r e , p r e v e n t i n g t h e Arabs from s u r p r i s i n g them from t h e r e a r .
H eav ily armed F r a n k is h c a v a l r y on b o th wings h e l d th e Arabs a t b a y . 26
The Arab w a r r i o r s w ith t h e i r mounts h u r l e d th em selv es a g a i n s t th e
F ra n k is h c e n t e r w ith t h e u s u a l courage and f u r y .

The F ra n k s, how ever,

u sed t h e o t h e r s i d e s o f t h e s q u a re s t o cu t down t h e Arabs w ith o u t

25Glubb, . c i t . , pp. 112-64; S i r W illiam M uir, Annals


o f th e E a rly C a l i p h a t e (London: Smith E ld e r and Company, 1883),
pp. 129-32.
26Tom W intringham , The S to ry o f Weapons and T a c t i c s (Boston:
Houghton and M i f f l i n Company, 1943), p . 56.

66

g iv in g way, among t h e f a l l e n b e in g Abd-al-Rahman, th e Arab commander


h i m s e l f . 27
During t h r e e c e n t u r i e s o f s p e c t a c u l a r Arab m i l i t a r y f e a t s
Tours and th e B a t t l e o f th e Bridge were seldom r e p e a te d .
had le a rn e d t h e i r le s s o n w e l l .

So had t h e B y za n tin es.

The Arabs
A f te r lo s i n g

North A f r i c a and most o f t h e i r w est A s i a t i c p o s s e s s io n s t o th e Arabs,


th e Byzantines had deemed i t w ise t o s tu d y th e m i l i t a r y te c h n iq u e s
o f t h e i r new r i v a l s .

B yzantine emperor Leo t h e Wise in h i s T a c t i c a ,

a m i l i t a r y t r e a t i s e w r i t t e n around 900 A.D., advo cates s p e c i a l


measures needed a g a in s t t h e A ra b s .
m i l i t a r y methods.

He pays due r e s p e c t s t o t h e Arab

"Of a l l t h e b a rb a ro u s n a t i o n s , " sayd Leo, " th e y

are th e b e s t adv ised and most p ru d e n t in t h e i r m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s . " 28


R e a liz in g t h a t on open f i e l d s , th e Arabs co u ld be r id d e n down by th e
Byzantine heavy c a v a lr y , Leo recommends t h a t a tte m p ts be made t o
c lo s e rank s w ith th e Arabs a t once i n s t e a d o f exchanging arrows from
a d istan ce .

The Arabs a l s o dreaded s te a d y and w ell-arm ed i n f a n t r y ,

and f o o t - a r c h e r s were t h e i r s p e c i a l dread s in c e t h e i n f a n t r y c a r r i e d


l a r g e r and h e a v i e r bows th a n t h e c a v a l r y .

The Arab horsemen were

th u s l i a b l e to have t h e i r h o r s e s s h o t from un der them.

Byzantine

g e n e r a ls were a ls o recommended to be c a r e f u l about f la n k s and cover

27For t h e b a t t l e o f Tours see C h arles Oman, The Art o f War


i n th e Middle Ages, Vol. I , 58; P h i l i p H i t t i , A H is to ry o f th e
A rabs, p. 500; J . W ellhausen, The Arab Kingdom and i t s F a l l , p. 342;
Ameer A l i , A S ho rt H is to ry o f th e S a r a c e n s , p . 150.
28Qouted in C h arles Oman, The Art o f War in th e Middle Ages,
Vol. I , 208.

67

t h e i r r e a r by a r i v e r , marsh o r d e f i l e .

I n f a n t r y was t o be p l a c e d

i n t h e c e n t e r w it h c a v a l r y on t h e f l a n k s and t h e two arms w ere n e v e r


to be s e p a ra te d .
b e a v o i d e d . 29

H e e d le s s p u r s u i t by t h e c a v a l r y was e s p e c i a l l y t o

The P e r s i a n s , t h e T u rk s , t h e I n d i a n s , t h e B y z a n tin e s

o f t h e s e v e n th c e n t u r y and t h e C ru s a d e rs o f a l a t e r d a t e w ould have


done w e l l , h a d th e y ta k e n tim e t o s tu d y t h e Muslim m i l i t a r y methods
as d i d Leo t h e Wise.
By f a r t h e g r e a t e s t weakness o f t h e Arabs i n m a t t e r s m i l i t a r y
was t h e i r t o t a l la c k o f e x p e r i e n c e w i th s i e g e w a r f a r e .

In view o f

t h e i r nomadic e x i s t e n c e i n A r a b ia , t h i s i s n o t h a r d t o u n d e r s t a n d .
The s im p le e x p e d ie n c e o f d i g g i n g a d i t c h around t h e c i t y o f Madina
i n 627 A.D. had p r e v e n t e d t h e Meccan f o r c e s from i n v e s t i n g i t . 30

The

A rabs had p a r t i a l l y overcome t h i s weakness by an i m a g i n a t i v e m ethod.


They would b e s i e g e a c i t y and l a y w a s te t h e c o u n t r y s i d e .
s im p ly would be s t a r v e d o u t i n t o s u r r e n d e r .

The c i t y

In c a s e t h e c i t y was

w e ll s u p p l i e d and h e l p w ould a r r i v e t o r e l i e v e i t o r i f t h e Arabs


w ould run o u t o f s u p p l i e s , t h e n t h e b e s i e g e r s would b e a t a l o s s .

The

m e t r o p o l i s o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e managed t o w i t h s t a n d t h e Arabs s u c c e s s
f u l l y , p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e t h e above f a c t o r s were f a v o r i n g i t . 31

2 9 I b i d . , V ol. V, 206.
30The s i e g e o f Madina i s a l s o known as t h e b a t t l e o f Khanduq
o r D itc h . See H a m id u lla h , o. c i t . (December 1 9 5 2 ), 8 -1 3 ; G lubb,
o p . c i t . , p p . 8 2 -8 6 .
31The Arabs b e s ie g e d C o n s t a n t i n o p l e i n 669, 677 and th e n a g a in
i n 717 A.D. See G lu bb , o p . c i t . , p p . 35 0-5 2; Lynn M o n tro s s , War
Through t h e Ages (New York: H arp er and B r o t h e r s , 1 9 4 4 ), p p . 12 3-25;
H i t t i , o p . c i t . , p p . 201-204.

68

I n s o f a r as t h e Arabs a t l a r g e were c o n c e rn e d , t h e i r b e l i e f
t h a t b a t t l e s were won by d e s p e r a t e co u rag e a l o n e , and t h a t no s k i l l e d
t r a i n i n g o r o r g a n i z a t i o n were r e q u i r e d from a conmander, rem ained
s t e a d f a s t th ro u g h o u t t h e i r m ajo r b a t t l e s a g a i n s t t h e B y z a n tin e s and
th e P ersian s.

Indeed i t i s s a i d t h a t " t h e Arabs were v i c t o r i o u s n o t

owing t o , b u t i n s p i t e o f , t h e i r com m anders."32

T his i n d i v i d u a l

co urage was f u r t h e r enhanced by t h e Arab t r i b a l a l l e g i a n c e , f o r t h e


Arab t rib e s m e n fo u g h t i n f i n i t e l y b e t t e r among " t h e sons o f t h e i r
u n c l e s " t h a n i n mixed groups among men o f o t h e r t r i b e s . 33

An e s p r i t -

d e - c o rp s was th u s d i s p l a y e d by th e Arab t r i v a l l e v i e s which t h e


b e t t e r armed and d i s c i p l i n e d B y za n tin e

and P e r s i a n f o r c e s la c k e d .

The co n cep t o f " j i h a d " o r Holy War i n Islam gave a f u r t h e r


b o o s t t o Arab c h a r a c t e r a l r e a d y co u rag eo us and f i e r y .

I t was one o f

t h e p r i n c i p a l d u t i e s o f t h e C a lip h as commander o f t h e f a i t h f u l t o
keep p u s h in g back t h e g e o g r a p h ic a l w a ll s e p a r a t i n g t h e " d a r a l - I s l a m "
( t h e lan d o f Islam ) from t h e " d a r a l- H a rb " (th e war t e r r i t o r y ) .

In

t h i s Holy War t h o s e who f o r f e i t e d t h e i r l i v e s were a t once a d m itte d


t o p a r a d i s e . 34

A c c o r d in g ly , t h e Arab w a r r i o r s , i n u t t e r i n d i f f e r e n c e

32G lubb, o p . c i t . , p . 160. An e x c e l l e n t example o f t h i s


k in d o f a t t i t u d e was p ro v id e d when C alip h Umar a p p o in te d a common
r e c r u i t , Abu U baid, t o command t h e army a g a i n s t t h e P e r s i a n s a t t h e
B a t t l e o f t h e B ridge i n 635 A.D. The s o l e q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f Abu Ubaid
b e in g t h a t he had been t h e f i r s t p e r s o n t o v o l u n t e e r f o r s e r v i c e
a g a i n s t t h e P e r s i a n s when C alip h Umar d e c id e d to r a i s e a new le v y f o r
I r a q . On t h i s o c c a s i o n , however, t h e Arabs l o s t t h e b a t t l e .
33Quoted i n Glubb, o p . c i t . , p. 192. At Badr many Meccans were
h e s i t a n t t o b e a r arms a g a i n s t t h e Muslims s in c e many Muslim w a r r i o r s
were a t t h e same tim e f e llo w members o f t h e Q u ra ish t r i b e .
34For Q u ran ic s a n c t i o n o f " j i h a d " s e e Q uran, IX, 29.
t i c a l l y t h e r e i s no s e c u l a r war i n Isla m .

T h e o re

69

to t h e i r l i v e s , h u r l e d th em selv es a g a i n s t t h e b e t t e r equipped arm ies


o f t h e i r enemies w ith r e s u l t s m o stly d i s a s t r o u s f o r t h e l a t t e r .
I t i s n o t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e Arab m i l i t a r y methods d id n o t
undergo any change d u r in g t h e t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a c e n t u r y , from t h e
b a t t l e o f Badr t o t h e con qu est o f S ind.

The s h e e r f o r c e o f n e c e s s i t y

was t h e s u f f i c i e n t f a c t o r t o b r i n g about c e r t a i n fundam ental chang es.


As e a r l y as 635 Arab commander, K halid ib n a l - W a lid , when f a c i n g th e
B y zantines a t Yarmuk had deemed i t p ru d e n t t o r e o r g a n i z e th e b a t t l e
fo rm a tio n o f h i s t r o o p s a lo n g t h e t i g h t l y - k n i t l i n e s used by t h e
B y zantines th e m s e lv e s .

As a lr e a d y p o in te d o u t th e Arabs u n t i l t h i s

tim e had assem bled by t r i b e s and c l a n s , form ing lo n g l i n e s t h r e e


ran k s d eep , composed r e s p e c t i v e l y o f l a n c e r s , a r c h e r s and swordsmen.
K halid r e p l a c e d t h i s o r d e r w ith a s e r i e s o f homogeneous u n i t s ,
grouped a c c o rd in g t o t h e i r weapons and s p e c i a l f i g h t i n g s k i l l s , and
a rra n g e d so t h a t a f ix e d number o f s o l d i e r s p e r u n i t sh o u ld be le d
by an e x p e r ie n c e and p rov en o f f i c e r , 35
In t h e same y e a r Saad ib n a b i Waqqas, Arab commander f a c i n g
t h e P e r s i a n f o r c e s a t Q ad asiy a, a p p o in te d a d epu ty commander and
commanders f o r th e advanced and f l a n k g u a r d s , as w e ll as s ta n d a r d b e a r e r s f o r t h e v a r io u s t r i b a l b a n n e rs and section-com m anders f o r
e v e ry group o f t e n men.

There i s no s p e c i f i c m ention o f any a p p o i n t

ments between f o rm a tio n and section-com m anders u n l e s s t h e s ta n d a r d -

35Ja c q u e s Boudet, The A ncient A rt o f W arfare (London:


C r e s s e t P r e s s , 1966), Vol. I , 177.

The

70

b e a r e r s were u nit-co m m and ers. 36

Q u a rte rm a s te rs were l a t e r made

r e s p o n s i b le f o r p r o v is i o n i n g t h e t r o o p s , and m i l i t a r y ju d ges d e a l t
w ith b re a c h e s o f d i s c i p l i n e . 37
In a l l f a i r n e s s t o t h e B y z a n tin e s , i t must be p o in te d out
t h a t alth o u g h th e y were d e f e a te d i n most o f t h e i r m ajor e n c o u n te rs
w ith th e A rabs, y e t t h e i r m i l i t a r y machine became th e model f o r th e
la tte r.

By th e b e g in n in g o f t h e e i g h th c e n tu r y A.D. the p r o c e s s o f

i m i t a t i o n was so com plete t h a t " i n o u t f i t and armour t h e Arab


w a r r i o r was h a rd t o d i s t i n g u i s h from t h e G reek .
e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same.

The weapons were

The c a v a l r y used p l a i n and rounded s a d d l e s , not

u n l i k e th o s e o f th e B y z a n t i n e s ." 38

B yzantine s ie g e a r t i l l e r y , such

as th e b a l l i s t a , th e mangonel and t h e b a t t e r i n g ram added t o t h e Arab


knowledge o f s i e g e w a r f a r e , a t one tim e so co m p letely la c k in g .

In

t h i s r e s p e c t , th e Arabs proved to be p r o g r e s s i v e and a l t o g e t h e r open


to l e a r n i n g from t h e i r enemies as w e ll as t h e i r s u b j e c t s .
W ithin l e s s th a n a c e n tu ry fo llo w in g t h e d e a th o f t h e P ro p h e t,
th e w a r r i o r s o f Islam had succeeded in combining t h e b e s t o f t h e
Arab and B yzantine m a r t i a l t r a d i t i o n s .

B yzantine arm our, s i e g e war

f a r e and c e r t a i n b a t t l e fo rm a tio n s conbined w ith Arab m o d i l i t y ,


e s p r i t - d e - c o r p s and v a l o r re n d e re d t h e Muslim f o r c e s fo rm id ab le

36G lubb, o p . c i t . , p . 192.


37Boudet, o. c i t . , p . 177.
38H i t t i , o p . c i t . , p. 226. Also see Ibn Q u ta ib a , Uyun
al-A khbar (C airo : Dar a l-K u tu b , 1930), Vol. I , 128-32, f o r Arab
weapons.

71

e n

t s .

Would t h e I n d i a n m i l i t a r y m achine b e a b l e t o s u c c e s s

f u l l y m eet t h i s c h a l l e n g e ?

I n d ia n A rt o f War
In t h e i r z e s t f o r o r g a n i z e d s o c i e t y t h e a n c i e n t I n d ia n s
i n c o r p o r a t e d w a r f a r e i n t o t h e i r body p o l i t i c and had e l e v a t e d i t t o
th e p o s itio n o f fin e a r t .

A cco rd in g t o t h e A r t h a s a t r a o r T r e a t i s e

on P o l i t y , a work co m piled by C anakya, Prim e M i n i s t e r o f t h e f i r s t


Maurya e m p e ro r, C h a n d ra g u p ta (323-298 B . C . ) , a l l c o n q u e s ts f e l l
in to th re e c a te g o rie s:
dem oniac c o n q u e st.* 40

r i g h t e o u s c o n q u e s t , c o n q u e s t f o r g re e d and
The f i r s t i s t h e c o n q u e s t i n w hich t h e d e f e a t e d

k i n g i s f o r c e d t o r e n d e r homage and t r i b u t e , a f t e r w hich h e i s


r e i n s t a t e d as a v a s s a l .

In t h e s e c o n d t y p e o f c o n q u e s t enormous

b o o ty i s demanded and l a r g e p o r t i o n s o f t e r r i t o r y a r e a n n ex ed .

The

t h i r d i n v o l v e s t h e p o l i t i c a l a n n i h i l a t i o n o f t h e co n q u ered kingdom
and i t s i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t h a t o f t h e v i c t o r .

Inasmuch as a g r e a t

m a j o r i t y o f I n d i a n kingdoms were i n v o l v e d i n i n t e r s t a t e w a r f a r e , any


one o f t h e above m en tio n ed t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s o f c o n q u e s t co u ld be
a p p lie d .

However, t h e s t a t e s o ccu p y in g t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n s e c t i o n o f

th e s u b c o n tin e n t had to d eal c o n s ta n tly w ith v a rio u s n o n -In d ian

39The b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e b etw een t h e B y z a n tin e s and t h e Arab


t a c t i c s s t i l l c o n ti n u e d t o b e t h e main r e l i a n c e o f t h e fo rm er on
heavy i n f a n t r y and o f t h e l a t t e r on l i g h t c a v a l r y .
^ R a m a c h a n d ra D i k s h i t a r , War i n A n c ie n t I n d i a (M adrass:
M acm illan Company, 1 9 4 8 ), pp . 5 8 -7 5 .

72

h o rd e s r e f e r r e d t o by t h e contem po rary I n d ia n s o u r c e s as m le c c h a s ,
t a j i k a s o r yavanas which meant sim p ly " t h e b a r b a r i a n s . " 1*1

Hence

t h e P e r s i a n s , t h e G re e k s, t h e Kushans, t h e Huns, t h e Arabs and th e Turks


were a l l b a r b a r i a n s , a c c o r d in g t o I n d ia n t h i n k i n g .

No ground was t o

be g iv e n i n d e a l i n g w ith t h e s e groups and t h e most s e v e r e tr e a t m e n t


was to be meted o u t t o th e m .1*2

The c o n c e p t o f t h e demoniac c o n q u e st

was, t h e r e f o r e , most commonly a p p l i c a b l e .

The m eanest c a te g o r y was

th u s e l e v a t e d t o a p o s i t i o n a t once n o b le and h e r o i c when c o n f r o n t i n g


th e b a rb a ria n s .
The A r t h a s a s t r a s a y s n o t h i n g abo ut f a i r p l a y i n b a t t l e , b u t
f o r l a t e r s o u r c e s such as t h e M a n a v a -a h a sm a s a stra , o r t h e code o f
Manu, a l e g a l t r e a t i s e com piled d u r in g t h e Gupta p e r io d ( t h i r d and
f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s A .D .), a b a t t l e was i d e a l l y a g i g a n t i c to urnam en t
w ith many r u l e s :

a w a r r i o r i n a c h a r i o t m ight n o t s t r i k e one on

f o o t ; and enemy i n f l i g h t , wounded o r a s k in g q u a r t e r might n o t be


s l a i n ; th e l i v e s o f enemy s o l d i e r s who had l o s t t h e i r weapons were
t o b e r e s p e c t e d ; p o iso n e d weapons were n o t t o b e u s e d . 1*3

L a te r t e x t s

i n t r o d u c e d t h e co n cep t o f m i l i t a r y h o n o u r, n o t found i n t h e r e a l i s t i c
A rth a sa stra .

F l i g h t from an e n c o u n te r i s t h e d e e p e s t o f shame.

The

**1G ustav O p p e r t, On t h e Weapons, Army O r g a n i z a t i o n and P o l i t i c a l


Maxims o f t h e A n cien t Hindus (London: T ru b n er and Company, 1 8 8 0 ), p . 33.
1*2 I b i d .
l*3D i k s h i t a r , o p . c i t . , pp . 6 7 -7 2 ; A. L. Basham, The Wonder
That Was I n d i a (New York: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 5 4 ), pp . 126-27.

73

The s o l d i e r s l a i n w h ile in f l i g h t i n c u r s t h e w rath o f h i s lo r d and


s u f f e r s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y in a f t e r - l i f e , b u t th e w a r r i o r who g iv es h i s
l i f e f i g h t i n g to th e l a s t m inute p a s s e s s t r a i g h t to heaven.

"Such

i d e a l s cu lm in ated i n t h e ' j a u h a r , ' th e f i n a l h o lo c a u s t in which many


a R ajput k in g fou gh t to th e l a s t on th e b a t t l e m e n t s w h ile Bajput
f a m i l i e s burned them selves t o d e a th in t h e i n n e r c h am b ers."1*1* The
s p i r i t o f t h e A r t h a s a s t r a was, however, n o t wholly f o r g o t t e n , and
many a m edieval k in g and c h i e f o f I n d i a , i n c l u d i n g some from S in d,
r e f u s e d t o pay th e supreme s a c r i f i c e when d e f e a t was c e r t a i n and
i n s t e a d a ccep ted th e s u z e r a i n t y o f th e h a te d "m lecch a."
A ncient and e a r l y m edieval In d ia n arm ies were composed o f
m ainly s i x c a t e g o r i e s o f s o l d i e r s :

h e r e d i t a r y tro o p s forming th e

backbone o f t h e army; m e rc e n a rie s ; tro o p s pro v id e d by th e c o r p o r a tio n s


t ro o p s s u p p lie d by a l l i e s ; d e s e r t e r s from t h e enemy; and w ild t r i b e s
men used f o r g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e . 14^ The t h i r d c a te g o r y perhap s r e f e r s
t o p r i v a t e arm ies m a in ta in e d jjy m erchant g u i l d s f o r th e p r o t e c t i o n o f
t h e i r carav an s and t r a d i n g p o s t s .

I t i s h i g h l y p ro b a b le t h a t in th e

ca se o f S ind a l l b u t t h e f i f t h c a t e g o r y - - d e s e r t e r s from th e enemy-formed th e main army.


Major In d ia n s t a t e s m a in ta in e d s ta n d i n g arm ies whose numbers
were sim ply s t a g g e r i n g . C l a s s i c a l acco u n ts a s s e r t t h a t th e f o r c e s
o f t h e l a s t Nandu kin g who was overthrow n by Chandra Gupta, th e
fo u n d er o f t h e Maurya d y n a s ty , im m ediately fo llo w in g th e in v a s io n by

^ B ash am ,

0_.

c i t . , p. 126.

t*5I b i d . , p . 128.

74

Alexander th e Great in 322 B.C. c o n s is te d o f 20,000 c a v a l r y , 2,000


c h a r i o t s , 200,000 footmen and as many as 6,000 e l e p h a n t s . 1*5

Chandra

Gupta h im s e lf i s s a id t o have overrun I n d ia w ith 600,000 men.1*7

The

Chinese p i l g r i m , Hsuan T sian g , r e c o rd s t h a t emperor H arrsha had 60,000


e le p h a n ts and 100,000 c a v a lry a t th e h e ig h t o f h i s po w er.1*8

The

n in th ce n tu ry Arab t r a v e l l e r , Al-Masudi, says t h a t th e P r a th ih a r a


king o f w estern and c e n t r a l I n d ia had f o u r armies o f 800,000 men
e a c h .1*9

While th e s e f i g u r e s a re p ro b ab ly e x a g g e ra te d , th ey are

n e v e r th e le s s given by such v a r ie d so u rces as th e Greeks, th e Arabs


and th e Chinese and r e v e a l t h e p r a c t i c e o f m a in ta in in g s ta n d in g armies
o f t r u l y phenomenal p r o p o r t i o n s .

The fin a n c in g o f such v a s t s ta n d in g

armies p u t a se v e re d r a in on th e r o y a l t r e a s u r y .

In f a c t i t was not

uncommon f o r a monarch to a l l o t o n e - h a l f o f t o t a l income f o r d e f e n s e . 50


The t r a d i t i o n a l d i v is io n s o f th e In d ia n army were f i v e , con
s i s t i n g o f e l e p h a n ts , c a v a lr y , c h a r i o t s and i n f a n tr y and were

1*5A. L. Basham, The Wonder That Was I n d i a , pp. 131-32.


t*7I b i d . , p. 132.
t,8Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records o f Western World, T r a n s la te d
from th e Chinese o f Hieun Tsiang by C harles Beal, Vol. I I , 101.
1*9Henry E l l i o t , The H is to ry o f In d ia as Told by i t s Own
H i s t o r i a n s , Vol. I , "The Arab G eographers," 29.
50According to th e N i t i s a s t r a o r T r e a t i s e on P o l i t i c s , a
medieval Ind ian work, o n e - tw e lf th o f th e revenue was to be a l l o t e d
f o r th e k i n g 's p e rs o n a l u s e ; o n e - tw e lf th f o r c h a r i t y ; o n e - tw e lfth
f o r th e payment o f c i v i l s e r v a n t s , and a s im i l a r p o r t i o n f o r p u b li c
works. The rem aining h a l f was t o be sp en t on d e fe n se . See Basham,
o p . c i t . , pp. 111-12.

75

c o l l e c t i v e l y known as t h e " C a t u r a n g a b a l a . " 51

Three more c a t e g o r i e s

were l a t e r added t o t h e " C a t u r a n g a b a l a , " namely c o m m is s a r ia t, " m an tra"


o r a d v i s o r y c o u n s e l and i n t e l l i g e n c e .

Of t h e com batant r a n k s o f t h e

army, t h e K s h t r i y a c a s t e p ro v id e d t h e c a v a l r y and w a r r i o r s in c h a r i o t s
and on e l e p h a n t s . 52
made up t h e i n f a n t r y .

The lo w er c a s t e s , such as t h e V aish as and Sudras


The u s e o f c h a r i o t s , which c o n s i s t e d o f a

d r i v e r and one o r two w a r r i o r s , g r a d u a l l y d e c l i n e d , and by t h e tim e


o f th e Arab i n v a s i o n h ad c e a s e d a l t o g e t h e r . 53
The s m a l l e s t u n i t o f t h e army was a " p a t t i " c o n s i s t i n g o f one
c h a r i o t , one e l e p h a n t , t h r e e h o r s e s and f i v e men.

The "senam ukha,"

" g u lm a," " g a n a ," " v a h i n i , " " p r t a n a , " "camu" and " a n k i n i " were r e s
p e c t i v e l y t h r e e tim e s as l a r g e as t h e c o rp s p r e c e d i n g them and th e
n i n t h f o r m a t i o n , c a l l e d " a k s a u h i n i , " was t e n tim e s as numerous as
t h e p r e c e d i n g " a n i k i n i " and was c o n s id e r e d t o r e p r e s e n t a co m plete
f i e l d army.

An " a k s a n h i n i " th u s in c lu d e d more th a n a hun dred th o u san d

i n f a n t r y , s i x t y th o u sa n d c a v a l r y , tw en ty -tw o th o u san d e l e p h a n t s and

51In S a n s k r i t " c a t u r a n g a " means c h e s s , a game which o r i g i


n a t e d i n a n c i e n t I n d i a . The o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e c o m p o sitio n and
maneuvers o f a n c i e n t and m ed iev al I n d ia n a r m ie s , and th o s e o f t h e
game o f c h e s s were s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r .
52Sarva Daman S in g h , A n cien t I n d ia n W arfare With S p e c ia l
R e feren ce t o t h e Vedic P e r io d (L eid en : E. J . B r i l l , 1 9 6 5 ), p . L49.
53D i k s h i t a r , o p . c i t . , p . 165.

76

a s i m i l a r number o f c h a r i o t s . 54

A ll ra n k s o f t h e s t a n d i n g army

r e c e i v e d r e g u l a r m onthly p a y . 55
The le n g th y l i s t o f a n c i e n t In d ia n arms as enum erated in
v a r io u s Hindu t e x t s in c lu d e d no l e s s th a n one hundred and t h i r t y seven item s c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e b a s i c groups a c c o rd in g t o t h e i r
use:

th o s e which were th ro w n , th o s e which were n o t thrown and th o s e

which cou ld b e used by e i t h e r o f t h e above m ethods.

The most im por

t a n t o f t h e s e were t h e bow and arrow , sword, l a n c e , j a v e l i n , d i s c ,


b a t t l e - a x e , a n v i l , s i c k l e , " a s t a r a " o r a ty p e o f boomerang, t r i d e n t s ,
a r t i l l e r y i n c l u d i n g b a l l i s t a s and b a t t e r i n g ram s, i n c e n d i a r y m i s s i l e s ,
f i r e b a l l s and a h o s t o f o t h e r m inor i t e m s . 56

The In d ia n bow came

i n v a r io u s s i z e s b u t t h e most p o w erfu l was some f i v e t o s i x f e e t


lon g and was r e s t e d on t h e ground and s t e a d i e d w ith one f o o t . Accord
in g t o th e a n c i e n t Greek h i s t o r i a n A r r i a n , " t h e r e i s n o th in g which
can r e s i s t an I n d ia n a r c h e r ' s s h o t , n e i t h e r s h i e l d o r b r e a s t - p l a t e n o r
any s t r o n g e r d e fe n c e i f such t h e r e b e . " 57

Among i t s many v a r i e t i e s

54Gustav O p p e rt, On t h e Weapons, Army O r g a n iz a tio n and P o l i t i


c a l Maxims o f t h e A n cien t H in du s, p . 5.
55No doubt t h e pay s c a l e v a r i e d c o n s id e r a b ly a c c o rd in g to
p l a c e and tim e . A ccording t o t h e a fo re m e n tio n e d A r t h a s a s t r a the
co m m an d er-in -ch ief was t o r e c e i v e f o u r th o u san d panas m onthly w h ile
a common i n f a n t r y s o l d i e r r e c e i v e d o n ly f o r t y - o n e p a n a s . A ccording
t o 1948 c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e r e were a p p ro x im a te ly tw en ty panas t o one
pound s t e r l i n g . See D i k s h i t a r , o p . c i t . , p. 210.
560 p p e r t , 0 . c i t . , pp. 1 -3 5 ; D i k s h i t a r , o p . c i t . , pp. 93 -152;
J o g e s h i C. Ray, "Fire-A rm s in A n cien t I n d i a , " In d ia n H i s t o r i c a l
Q u a r t e r l y , Vol. V III (1 9 3 2 ), 266-71.
57Quoted in D i k s h i t a r , oja. c i t . , p. 100.

77

t h e long two-handed s l a s h i n g sword was th e most d an gerou s.

An

e s p e c i a l l y long la n c e c a l l e d t h e "tom ora" was u sed in f i g h t i n g from


th e backs o f th e e le p h a n t s .
In s p i t e o f o c c a s io n a l r e f e r e n c e s t o metal armour in some
a n c i e n t and e a r l y m edieval Hindu w orks, i t i s e v id e n t from f o r e i g n
a c c o u n ts , s c u l p t u r e , iconography and c a v e - p a i n t i n g s t h a t v ery l i t t l e
p r o t e c t i v e armour, m ostly made o f animal s k i n , was u t i l i z e d by th e
In d ia n f o r c e s . 58

S h ie ld s and b r e a s t p l a t e s were th e most common typ e

o f p r o t e c t i v e arm our, w h ile h elm ets and tu r b a n s when used served as


h e a d g e a r.

On th e w hole, however, t h e In d ia n w a r r i o r was n o t burdened

by any cumbersome m e t a l l i c p a r a p h e r n a l i a .
In t a c t i c a l m a tte rs th e g r e a t r e l i a n c e p la c e d on e le p h a n ts was
from th e p r a c t i c a l p o i n t o f view u n f o r t u n a t e .

Once th e war e le p h a n ts

were f r i g h t e n e d and d e m o ra liz e d , e s p e c i a l l y by f i r e , they would stampede


from th e f i e l d o f b a t t l e th ro w in g t h e i r r i d e r s and tra m p lin g t h e n ear
tro o p s on t h e i r own s i d e .

In c o n v e n tio n a l b a t t l e f o rm a tio n s , th e

e le p h a n ts were p la c e d i n t h e f r o n t w ith i n f a n t r y in t h e c e n t e r .
Lancers were s t a t i o n e d b eh in d t h e e le p h a n ts and in f r o n t o f th e
arch ers.

C avalry u n i t s took up p o s i t i o n s on t h e f l a n k s .

E lephant

and c a v a lr y u n i t s a ls o c a r r i e d bows and a rro w s, though l i g h t e r than


th o se c a r r i e d by t h e r e g u l a r a r c h e r s .

As p r e v io u s l y m entio ned, heavy

and s te a d y i n f a n t r y fo rm atio n s were t h e b e s t d e fe n se a g a i n s t th e Arab

58S ingh, o. c i t . , pp. 116-18; Basham, 0 . c i t . , p . 133;


D i k s h i t a r , ojs. c i t . , pp. 127-52. Animals whose h id e s were most
commonly u sed f o r t h i s purpose in c lu d e d r h in o c e r o s , e le p h a n t and
b iso n .

78

c a v a lr y c h a rg e s.

The Franks a t Tours and t h e B yzantines in their l a t e r

b a t t l e s had s u c c e s s f u l l y stemmed t h e t i d e o f Arab arms by t h e i r


i n f a n t r y columns.

The In d ia n fo o t s o l d i e r s , however, were hampered

by t h e p resen ce o f e le p h a n ts and in case o f p a n ic were a c t u a l l y


tram p led by th e m assive b e a s t s .

The e le p h a n ts , a t th e same time

a p p r e c ia b ly reduced t h e m o b ility o f Indian arm ie s.

The In d ia n bow

c a r r i e d by th e r e g u l a r i n f a n t r y was much l a r g e r th a n th e one c a r r i e d


by t h e Arabs.

Hence t h e a rc h e rs would have r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e d i f f i

c u l t y i n sh o o tin g th e Arab h o rs e s from under t h e i r r i d e r s w hile a t th e


same tim e could regroup t o face f r e s h waves o f Arab horsemen from
v a r io u s o t h e r d i r e c t i o n s .

Heavy i n f a n t r y armed w ith long lan ces and

swords could th e n d e a l w ith th e rem aining Arab c a v a lr y .

As i t was th e

In d ia n commanders d is p la y e d alm ost a p a t h e t i c f a i t h in th e e l e p h a n t s '


a b i l i t y t o engage and d e s tro y th e enemy in th e opening phases o f th e
b a t t l e . 59

Once th e b e a s t was unnerved, however, th e e n t i r e b a t t l e

fo rm atio n sim ply c o lla p s e d .

Unlike th e Arabs who were capable o f

cov ering enormous d i s ta n c e s in a s h o r t tim e , th e In d ia n armies were


slow and ponderous.

They dw elt in huge camps which were f o r a l l

p r a c t i c a l purposes m obile c i t i e s w ith r o y a l q u a r t e r s , shopping


c e n te rs , o f f i c e r s ' fa m ilie s

and con cub in es, as w e ll as p r o s t i t u t e s .

Thus, f u l l y m o b iliz e d and in c lu d in g a u x i l i a r i e s and no n -com batants,

59In 326 B.C. a t th e b a t t l e o f Hydaspes th e In d ia n war


e le p h a n ts e a s i l y d e s tro y e d th e c e l e b r a t e d Greek phalanx o f Alexander
th e G reat. The Greek c a v a lr y , however, succeeded i n f r i g h t e n i n g
t h e b e a s t s by u s in g f i r e , w ith p r e d i c t a b l e r e s u l t s .

79

i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e f i g h t i n g f o r c e o f a l a r g e kingdom numbered
w e l l o v e r a m i l l i o n . 60
By f a r t h e g r e a t e s t o b s t a c l e t o t h e p r o g r e s s o f Arab arms
i n S in d was t h e m a ssiv e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s a l l a lo n g t h e low er In d u s.
The s c i e n c e o f m i l i t a r y a r c h i t e c t u r e was f a m i l i a r t o t h e I n d ia n s even
b e f o r e t h e coming o f t h e Aryans some two m ilennium s b e f o r e C h r i s t .
R ig v e d a , r e c o r d i n g t h e m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s o f t h e A ry an s, sp e a k s o f
towns and f o r t s b u i l t by t h e Dasas o r p re -A ry a n D r a v i d i a n s .
(m a jo r Aryan d i v i n i t y ) i s P u r a n d a r a , t h e f o r t d e s t r o y e r .
f o r t s as age consumes a g a r m e n t ." 61

"In d ra

He r e n d s

By t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e v e n th

c e n t u r y A.D. t h e I n d ia n s u b c o n t i n e n t was s tu d d e d w ith f o r t i f i c a t i o n s


o f v a r i o u s sh ap es and s i z e s .

The most in g e n io u s methods were d e v is e d

by l o c a l r u l e r s in c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e ty p e s o f d e f e n s e sy stem s most
e f f e c t i v e i n h o l d i n g th e enemy arm ies a t b ay .

U n f o r t u n a t e ly o v e r t h e

p a s t tw e lv e c e n t u r i e s most o f t h e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s have e i t h e r f a l l e n
i n co m p lete decay o r have been so m o d ifie d by s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n s
th a t very l i t t l e

i n f o r m a t i o n can b e had ab o u t t h e Hindu m i l i t a r y

a r c h i t e c t u r e on t h e eve o f t h e Arab i n v a s io n o f S i n d . 62

In a s tu d y

o f I n d ia n f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , o u t o f t w e n t y - f o u r s i t e s s e l e c t e d , n o t a
s i n g l e one c o u ld be d a te d p r i o r t o t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y A .D ., w it h o u t
e x t e n s i v e m o d i f i c a t i o n s . 63

T h ree o f t h e s e s i t e s , D a u la ta b a d , C h i t o r

60Basham, o p . c i t . , p . 132.
61Quoted i n J . N. K amalapur, The Deccan F o r t s (Bombay:
Book D epot, 1 9 6 1 ), p . 5.
62S id ney Toy, The S tro n g h o ld s o f I n d i a (M elbourne:
1 9 5 7 ), p . 10.

P o p u la r

W. Heinemann,

63T h is p a r t i c u l a r l y h o ld s t r u e i n t h e c a s e o f p re -A ra b S in d .
The s i t e s o f a l l m a jo r s t r o n g h o l d s t h e r e , w ith t h e e x c e p t io n o f

80

and G ingee, how ever, have p r e s e r v e d t o some d e g re e t h e e s s e n t i a l Hindu


c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and i n t h e c a s e o f D au latab ad t h e s e d a t e back to t h e
n i n t h c e n tu r y o r e a r l i e r .

A ll t h r e e s i t e s , though s e p a r a t e d by

hu nd reds o f m i l e s , d i s p l a y numerous i d e n t i c a l f e a t u r e s . 64 The f o r t r e s s


o f D au latab ad i s b u i l t on a c o n i c a l rock 600 f e e t h i g h . 65

A stro n g

w a l l , abo ut t h r e e m ile s i n p e r i m e te r and defended by a moat and


g l a c i s , ru n s around t h e h i l l a t t h e b a s e .

Between t h i s o u t e r w a ll

and th e c i t a d e l a r e t h r e e o t h e r e n c i r c l i n g w a l l s .

Beyond t h e f o u r t h

w a ll r i s e s t h e c i t a d e l , t h e s i d e s o f which have been s c ra p e d a l l


around a lm o st v e r t i c a l l y f o r a h e i g h t o f 150 f e e t .

From t h i s p o i n t

t h e o n ly approach t o t h e c i t a d e l i s a c r o s s a n o t h e r moat a lo n g a narrow


and s t r o n g l y defend ed g a l l e r y and up and th ro u g h a narrow and s te e p
tu n n e l.

Emerging from t h e t u n n e l , one i s s t i l l about 200 f e e t from

t h e summit.

P a r t o f t h e d e fe n s e s a r e a c t u a l l y c u t i n t o t h e r o c k , and

o th e r w is e huge g r a n i t e b o u ld e r s a r e u se d .

The e n t r a n c e to t h e c i t y

i s th ro u g h t h e o u te rm o st w a ll by way o f a s t r o n g hornwork c o n s i s t i n g
o f a s u c c e s s i o n o f gateways and c o u r t s .

The hornwork i s v e ry t h i c k

M ultan, cann ot be i d e n t i f i e d w ith c e r t a i n t y . M ultan i t s e l f h as been


r e b u i l t so o f t e n t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l f o r t i c i a t i o n s can no lo n g e r be
re c o n stru c te d .
64D au latab ad i s s i t u a t e d i n th e Deccan n o t f a r from t h e
renowned E l l o r a Caves. Gingee i s in South I n d i a , a p p ro x im a te ly 100
m ile s s o u th o f Madras, w h ile C h it o r i s i n R ajp u tan a n e a r l y 300 m iles
n o r th o f D a u la ta b a d .
65The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s f o r t r e s s i s ta k e n from f i v e s o u r c e s :
Sidney Toy, The S tro n g h o ld s o f I n d i a , pp. 33-40; Sidney Toy, The
F o r t i f i e d C i t i e s o f I n d i a (London: W. Heinemann, 1965), pp. 98 -104;
J . N. Kamalapur, The Deccan F o r t s , pp. 106-10; Thomas H aig, H i s t o r i c a l
Landmarks o f t h e Deccan (A llahabad: P io n e e r P r e s s , 1 907), pp. 27-31;
and S t u a r t P ig g o t , Some A ncient C i t i e s o f I n d ia (London: Oxford
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 945), pp. 78-88.

81

and l o f t y w a lls c o n v o lu ted on th e o u t e r f a c e s and i s defend ed by l a r g e


b a stio n s.

The e n tr a n c e from th e w a ll e n c l o s in g t h e c i t y to t h e second

c o u r t i s thro ug h a l o f t y v a u l t e d p assag e \\'ith a tw o -le a v e d door a t


e i t h e r end, a l a r g e r e c e s s f o r th e guard on t h e r i g h t and a s ta ir w a y
t o t h e p a r a p e t walk o v e r t h e g a t e on th e l e f t .

The d o o r s , e le v e n f e e t

w ide, a r e fo rm id a b le b a r r i e r s , s i x in ch es t h i c k s tr e n g th e n e d b ehin d
by leavy b a to n s spaced a t s h o r t i n t e r v a l s and s e c u re d when c lo s e d by
a tim b e r b a r about te n in c h e s s q u a r e .

They a r e stu d d ed w ith e i g h t

in ch long i r o n s p ik e s a g a i n s t e le p h a n t a t t a c k .

The second c o u r t i s

defended by a row o f guardrooms on c i t h e r s i d e and from tow ers


f la n k i n g t h e n e x t gatew ay.
w a ll i s re ach ed .

This p a t t e r n c o n tin u e s u n t i l th e f o u r t h

Im m ediately below t h i s w a ll i s a n o th e r moat which

had been ex cav ated o u t o f l i v i n g ro c k .

Beyond t h e moat r i s e s th e

h i l l , s c ra p e d a l l around up to a h e i g h t o f 150 f e e t .

The b r id g e from

t h e f o u r t h w a ll t o t h e b a s e o f t h e c i t a d e l d escend s r a p i d l y by a
f l i g h t o f s te p s and r i s e s a g a in to th e l e v e l o f t h e g a l l e r y on t h e
o th e r sid e .

T h is arrangem ent was an a l t e r n a t i v e to a draw b rid ge

s i n c e th e h e ig h t o f w a te r in t h e moat was u n d er c o n t r o l and in tim e


o f d a n g e r w a te r co uld be r a i s e d t o such a l e v e l as t o r e n d e r the bridge
im p a ss a b le .

The g a l l e r y p a s s e s round t h r e e s i d e s o f a t a l l b a s t i o n

and a s s a i l a n t s r u s h i n g th ro u g h i t would be under a t t a c k from t h e


b attlem en ts o f th e b a s tio n .

From t h e end o f t h e g a l l e r y a few s te p s

le a d down t o a sm all open c o u r t on one s i d e o f which i s th e e n tr a n c e


t o th e t u n n e l .
s te e p s t e p s .
ap p ro ach .

The long ascen d in g tu n n e l r u s e s r a p i d l y by a f l i g h t o f


Opening o f f i t a re chambers f o r guards commanding t h e

At th e end o f t h e t u n n e l i s a t r a p - d o o r , i s s u i n g from which

82

one a r r i v e s a t t h e f o o t o f a v e r y wide and lo n g s e r i e s o f s t e p s


a s c e n d in g t o a p a v i l i o n .

From t h i s l e v e l a f u r t h e r f l i g h t o f a

hun dred s t e p s le a d s up t o t h e l e v e l summit o f t h e c i t a d e l . The c i t a d e l


has a p l e n t i f u l s u p p ly o f w a te r from i t s own p e r e n n i a l s p r i n g s . 6
The second c o u r t now h as a mosque, no doubt c o n s t r u c t e d much l a t e r ,
b u t e v id e n c e s o f Hindu te m p le s a r e n o t l a c k i n g .
The f o r t r e s s e s o f C h i t o r and G in g ee, though h u n d red s o f m ile s
removed from D a u la ta b a d , d i s p l a y e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same f e a t u r e s , i . e . ,
m o ats, s e r i e s o f m assiv e w a l l s and d o o r s , c o m p lic a te d and i n t r i c a t e
d e f e n s i v e t e c h n iq u e s such as t u n n e l s , and ample su p p ly o f w a t e r .

The

b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s most commonly u se d i n c l u d e g r a n i t e , b a s a l t ,
h o r n b le n d e , c a l e r i t e and t r a p - s t o n e .
In Sind most o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d lan d la y a lo n g t h e Indus r i v e r .
C o n seq u en tly t h e e n t i r e l i n e o f d e f e n s e ra n p a r a l l e l t o t h i s s tr e a m
and from Daybul i n t h e s o u th t o M ultan i n t h e n o r t h co v e re d a d i s t a n c e
o f a p p ro x im a te ly f i v e h u n d red m i l e s .

An enemy ad v an cin g a lo n g t h i s

l i n e would e n c o u n te r f o r t r e s s e s o f v a r i o u s s i z e s , t h e c a p t u r e o f which
must r e q u i r e a s t e a d i n e s s o f p u rp o s e as w e ll as s i e g e equipm ent o f
an advanced t y p e .

In s tu d y i n g t h e A rab ian and t h e I n d ia n a r t s o f

w ar, we can co n clu d e t h a t i n term s o f numbers and q u a l i t y o f e q u ip


ment t h e a d v a n ta g e c l e a r l y la y w ith t h e I n d i a n s .

We may e x te n d t h i s

ad v an tag e t o i n c l u d e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s o f an advance t y p e .

M o b ility ,

how ever, so v i t a l i n I s l a m i c c o n q u e s t s , fa v o re d t h e A rabs, who a l s o


o u t - g e n e r a l e d t h e i r I n d ia n r i v a l s i n t a c t i c a l m a t t e r s .

65Water was o b t a i n e d by d i g g i n g w e l l s o u t s i d e t h e c i t a d e l as
w e ll as by c o n s t r u c t i n g huge ta n k s o r c i s t e r n s t o h o ld w a t e r d u r in g
th e ra in y season.

CHAPTER V

ARAB EXPEDITIONS AGAINST INDIA:

637 A .D .-715 A.D.

The e a r l i e s t Arab n a v a l and la n d e x p e d i t i o n s a g a i n s t I n d ia


a c t u a l l y p re c e d e t h e co n q u est o f Sind by alm ost t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f a
c e n tu r y .

Even b e f o r e P e r s i a had been co m p le te ly s u b ju g a te d th e Arabs

had a l r e a d y launched n av al o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t I n d ia n c o a s t a l c i t i e s .

Phase I :

Naval O p e ra tio n s A g a in st t h e C o a s ta l C i t i e s o f
I n d ia

637 A.D.-638 A.D.

In 637 A.D. Uthman a t h - T h a q i f i , t h e g o v e rn o r o f a l - B a h r a i n


and Uman, s e n t n a v a l u n i t s t o a t t a c k t h e c i t i e s o f T ana, Barwas and
al-D ay b u l on th e w est c o a s t o f I n d i a . 1

The p o r t o f Tana was s i t u a t e d

i n th e dominions o f t h e Chaukalyas o f Deccan; Barwas o r Broach was a


p a r t o f t h e t e r r i t o r y r u le d by t h e G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a s o f N a n d ip u ri,
w h ile al-D ayb ul n e a r modem K arachi was t h e c h i e f p o r t o f S in d .
o p e r a t i o n s o r i g i n a t e d from n a v a l b a s e s in Uman.2

These

Uthman's b r o t h e r s

al-H akim and al-M u g h ira were i n charge o f f o r c e s a g a i n s t al-D aybul


^ l - B a l a d h u r i , Kitab Futuh A l-B u id a n , p. 209.
2These e n t e r p r i s e s were a p p a r e n t ly u n d e rta k e n w ith o u t t h e
knowledge o r ap pro val o f t h e c e n t r a l government a t Madina. For when
C alip h Umar I (654-644 A.D.) was in form ed o f them he was q u i t e i n d i g
n a n t . "0 b r o t h e r o f th e T h a k i f , " he w r o te , " th o u h a s t put a worm upon
t h e wood. By A l l a h , I swear t h a t i f th e y had been s m i t t e n I would
e x a c t from th y t r i b e t h e e q u i v a l e n t . " Quoted i n B a la d h u r i, op. c i t . ,
p. 209.

84

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S in d and V i c i n i t y , 630-1020 A.D.

85

and Broach r e s p e c t i v e l y .
w ith c e r t a i n t y .

The outcome o f t h e s e e x p e d itio n s i s not known

A l- B a la d h u r i, t h e most r e l i a b l e and e a r l i e s t o f Arab

h i s t o r i a n s and geographers concerned w ith th e Indo-Arab r e l a t i o n s ,


s t a t e s t h a t al-M ughira "met th e enemy in b a t t l e and won a v i c t o r y . " 3
The Chachnamah, however, inform s us t h a t al-M ughira l o s t h i s l i f e o u t
s id e t h e w a lls o f D aybul.1* In stu d y in g t h i s is s u e two f a c t o r s should
be c o n s id e re d .

F i r s t t h a t i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e to speak o f an Arab

"navy" i n c o n v en tio n al terms a t t h i s s t a g e . 5

To be su re sm all f i s h i n g

v e s s e l s o r minor c r a f t s roamed th e c o a s t a l a re a s o f th e P e r s ia n Gulf


b u t la r g e tro o p c a r r i e r s or f i g h t i n g v e s s e l s were simply o ut o f th e
q u e s tio n .6

I t was only d u rin g th e c a l i p h a t e o f Muawiya (661-681 A.D.)

t h a t th e fo u n d a tio n s f o r a pow erful Muslim navy were l a i d . 7

Second,

t h a t th e c i t i e s o f I n d i: were so m assiv ely f o r t i f i e d t h a t even i f some


Arabs managed to reach them in t h e i r somewhat a n tiq u a te d n av al v e s s e l s
th ey could not be cap tu red w ith o u t heavy s ie g e a r t i l l ry which th e
Arabs a t t h a t time wholly lack ed .

3B a la d h u ri,

o jj.

However, i t i s n ot in c o n c e iv a b le

c i t . , p. 209.

I heChachnamah, p . 58.
5Umar seemed to have had a dread f o r th e s e a . In r e p l y to
Muawiya1s r e q u e s t to c o n s tr u c t a navy (Muawiya was ap p oin ted th e
governor o f S y r ia by Umar in 639 A .D .), t h e Caliph was q u i t e e x p l i c i t ,
"Nay! By Him who s e n t Muhammad w ith th e t r u t h , I w i l l nev er l e t any
Muslim v e n tu re upon i t . . . . H o w can I p erm it my s o l d i e r s to s a i l upon
t h i s u n f i t h f u l and c r u e l s e a . " Quoted in Ali Muhammad Fahmy, "The
Muslim Navy During th e Days o f th e E a rly C a l i p h a t e ," The I s la m ic
Review, Vol. 40 (1952), 24.
6George H ourani, Arab S e a f a rin g In th e Ind ian Ocean (P rin c e to n :
P rin c e to n U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1951), p. 77.
7Fahmy, o p . c i t . , p. 25.

86

t h a t t h e Arabs d id c o v e r h u n d red s o f m ile s i n t h e i r " s h i p s , " and


a c t u a l l y re a c h e d t h e i r t a r g e t s .

The I n d ia n s i n t h a t c a s e co u ld have

i s s u e d o u t o f t h e i r s t r o n g h o l d s , g iv e n b a t t l e to t h e enemy and r e
t u r n e d w i t h i n t h e s a f e t y o f t h e w a l l s . R e a li z i n g t h e h o p e l e s s n e s s o f
t h e s i t u a t i o n t h e Arabs th e n r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r h o m e s.8

In view o f

C a lip h Umar's p o s i t i v e l y h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e tow ards n a v a l u n d e r t a k i n g s ,


f u r t h e r a d v e n tu r e s a g a i n s t I n d ia n c o a s t a l

c i t i e s were su sp en d ed f o r

t h e tim e b e in g .

Phase I I :

M i l i t a r y O p e r a tio n s A g a in s t S i j i s t a n , Z a b u l i s t a n and Makran

By 650 A.D. m a jo r m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t P e r s i a w ere o v e r


and t h e Arabs were now i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w ith t h e Hindu s t a t e s o f
Z a b u l i s t a n , S i j i s t a n and S in d , and t h e Indo-Arab c o n t e s t f o r th e con
t r o l o f I n d i a ' s w e s te rn b o r d e r was underway.
In 651 o r 652 A.D. C a lip h Uthman i n s t r u c t e d A b d allah ib n Amir
ib n K u r a iz , t h e g o v e rn o r o f I r a q t o d i s p a t c h someone t o t h e " f r o n t i e r
o f a l- H in d " t o g a t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n abo ut t h a t la n d .

The p e r s o n chosen

f o r t h i s assig n m e n t was al-H akim ib n J a b a l l a h a l- A b d i.


r e p o r t was most u n f a v o r a b l e .

A l-H akim 's

"The w a t e r su p p ly i s s c a n t y ; t h e d a t e s

8The f a i l u r e o f o t h e r Arab n a v a l o p e r a t i o n s a t t h i s tim e must


be n o tic e d .
In 638 A.D. a l - A l a ib n a l-H a d ra m i, t h e g o v e rn o r o f a l B ah rain and s u c c e s s o r t o Uthman, h i m s e l f c r o s s e d t h e g u l f and a t t a c k e d
t h e P e r s i a n c o a s t . The o p e r a t i o n was a co m p lete f a i l u r e .
In 641 A.D.
Alqama ib n M ujazziz le d a n a v a l f o r c e a c r o s s t h e Red Sea t o ward o f f
a t t a c k s on t h e Muslims on t h e Abyssrinian c o a s t .
I t r e s u l t e d in a
d i s a s t e r . See Fahmy, o. c i t . , p . 24. For a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f
t h e s e n a v a l u n d e r t a k i n g s s e e B aloch, N. B. Khan A s - S i n d i, "The P r o b a b le
Date o f t h e F i r s t Arab E x p e d itio n s t o I n d i a , " I s l a m i c C u l t u r e , V ol. XX
( 1 9 4 6 ), 250-66.

87

a r e i n f e r i o r ; and t h e r o b b e rs a r e b o ld I

A sm all army would be l o s t

t h e r e and a l a r g e army would s t a r v e . " 9

On t h e b a s i s o f t h i s r e p o r t

any advance upon I n d i a v i a Makran was dropped f o r t h e tim e b e in g .


In 652 A.D. t h e Arab g e n e r a l A bdallah ib n Amir s e t o u t t o
conquer Khurasan v i a Kirman.

At a p l a c e c a l l e d Shakk a s h - S h i r a j a n in

w e s te rn Kirman he d i s p a t c h e d h i s l i e u t e n a n t , Ar-Rabi ib n Z iyad,


a g a i n s t S i j i s t a n which la y e a s t o f K irm an.10

Ar-Rabi pro ceeded e a s t

w ard, c r o s s i n g t h e G reat D e s e rt w ith l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y and ap peared


on t h e b o r d e r s o f S i j i s t a n .

He s p e n t t h e n e x t s i x months co n d u ctin g

m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t w e s te rn S i j i s t a n which appeared t o have


been r u le d by p e t t y P e r s i a n c h i e f t a i n s . 11

S i j i s t a n had many f o r t i f i e d

s tr o n g h o ld s and th e Arabs la c k e d heavy s i e g e a r t i l l e r y .

C onsequently

th e Arab commander deemed i t p ru d e n t t o co n clu d e t r e a t i e s w ith n a t i v e


r u l e r s r a t h e r th a n gamble on u n c o n d i ti o n a l s u r r e n d e r s .

These t r e a t i e s

r e s u l t e d in th e e s ta b li s h m e n t o f lo o s e Arab hegemony o v er t h e a r e a ,
a l b e i t a p r e c a r i o u s one.

The main body o f Arab f o r c e s was s t a t i o n e d

a t Z arang, th e c h i e f c i t y o f w e s te rn S i j i s t a n . 12

9B a la d h u r i, op. c i t . , pp. 209-10; M. I s h a q , "Hakim b i n


J a b a l l a h a l- A b d iA H ero ic P e r s o n a l i t y o f E a rly I s l a m ," J o u r n a l o f
P a k i s ta n H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , Vol. I l l (1 9 5 5 ), 139-40; The Chachnamah,
pp. 59-60.
10B a la d h u r i, o p . c i t . , p . 141.
^ B a l a d h u r i u s e s such te rm in o lo g y as t h e "dehqan" ( g e n t r y ) ,
" s a t r a p " (g o v ern o r) and p r o p e r names l i k e "Abarwiz" which a r e
c le a r ly P ersian .
12These t r e a t i e s i n v a r i a b l y imposed a heavy t r i b u t e b u t
seems t o have l e f t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n l o c a l hands.

88

For t h e n e x t two y e a r s g e n e r a l p eace p r e v a i l e d th ro u g h o u t t h e


area.

However, th e rep la c e m e n t o f Ar-Rabi by a l e s s competent

a d m i n i s t r a t o r r e s u l t e d i n an u p r i s i n g o f m assive s c a l e and th e Arab


g a r r i s o n s were e x p e lle d from S i j i s t a n . 13

Undaunted, ib n Amir n ex t

a p p o in ted th e r e d o u b ta b le Arab g e n e r a l Abd-ar-Rahman ibn Samurah as


th e g o v e r n o r - d e s ig n a te o f S i j i s t a n . 11* This governo r advanced e a s t
ward u n t i l he re a c h e d Kishsh " o f t h e lan d o f a l - H i n d . " 15

The d i s t r i c t

o f ad-Dawar o r modern Zimindawar in s o u th e a s t A fg h a n ista n la y ahead.


In t h i s mountainous re g io n a tem ple w ith a huge i d o l o f gold w ith
r u b ie s f o r eyes was l o c a te d .

A f t e r b r u s h in g a s id e enemy r e s i s t a n c e

Abd-ar-Rahman e n te r e d t h e tem ple and c u t o f f one hand o f th e i d o l and


took out i t s e y e s.
th e gems.

He th e n s a i d to th e k e e p e r, "Keep t h e gold and

I o n ly wanted to show t h a t i t had no power to harm or h e l p . 1,16

Under him th e Arab arm ies a l s o p e n e t r a t e d Z a b u lis ta n ly in g n o r t h e a s t


o f S i j i s t a n . 17

T r e a t i e s were n e g o t i a t e d w ith th e n a t i v e r u l e r s and


*

once a g a in Arab hegemony was a s c e r t a i n e d o v e r th e e n t i r e r e g i o n .


peace was, however, s h o r t l i v e d .

The

Taking advantage o f th e d i s t u r b e d

13B a la d h u r i, oja. c i t . , p p . 142-43.


14The a f f a i r s o f S i j i s t a n were e n t r u s t e d to th e go v erno rg e n e r a l o f I r a q who i n t u r n a p p o in te d t h e governors over th e a r e a .
In p r a c t i c e m i l i t a r y commanders were " d e s ig n a te d " governors o f S i j i s
t a n and th e n were o rd e re d t o p ro ceed t h e r e and w r e s t c o n tr o l o f t h e i r
would-be a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a r e a s from n a t i v e r u l e r s o r , in some c a s e s ,
from r i v a l Arab f a c t i o n s .
15B a la d h u r i,

0 .

c i t . , p. 143.

16I b i d . , p. 144.
17"The h ig h la n d s o f t h e Kandahar c o u n tr y , alo n g th e upper
w a te rs o f t h e Helmund were known as Z a b u l i s t a n ." L e -S tra n g e , The
Lands o f th e E a s te rn C a l i p h a t e , p . 334.

89

c o n d i t i o n s which p r e v a i l e d i n t h e I s l a m i c em pire f o ll o w i n g t h e a s s a s i n a t i o n o f C a lip h Uthman i n t h e S i j i s t a n i s once more drove t h e Arab


g a rriso n s o u t.
D uring th e f i r s t C i v i l War i n - I s l a m which l a s t e d u n t i l th e
d e a th o f C a lip h A li i n 661 A .D ., S i j i s t a n became an a r e n a f o r v a r io u s
c o n te n d in g Arab groups i n c l u d i n g t h e f o ll o w e r s o f A l i , Muawiya as
w e ll as some c o l o r f u l in d e p e n d e n t p e r s o n a l i t i e s . 18
A f t e r c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f t h e e m p ire ,
C alip h Muawiya la u n c h e d t h e Arabs on t h e i r second round o f exp an
s i o n . 19

Abd-ar-Rahman ibn-Sam urah was once a g a in p l a c e d i n c h arg e o f

o p e ra tio n s in S i j i s t a n .

Advancing from K hurasan, t h e Arab f o r c e s

b e s ie g e d Kabul which was h e a v i l y f o r t i f i e d .


s e v e r a l m onths.

The s i e g e l a s t e d f o r

One n i g h t t h e d e f e n d e r s s a l l i e d f o r t h and engaged

t h e Arabs i n b a t t l e .

An e l e p h a n t was wounded and f e l l a t t h e g a t e s ,

th u s p r e v e n t i n g t h e I n d ia n s from c l o s i n g i t .

The Arabs f o rc e d t h e i r

way i n t o t h e c i t y and t h e i n h a b i t a n t s s u r r e n d e r e d .

W ith in a s h o r t

tim e t h e triu m p h a n t Arab a rm ie s o v e r ra n S i j i s t a n and Z a b u l i s t a n as


w e l l . 20
In 670 A.D. Abd-ar-Rahman was r e p l a c e d by a r -R a b i ib n Ziyad
who a p p a r e n t l y was u n a b le t o m a in ta in o r d e r . 21

C o n seq u en tly "Kabul

18B a la d h u r i , o p . c i t . , pp. 144-45.


19D uring Muawiya1s r u l e N orth A f r i c a w est o f Egypt was o v e r
r u n , advances were made i n C e n t r a l A sia and b y z a n tin e n a v a l s u p r e
macy was s u c c e s s f u l l y c h a ll e n g e d .
20B a l a d h u r i,

0 .

c i t . , p . 146.

21B a la d h u ri does n o t m en tio n t h e d a t e o f t h i s re p la c e m e n t b u t


m erely s t a t e s t h a t Abd-ar-Arhman was r e l i e v e d o f h i s command when

90

Shah" drove t h e Arabs from Kabul w h ile " R a t b i l " d i d l i k e w i s e in


S i j i s t a n . 22

T h is i s t h e f i r s t tim e t h a t t h e r u l e r s o f t h e s e two

p l a c e s a r e m entioned by t h e i r t i t l e s .

F o r t h e n e x t two c e n t u r i e s we

f i n d t h e Kabul Shahs and R a t b i l s d e f e n d in g t h e i r la n d s a g a i n s t t h e


Arabs and o c c a s i o n a l l y c o n c lu d in g t r e a t i e s w ith them.

Muawiya was

a b l e t o r e - e s t a b l i s h Arab a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e r e g i o n b u t h i s son
Y azid (681-683 A.D.) was l e s s s u c c e s s f u l .

An Arab army was a lm o st

a n n i h i l a t e d and i t s commander abu-U baidah was c a p t u r e d .

He was,

how ever, s e t f r e e on t h e payment o f a ransom t o t h e amount o f h a l f a


m i l l i o n d i r h a m s . 23

D uring th e second C i v i l War i n Is la m which l a s t e d

more o r l e s s c o n tin u o u s ly from 683 t o 700 A.D. S i j i s t a n once a g a in


became t h e a r e n a f o r r i v a l Arab f a c t i o n s and " R a t b i l a id e d and a b e t t e d
th e m ." 24
In 700 A.D. a l - H a j j a j , t h e V ic e ro y o f I r a q , d e c id e d t o
p a c i f y S i j i s t a n once and f o r a l l .

For t h i s p u rp o se an army o f

Kufans and B asrans were assem bled and was so w e l l eq u ip p ed t h a t i t


was named t h e "army o f p e a c o c k s ."

The command o f t h i s army was

e n t r u s t e d t o Abd-ar-Rahman ib n A s h 'a t h a s c io n o f t h e r o y a l house

"Z iy ad came t o a l - B a s r a h . " The r e f e r e n c e i s t o t h e a p p o in tm en t o f


Z iyad ib n a b i as t h e g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l o f I r a q by Muawiya i n 670 A.D.
See Glubb, The G reat Arab C o n q u e s ts , p . 357.
22B a la d h u r i , op. c i t . , p . 147. F or f u r t h e r d e t a i l s c o n c e r n in g
t h e s e r u l e r s s e e AhmacPAli Kohzad, "Les R a t b i l s Shah de K ab o u l,"
A f g h a n i s t a n , Vol. V, No. I I (1950^ 1-1 8.
23I b i d . , p . 147.
24I b i d . , p . 149. For an e x c e l l e n t acco u n t o f t h e second
c i v i l war i n Isla m see J u l i u s W e llh a u se n , The Arab Kingdom and I t s
F a l l , p p . 113-200.

91

o f Kinda in C e n tr a l A r a b i a .25

On r e a c h in g S i j i s t a n Abd-ar-Rahman

r e a l i z e d t h a t h i s army was w holly u n s u i t e d f o r mountain w a r f a r e .


H a jja j was n o t i f i e d o f t h e s i t u a t i o n and p e r m is s io n was r e q u e s te d to
d e la y o p e r a t i o n s u n t i l th e s o l d i e r s had been a d e q u a te ly t r a i n e d f o r
th is te rra in .

H a j j a j , however, accused Abd-ar-Rahman o f co w ardice,

whereupon t h e l a t t e r h a s t i l y n e g o t i a t e d a peace t r e a t y w ith R a tb il


and marched a g a i n s t H a j j a j . 26

The I r a q i s who were n o t k i n d l y d isp o s e d

tow ard th e Umayyads i n g e n e r a l and H a jja j i n p a r t i c u l a r jo in e d th e


r e b e l l i o n w h o le h e a rte d ly .
Umayyads t h e i r th r o n e .

The r e s u l t i n g c o n f l i c t alm ost c o s t th e

In th e end Abd-ar-Rahman was d e f e a te d and

w ith a few f o llo w e rs reached S i j i s t a n where he sought R a t b i l ' s p r o


t e c t i o n . 27

In 702 o r 703 A.D. H a jja j concluded a n o n - a g g re s s io n treaty

w ith R a tb il v a l i d f o r n in e y e a r s . 26

Before t h e term s o f t h i s t r e a t y

ran out th e i n v a s io n o f Sind was a l r e a d y underway.


25S u r p r i s i n g l y B alad hu ri does n o t p ro v id e any in fo rm a tio n
about t h i s e x p e d i ti o n . See W ellhausen, o p . c i t . , pp. 232-47.
26For a very d e t a i l e d account o f t h i s r e b e l l i o n , see a l - T a b a r i ,
T a rik h a l- R u s u l wa al-M uluk, e d i t e d by De G oeje, Second S e r ie s
(Lugd. B a t.: E. J . B r i l , 1882), Vol. I I , 1042-1132.
27According t o B alad h u ri Abd-ar-Rahman committed s u i c i d e when
he d is c o v e re d t h a t R a tb il had d ecid ed t o b e t r a y him. See B a la d h u ri,
op. c i t . , p . 151.
28B a la d h u ri, . c i t . , pp. 151-52; W ellhausen, 0 . c i t . , pp.
240-41. S i j i s t a n was n e v e r co m pletely subdued by th e A rabs. I t was
perm anently occupied by th e Muslims in 870 A.D. u n d er Yaqub ibn L a ith
a l - S a f f a r , a P e r s ia n and t h e founder o f t h e S a f f a r i d d y n asty o f I r a n .
Kabul rem ained a p a r t o f t h e t e r r i t o r i e s r u l e d by t h e Hindu Shahi
d y n asty t i l l 968 A.D. when i t was annexed by t h e Yamini r u l e r s o f
T u rk ish o r i g i n s t o t h e i r v a s t t e r r i t o r i e s governed from Ghazni in
modem A fg h a n ista n .

92

As was p r e v i o u s l y mentioned ar-R abi had s u c c e s s f u l l y o v e r


run Kirman in 653 A.D. on h i s way to S i j i s t a n .

D irectly e a st of

Kirman lay Makran, th e e a s t e r n p a r t o f which formed a p a r t o f th e


kingdom o f Sind.

S h o r tly a f t e r h i s appointment as th e g o v e rn o r-g e n e ra l

o f Ira q in 670 A.D., Ziyad ibn Abi ap p o in ted Sinan ibn Salamah in
command o f o p e r a tio n on th e Kirman f r o n t i e r .
f r o n t i e r and conquered Makran by f o r c e . " 2*3

"He proceeded t o th e
From b ases i n S i j i s t a n ,

Kabul and Makran, th e Arabs o c c a s io n a lly made fo ra y s f u r t h e r e a s t .


The most c o n s i s t e n t t a r g e t o f th e s e Arab r a i d s was th e mountainous
a r e a o f al-K ik an in p r e s e n t- d a y P a k i s t a n i B a lu c h is ta n which formed
a p a r t o f th e t e r r i t o r i e s r u le d by th e S in d ia n m on arch s.30

As e a r iy

as 660 A.D. an e x p e d itio n was und ertak en a g a in s t t h i s reg io n by a l H a rith ibn Murrah o p e r a tin g from S i j i s t a n .

He p e r is h e d t h e r e with

most o f h i s fo llo w e rs t h r e e y ears l a t e r . 31

In 66<1 A.D. al-M uhallab

ib n Abi-Sufrah moved e a s t from bases in th e Kabul v a l l e y and pene


t r a t e d deep i n t o th e p r e s e n t- d a y North Western F r o n t i e r Province o f
P a k is ta n .

He reach ed "Bannah and al-Ahwaz, towns between al-M ultan and

K a b u l." 32

He i s a ls o s a i d t o have led e x c u rsio n s i n t o al-K ikan which

was a t l e a s t f o u r hundred m iles southw est o f Bannu.


23B a la d h u ri, o p . c i t . , pp. 211-12.
30See L e -S tran g e, Lands o f th e E a s te rn C a l i p h a t e , p. 332.
31B a la d h u ri,

0.

c i t . , p. 210; The Chachnamah, p. 60.

32llBannah" has been i d e n t i f i e d as occupying th e s i t e s o f th e


p r e s e n t- d a y c i t y o f Bannu, approxim ately t h r e e hundred m iles s o u th
e a s t o f Kabul. For a p e n e t r a t i n g stu d y o f t h i s e x p e d itio n , see S. Q.
F a tim i, " F i r s t Muslim In v asio n o f th e North West F r o n t i e r o f th e IndoP a k ista n S ub con tinent 44 A .H ., 664-65 A .D .," J o u rn a l o f A s i a ti c
S o c ie ty o f P a k is t a n , Vol. V II, No. I (June 1963), 37-44.

93

S h o r t l y b e f o r e 667 A.D. Arab f o r c e s u n d e r A b d a lla h ibn-Saw w ar


a l- A b d i a g a in r a i d e d a l- K ik a n and p r e s e n t e d Muawiya w ith f i n e h o r s e s
from t h i s a r e a .
K i k a n i s . 33

A b d u lla h , h ow ever, l o s t h i s l i f e a g a i n s t t h e

W estern Makran was s u c c e s s f u l l y annexed t o t h e C a l i p h a t e

a b o u t 670 A.D.

From h e r e R ashid Ibn Amir, t h e g o v e r n o r o f Makran,

c o n d u c te d a r a i d a g a i n s t a l- K ik a n b u t l o s t h i s l i f e d u r in g t h e
c a m p a ig n .34

By t h i s tim e Arab p a t i e n c e w ith Makran was r u n n in g t h i n .

B a la d h u r i q u o t e s a l - A s h a , an Arab p o e t , as s a y in g :
And th o u a r t g o in g t o M akran-How f a r t h e d e s t i n a t i o n from t h e s t a r t i n g p l a c e t
I have no u s e f o r Makran,
E ith e r to fig h t th ere o r to tra d e .
I was t o l d a b o u t i t ; I d i d n o t go t h e r e ;
And I alw ays d i s l i k e t o h e a r a b o u t i t .
Most p e o p le t h e r e a r e h u n g ry ,
And t h e r e s t o f them a r e d e p r a v e d . 35
Arab a t t e m p t s t o occupy a l- K ik a n p e r m a n e n tly , h ow ev er,
r e s u l t e d i n a f i a s c o . 36

In 712 A.D. when Arab f o r c e s u n d e r Muhammad

33Arab f o r c e s on t h i s o c c a s io n were accom panied by camp


f o ll o w e r s which i n c l u d e d women. One n i g h t f i r e was s p o t t e d i n t h e
camp s i t e and i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t d a t e - c u s t a r d was b e i n g p r e
p a r e d f o r a woman i n c h i l d b i r t h .
B a l a d h u r i , o p . c i t . , p . 211.
34B a l a d h u r i , oja. c i t . , p . 212.
35i b i d .
36B a la d h u r i p r o v i d e s t h e m ost s y s t e m a t i c a c c o u n t o f Arab
a t t e m p t s t o p e r m a n e n tly occupy K abul, S i j i s t a n and Makran. R e f e r
e n c e s t o t h e s e p l a c e s a r e a l s o found i n t h e a c c o u n ts o f o t h e r m a jo r
M edieval Muslim w r i t e r s b u t t h e s e seldom amount t o more t h a n a few
l i n e s . The I t a l i a n s c h o l a r , Leone C a e t a n i , a t t e m p t e d t o p l a c e i n
t h e C h ro n o g ra p h ia I s l a m i c a t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s i n a c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r
around t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y .
In 1966 t h e s e w ere t r a n s l a t e d and
p u b l i s h e d i n t h e J o u r n a l o f P a k i s t a n H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , V ol. XIV,
10 4-2 5.

94

ib n al-Q asim were m arching a c r o s s Makran on t h e i r way t o S ind a l Kikan was s t i l l u n s u b d u e d .37

The Conquest o f S in d

711-715 A.D.

The im m ediate cau ses o f th e o u tb re a k o f h o s t i l i t i e s betw een


t h e c a l i p h a t e and S in d were t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f some I n d ia n p i r a t e s
o f f t h e c o a s t o f t h a t I n d ia n s t a t e . 38

When Muhammad ib n Harun ib n -

D h ira an-Namari was t h e g o v e rn o r o f M a k ra n ,39 t h e p i r a t e s o f f t h e


c o a s t o f Daybul a t t a c k e d some v e s s e l s on t h e i r way t o t h e P e r s i a n

37Leone C a e ta n i m en tio n s no l e s s t h a n e le v e n Arab e x p e d i t i o n s


a g a i n s t a l- K ik a n betw een 660 and 675 A.D. See J o u r n a l o f P a k i s t a n
H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , Vol. XIV, 106-112.
38P i r a t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s had i n f e s t e d t h e n o r t h w e s t e r l y p o r t i o n s
o f t h e In d ia n Ocean from tim e im memorial. The Arab t r i b e s o f . o d - a l Q a is , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e Lukaiz i n h a b i t i n g t h e c o a s t s o f t h e P e r s i a n
G u lf and Uman had had f r e q u e n t c l a s h e s w ith I n d ia n pi r a t e s lo n g b e f o r e
t h e c o n q u e st o f S in d . See N. B. B alo ch , "The Most P ro b a b le S i t e o f
D e b a l , I s l a m i c C u l t u r e , Vol. XXVI, No. I I ( A p ril 1 9 52 ), 96 . Also
s e e George H o u ran i, Arab S e a f a r i n g i n t h e I n d ia n Ocean, p . 70; V.
M inorsky, "Mand," E n c y c lo p e d ia o f Isltir.i, E d ite d by M. Houtsma, A. J .
Wensinck and o t h e r s (L eiden: E. J . B i ' i l l , 1 9 3 6 ), Vol. I l l , 235-36;
Henry E l l i o t , The H i s t o r y o f I n d ia as Told by i t s Own H i s t o r i a n s ,
Vol. V. 122-35.
39The tim e o f ib n H a r u n 's a p p o in tm en t t o th e g o v e r n o rs h ip o f
Makran i s a m a t t e r o f d i s p u t e . The Chachnamah, p . 6 9 , g iv e s t h e d a te
as 86 A.H. o r 705 A.D. and f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t he was g o v e r n o r f o r
f i v e y e a r s . Arab h i s t o r i a n K h a lif a ib n Khayyat a l - U s f u r i ( d ie d 900
A.D.) g iv e s i t as 80 A.H. o r 699 A.D. See T a rik h K h a lif a ib n-K h ay yat
(Negav, I r a q : Im p rim erie a l- A d a b e , 1 9 6 7 ), Vol. I , 299;' Leone C a e t a n i ,
on t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e Arab h i s t o r i a n a l-D h a h a b i g i v e s i t as 79 A.H.
o r 698 A .D ., J o u r n a l o f P a k i s t a n H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , V ol. XIV, 117;
E l l i o t , o p . c i t . , Vol. V, 25, b e l i e v e s t h a t i t was s h o r t l y b e f o r e t h e
a c c e s s i o n o f C a lip h a l-W a lid i n 86 A.H. Mujumdar, "The Arab I n v a s io n "
f o o tn o t e 2 on page 32 , co n c lu d e s i t t o b e around 91 A.H. o r 709 A.D.
The Chachnamah, t h e o l d e s t o f t h e s e s o u r c e s i s p e rh a p s most r e l i a b l e
in t h i s case.

95

G u lf from C e y lo n .1+0
C eylonese o r I n d ia n .

I t i s n o t known w h e th e r t h e s h ip s were Arab,


What i s known w ith c e r t a i n t y i s th e f a c t t h a t

among t h e p a s s e n g e r s aboard were some Arab women and c h i l d r e n .


A ccording t o B a la d h u r i, " t h e King o f t h e i s l a n d o f Rubies s e n t t o
a l - H a j j a j some women who were b o rn i n h i s co u n try as Moslems, t h e i r
f a t h e r s who had been m e rc h a n ts , h a v in g d i e d .

He wanted t o c o u r t

f a v o r w ith a l - H a j j a j by s e n d in g them b a c k . 1*1

A p p a re n tly t h e f a t h e r s

o f th e s a i d women were Moslem Arab s e t t l e r s in Ceylon.

B alad h u ri and

t h e Chachnamah b o th r e l a t e t h a t one o f t h e c a p t iv e women c r i e d o u t ,


"0 H a j j a j . "

When H a jja j h e a rd o f t h i s , he s a i d , "Here I am ."1*2

A cco rdin gly m essengers were d i s p a tc h e d t o th e c o u r t


t h e S in d ia n monarch, " a s k in g him t o s e t t h e women f r e e . " 1*3

o f D a h ir,
Inasmuch

1*The t h i r d and t h e s u c c e s s f u l e x p e d i t io n a g a i n s t S ind was


d i s p a tc h e d in l a t e 711 A.D. TYro p r e v io u s a tte m p ts to c a p tu r e Daybul
had f a i l e d . P ro v id ed t h a t as l i t t l e as one y e a r had e la p s e d between
t h e f i r s t and t h e t h i r d a t t e m p t s , and t h a t a n o th e r s i x months o r so
were r e q u i r e d i n c o rre s p o n d in g w ith t h e S in d ia n r u l e r and p e r s u a d in g
t h e C aliph to g r a n t p e r m is s io n and p r o v i s i o n s a g a i n s t S in d , t h e
a t t a c k on t h e s h ip s co u ld have o c c u r re d as l a t e as t h e m iddle o f 710
A.D. o r as e a r l y as 708 A .D ., t h e d a te o f H aru n 's ap po intm en t as t h e
g o v ern o r o f Makran.
^ B a l a d h u r i , o p . c i t . , pp. 215-16. The Chachnamah s t a t e s t h a t
t h e Moslem women were go ing t o t h e Kaaba and t o Damascus and c a r r i e d
p r e s e n t s from t h e C eylonese r u l e r f o r t h e C alip h as w e ll as f o r H a j j a j .
See p . 69.
1*2B a la d h u r i, . c i t . , p. 216; The Chachnamah, p . 69. Majumd a r a p p a r e n t l y m isre a d t h e l i n e i n B a la d h u r i, s i n c e he s a y s , "Both
B a la d h u ri and The Chachnamah r e f e r t o t h e m ira c u lo u s leg en d t h a t th e
c a p t i v e women c r i e d o u t "0 H a j j a j , " and H a jja j r e p l i e d , "Here I am,"
p . 32, f o o tn o te 4. The f a c t i s t h a t B alad h u ri c l e a r l y s t a t e s , "A lH a jj a j h e a rd o f t h i s . " A p p aren tly th e n someone aboard th e s h ip escap ed
t h e p i r a t e s and r e p o r t e d t h e i n c i d e n t t o H a j j a j as r e l a t e d i n The
Chachnamah.

^ 3B alad h u ri , oja. c i t . , p . 216.

96

as p i r a c y was w id esp read in t h e a r e a , i t must be a d m itte d t h a t t h e


A
demand was an u n re a so n a b le one, and doubly so s in c e i t i n s i n u a t e d
t h a t Dahir h im s e lf was somehow in v o lv ed i n t h e whole a f f a i r .

D a h ir 's

answ er, however, p o in te d out th e r e a l i t i e s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n , " P i r a t e s


o v e r whom I have no c o n t r o l c a p tu re d th e m ." 44

N e g o tia tio n s were th e n

suspended by H a jja j and m o b i l i z a ti o n begun.


A l-W alid, th e C a lip h , however, was adamant and would n o t h e a r
o f d i s p a t c h i n g tro o p s to S ind.

Sind was sim ply to o f a r , he s a i d , and

m i l i t a r y o p e r a tio n s t h e r e would be to o c o s t l y .

H a j j a j , however, was

b e n t on in v a d in g Sind and p r e s s e d t h e m a t t e r i n t h e name o f r e l i g i o n


and re v en u e, p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t Islam would g a in a f o o th o ld in I n d ia
and p ro m isin g to d e p o s it in th e c e n t r a l t r e a s u r y , tw ic e th e amount
r e q u i r e d t o add Sind t o th e expanding t e r r i t o r i e s o f t h e c a l i p h a t e . 115
P erm issio n was now g r a n te d .
Accordingly Arab f o r c e s under U b a id a lla h ibn-Nabhan a r r i v e d
a t Daybul.

O u tsid e t h e w a lls o f t h e c i t y t h e Arab commander was

k i l l e d and h i s fo rc e s r o u t e d . 1*6

Arab h i s t o r i a n s a r e c u r io u s ly s i l e n t

about t h i s i n c i d e n t and B alad hu ri who does m ention i t does so only


i n one l i n e .

Two a s p e c ts o f t h i s f i a s c o must be c o n s id e re d .

F irst i t

i s s p e c i f i c a l l y m entioned t h a t Daybul and n o t Sind t h a t was th e r e a l


t a r g e t . Second, no m ention i s made o f c r o s s i n g e a s t e r n Makran o r o f

44I b i d . According to The Chachnamah, p . 17, "That i s th e work


o f a band o f ro b b ers th a n whom ( s i c ) none i s more p o w e rfu l. They do
n o t even c a re f o r u s ."
45The Chachnamah, pp. 71, 74; T u h fat a l-K ira m , pp. 13-14.
46B a la d h u ri, o. c i t . , p . 216.

97

r e i n f o r c e m e n t s b e i n g p r o v id e d b y t h e Arab g o v e r n o r o f w e s t e r n M ak ran-f a c t o r s e x p l i c i t l y c i t e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e l a t e r two a t t e m p t s .


S in c e Daybul was a c c e s s i b l e by s e a , i t a p p e a rs t h a t t h i s a b o r t i v e
a t t e m p t upon t h e c i t y was n o t made by l a n d .

The e p is o d e i s r e m i n i s c e n t

o f t h e two a t t e m p t s upon Daybul by s e a a lm o s t s i x t y y e a r s e a r l i e r and


a lre a d y allu d e d to .

A l - H a j j a j who d o u b t l e s s l y m ust hav e known abo u t

t h e s e p r e v i o u s a t t a c k s on D ay b u l,

a p p a r e n t l y had f a i l e d t o a p p r e c i a t e

t h e m a s s iv e d e f e n s i v e s y ste m o f t h e c i t y .
U n d e t e r r e d , H a j j a j p lu n g e d i n t o t h e t a s k o f o r g a n i z i n g a n o t h e r
e x p e d i t i o n a g a i n s t D aybul.
s a i l t o D aybul.

B u d a il ib n - T a h f a h who was i n Uman was t o

G overnor Harun o f Makran was t o march o v e r l a n d and

j o i n B u d a il a t o r n e a r D aybul.

A d d i t i o n a l t r o o p s and weapons w ere

d i s p a t c h e d from Uman by s e a u n d e r A b d a lla h b i n Kahtam A sla m i.


p l a n w ent w e l l and t h e Arabs b e s i e g e d D aybul.

The

D a h ir, th e S in d ian

m onarch, s e n t h i s son J a i s i m a h a t o Daybul t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n c o n d u c tin g


th e d efen se o p e ra tio n .
o f th e c ity .

A p i t c h e d b a t t l e to o k p l a c e o u t s i d e t h e w a l l s

The a p p e a r a n c e o f w ar e l e p h a n t s f r i g h t e n e d t h e h o r s e s .

The Arab r a n k s w ere b r o k e n , B u d a il was s l a i n and h i s f o r c e s r o u t e d . 47


By now i t was o b v io u s t o H a j j a j t h a t t h e S in d campaign would r e q u i r e
a m a jo r m i l i t a r y f e a t , t h e s u c c e s s o f whose o p e r a t i o n s m ust u l t i m a t e l y
depend upon t h e Arab a b i l i t y t o b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e d e f e n s i v e framework

47B a l a d h u r i , o p . c i t . , p . 216; The Chachnamah, p . 72. " I t


i s s a i d t h a t when t h e news o f B a z i l ' s m artrydom r e a c h e d H a j j a j , h e
became v e r y s a d and s a i d , '0 c r i e r o f t h e mosque a t e v e r y tim e o f
p r a y e r , when you c a l l t h e p e o p l e rem ind me o f B a z i l ' s name, t h a t I
may p r a y f o r him t o avenge h i m . " '

98

w hich s u rro u n d e d t h e c i t i e s o f S in d .
m o b i l i z i n g Arab f o r c e s .

No e f f o r t s were s p a r e d in

The c o r e o f t h e army c o n s i s t e d of 6,000 p ic k e d

S y r ia n c a v a l r y . 148 To t h i s were added 6 ,0 0 0 c a m e l - r i d e r s and 3,000


baggage c a m e l s .1*8

G overnor Harun was o r d e r e d t o j o i n t h e main army

a t Makran w ith e x t r a c o n t i n g e n t s .
by s e a . The command

Heavy s i e g e equipm ent was s h ip p e d

o f t h i s d l i t e f o r c e was e n t r u s t e d t o Muhammad

ib n a l-Q a sim a l - T h a q a f i , a s e v e n t e e n - y e a r o l d y o u th who was a c l o s e


r e l a t i v e o f a l - H a j j a j . 50

Muhammad was i n s o u th e r n P e r s i a c o n d u c tin g

campaigns a g a i n s t some r e b e l l i o u s t r i b e s .
t i o n s were made f o r t h e d e p a r t u r e .

At S h i r a z f i n a l p r e p a r a

H a j j a j was n o t t a k i n g any c h a n c e s .

His i n s t r u c t i o n s were e x p l i c i t :
When you a r r i v e i n t h e c o u n tr y o f t h e enemy,
encamp i n p l a i n s and open f i e l d s t h a t yo u r move
ments may be f r e e and e x t e n s i v e . At t h e tim e o f
b a t t l e , d i v i d e y o u r s e l v e s i n t o d e ta c h e d colum ns,
and t h e n r u s h i n from d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s , as you
s h a l l have t o f i g h t w ith v e t e r a n h e r o e s . And when
t h e y make an a s s a u l t , you make a f ir m s t a n d and

t,8The s t r e n g t h o f t h e Umayyad r u l e was e s s e n t i a l l y b a s e d upon


t h e l o y a l t y and t r a i n i n g o f S y r ia n t r i b e s who had b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y
employed by I r a q i t r i b e s - - i n v e t e r a t e enem ies o f t h e r u l i n g h o u s e .
T h a t H a j j a j s h o u ld d i s p a t c h p a r t o f t h e e m p i r e 's b e s t t r o o p s t o f a r o f f S in d arg u e s w e l l f o r a r e l a t i v e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e reg im e on t h e
one hand and a d i s t i n c t m i s t r u s t i n t h e l o y a l t y o f t h e I r a q i Arabs
on th e o t h e r .
" The Chachnamah, p . 74; B a l a d h u r i ,

0 .

c i t . , p . 74.

50Muhammad was t h e son o f al-Q asim who was th e f i r s t c o u s in o f


a l - H a j j a j , b o th b e i n g t h e g ran d so n s o f al-H akim who i n t u r n was t h e
g r e a t- g r a n d s o m o f T h a q a f, t h e f o u n d e r o f t h e c l a n . The T h a q a f i s , as
w e ll as t h e Q u r a i s h i t e s b e lo n g e d t o t h e p r e s t i g i o u s Adani s t o c k . For
a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f Muhammad's b ac k g ro u n d , s e e B a lo c h , "Muhammad
ib n a l-Q a sim . A S tudy o f His Fam ily Background and P e r s o n a l i t y , "
I s l a m ic C u l t u r e , Vol. XXVII (19 53 ).

99

shower arrows on them. You must make such c o a ts


o f m a il f o r h o r s e s as t o g iv e them t h e app earance
o f w ild b e a s t s , l i k e l i o n s and t h e e l e p h a n t s . 51
A c c o rd in g ly , "he o r d e re d t a i l o r s and arm ourers t o p r e p a r e
s e v e r a l c o a t s o f m ail i n t h e shape o f l i o n s and e l e p h a n t s , and he
forw arded th e m ." 52
More th a n a th ou san d m ile s s e p a r a t e d S h ira z from Daybul.
A pproxim ately t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f t h i s d i s t a n c e a c t u a l l y la y w i t h i n t h e
I s la m ic t e r r i t o r y .

A ll p r e c i s e in f o r m a tio n about t h e d e p a r t u r e d a t e

i s l a c k i n g , b u t 711 A.D. i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d by most h i s t o r i a n s and


i s r e a s o n a b ly c o r r e c t . 53
No a p p a r e n t d i f f i c u l t i e s h a v in g been e n c o u n te r e d , t h e Arab
f o r c e s s a f e l y r e a c h e d Makran.

A f t e r a few days r e s t t h e march was

resumed w ith g o v e rn o r Harun accompanying Muhammad.

Harun, however,

was n o t d e s t i n e d to re a c h S in d , and d ie d on t h e way o f an " a t t a c k


o f i l l n e s s . " 54

Soon t h e army c ro s s e d o v e r t h e f r o n t i e r i n t o S in d .

B efore r e a c h in g Daybul two S in d ia n o u t p o s t s , Armail and F annazbur,

51The Chachnamah, p . 76.


52I b i d . , pp. 76-77. A ccording t o B a la d h u ri H a j ja j s u p p lie d
Muhammad w ith e v e r y th i n g "even t o t h r e a d and n e e d l e s . " He a l s o
p r e p a re d " c l e a n c o t t o n and soaked i t i n v i n e g a r made o f s o u r wine
and th e n hung i t up i n t h e shade t o d r y . He s a i d , 'When ye g e t t o
a s - S i n d , v i n e g a r i s s c a r c e t h e r e , so p u t t h i s c o t t o n i n w a t e r ; th e n
h e a t i t up, and s e a so n w ith i t . ' " Oja. c i t . , p p . 216-17.
53C alip h Walid d ie d i n F eb ru ary 715 A.D. and h i s s u c c e s s o r ,
S ulaim an, im m ed iately had Muhamnad im p ris o n e d . Over t h r e e y e a r s
were a c t u a l l y r e q u i r e d t o o v e rru n Sind. So 711 A.D. i s p ro b a b ly c o r r e c t .
54The Chachnamah, p. 77.

100

were o v e r r u n , 55 w h ile f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n s were r e c e iv e d from e v e ranxious Haj j a j :


When you come in th e v i c i n i t y o f D ebal, make
a d i t c h , tw elve c u b it wide and s i x c u b i t deep.
When you fa c e th e enemy, be s i l e n t and (even) i f
th e enemy sh o u t a t you and use obscene language and
a s s a u l t you, do n o t engage in (a p i t c h e d ) b a t t l e t i l l
I send o rd e rs t o t h a t e f f e c t . You w i l l be c o n s t a n t l y
h e a r i n g from m e .. . 56
We know t h e day Daybul was r e a c h e d , F r id a y , th e t e n t h o f
Muharram, t h e y e a r a lth o u g h n o t g iv en was p ro b a b ly 711 A.D.57
a r r i v a l was d u ly c e l e b r a t e d .

The

"The tro o p s u n f u r l e d t h e i r bann ers and

sounded t h e i r k e t t l e - d r u m s , and t h e i r s e v e r a l d i v i s i o n s encamped a t


th e p l a c e s a p p o in te d f o r th e m ." 58

As a co in c id e n c e th e s h ip s b e a r in g

heavy s i e g e a r t i l l e r y a l s o a r r i v e d on t h e same day.

One p i e c e c a l l e d

" a r u s " o r b r i d e b elonged t o th e C aliph and was so huge t h a t i t r e q u i r e d


500 men t o o p e r a te i t . 59

A d i t c h was a c c o rd in g ly dug around th e camp

and f u r t h e r o r d e r s from H a jja j were aw aited .

The In d ia n s s a l l i e d

f o r t h from th e c i t y ev ery day b u t were u n ab le t o c r o s s th e d i t c h .

On

th e sev en th d ay , o rd e rs h av ing been r e c e iv e d from H a j j a j , th e Arabs


55I b i d . , p. 79; A l-Y aqubi, T arik h al-Y aqubi ( B a ir u t: Dar
S a d r, 1960), Vol. I I , 288; Ibn Khayyat, 0 . c i t . , Vol. I , 299.
58The Chachnamah, p . 79.
57I b i d .

B alad hu ri m erely s t a t e s t h a t i t was F rid a y .

58I b i d . , p. 81; B a la d h u ri, oj3. c i t . , p . 217, "Lances were s e t


up a lo n g t h e t r e n c h e s , w ith f l a g s f l y i n g from them. The tro o p s camped
a c c o rd in g to t h e i r f l a g s . "
59The Chachnamah, p . 81; B a la d h u ri, 0 . c i t . , p. 217; Ibn a l A t h i r , A1 Kamil Fi a l - T a r ik h (Leiden: E. J . B r i l l , 1867), Vol. IV,
425.

101

engaged t h e enemy and d ro v e them w i t h i n t h e w a l l s o f D aybul.


more c o u ld be done.

The c i t y w a l l s w ere t o o f o r m id a b le and Arab

a r t i l l e r y was i n e f f e c t i v e .
confused.
n o rth .

N o th in g

The s i t u a t i o n was u t t e r l y h o p e l e s s and

A d d i t i o n a l I n d ia n t r o o p s c o u ld a r r i v e any m in u te from t h e

The s t a g e was now s e t f o r a t h i r d Arab d i s a s t e r .

The sudden

a p p e a r a n c e o f a Brahmin from w i t h i n t h e c i t y , how ever, r a d i c a l l y


a l t e r e d th e s i t u a t i o n .

"We have l e a r n t from o u r s c i e n c e o f t h e s t a r s , "

s a i d h e , " t h a t t h e c o u n t r y o f S in d w i l l b e co n q u ered by t h e army o f


Isla m ."

T h is was h a r d l y c a l c u l a t e d t o e n c o u ra g e t h e b e s i e g e r s .

he h ad t o say n e x t was what t h e y n eeded t o know.

What

In t h e h e a r t o f

Daybul was a m a g n i f ic e n t tem p le o f huge p r o p o r t i o n s .

A m a ssiv e g re e n

s i l k e n f l a g b e a r i n g some r e l i g i o u s i n s i g n i a c o n s t a n t l y flew o v e r t h a t
t e m p l e . 6 That f l a g , a c c o r d in g t o t h e Brahmin, was t h e c l u e t o
D a y b u l's d e f e n s e even more so t h a n i t s w a l l s .

"As lo n g as t h a t

s t a n d a r d o f t h e te m p le s t a n d s i n i t s p l a c e i t i s im p o s s i b le f o r t h e
f o r t t o be t a k e n by y o u . " 61

H a j j a j was in fo rm ed o f t h e s i t u a t i o n .

His answ er s e a l e d t h e f a t e o f D aybul.

" I f any o f t h e p e o p l e o f Sind

ask f o r mercy and p r o t e c t i o n , do g iv e i t t o him , b u t n o t t o t h e r e s i


d e n t s o f D e b a l, whom you must n o t s p a r e on any a c c o u n t . " 62

Jaubat

S a lm i, c h i e f a r t i l l e r y e n g i n e e r was o r d e r e d by Muhammad t o knock down


th e f la g .

The f e a t was a c c o m p lish e d by a s i n g l e s h o t o f " a r u s . "

The

60The Chachnamah, p . 81; B a l a d h u r i , 0 . c i . , p . 217; Y aq ub i,


T a rik h a l - Y a q u b i , V ol. I I , 288; A t h i r , 0 . c i t . , Vol. IV, *126.
61The Chachnamah, p . 81.
62I b i d . , p . 82.

102

Arabs s c a l e d t h e w a l l s w ith t h e i r la d d e r s and were s u c c e s s f u l in


f o r c i n g t h e i r way t o t h e g a te s th ro u g h t h e ra n k s o f t h e d e m o ra liz e d
d e f e n d e r s . 63

In a c c o rd a n c e w ith H a j j a j ' s w is h e s , t h r e e days o f

i n d i s c r i m i n a t e s l a u g h t e r were k e p t u p . 6** Of t h e enormous b o o ty


o b t a i n e d , o n e - f i f t h was s e n t t o t h e c e n t r a l t r e a s u r y , t h e re m a in d e r
b e i n g d i v i d e d up among t h e w a r r i o r s .

Four th o u sa n d s o l d i e r s were

s t a t i o n e d i n a s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n o f t h e c i t y , com plete w ith a m osque.65


A g o v e r n o r, Hamid ib n Daraa J a n d i , was a p p o in te d c i t y g o v e rn o r and t h e
main army p ro c e e d e d n o r t h tow ard N iru n , heavy equipm ent b e in g r e
embarked upon t h e b o a t s and ta k e n u p s tre a m t h e r i v e r .

D a h i r 's s o n ,

J a i s i a h , commanding t h e g a r r i s o n a t N iru n , was o r d e re d by h i s f a t h e r


to le a v e th e c i t y , c r o s s t h e Indus and to r e t i r e on Brahminabad.

The

move m ight have been a t a c t i c a l one, b u t i t was c l e a r l y d e s t r u c t i v e


t o t h e m o rale o f t h e p e o p le w i t h i n . 66

The B u dd hist g o v e rn o r so u g h t

added r e i n f o r c e m e n t from D a h ir and was a c t u a l l y i n c o n s u l t a t i o n w ith


th e l a t t e r when t h e Arabs a r r i v e d o u t s i d e t h e g a t e s o f th e

63A cco rd in g t o The Chachnamah t h e app earan ce o f t h e Brahmin


to o k p l a c e s e v e n days a f t e r Muhammad's a r r i v a l a t Daybul. H a j ja j
was n o t i f i e d o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . On t h e n i n t h day o f t h e s i e g e , how
e v e r , t h e c i t y was t a k e n . T h is p r o v id e s o n ly two days f o r t h e
m essen ger t o make t h e r e t u r n t r i p from Daybul t o Kufa, an im p o s s ib le
f e a t by m ed iev al t r a n s p o r t s t a n d a r d s . The Chachnamah i s c l e a r l y
wrong.
6ttThe Chachnamah, p . 83; B a l a d h u r i , o p . c i t . , p . 218.
65B a la d h u r i , o p . c i t . , p . 218.
p r o v id e s t h e name o f t h e g o v e rn o r.

Only The Chachnamah, p . 85,

66The Chachnamah, p . 89; T u h fa t a l- K ira m , p . 15.

103

c i t y . 67

Lack o f a d eq u ate p r o v i s i o n s caused some a p p re h e n sio n among

t h e b e s i e g in g f o r c e s b u t t h e s i t u a t i o n was soon rem edied when th e


g o v ern o r r e t u r n e d and, r e a l i z i n g t h e h o p e le s s n e s s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n ,
d ecid ed t o n e g o t i a t e .

The r e s u l t i n g s e t t l e m e n t p r e v e n te d a Daybul-

ty p e m a ss a c re , b u t o th e r w is e Arab c o n t r o l o v e r t h e a r e a was re c o g n iz e d
as a b s o l u t e .

A fte r a tte n d in g to c e r ta in a d m in is tra tiv e d e t a i l s , th e

main army marched n o r th t o S i w i s t a n , a f o r t i f i e d c i t y w ith a c i t a d e l


on a h i l l . 68
defense.

D a h i r 's c o u s i n , B achehra, was i n command o f t h e c i t y ' s

The p re d o m in a n tly B uddhist p o p u la t i o n was i n fa v o r o f

n e g o t i a t i o n , a p r o p o s a l u t t e r l y tre a s o n o u s to Bachehra who r i g h t l y


c a l c u l a t e d enemy weakness i n s i e g e w a r f a r e .
was f u t i l e .

The a s s a u l t on S iw is ta n

A l t e r n a t i v e methods were now d e v is e d .

S p ies were s e n t

w i th i n th e c i t y who e n te r e d i n t o n e g o t i a t i o n s w ith th e Buddhist


l e a d e r s . 69

The s i e g e o p e r a t i o n s were k e p t up n i g h t and day f o r a

week w h ile w it h i n th e c i t y i t s e l f t h e In d ia n commander found h i m s e l f


e n t i r e l y d e s e r t e d by t h e p o p u l a ti o n a t l a r g e .

C onsequently "when th e

w orld was h i d b e h in d t h e p i t c h - d a r k c u r t a i n o f n i g h t , he i s s -d from

67A c u r io u s i n c i d e n t i s r e l a t e d by B a la d h u r i, p . 219 and The


Chachnamah, p . 91 , i n c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e o c c u p a tio n o f N irun. Follow
in g th e d e f e a t o f Arab f o r c e s u n d e r B udail a t Daybul, t h e p e o p le o f
N iru n , e i g h t y m ile s t o t h e n o r th had concluded a t r e a t y w ith H a jja j
which i n e f f e c t p la c e d t h e c i t y un der t h e l a t t e r ' s p r o t e c t i o n . Two
f a c t o r s , however, i n v a l i d a t e t h i s i n c i d e n t . F i r s t th e a c t i t s e l f
would be c l e a r l y t r e a s o n a b l e and s u b j e c t t o r e t a l i a t o r y m easures by
t h e c e n t r a l governm ent. Second, i t i s h a r d l y c o n c e iv a b le t h a t such a
t r e a t y would be n e g o t i a t e d o r in d eed a need f o r such an a c t a r i s e n ,
i n view o f t h e u t t e r d e f e a t o f Arab f o r c e s a t Daybul.
68The Chachnamah, p. 93; B a la d h u r i, p. 219 c a l l s i t Sahban;
T u h fat a l- K ira m , p . 10.
69The Chachnamah, pp . 9 4 -9 5.

104

th e n o r th e r n g a te and, c r o s s in g th e r i v e r , f le d aw ay."70
were now opened and t h e Arabs poured i n t o th e town.

The g a te s

Muhammad " c o l l e c t e d

s i l v e r and gold wherever he could fin d them, and a l s o secu red ornaments
and cash from th e p e o p le , e x c e p tin g th o se o f t h e Samani (Buddhist)
p a r t y w ith whom he had made a solumn co m p act."71
While Muhammad was busy p a c i f y i n g t h e neighborhood o f S iw is
t a n , 72 f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n s were r e c e iv e d from H a j j a j , "Now g iv e up
o t h e r towns, and come back t o Nirun and a rra n g e t o c ro ss th e Mehran
(Indus) and march a g a in s t D a h a r." 73
made to c ro ss th e Indus.

At Nirun f i n a l p r e p a r a t i o n s were

Any move on t h e p a r t o f t h e In d ia n s while

th e r i v e r - c r o s s i n g was being e f f e c t e d would r e s u l t in an Arab


d eb acle o f th e f i r s t m agnitude.

H a j j a j ' s n ex t i n s t r u c t i o n s were

c a l c u l a t e d to overcome t h i s danger.
Spend as much money as you can. Give them
( In d ia n s ) la r g e rewards and p r e s e n t s . Do n o t d i s
ap po int th o s e who want e s t a t e s and la n d s , b u t comply
w ith t h e i r r e q u e s t s . Encourage them by g iv in g them
w r i t t e n prom ises o f p r o t e c t i o n and s a f e t y . /lt
The m istake made by th e Arab commander a t th e B a tt l e o f th e
Bridge a g a in s t th e P e rs ia n s was n o t t o be r e p e a t e d .
(th e enemy) t o cro ss th e Mehran a t t h e i r w i l l .

"Do n o t allow

T e ll them t h a t i f th e y

70I b i d . , p. 94.
71I b i d . , p. 95.
72Far geographical d e t a i l s concerning S iw is ta n and l o c a l i t y see
H. T. Lambrick, Sind: A General I n t r o d u c t i o n , C hapter 9 , "Sind in 7th
and 8th C e n tu r i e s ," pp. 156-58.
7 3The Chachnamah, p . 98.
71*Ibid.

105

would coire o v e r t o y o u r s i d e o f t h e r i v e r t h e y would n o t be c h e c k e d . . . .


Whenever you meet t h e enemy i n o r d e r t o g iv e them b a t t l e , l e t th e
b a t t l e f i e l d be an open p l a i n . " 75

I f D ah ir r e f u s e d t o c r o s s t h e

r i v e r , t h e Arabs

c o u ld t h e n t a k e th e d r a s t i c s t e p f i r s t , b u t o n ly

a fte r

a solem n p ro m ise

from t h e enemy t h a t t h e c r o s s i n g be e f f e c t e d w ith o u t

h in d ra n c e .
D ah ir was now in fo rm ed t h a t he h ad t h e f i r s t c h o ic e i n
c ro ss in g th e Indus.

I n d ia n m i l i t a r y a d v i s o r s were i n f a v o r o f l e t t i n g

t h e Arabs do t h e c r o s s i n g , "When once t h e w a te r s o f t h e Mehran a re


b e h in d t h e i r b a c k s , no one can come a t t h e i r c a l l t o a s s i s t them .
They w i l l be h e l p l e s s l i k e p r i s o n e r s i n y o u r h a n d s ! " 76

Some ren e g a d e

A ra b s 77 a t t h e c o u r t o f D a h ir were a g a i n s t such a move:


We must n o t in any way c o n s id e r t h e i r coming ov er
t o t h i s s i d e o f t h e r i v e r as a good t h i n g . You s h o u ld
o r d e r t h e boatmen on t h e r i v e r and t h e j a t s and o t h e r
c o u n tr y t r i b e s on t h e p l a i n s t o w atch them , and t o
s to p t h e r o a d s by which th e y g e t s u p p l i e s o f p r o v i s i o n s
f o r t h e army, l i k e g r a s s and g r a i n and f ire w o o d ; and t o
s e i z e t h e s e a r t i c l e s w h e re v e r t h e y f i n d them , and to
m o le s t t h e s t r a g g l e r s o f t h e i r army who may s e p a r a t e
th e m s e lv e s from t h e m ain body. In t h i s way t h e i r ra n k s
w i l l be t h i n n e d . Some o f them w i l l d i e o f h u n g e r , and
some o f want o f c l o t h e s and o t h e r n e c e s s a r i e s o f l i f e . 78

7 5I b i d . , p . 102.
76I b i d . , pp. 109-10.
770n becoming t h e v i c e r o y o f I r a q , H a j j a j h ad a p p o i n t e d S aid
ib n-A slam g o v e r n o r o f Makran. A l o c a l r e b e l l i o n le d by t h e Arab
c l a n o f I l a f i c o s t S a id h i s l i f e .
F e a r in g t e r r i b l e r e t r i b u t i o n from
H a j j a j , t h e c l a n f l e d t o S in d and e n t e r e d t h e s e r v i c e s o f D a h ir .
78The Chachnamah, p p . 110-11.

106

The In d ia n m i l i t a r y view p r e v a i l e d .

One cannot b u t wonder

what m ight have been t h e f a t e o f S ind had D ah ir a c c e p te d t h e a l t e r n a


t i v e view p o i n t .

H a j j a j , n o t i f i e d o f D a h i r 's d e c i s i o n , w asted no

tim e i n r e p l y i n g , " ...W h e n you w ish t o c r o s s t h e r i v e r f i r s t examine


c a r e f u l l y th e c r o s s i n g - p l a c e s on t h e b a n k s.
o t h e r s tre a m s and la k e s ( a l s o ) .

S ecure such p l a c e s on

L et t h o s e o f t h e n a t i v e s o f t h e p l a c e

who l i v e i n b o a t s be won o v e r by solemn p ro m is e s , and r e c o g n iz e t h e i r


s e r v i c e s i n a d e s e r v i n g m a n n e r ." 79
N e g o ti a t i o n s

aid a l l i a n c e s were now h u r r i e d l y concluded w ith

t h e n e ig h b o r in g c h i e f s , among them b e in g Mokah, son o f Basayeh, who


threw o v e r h i s a l l e g i a n c e , went o v er t o Muhammad and p ro v id e d him
w ith b o a t s t o c r o s s t h e In d u s.
was g r a n te d him i n p e r p e t u i t y . 80

In r e t u r n t h e e n t i r e d i s t r i c t o f Bet
D ahir who was c o n s t a n t l y inform ed

o f Arab tr o o p movements now advanced t o t h e e a s t e r n bank o f t h e r i v e r


and s u c c e s s f u l l y f r u s t r a t e d ev ery Arab e f f o r t t o c r o s s t h e s tre a m .
The s i t u a t i o n was re n d e re d dangerous w ith t h e news t h a t a c e r t a i n
elem en t in S iw is ta n u n d er th e l e a d e r s h i p o f Chandram H alah, o n e-tim e
g o v e rn o r o f th e a r e a , had succeeded i n e x p e l l i n g t h e Arab g a r r i s o n
from t h e c i t y . 81

In c a s e o f a sim u lta n e o u s a t t a c k by D a h ir and

Chandram H alah, a d i s a s t e r would s u r e l y f o llo w .

One th o u san d horsemen

were d i s p a t c h e d p o s t h a s t e t o S iw is ta n u n d er M a'asab ib n Abd-ar-Rahman.


A l a r g e p o r t i o n o f S i w i s t a n 1s p o p u l a ti o n was f a v o r a b ly i n c l i n e d tow ard

79I b i d . , p . 113.
eoI b i d . , p . 124.
81I b i d . , p . 116.

10 7

th e Arabs.

I s s u in g f o r t h from t h e c i t y , Chandram engaged th e Arab

c a v a lr y whose l i g h t n i n g c h a r g e s , however, fo rc e d th e form er t o r e


t r e a t tow ard t h e c i t y g a t e s .

The Buddhist p o p u la tio n a t t h i s c r u c i a l

p o i n t , slammed th e g a te s in t h e fa c e o f Chandram who f e l l b e f o r e th e


Arabs w ith most o f h i s f o ll o w e r s .

Four thousand w a r - l i k e J a t t r i b e s

men from th e neighborhood o f S iw is ta n now threw in t h e i r l o t s w ith


t h e A rabs, no doubt m o tiv ated by th e prom ise o f l o o t and p l u n d e r . 82
However, a l l e f f o r t s by th e Arabs to e f f e c t a c r o s s i n g were
i n v a i n , t h e In d ia n army r e n d e r in g ev ery move by th e enemy i n e f f e c
tiv e .

A f te r n e a r l y two months th e Arabs were in a c u te p h y s ic a l d i f f i

c u l t i e s f o r " g r a in and g r a s s had begun t o f a i l , th e supply o f


p r o v is i o n s f o r men had been n e a r l y consumed, and th e army had become
p e rp le x e d and an x io u s.

D isease brok e o u t among t h e h o rs e s on account

o f t h e i r u sin g d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f fo d d e r, and ev ery h o rse t h a t was


a t t a c k e d by an i l l n e s s was k i l l e d and e a t e n . 83

in d e s p e r a tio n u rg e n t

appeals were made to H a jja j t o send two thousand h o r s e s as w e ll as a


goodly su pp ly o f v i n e g a r as "my men b a d ly r e q u i r e i t , because owing
t o t h e i r e a t i n g d i s a g r e e a b le kind s o f food out o f season th e humours
o f t h e i r b o d ies a r e d i s t u r b e d and th e y g e t u n w e l l ." 81* The s u p p lie s

8 I I b i d . , p. 116.
82T b i d . , pp. 116-17.
B a la d h u r i, p. 219 r e f e r s to th e second
conquest o f S iw is ta n as t h a t o f Sadusan.
83The Chachnamah, p . 120.
8**Ibid.

108

were soon r e c e i v e d w ith a n o te from H a j j a j who was n o t e n t i r e l y s a t i s


f i e d w ith th e g e n e r a l scheme o f t h i n g s .

" I t i s s t r a n g e , " w ro te th e

o v e r - a n x io u s v i c e r o y , " t h a t a f t e r g a i n i n g an u p p er hand and sub d u in g


t h e enemy, you have so long rem ained i n a c t i v e . . . . I can n o t b u t f e e l
s u r p r i s e a t t h e weakness and i n d i s c r e e t n e s s o f y o u r p o l i c y . . . . " 85
Muhammad was now o r d e re d t o c r o s s t h e Indus w ith o u t d e l a y .

I t was

d e c id e d t o t a k e ad v an tag e o f t h e i s l a n d o f Bet t o c r o s s by a b r i d g e
o f b o a t s w here th e y would have two narrow s tre a m s i n s t e a d o f a s i n g l e
wide one.

The b o a t s were now l a s h e d t o g e t h e r a lo n g t h e s i d e o f t h e

bank o f t h e r i v e r e q u a l t o th e w id th o f t h e s tr e a m , the low er end


now b e i n g s e c u r e d , t h e u p p e r end was l e t go and allo w ed t o swing
around t i l l i t came i n c o n t a c t w ith t h e o p p o s it e bank where i t was
fasten ed .

The m obile b r i d g e c a r r i e d a number o f a r c h e r s who k e p t a

s m a ll detachm ent o f I n d ia n s o l d i e r s from i n t e r f e r i n g w ith t h e la n d i n g


o p e r a t i o n s . 86
main army.

D a h ir, s u r p r i s i n g l y , s t a y e d a t h i s c a m p - s ite w ith t h e

On h e a r i n g o f Arab t r o o p movements on t h e e a s t b an k , he

s e n t h i s so n , J a i s i a h , a g a i n s t t h e enemy.

In t h e e n s u in g b a t t l e

J a i s i a h ' s f o r c e s were r o u te d and he b a r e l y esc a p e d w ith h i s l i f e .


The s t a t e was now s e t f o r t h e main b a t t l e o f t h e e n t i r e
cam paign.

The two o p p o sin g f o r c e s assem bled n e a r t h e town o f J i t o r

s i t u a t e d by a l a k e .

The S in d f o r c e s c o n s i s t e d o f f i v e th o u sa n d

85I b i d . , pp. 120-21. A ccording t o Yaqubi t h e o p p o sin g arm ies


were drawn up a g a i n s t each o t h e r f o r s e v e r a l m onths. Op. c i t . , Vol.
I I , 289.
86I b i d . , p. 125. C ro s s in g o f t h e r i v e r i s a l s o m en tio n ed i n
B a l a d h u r i, p. 220; A t h i r , . c i t . , V ol. IV, 426; Y aqubi, o p . c i t . ,
Vol. I I , 289.

109

c a v a l r y , tw enty thousand i n f a n t r y and s i x t y war e l e p h a n t s .

Arab

combat f o r c e s had c o n s i s t e d o f s i x th o u san d c a v a l r y a t t h e tim e o f


d e p a r t u r e from S h ir a z .

These were r e i n f o r c e d a t Makran.

Two t h o u

sand h o r s e s were s e n t by H a j j a j on t h e eve o f t h e b a t t l e a g a i n s t


D a h ir, b u t t h e s e were no doubt re p la c e m e n ts f o r t h e h o r s e s e a t e n up
by t h e army.

The Chachnamah tw ic e r e f e r s t o Arab n u m eric al s t r e n g t h

b e f o r e th e f a t e f u l b a t t l e .
f i v e th o u sa n d .

In n e i t h e r c a se does t h e number exceed

There w ere, how ever, In d ia n a l l i e s , some o f them

c a v a l r y u n i t s , who must have r a i s e d t h e Arab s t r e n g t h a p p r e c i a b ly .


We have t h e names o f f iv e Arab t r i b e s c o n t r i b u t i n g c o n ti n g e n ts f o r t h e
Sind campaign:
I t was th e h o u r o f morning p r a y e r when t h e
f iv e l i n e s sto o d a r r a y e d w ith t h e i r c o lo u r s f l y i n g .
One l i n e was formed by t h e men o f t h e fam ily o f
A liy a h ; a n o th e r by t h e c h i l d r e n o f Tamim; a t h i r d
by B ikr R a il and h i s men; a f o u r t h by Abdul Kais
w ith h i s trib e s m e n ; and a f i f t h by t h e p e o p le o f
t h e Azdi t r i b e . A ll t h e s e f i v e l i n e s t u r n e d t h e i r
f a c e s to Muhammad Kasim in o r d e r t o h e a r h i s
o r d e r s . 87
In a c t u a l b a t t l e f o r m a tio n , t h e Arab ra n k s were d iv id e d i n t o
t h r e e s e c t i o n s - - c e n t e r , r i g h t wing and l e f t wing.

" A ll t h e horsemen

were so covered w ith c o a ts o f m ail t h a t th e y app eared t o be as i t


w e re , drowned i n i r o n . " 88

Each s e c t i o n was a l s o a s s ig n e d t h r e e

h undred n a p h t h a - s h o o tin g a r c h e r s .
p o s te d in

The main In d ia n c a v a l r y was

t h e c e n t e r around D ah ir who was mounted on a huge w h ite

e l e p h a n t and c a r r i e d "a c i r c u l a r d i s c

87The Chachnamah, p . 138.


88I b i d . , p. 126.

in th e form o f a m i r r o r w ith

110

sh arp k n iv e s .
a horse,
from

He threw i t as men throw a noose a t everyone w hether

man, o r a f o o t - s o l d i e r who approached and s ev ered h i s head

h i s b o d y ." 89 The horsemen were encased in i r o n , and some o f them

whose h a i r hung lo o se h e ld drawn swords w h ile o th e r s whose h a i r was


t i e d in kn o ts bo re swords and s h i e l d s .
a r c h e r s , p receded th e c e n t e r .

I n f a n t r y u n i t s , in c lu d in g

Some e le p h a n t corps were a t t a c h e d to

i n f a n t r y u n i t s w h ile o t h e r s s ta y e d around D ahir.

A few c a v a lr y u n i t s

were d is p a tc h e d ahead o f th e main army to engage t h e enemy.


For fo u r days i n d e c i s i v e sundry b a t t l e s and s k irm ish e s took
p l a c e , th e main b a t t l e b e in g j o i n e d on th e f i f t h .

A f te r a b r i e f

e n c o u n te r w ith t h e enemy, an Arab c a v a lr y u n i t swung around th e


In d ia n r e a r and succeeded in c r e a t i n g momentary p a n ic .

A v ig o ro u s

In d ia n c o u n t e r - a t t a c k on Arab c e n t e r s u p p o rte d by war e le p h a n ts


ren d e re d t h e Arab maneuver i n e f f e c t i v e . 90

On th e fo llo w in g day t h e

Sind f o r c e s o u tfla n k e d th e enemy l e f t and r i g h t wings and moved in


f o r th e k i l l :
Thus th e i n f i d e l s made a ru sh on t h e Arabs from
a l l s id e s and fou gh t so s t e a d i l y and b r a v e ly t h a t
th e army o f Islam became i r r e s o l u t e , and t h e i r l i n e s
were broken up i n g r e a t c o n f u s io n . I t was g e n e r a l ly
b e l ie v e d t h a t th e Arabs were d e f e a te d and p u t t o f l i g h t
and men were s t r u c k dumb and overawed Muhammad Kasim
was th e n so much p e rp le x e d t h a t he c a l l e d o u t t o h i s
boy w a t e r - b e a r e r "Give me a l i t t l e w ater t o d r i n k . "
He drank w a te r and th e n r e tu r n e d and lo u d ly s h o u te d ,
"Here am I yo ur commander. Muhammad Kasim. W hither
a r e you ru n n in g a w a y . . . . " 91

89I b i d . , pp. 137 and 141.


90I b i d . , pp. 140-41.
91I b i d . , p. 142.

Ill

The s i t u a t i o n seemed so u t t e r l y h o p e le s s t h a t even th e


p e rs o n a l bodyguards o f Muhammad abandoned him.

One o f th e In dian

c o n tin g e n ts u nd er t h e i r c h i e f Mokah Basayeh, an Arab a l l y , now rushed


t o Muhammad's s id e t o p r o t e c t him.

The Arabs th e n reg ro u p ed , b u t

were n o t a b le t o ta k e th e i n i t i a t i v e a l l day.
By now i t was becoming ap p aren t to Muhammad t h a t t h i s type
o f war o f a t t r i t i o n could be d i s a s t r o u s t o th e Arab arms.

With th e

f a l l o f Daybul s t i l l f r e s h i n h i s mind, he now searched f o r a symbol,


th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f which might sim u lta n e o u s ly r e s u l t i n th e d e f e a t
o f th e enemy f o r c e s .

The symbol, o f c o u rs e , was th e huge w h ite e l e

phant v i s i b l e from any p o in t o f th e b a t t l e f i e l d on which ro de th e


S in d ian monarch.

On t h e fo llo w in g day as Dahir plunged h i s e le p h a n t

i n t o th e Arab ranks Muhammad o rd ered h i s a rc h e rs t o shoot naphtha


arrows a t th e b e a s t .

The l i t t e r on th e e l e p h a n t , su p p o rtin g Dahir and

e n to u ra g e , caught f i r e and t h e panicky animal ru sh ed toward th e l a k e ,


throw ing i t s r o y a l r i d e r in th e w a te r .

Arab horsemen im m ediately

surrounded D ahir and p i e r c e d h i s h e a r t w ith an arrow.

The absence

o f t h e i r l e a d e r had a d em o raliz in g e f f e c t on th e In d ian s who were now


d e fe a te d w ith a f r i g h t f u l s l a u g h t e r . 92

J a i s i h a , D a h ir 's son, r e t r e a t e d

t o t h e c i t y o f Brahminabad ap proxim ately e ig h ty m iles n o rth o f th e

92I b i d . , p. 143. According to B a la d h u ri, p. 220, "A f i e r c e


b a t t l e ensued th e l i k e o f which had not been heard o f . Dahir was
fo rc e d to dism ount. He k ep t f i g h t i n g , b u t was k i l l e d n e a r e v e n in g ."
A l-T a b a ri, d i s c u s s in g th e ev en ts o f th e y e a r 90 A.H., d ism isse s
th e e n t i r e Sind ep iso de in a b r i e f s e n te n c e :
A l-T a b a ri, T arikh a l- R u s a l wa al-M uluk, E dited by De Goege, Second
S e r i e s , Vol. I I , 1200.

112

b a ttle fie ld .

Muhammad o r d e r e d a l l c a p t i v e p r i s o n e r s t o be p u t to

d e a th and t h e i r f a m i l i e s s o ld i n t o s l a v e r y .
h e r s e l f up i n t h e f o r t o f Raor and p u t up

D ah ir* s q u e e n , B a i , s h u t
a brave r e s is ta n c e .

When

i t was a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e end was n e a r sh e b u rn e d h e r s e l f w ith o t h e r


l a d i e s t o d e a th s a y i n g , " I t i s c e r t a i n t h a t we c a n n o t escap e th e
c l u t c h e s o f t h e s e 'c h a n d a l s ' and cow e a t e r s . " 93

The f o r t was ta k e n

and s i x th o u sa n d war p r i s o n e r s w ere s l a u g h t e r e d in c o ld b lo o d .

The

army now s p e n t n e a r l y f i v e months i n v e s t i n g m in or s t r o n g h o ld s on th e


way to B rahm inabad.94

B efore r e a c h i n g t h i s s t r o n g h o l d a p r o c la m a t io n

was i s s u e d i n v i t i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n a t l a r g e to a c c e p t Isla m and be


tr e a te d acco rd in g ly .

D a h i r 's p rim e m i n i s t e r S iy a k a r

c e p te d t h i s

i n v i t a t i o n and was a p p o in te d one o f t h e c h i e f c o u n s e l l o r s o f th e


s ta te .

His knowledge o f m a t t e r s m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n was b e n e f i c i a l

t o t h e Arab c a u s e . 95

At Brahminabad t h e g a r r i s o n num bering f o r t y

th o u sa n d had been l e f t by J a i s i a h t o d e fe n d t h e s i t e .

J a i s i a h him

s e l f was roam ing t h e c o u n tr y a t l a r g e h a r a s s i n g t h e enemy whenever


p o s s i b l e and p e r i o d i c a l l y c u t t i n g t h e i r su p p ly l i n e s .

The c i t y was

b e s ie g e d f o r s i x months b u t t h e s i e g e was w h o lly i n e f f e c t i v e - - A r a b


s i e g e equipm ent making no im p re s s io n on i t s d e f e n s e complex.
t h e c i t y , h ow ever, a l l was n o t w e l l .

W ithin

Whereas t h e g a r r i s o n was c o n f i

d e n t t h a t i t co u ld h o ld t h e Arabs a t bay i n d e f i n i t e l y , t h e

great

m e r c a n t i l e h o u ses had begun t o e n t e r t a i n o t h e r t h o u g h t s ; a c c o r d in g t o


93"C handal" d e n o te s a p e r s o n o f v e r y low c a s t e - - a S ud ra.
S in d:

9t+For p r o b a b l e l o c a t i o n o f Brahm inabad, s e e H. T. Lam brick,


A G en eral I n t r o d u c t i o n , p p. 159-61.
95The Chachnamah, pp . 157-58.

113

t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e c i t y ' s economy co u ld n o t w i t h s t a n d th e s i e g e
much lo n g e r .
cussed.

A n e g o t i a t e d s e t t l e m e n t w ith t h e enemy was now d i s

The Arabs would e x te r m in a te th e g a r r i s o n once th e c i t y

s u r r e n d e r e d , no agreem ent co uld change t h a t f a c t .

A ccord ing ly s e c r e t

envoys were d is p a t c h e d t o t h e Arab camp and a s a t i s f a c t o r y a r r a n g e


ment was worked o u t .
Brahminabad.

The m erch ants would f a c i l i t a t e Arab e n t r y i n t o

In r e t u r n a l l n on-com batants would be g u a r a n te e d t h e i r

l i v e s , l i b e r t i e s and p r o p e r t i e s .

The f o llo w in g day p a r t o f th e

g a r r i s o n i s s u e d o u t o f t h e c i t y w a lls t o engage th e enemy.

As th e

Arabs slo w ly drove t h e In d ia n s back th ro u g h th e g a te some s o l d i e r s


who were fe llo w c o n s p i r a t o r s o f th e m e rc h a n ts, d e l i b e r a t e l y l e f t th e
g a t e open and t h e Arabs marched i n .

The c i t y was i n v e s t e d ; s i x

tho usan d com batants were p u t t o d e a th and t h e i r f a m i l i e s e n s l a v e d . 95


At Brahminabad t h e c i t y ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r and t h a t of
th e co u n try in g e n e r a l became t h e d e e p e s t p r e o c c u p a tio n o f t h e v i c t o r s
and w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in d e t a i l i n th e f o llo w in g c h a p t e r .
For th e f i r s t tim e t h e r e i s a c l e a r m ention o f f r e s h t r o o p s
a r r i v i n g in I n d ia .

W r itin g t o Muhammad a f t e r t h e f a l l o f Brahminabad

H a jja j a d v is e s him t o move on A lor and M u ltan, "Those two c i t i e s a r e


th e c a p i t a l s o f k in g s and in them l i e th e e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l
t r e a s u r e s o f k i n g s . . . . I have a p p o in te d Amir K atabiah ( s i c ) son o f
Muslim K u r a i s h i , and I am sen d in g him t o you w ith f r e s h r e c r u i t s .

96The Qiachnamah, pp. 158-64, p r o v id e s t h e most d e t a i l e d


accou nt o f th e f a l l o f Brahminabad. See a l s o B a la d h u r i, o p . c i t . ,
p. 221; A t h i r , ojs. c i t . , Vol. IV, 426.

114

Hand over a l l your h o stag e s t o h i s c h a r g e ." 97

A lo r, th e c a p i t a l o f

Sind and ro ug hly one hundred and f i f t y m iles n o rth o f Brahminabad,


was b e s ie g e d f o r a month b u t th e g a r r is o n commanded by D a h ir 's so n,
F o f i, h e ld out b e l i e v i n g t h a t Dahir was s t i l l a l i v e and would e v e n t u a ll y
come to t h e i r r e s c u e .

Having been convinced by t h e Arabs t h a t Dahir

was indeed s l a i n , th e le a d in g c i t i z e n s were i n c l i n e d f o r a n e g o tia te d


s e ttle m e n t.

The g a r r i s o n , f u l l y aware o f i t s f a t e i n case o f

s u r r e n d e r , escaped a t n ig h t and n e g o ti a ti o n s were commenced.

The

Arabs e n te re d th e g a te s now thrown open t o them and took p o s s e s s io n o f


th e c i t y . 98
The t w i n - c i t y o f Sekkah-Multan, th e l a s t stro n g h o ld o f th e
S in d ian kingdom and a c t u a l l y ly in g two hundred and f i f t y m iles n o rth
o f Alor i n p re s e n t- d a y s o u th e rn Punjab was th e next target fo r v i c t o r i o u s
Arab a r m ie s .99

A fte r red ucin g minor f o r t s on th e way, Muhammad b e

s ie g e d Sikkah f o r t h r e e weeks.

Every day when th e Arab army approached

th e f o r t , th e g a r r i s o n came out and fought w ith th e m .100

Two hundred

and t h i r t y - f i v e Arab w a r rio r s f e l l b e f o r e th e c i t y ' s w a l l , tw enty o f

97The Chachnamah, p. 171.


9 8I b i d . , pp. 175-80; B a la d h u ri, 0 . c i t . , p. 221, "He b e
sie g e d i t s i n h a b i t a n t s some months, b u t f i n a l l y reduced th e c i t y by
c a p i t u l a t i o n , th e terms being t h a t he should n o t p u t anyone to d e a th ,
n o r i n t e r f e r e w ith t h e i r te m p le s" ; A t h i r , o p . c i t . , Vol. IV, 426;
Yaqubi, oj>. c i t . , Vol. I I , 289; Khayyat, o p . c i t . , Vol. I , 300.
" S i k k a h was s i t u a t e d on one s id e o f th e r i v e r Ravi and Multan
on th e o t h e r . For a d is c u s s io n o f M ultan's l o c a t i o n , see Lambrick,
o p . c i t . , pp. 163-64.
100The Chachnamah, p. 188.

115

them b e in g " n o te w o rth y campanions o f Muhammad K a s im ." 101

In a n g er

and sorrow t h e Arab commander vowed t o r a z e t h e town t o t h e ground


a f t e r i t s cap tu re.

Soon t h e g a r r i s o n commander abandoned t h e f o r t ,

c r o s s e d th e r i v e r and went t o M u lta n , whereupon t h e c i t y s u r r e n d e r e d .


The s i e g e o f M ultan l a s t e d f o r two m o n th s, t h e Arab a r t i l l e r y
as u s u a l making no im p re s s io n on t h e c i t y w a l l s .

E v e n tu a lly a

t r a i t o r " p o i n t e d o u t a s p o t on t h e n o r t h e r n s i d e o f t h e f o r t , b o r d e r
in g on t h e bank o f t h e r i v e r .

From t h a t s p o t t h e s o l d i e r s burrow ed

onw ards, and made a b r e a c h . " 102

The c i t y was t a k e n , s i x th o u san d

m i l i t a r y men were s l a u g h t e r e d and a huge ransom c o l l e c t e d from t h e


c itiz e n s at la rg e .

The renowned tem p le was e n t e r e d and t h e huge g o ld

i d o l was removed t o g e t h e r w ith o t h e r v a l u a b l e s .

H ajjaj ap p aren tly

c o n s id e r e d t h e c a p t u r e o f M ultan as t h e f i n a l s t a g e o f t h e cam paign,


f o r he now e s ti m a t e d t h e o v e r a l l c o s t o f th e c o n q u e s t o f Sind and was
a b l e t o a f f i r m t h a t he had s p e n t s i x t y m i l l i o n d irh am s and made tw ic e
t h a t amount i n t h e p r o c e s s .

"We have app eased o u r r a g e and o b t a i n e d

r e v e n g e ," s a i d t h e e x h u b e ra n t v i c e r o y , "and hav e made a p r o f i t o f


6 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 dirham s p l u s t h e head o f D a h i r . " 103

In a l e t t e r t o Muhammad,

r e c e i v e d a t M ultan t h e s e f i g u r e s w ere r e v e a l e d and t h e young commander


commended f o r h i s c o u rag e and wisdom.

T h is was H a j j a j ' s l a s t l e t t e r

101I b i d . , p . 189.
~102I b i d . A ccording t o B a la d h u ri t h e t r a i t o r , "g u id e d them t o
t h e p l a c e where t h e w a te r o f which t h e p e o p le drank e n t e r e d .
I t was
w a t e r f lo w in g from t h e Basmad r i v e r , and was c o l l e c t e d i n r e s e r v o i r
l i k e th e Pool i n a l-M a d in a h . They c a l l i t a l - B a l a h . He s h u t i t o f f ,
and when th e y became t h i r s t y th e y s u r r e n d e r e d a t d i s c r e t i o n . " Op. c i t . ,
p . 222.
103Quoted in B a l a d h u r i , o p . c i t . , p . 223.

11 6

f o r he d ie d in June 714 A .D ., fo llow ed by C aliph a l-W a lid in February


in 715 A.D.

Muhammnd's movements between th e s e two d a te s a re d i f f i

c u l t to fo llo w , u n c e r t a i n as th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e l o c a l i t i e s
m e n tio n e d .104

That he was a t K iraj when th e e m is s a r ie s o f t h e new

Caliph Sulaiman caught up w ith him i s a t t e s t e d by B a l a d h u r i . 105


Sulaiman (715-717 A .D .), an i n v e t e r a t e enemy o f t h e house o f H a j j a j ,
im prisoned Muhammad a t Wasit in I r a q and t h e r e had him t o r t u r e d to
d e a t h . 106

^ 01*The Chachnamah, pp. 192-93; B a la d h u r i,

o jd .

c i t . , p . 223.

105B aladhuri , oj). c i t . , p. 223.


106I b i d . , pp. 224-25. The Chachnamah r e l a t e s somewhat d i f f e r
en t circu m stan ces le a d in g t o th e d eath o f Muhammad. Two c a p tu re d
d au g h ters o f D a h ir 's were s e n t as g i f t s t o th e C aliph by Muhammad.
The p r in c e s s e s managed to e m b i tt e r Walid a g a i n s t t h e young h e r o ,
whereupon t h e C aliph had Muhammad sewn i n t o th e f r e s h h id e o f an ass
and th e n had th e h id e and i t s c o n te n ts s e n t t o him, pp. 193-96. The
s t o r y , no doubt a p ro d u ct o f t h e f a n c i f u l im a g in a tio n o f t h e a u th o r
o f The Chachnamah o r i t s t r a n s l a t o r has been d i s c r e d i t e d by a l l
m ajor h i s t o r i a n s . For a d i s c u s s io n on th e p o i n t , see Baloch, "Muhamad
ib n a l-Q a sim ," Isla m ic C u l t u r e , Vol. XXVII (1953).

CHAPTER VI

ARAB ADMINISTRATION IN SIND


Arab a d m i n i s t r a ti v e p o l i c i e s in Sind as th e y g ra d u a lly
evolved between 712 and 715 A.D. were brought about by two r e a l i z a
t i o n s an unshakable Arab f a i t h in t h e i r own r e l i g i o u s m ission and
th e fo rc e o f n e c e s s i t y which e x e r te d a m oderating in flu e n c e in
s u p p la n tin g Isla m ic i n s t i t u t i o n s in Sind. For w hatever reason s Sind
might have been added t o th e c a l i p h a t e , once th e Arabs were t h e r e ,
th e e f f e c t i v e government o f t h a t remote a re a became t h e i r paramount
c o n s id e r a t i o n .

What were th e Isla m ic i n s t i t u t i o n s which had been

d ev elo ping over th e p a s t cen tu ry and which th , Arabs had now b rought
w ith them, and what f a c t o r s i n S in d, a land dominated by HinduBuddhist c u l t u r e , would in flu e n c e th e new r u l e r s in t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a
t i v e c a p a c ity ?

I s la m ic I n s t i t u t i o n s
A f te r th e r i s e o f Islam i t i s no lo n g er p o s s i b l e t o speak
s e p a r a t e l y o f Arabic and Is la m ic i n s t i t u t i o n s , f o r Islam i s a t once
a r e l i g i o n and a whole way o f l i f e .

I t proclaim ed th e a b s o lu te u n i ty

o f God and th e b ro th erh o o d o f a l l b e l i e v e r s .

The "Umma" o r God's

community on e a r t h was to be governed acco rdin g t o th e p r e c e p ts as

*For p r e - I s l a m i c Arab S o c ie ty see De Lacy O 'Leary, Arabia


Before Muhammad.

118
9

r e v e a l e d t o t h e P ro p h e t Muhammad and s e t f o r t h i n t h e Quran.

The

s e c u l a r and t h e d i v i n e , t h e r e f o r e , became one and t h e same.

U nlik e

t h e com m unities o f I n d i a and C h in a , membership i n whose ra n k s co u ld


o n ly be g a in e d by b i r t h , a p r o s p e c t i v e member o f t h e Muslim community
had m erely t o p r o c l a i m t h e u n i t y o f God and t h e d i v i n e m is s io n o f
His P ro p h e t t o be a d m itte d as a member o f t h e "Umma" on p a r w ith
o th e rs.

th e

The m is s io n o f t h e P ro p h e t was t o be p r o c la im e d t o a l l ,

Arabs and non-A rabs a l i k e and became a p o t e n t f a c t o r i n I s l a m i c


e x p a n s io n .

The e g a l i t a r i a n t e a c h i n g s o f Islam im m e d ia te ly p lun ged

i t i n t o a s t r u g g l e w ith t h e Meccan a r i s t o c r a c y whose s o c i a l o r d e r t h e


fo rm er t h r e a t e n e d t o wipe o u t . 2

The sword o f Isla m was now drawn in

d e f e n s e o f t h e "Umma" and t h e co n c e p t o f " J e h a d " o r t h e Holy War was


th u s b o r n .

No one can deny t h a t t h e t e a c h i n g s o f Isla m f i r e d w i t h i n

i t s a d h e r e n ts a s p i r i t so dynamic t h a t i t e n a b le d t h e s im p le d e s e r t
d w e lle r s t o o v erth ro w t h e m ighty em p ires o f t h e P e r s i a n s and t h e
B y z a n tin e s .

I t must be a d m i t t e d , a t t h e same t im e , t h a t economic

cau ses o f e x p a n s io n were n o t a l t o g e t h e r l a c k i n g .

The r i c h lan d s

l y i n g n o r t h o f A ra b ia were a p e r p e t u a l t e m p t a t i o n t o a p e o p le con
s t a n t l y s t r u g g l i n g f o r t h e i r s u r v i v a l a g a i n s t an i n h o s p i t a b l e and
cruel te r r a in .
As t h e p r o c e s s o f em pire b u i l d i n g g a in e d momentum, i n s t i t u
t i o n a l developm ents w ere f o r c e d t o keep up w ith i t .

At t h e head

o f t h e community s to o d t h e C a lip h o r s u c c e s s o r t o t h e P ro p h et Muhammad

2For t h e Islam ic-M eccan c o n f l i c t , se e Mon t gomery wall, Muhammad


a t Mecca (O x fo rd : The C larend on P r e s s , 1953).

119

as t h e d i v i n e l y o r d a in e d r u l e r o f t h e "Umma."

He was s e l e c t e d by a l l

b e l i e v e r s t o e n f o r c e t h e Holy Law b u t n o t t o f i n e i t h i m s e l f . 3

F a il

u r e t o p erfo rm h i s d u t i e s co uld r e s u l t in h i s d e p o s i t i o n by t h e
e le c to ra te at la rg e .4

The Umayyads (661-750 A.D.) t o be s u r e ,

u t i l i z e d r e l i g i o u s s a n c t io n s t o o b t a i n p o l i t i c a l ends f o r th e
agg rand izem en t o f th e o f f i c e o f t h e C a lip h so t h a t "The C a li p h a t e th u s
re c o g n iz e d was a d e s p o tis m which p l a c e d u n r e s t r i c t i v e power in th e
hands o f th e r u l e r and demanded u n h e s i t a t i n g obed ience from h i s s u b
je c ts ." 5
The few g u i d e l i n e s p ro v id e d i n th e Quran were w h olly i n a d e
q u a te t o govern conquered t e r r i t o r i e s o f v a s t s i z e and s u b s t a n t i a l
p o p u la tio n s.

The burden o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , f e l l on C aliph

Umar I (634-644 A.D.) u n d e r whose r u l e th e f i r s t phase o f I s la m ic


ex p an sio n was a c t u a l l y e f f e c t e d .

The r e s u l t a n t " C o n s t i t u t i o n o f Umar,"

p ro m ulg ated between 635 and 644 A .D ., e n v is io n e d an A rab ia p u rg ed o f


a l l n o n - I s la m ic elem en ts and an empire dom inated by th e Arab m a r t i a l
c la sse s.

C onseq uently by 636 A .D ., Jews and C h r i s t i a n s o f t h e A rabian

p e n i n s u l a were e i t h e r e x p e lle d o r e x t e r m i n a t e d . 6

The Arabs were now

3Thomas A rno ld, The C a l i p h a t e , c h a p t e r i i , " O r i g i n s , " pp. 1941 . There were two o t h e r t i t l e s used by t h e C a lip h , "Amir u l M u'minin" o r commander o f t h e f a i t h f u l , and "Imam" meaning l e a d e r o f
th e f a i th f u l in p ray er.
4E. I . T. R o s e n th a l, P o l i t i c a l Thought in Medieval Islam : An
I n t r o d u c t o r y O u t li n e (Cambridge: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958), pp. 121-126.
5A rnold, The C a l i p h a t e , pp. 47-48.
6P h i l l i p H i t t i , A H is to r y o f t h e
M uir, Annals o f t h e E a rly C a l i p h a t e , pp.

A ra b s , p . 169; S i r W illiam
215-20.

120

o rg a n iz e d " i n t o a com plete r e l i g i o - m i l i t a r y commonwealth w ith i t s


members keep ing them selves p u re and u nm ixed--a s o r t o f m a r ti a l
a r i s t o c r a c y - - a n d denying th e p r i v i l e g e o f c i t i z e n s h i p t o a l l nonA r a b ia n s ." 7

A cco rd in g ly , a l l Muslim Arabs were o rg a n iz e d i n t o a

reg u lar m i l i t i a .

To f a c i l i t a t e t h i s enormous ta s k a g e n e r a l census

was ta k e n and a l l men o f m i l i t a r y age were e n te r e d on army r o l l s by


t r i b e and by c l a n .

Each t r i b a l c o n tin g e n t fought und er i t s own

b a n n e r and i t s own c h i e f . 8

G reat m i l i t a r y c e n te r s o r "am sars" were

e s t a b l i s h e d th ro u g h o u t th e occupied t e r r i t o r i e s , r e m in is c e n t o f th e
B r i t i s h cantonem ents i n I n d ia .

From t h e s e c e n te r s s u b je c t ra ces

were k ep t u n d er s u r v e i l l a n c e . 9

The commanders o f t h e g a r r i s o n s were

a t t h e same time n o t on ly t h e C a l i p h 's f i r s t g o v e rn o rs , "b u t a ls o


s in c e th e army and th e r e l i g i o u s community were c o - e x t e n s i v e , th e
p r a y e r l e a d e r s and th e F rid ay p r e a c h e r s . " 10

In s h o r t i t was a complete

m a r t i a l as w e ll as r e l i g i o u s law a t one and th e same tim e .


The Byzantine and P e r s ia n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a c h in e rie s w ith
t h e i r s t a f f s were r e t a i n e d i n t a c t th e Arabs h av in g n e i t h e r ex p e rie n c e
n o r s u f f i c i e n t manpower t o r e p l a c e th e m .11

7H i t t i ,

0.

Formal im p e ria l c u r r e n c ie s

c i t . , p. 169.

8C arl Brockelmann, A H is to r y o f t he Is la m ic P e o p le , p . 61;


J u l i u s W ellhausen, The Arab Kingdom and i t s F a l l , p. 25. The o f f i c e
o f t h e "Diwan" o r t r e a s u r y was c r e a t e d to h an d le army p a y r o l l .
9W ellhausen, o p . c i t . , p . 25; Bernard Lewis, The Arabs in
H i s t o r y , p. 74; Brockelmann, o p . c i t . , p . 61. Some o f t h e s e "am sars"
in c lu d e d F u s ta t in Egypt, Qairowan in North A f r ic a and e s p e c i a l l y
Basra and Kufa i n I r a q .
10Brockelmann,

0.

c i t . , p. 61.

1 B e r n a r d Lewis, The Arabs in H i s to r y , pp. 57-58.

121

were k ep t in c i r c u l a t i o n and no attem p t was made t o s u p p la n t Arabic


as th e o f f i c i a l language f o r some time y e t to come.
The Arab land s e ttl e m e n t was geared t o a s su re th e s t a t e o f a
continuous flow o f revenue from occupied t e r r i t o r i e s .

Byzantine and

P e rs ia n crown lands were ta k e n over by th e s t a t e and so were th e


e s t a t e s vacated by t h e i r owners f l e e i n g b e f o r e th e advancing Arab
f o r c e s . 12

The r e s t o f th e p r o p e r ty f e l l in two c a t e g o r ie s and was

t r e a t e d a c c o rd in g ly .

The term "dur a l- S u lh " a p p lie d to th o se a reas

where c a p i t u l a t e d w ith o u t o f f e r i n g r e s i s t a n c e .

In such a reas th e

i n h a b i t a n t s r e t a i n e d l i f e and p r o p e r t y , b u t p a id t r i b u t e , th e terms
o f which were agreed upon a t t h e tim e o f s u r r e n d e r .
" k h a r a j" was le v ie d upon a l l such e s t a t e s . 13

A land t a x or

I f th e t e r r i t o r y was

c a p tu re d by fo rc e ('unw atan) th en i t came under th e law o f th e war,


t h a t i s , i t s in h a b i t a n t s f o r f e i t e d every r i g h t .
p r o p e r ty o r "ghanTmah" was r e s e r v e d
among th e w a r r i o r s . 14

A f i f t h o f th e movable

f o r th e s t a t e , th e r e s t d iv id e d up

Land was c o n sid e re d as "fayy" o r u sab le p r o p e r ty .

T h e o r e t i c a l l y i t was a l s o to be d iv id e d up.

In p r a c t i c e , however,

land was co n sid e red s o l i d c a p i t a l and was a d m in iste re d by th e s t a t e .


Since C aliph Umar had fo rb id d en t h e Arabs t o buy o r to s e t t l e on land
o u t s id e A rabia, i t was handed back t o i t s former owner as f i e f and
r e n t was du ly c o l l e c t e d , p a r t o f which was th e n p a id as pension to th e

12Brockelmann,

o jd .

c i t . , p.

62; Lewis, oja. c i t . , p. 57.

13Wellhausen, o p . c i t . , pp. 30-32; H i t t i , o p . c i t . , pp.


Brockelmann, op. c i t . , pp. 62-63; Lewis, o p . c i t . , p. 57.

170-72;

14W ellhausen, 0 . c i t . , p . 31; S h a re e f a l-M a ja h id , "Muslim


F in a n c e ," Isla m ic C u ltu re , Vol. 40 (1952).

122

Arab w a r r i o r s and t h e i r

h e i r s . 15

On c o n v e r s io n t o Islam landow ners

o f " d a r - a l - S u l h " were exempt from " k h a r i r j . 11 The same, how ever, d id
n o t a p p ly t o t h e c u l t i v a t o r s o f " fa y y " e s t a t e s who c o n tin u e d t o pay
th is tax .

A ll Muslim landow ners p a i d p o o r t a x o r " z a k a t " ( t i t h i n g ) . 16

The v e r y n a t u r e o f I s l a m i c p o l i t i c a l th o u g h t b a r r e d t h e nonMuslims from e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e r a n k s o f t h e "Umma."17

C h ristia n s,

Jews and t h e S a b ia n s ( i n t e r p r e t e d t o in c l u d e t h e Z o r o a s t r i a n s ) were


c o n s id e r e d as "Ahl al-Dhimmah" o r t h e p e o p le o f th e cov en an t and were
allo w ed t o r e t a i n t h e i r l i v e s and p r o p e r t y . 18

T his p r o t e c t i o n was

g a in e d a t a p r i c e i n t h e form o f p o l l t a x o r " j i z i a h " and t h i s v a r i e d


a c c o r d in g t o o n e 's s t a t i o n i n l i f e .
The I s l a m i c j u d i c i a l system u n d e r t h e Umayyads was s t i l l
p a s s i n g th ro u g h e le m e n ta ry p h a se s o f i t s d e v e lo p m e n t.19 Army conmanders
were i n v a r i a b l y l e a d e r s i n p r a y e r s as w e l l as ju d g e s o r "qHldis."
During t h e l a t e r p e r i o d o f t h e Umayyads " t h e f i r s t j u d i c i a l o f f i c i a l s

15I b i d . , p .
S h areef al-M u jah id ,

30; H i t t i , o p . c i t . , p . 171; Lew is, o p .


o p . c i t . , pp . 11-12.

c i t .,

p . 57

16S h a r e e f a l- M u ja h id , o p . c i t . , pp . 9 -1 0 .
17For d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s o f "Umma" s e e M aurice G audefroyDemombynes, Muslim I n s t i t u t i o n s , T r a n s l a t e d from French by John
MacGregor (London: A lle n and Unwin, 1 9 50 ), c h a p t e r i i , "The Muslim
Community;" Thomas A rnold and A lf r e d G u illaum e ( e d i t o r s ) , The Legacy
o f I s l a m , pp. 284-310; David S. M a rg o lio u th , The E a rly Development o f
Muhammadanism (London: W illiam s & N o rg a te , 1 9 1 4 ), pp . 5 -3 0 .
18David S. M a rg o lio u th , The E a rly Development o f Muhammedanism
(London: W illiam s and N o rg a te , 1 9 14 ), c h a p t e r i v , "The S t a t u s o f t h e
T o lerated C u lts ."
19The g r e a t e r a o f I s l a m i c j u r i s p r u d e n c e was y e t t o come.
Under t h e A bbasids f o u r main s c h o o ls were d e v e lo p e d . These were t h e

123

i n th e p ro v in c e s r e c e iv e d t h e i r appointm ents from th e g o v e r n o r s .2^


Non-Muslims were allow ed t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e i r own cacnon laws.
F u lly r e a l i z i n g t h a t th e I s la m ic co n cep ts o f b ro th e rh o o d and e q u a l i t y
ra n c o n t r a r y t o t h e i r i n t e r e s t s th e Arab r u l i n g c l a s s e s proceeded to
t r e a t t h e non-Arab Muslims o r th e "Mawlali" as s e c o n d - c la s s c i t i z e n s .
The "Mawali" pay s c a l e i n th e army was a p p r e c ia b ly lower th a n t h a t o f
t h e A rabs.

Such s o l d i e r s fought only i n i n f a n t r y r a n k s - - c a v a l r y b e in g

e x c l u s iv e ly r e s e r v e d f o r th e m a s te r r a c e . 2'1 Only th e Arabs r e c e iv e d


p en sio n s f o r l i f e .

Even a f t e r t h e i r co n v e rsio n t o Islam t h e Mawali


9

c u l t i v a t o r s o f " fa y y " e s t a t e s were r e q u i r e d to pay r e n t to th e s t a t e .


In th e o r y , th e Mawali la n d lo rd s in no n-fay y a r e a s were exempt from th e
" k h a ra j."

i n r e a l i t y , however, t h i s p r i v i l e g e was r a r e l y g r a n t e d . 22

High b u r e a u c r a t i c ran ks o f c i v i l s e r v i c e and t h e j u d i c i a r y were m ostly


an Arab monopoly.

H a n a f ite founded by Abu H anifa (d. 767 A .D .), t h e M a li k i t e founded by


M alik ib n Anas (715-795 A .D .), t h e S h a f i i t e founded by Muhammad ib n
I d r i s a l - S h a f i i (767-820 A.D.) and t h e H a n b a lite founded by Ahmad ibn
Hanbal (d. 855 A .D .). For an e x c e l l e n t account o f Muslim ju r i s p r u d e n c e
s e e Noel J . C oulson, A H is to ry o f I s la m ic Law (Edinburgh: U n iv e r s ity
P r e s s , 1964). According t o Coulson a m ajor re a so n behind " th e
d i v e r s i t y i n Umayyad le g a l p r a c t i c e s was t h e sim ple f a c t t h a t th e
power o f th e i n d i v i d u a l judge to d e c id e a c c o rd in g t o h i s own p e r s o n a l
o p in io n ( r a ' y ) was to a l l i n t e n t s and purposes u n r e s t r i c t e d . No r e a l
u n i f y i n g in f l u e n c e was e x e rte d by th e c e n t r a l government and t h e r e was
no h i e r a r c h y o f s u p e r i o r c o u r ts whose b in d in g p r e c e d e n ts might have
e s t a b l i s h e d t h e u n if o r m ity o f a case law system . Nor can i t be s a i d
t h a t th e q u rAa n ic laws p ro v id e d a s t r o n g u n i f y i n g e le m e n t." I b i d . ,
p . 30.
20H i t t i ,

0 .

c i t . , p. 228.

21Lewis, o p . c i t . , p. 70.
22I b id .

124

The r a p i d l y s w e l l i n g r a n k s o f t h e Mawali r e s u l t e d i n a p r o
p o r tio n a l in c re a s e o f t h e i r g rie v a n c e s.

F o llo w in g t h e d e a th o f

C a lip h Umar i n 644 A.D. t h e i n j u n c t i o n b a r r i n g Arabs from h o l d i n g


la n d o u t s i d e A ra b ia was r e l a x e d . 23

A la n d - g r a b movement was now

underway which t h r e a t e n e d t h e e m p i r e 's f i n a n c i a l s t r u c t u r e s i n c e


Arab la n d h o l d e r s p a id no " k h a r a j . "

In d e s p e r a t i o n a l - H a j j a j , v i c e r o y

o f I r a q from 697-715 A .D ., a t t e m p t e d t o d r i v e t h e "Mawali" o u t o f


towns and back to t h e i r la n d s w h ile demanding " j i z i a h " from them,
a r g u in g t h a t t h i s m easure was a p o l l t a x p a y a b le by a l l s u b j e c t
p e o p le and n o t o n ly by t h e n o n -M u slim s.21*

C o n v ersio n was now a c t u a l l y

d isco u rag ed .
The "Mawali" r e a c t i o n t o t h i s new te n d e n c y was n o t slow t o
come.

The e a s t e r n p a r t s o f t h e em pire r o s e i n r e b e l l i o n , i n 700 A .D .,

th ro w in g t h e i r s u p p o rt b e h in d 'A bd-ar-Rahm an ib n a l - A s h ' a t h , o n e -tim e


Arab commander i n S i j i s t a n .

The r e b l l i o n was m e r c i l e s s l y c r u s h e d ,

though n o t w ith o u t c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f i c u l t y and a l a r m . 25


I t was o n ly a f t e r t h e o c c u p a tio n o f S in d t h a t t h e a tte m p t was
made t o a l l e v i a t e some "Mawali" g r i e v a n c e s .

By a d e c r e e o f th e y e a r

719 A.D. Muslim landow ners were exempted from p a y in g t h e " k h a r a j . "
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t was f o r b id d e n t o t r a n s f e r t r i b u t e - p a y i n g lan d s
t o t h e Muslims i n an e f f o r t t o p r o t e c t t h e s t a t e re v e n u e from d e p l e

23H i t t i , ojo. c i t . , p . 173.


2t*Lewis, o p . c i t . , p . 55; W e llh a u s e n , o p . c i t . , p p. 243-44.
25For a d e t a i l e d ac c o u n t o f t h i s r e b e l l i o n s e e W ellh au sen ,
o p . c i t . , p p . 232-47 and A l - T a b a r i , T a rik h a l- R u s u l wa a l-M u lu k ,
E d ite d by De G o e je , Second S e r i e s , Vol. I I , 1042-1132.

125

tio n .

The h a t e d " j i z y a h " was now p a y a b le only by non-M uslim s.

The

"Mawali" w a r r i o r s were p l a c e d on t h e same pay s c a l e as t h e Arabs b u t


o n ly i n K h u ra sa n .26

The reform s were n e v e r t h e l e s s l a t e i n coming

and t h e "Mawali" d i s c o n t e n t became a p o t e n t f a c t o r i n t h e overthrow


o f t h e Umayyads i n 750 A.D.
Umar's ru d im e n ta ry a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m achinery was g r a d u a l l y
improved upon by h i s s u c c e s s o r s .

C a lip h Muawiya (661-681 A.D.)

d iv id e d t h e empire i n t o f i v e p r o v in c e s w ith a v ic e r o y a t t h e head o f


each p r o v i n c e . 27

The p r o v in c e o f I r a q w ith h e a d q u a r t e r s a t a l- K u fa

i n c lu d e d a l l t h e p a r t s o f t h e c a l i p h a t e l y i n g e a s t o f t h e E u p h rates
R iv e r.

C e n tr a l A sia and S ind were p l a c e d u n d er i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n .

An

i m p e r ia l ch ancery was c r e a t e d t o h a n d le o f f i c i a l c o rre s p o n d e n c e ,


w h ile t h e o f f i c e o f th e f i n a n c i a l c o n t r o l l e r o f t h e s t a t e became t h e
most im p o rta n t p o s i t i o n n e x t t o th e supreme command o f t h e arm y.28
F o un datio ns were a l s o l a i d f o r a p o s t a l s e r v i c e which l a t e r develop ed
i n t o a w e l l - o r g a n i z e d system under C alip h TA b d-al-M alik (685-705 A .D .).
By 705 A.D. A rab ic began t o r e p l a c e Greek and P e r s i a n as t h e o f f i c i a l
language o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and acc o u n ta n c y .

A rab ic c o in a g e were

m inted from 696 A.D. o n w a rd .29


26W ellhausen, o p . c i t . , c h a p t e r v , "Umar I I and t h e M awali,"
pp. 266-311.
27H i t t i , . c i t . , p . 195.
28I b i d .
29Arab h i s t o r i a n s c a l l t h i s change " o r g a n i z a t i o n and a d j u s t
m e n t." See Lewis, o. c i t . , p. 75; Amir A l i , A H is to r y o f t h e S a r a
cens , pp. 101-12; W ellhausen , 0 . c i t . , pp. 217-2T! The Arabs were
p r o c u r i n g t h e g o ld d i n a r s from t h e B y za n tin es who t h r e a t e n e d t o w r i t e
an i n s c r i p t i o n on them o f f e n s i v e to t h e P ro p h e t. Thereupon 'Abd a l M alik d e c id e d t o have h i s own c o in s m in ted a t Damascus. See B ro c k e l
mann, 0 . c i t . , pp. 81-82.

126

Isla m , a s t r u g g l i n g embryo in

A rabia a t th e b eg in n in g o f th e

sev en th c e n tu ry c o u ld , by t h e end o f th e same c e n t u r y , look w ith p r id e


on i t s achievem ents.

I t had overpowered t h e P e r s ia n empire a l t o g e t h e r

and r o l l e d back th e f r o n t i e r s o f th e B y zantine empire to th e very


g a te s o f C o n s ta n tin o p le .

The opening y e a r s o f t h e n e x t c e n tu ry w i t

n essed th e I s la m ic arms c ro s s over i n t o Europe on th e one hand where


th e f a t e o f C h r i s t i a n Europe hung in t h e b a la n c e a t Tours (732 A .D .),
and on t h e o t h e r w re s t t h e c o n t r o l o f C e n tr a l A sia from th e Turks and
th e C hinese.

Sind was a l s o annexed t o th e c a l i p h a t e .

T e rrito ria l

and i n s t i t u t i o n a l achievem ents p roceeded s i d e by s i d e ,


to each o t h e r .

le n d in g su p p o rt

Main con cep ts o f r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and

economic s t r u c t u r e s were drawn up, f l e x i b l e in d e s ig n and t o l e r a n t i n


s p irit.

To be s u re th e t a s k o f whipping th e i n f i n i t e v a r i e t i e s o f

r e g io n a l and lo c a l m a n if e s t a t i o n s i n t o th e 'W r a c le of the Arab mind


was l e f t t o th e A bbassids (750 - 1258 A .D .).

Yet t h e Umayyads, g r e a t

empire b u i l d e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s in t h e i r own r i g h t , had l e f t behind


them a le g a c y t h e g r e a t n e s s o f which has so sh am e fu lly been minimized
by th o s e w r i t e r s la b o u rin g under th e h o s t i l e i n f lu e n c e o f t h e i r
A bbassid s u c c e s s o r s .

Hindu I n s t i t u t i o n s
For alm ost two thousand y e a r s p r i o r t o t h e Arab in v a s i o n , Sind
had formed a p a r t o f th e In d ia n c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n .

This t r a d i t i o n

has n ev er been dependent on p o l i t i c a l u n i f i c a t i o n o f th e s u b - c o n tin e n t

127

o r t h e g eo g rap h ical l i m i t a t i o n s t h e r e o f .

Yet through a l l th e e t h n i c ,

l i n g u i s t i c , g eo g rap h ical and p o l i t i c a l d i v e r s i t y , t h e r e runs an


u n d e rly in g u n i t y .

"The co n cep tio n o f a n a t i o n a l r e l i g i o n , i t has been

s a i d , i t th e on ly germ t o be found in a n c ie n t tim es o f th e id e a o f


In d ia n n a t i o n a l i t y . . . .The fundam ental p r i n c i p l e s o f th e Hindu r e l i g i o n
hold t h e i r immemorial sway o v e r th e v a s t m a jo rity o f th e p o p u la tio n .
These may be summed up as th e alm ost u n i v e r s a l b e l i e f in th e a u t h o r i t y
o f th e Vedas and th e s a cred n ess o f th e cow, th e worship o f th e g r e a t
gods S iva and Vishnu in t h e i r innum erable a s p e c t s , and th e i n s t i t u t i o n
o f c a ste .

C a ste , p e rh a p s, more th a n any o th e r f e a t u r e , d i s t i n g u i s h e s

I n d ia from th e r e s t o f th e w o r l d ." 30
One o f th e f u n c tio n s o f r e l i g i o n was t o pave the way f o r a
w e ll- o rg a n iz e d s o c i e t y which i n tu r n would a s su re t h e pre-em inence o f
th e r e l i g i o u s 6 1 i t e - - t h 2 Brahmins.

E la b o ra te r e l i g i o u s s a n c tio n s

were sought and o c c a s io n a lly in v en ted f o r fu n c tio n s p o l i t i c a l , s o c ia l


and economic in n a tu r e and scope.

An enormous body o f l i t e r a t u r e

was produced, almost e n t i r e l y by th e Brahmins to m a in ta in and indeed


t o p e t r i f y th e s t a t u s quo o f t h e v a r io u s elem ents o f th e community.
Though th e In d ian s n e v e r c r e a t e d a t r u l y n a t i o n a l s t a t e , and though
th e y q u a r r e l l e d and fought w ith one a n o th e r , th ey f e l t s t r o n g l y t h a t
th ey were a l l Hindus, men who worshipped th e same gods and obeyed
th e same r e l i g i o u s and s o c i a l custom s--and in a l l th e s e r e s p e c t s

30H. G. Rawlinson, In d ia : A S ho rt C u ltu r a l H is to ry


CNew York: F re d e ric k P re a g e r, 19S2), p. 4.

128

t h e y saw th e m s e lv e s a s v a s t l y s u p e r i o r t o o t h e r r a c e s and n a t i o n s whom


t h e y c o n te m p tu o u sly c a l l e d " b a r b a r i a n s . 31
The c e l e b r a t e d c a s t s sy stem p r o v id e s a re m a rk a b le i l l u s t r a t i o n
o f t h e d e g re e o f r e g i m e n t a t i o n t o w hich t h e I n d ia n s o c i e t y was su b
j e c t e d f o r t h e sake o f " p e r f e c t harm ony." The f o u r main c a s t e s ,
i n d e s c e n d in g o r d e r , were t h e Brahmins o r p r i e s t s , t h e K s h a tr iy a s
o r n o b l e s , t h e V aish y as o r t h e b o u r g e o i s e , and t h e S u d ra s o r s e r f s .
Below t h e s e y e t e c o n o m ic a lly t i e d t o them were a number o f " e x c lu d e d "
o r " u n to u c h a b le " c a s t e s whose members perfo rm ed impure d u t i e s such
as sc a v e n g in g and d i s p o s i n g o f t h e d ead .

As e a r l y as t h e f i f t h

c e n t u r y B.C. t h e c a s t e sy stem had become so p e t r i f i e d and c o n s e q u e n tly


t h e I n d ia n s o c i e t y so s t a t i c t h a t movements from w i t h i n such as
Buddhism r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t i t s grow ing fo rm a lism .

So e n tr e n c h e d was

t h e c a s t e sy stem in I n d i a , how ever, t h a t t h e m ajo r c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f


t h e " r e b e l l i o n " were f o r c e d i n t o a r t i s t i c , l i t e r a r y and m is s io n a r y
c h a n n e l s . 32

Though some o f I n d i a ' s g r e a t e s t monarchs gave Buddhism

i m p e r i a l p a t r o n a g e , 33 by t h e end o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y A.D. Buddhism


31The a c t u a l term s u se d t o d e n o te n o n - I n d ia n s and hence
b a r b a r i a n s were t h e y a v a n a s , t h e t a j i k a s and t h e m le c h a s . The term
yavana o r i g i n a l l y a p p l i e d e x c l u s i v e l y t o t h e G reek s, b u t l a t e r on
came t o d e n o te a l l f o r e i g n e r s .
32De l a V a l le e P o u s s i n , "Some Remarks on t h e D isa p p e a ra n c e o f
In d ia n Buddhism," i n T r a d i t i o n a l I n d i a , E d it e d by 0 . L. C h a v a r r i a A g u i l a r (Englewood, New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e H a l l , I n c . , 1964).
R aw linso n, o p . c i t . , C h a p te r VI, "The Second C o n ta c t w ith t h e West:
The R is e o f Mahayana Buddhism ," pp. 89-105.
33The Mauryan em perors o f th e t h i r d and second c e n t u r i e s B.C.
and t h e Bushan monarchs o f t h e seco nd and t h i r d c e n t u r i e s A.D. p r o
f e s s e d Buddhism as t h e i r p e r s o n a l r e l i g i o n . N orth I n d ia n em peror H arsha
Verdhana ( d ie d 640 A.D.) was a l s o c o n v e r te d t o Buddhism, though t h i s
r e l i g i o n h ad lo n g s i n c e been i n d e c l i n e .

129

was d e f i n i t e l y i n d e c l i n e and a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t i t was fo rth com in g


in th e form o f i m p e r ia l p o l i c i e s o f t h e Guptas (320-480 A . D . ) . 31*
S in d , however, t o g e t h e r w ith o t h e r p o r t i o n s o f th e N orthw est i n c l u d i n g
Kashmir, Punjab and th e Hindukush co u n try was n o t s u b j e c t to Gupta
p o l i t i c a l hegemony and a Buddhist d y n a s ty c o n tin u e d t o r u l e t h e a r e a
as l a t e as 622 A.D. when i t was r e p la c e d by th e Brahmin d y n a s t y . 35
That s u b s t n a t i a l p o r t i o n s o f S in d ia n p o p u l a t io n were Buddhist on th e
eve o f t h e Arab in v a s io n i s a t t e s t e d by v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s o f th e
In d ia n Chachnamah and t h e A rabic 1Futuh u l-B u ld a n by B a la d h u r i.
The h i g h e s t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t y was v e s t e d in t h e p e rso n
o f th e k in g who was i n v a r i a b l y a member o f t h e K s h a triy a c a s t e , though
S in d in t h i s ca se was an e x c e p tio n to t h e r u l e .

"Although t h e e a r l y

r u l e r s were e l e c t e d , k in g s h ip i n th e co u rse o f tim e became h e r e d i


t a r y , " 36 t h e crown d esc e n d in g from t h e f a t h e r t o t h e o l d e s t son.

Where

th e r e g u l a t i o n and p r o s p e r i t y o f an o rd e re d s o c i e t y was c o n s id e re d to
be t h e prim e f u n c t io n o f t h e monarch, th e r i g h t t o o u s t an u n r ig h te o u s
k in g was em phasized, though seldom e x e r c i s e d i n p r a c t i c e . 37

3**The Gupta d u r a t i o n was known as t h e Golden Age o f Hinduism.


P o p u la r Hinduism as i t i s known tod ay i s t h e p ro d u c t o f t h i s p e r i o d .
35Kashmir, P u n jab , Kabul and S i j i s t a n , however, had t h e i r
Hindu d y n a s t i e s .
36S. K. De, U. N. Ghoshal and o t h e r s ( e d . ) , The C u l t u r a l
H e r ita g e o f I n d i a (Bombay: Hind K ita b , 1954), Vol. I I , 499-500. Also
s e e U. N. G hoshal, A H i s to r y o f Hindu P o l i t i c a l T h e o rie s (London:
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1923), C h a p te r i i i , Appendix D, "On K a u t i l y a 's
T h e o rie s o f K ingship" and C hapter IV, Appendix F, "Ch the Hindu T h e o rie s
o f Kings D i v i n i t y . "
37The k in g who f a i l e d t o c a r r y out h i s d u t i e s " s h o u ld be k i l l e d
by h i s s u b j e c t s i n a body l i k e a r a b i d d o g ." From t h e g r e a t I n d ia n e p i c ,
M ah ab h arata. Quoted in The C u l t u r a l H e r ita g e o f I n d i a , Vol. I I , 501.

130

The c e n t r a l b u re a u c ra c y was headed by t e n " m i n i s t e r s appointed


by t h e r u l e r and d i r e c t l y r e s p o n s i b le t o him, ro u gh ly c o rre s p o n d in g to
o u r p r e s e n t c a b in e t s y s te m .38

P r o v in c ia l g o v e r n o rs , f r e q u e n t members

o f r o y a l f a m ily , were h e l d r e s p o n s i b le f o r th e a r e a under t h e i r j u r i s


d i c t i o n . 39 Among t h e i r v a r i e d d u t i e s , t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f revenue was
g iv en th e h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y .

P ro v in ces were d iv id e d i n t o d i s t r i c t s ,

each headed by an o f f i c i a l who combined j u d i c i a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e


f u n c tio n s and was u s u a l l y ap p o inted by t h e p r o v i n c i a l go v ern o r.

He

was g e n e r a l l y a s s i s t e d by a c o u n c i l , p u r e ly a d v is o ry in n a tu r e and
composed o f le a d i n g r e s i d e n t s o f th e a r e a in c lu d in g th e c h i e f b a n k e r,
th e c h i e f cra ftsm a n and th e c h i e f s c r i b e . 1*0

The most im p o rtan t

elem ent i n th e c i t y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was th e nagarak o r t h e governor


who was a ls o a s s i s t e d by a c o u n c il .

His c h i e f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s were

revenue c o l l e c t i o n and t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f law and o r d e r , o f te n by


r e p r e s s i v e p o l i c e m e th o d s .1*3

Troops were always s t a t i o n e d in c h i e f

towns un der a c a p t a i n who could be th e g o v ern or h i m s e l f .

The v i l l a g e

headman, u s u a l l y t h e w e a l t h i e s t p e a s a n t , was looked on as t h e k i n g 's


re p re se n ta tiv e .

He was r e s p o n s i b le f o r th e d e fe n se o f t h e v i l l a g e ,

38These in c lu d e d t h e c h a p la i n , always a Brahmin; t h e d ep u ty ;


th e p r e m ie r, th e commandant; th e ju d g e ; th e s c h o l a r ; th e economic
a d v i s o r ; th e m i n i s t e r ; and th e ambassador. Theodore de Bary ( e d . ) ,
The Sources o f In d ia n T r a d i t i o n (New York: Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1958), pp. 254-57.
39See A. S. A l t e k a r , S t a t e and Government i n A ncient In d ia
From E a r l i e s t Times t o c. 1200 A.D. (B a n a ra s: M o tila l B a n a rs id a s s ,
1949), c h a p te r x, " P r o v i n c i a l , D i v i s i o n a l , D i s t r i c t and Town Adminis
t r a t i o n s , " pp. 156-70.
**I b i d . , pp. 102-64.
t+1Basham, o. c i t . , p. 103.

131

m o s tly a g a i n s t ban ds o f r o v i n g b a n d i t s and w i l d tr i b e s m e n o f h i l l and


h u n g le.

T o g e th e r w ith t h e v i l l a g e c o u n c i l , h e r e p r e s e n t e d t h e l a s t

l i n k i n t h e c h a i n o f governm ent c o n t r o l .

The c o u n c i l , composed o f

f i v e o r s i x p r o p e r t y h o l d e r s , was n o t s u b j e c t t o r o y a l c o n t r o l and
o f t e n n e g o t i a t e d a s s e s s m e n t o f la n d w ith r o y a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o n l y .
I t a l s o a r b i t r a t e d d i s p u t e s , c o l l e c t e d t a x e s and u n d e r to o k v a r i o u s
p u b l i c w o r k s . 1*2
A ll I n d ia n la w g i v e r s s t r e s s t h e im p o rta n c e o f a f u l l t r e a s u r y
f o r s u c c e s s f u l g o v e rn m e n t, and I n d i a had e v o lv e d a r e g u l a r s y ste m o f
t a x a t i o n even b e f o r e t h e Greek i n v a s i o n o f 330 B.C.

The b a s i c t a x

a t a l l tim e s was t h e t a x on la n d and was g e n e r a l l y one s i x t h o f t h e


c r o p , a lt h o u g h i n tim e o f c r i s i s t h e f i g u r e c o u ld b e r a i s e d t o one
f o u r t h . 1*3

Land newly b r o u g h t u n d e r t h e p lo u g h was n o t t a x e d f o r

f i v e y e a r s and i n tim e o f bad h a r v e s t t h e t a x m igh t b e w h o lly o r


p a r t i a l l y o m itted .

Numerous g r a n t s o f t a x - f r e e l a n d w ere made t o

Brahmins and t e m p l e s , and i n S in d p ro m in e n t B u d d h is t e c c l e s i a s t i c a l


l e a d e r s h a d v i r t u a l l y become p o w e r fu l f e u d a l l o r d s on t h e s t r e n g t h o f
s u c c e s s i v e t a x - f r e e la n d g r a n t s . 1*1*

In a d d i t i o n t o t h e b a s i c l a n d

t a x , s e v e r a l o t h e r t a x e s f e l l upon t h e c u l t i v a t o r , i n c l u d i n g f i x e d

1*2F o r v i l l a g e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s e e A l t e k a r , o p . c i t . , c h a p t e r
x i , " V i l l a g e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , " p p . 171-8 8.
43G ovinda L. Adhya, E a r l y I n d ia n Economics (Bombay:
P u b l i s h i n g H ouse, 1 9 6 6 ), p . 32.

A s ia

^ R am S. Sharma, L ig h t on E a r l y I n d ia n S o c i e t y and Economy


(Bombay: M a n a k ta la s , 1 9 6 6 ), p p . 1 0 9 -1 5 ; U. N. G h o s h a l, C o n t r i b u t i o n s
t o th e H i s t o r y o f t h e Hindu Revenue System ( C a l c u t t a : The U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1 9 2 9 ), C h a p te r v i i , " C l a s s e s Exempted From T a x a t io n - U n t a x a b l e
P r o p e r t y , " p p . 136 -41 .

132

annual cash paym ents, dues f o r t h e use o f w a te r from a c a n a l o r ta n k


owned by th e k in g and ta x e s on l i v e s t o c k and d a i r y p r o d u c t s . 45

Mines

and f o r e s t s were d i r e c t l y u n d e r t h e s t a t e c o n t r o l . 46
A ll c ra fts m e n were e x p e c te d t o dev ote one o r two d a y s ' work
p e r month t o t h e k in g b u t t h i s t a x was o f t e n commuted t o a t a x on
av erage d a i l y e a r n i n g s . 47
a t th e c i t y g a te s .

T o l l s were l e v i e d on incom ing m erch and ise

M erchants had t o pay f i v e p e r c e n t o r more on

p r o f i t and n o t on c a p i t a l o u t l a y . 48
t o p e r i o d i c a l fo rc e d l a b o r .

The masses were u n d er l i a b i l i t y

As a r u l e women, c h i l d r e n , s t u d e n t s ,

le a r n e d Brahmins and a s c e t i c s were exempt from any form o f t a x a


t i o n . 49

So comprehensive a system o f t a x a t i o n was a c o n s ta n t

demand on t h e p e o p l e 's p u r s e and c o n s e q u e n tly a s s u r e d a f u l l t r e a s u r y .


Much o f th e s t a t e income was s t o r e d and enormous w e a lth o f even
sm all kingdoms was a t t e s t e d by f o r e i g n t r a v e l l e r s and by t h e b o o ty
o b ta i n e d by Muslim in v a d e r s .
An enormous body o f l e g a l l i t e r a t u r e had grown up i n I n d i a
p r o v id i n g t h e j u r i s t s w ith s u b s t a n t i a l m a t e r i a l i n t h e d i s p e n s a t i o n

45G h o sh al, C o n tr i b u t i o n s t o t h e H is to r y o f t h e Hindu Revenue


System, pp. 59-63.
46I b i d . , C h ap ter v , "The S ources o f Revenue ( c o n c lu d e d ) :
Income from Mines, G ardens, F o r e s ts and H e rd s--M isc e lla n e o u s
R ecepts o f th e K ing."
47Basham, oj>_. c i t . , p . 105.
48Adhya, o p . c i t . , pp. 35-36.
49G hosal, Hindu Revenue S ystem , pp. 139-41.

133

o f j u s t i c e . 50

In e f f e c t i t s tre n g th e n e d t h e c a s te b a r r i e r s w hile

d isc o u ra g in g any te n d e n c ie s e g a l i t a r i a n in n a t u r e .

The com position

o f th e c o u r ts v a r i e d w ith tim e and p l a c e , b u t " a n c ie n t I n d ia d is p la y e d


a d i s t i n c t p r e fe r e n c e f o r a bench o f m a g i s t r a t e s r a t h e r th a n f o r a
s i n g l e j u d g e . " 5* The k i n g 's c o u rt was r e s e r v e d f o r ap peals and
s e r i o u s crimes a g a in s t th e s t a t e .

Courts were s e t up f o r p r o v in c e s ,

d i s t r i c t s and groups o f v i l l a g e s and were g e n e r a lly composed o f fo u r


o r f i v e j u s t i c e s p r e s id e d over by a c h i e f judge who combined j u d i c i a l
and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f u n c t i o n s . 52

In th e c o u n try s id e th e d e c is io n s o f

v i l l a g e c o u n c ils bore th e fo rc e o f law, and th e same was t r u e o f


c a s te and g u ild c o u n c i l s . 53

In s e r io u s c rim in a l cases evidence

might be accep ted from a l l s o u rc e s ; i n c i v i l law c a s e s , however,


only c e r t a i n w itn e s s e s were q u a l i f i e d . 51* G en erally women, le a rn e d
Brahmins, government s e r v a n t s , m in ors, d e b t o r s , e x - c rim in a ls and
p erso n s w ith p h y s ic a l d e f e c ts could n o t be c a l l e d on to give e v i
dence.

The evidence o f a lo w -c a ste p erso n could n o t be v a l i d a g a in s t

a p erso n o f h i g h e r c a s t e .

Brahmins, c h i l d r e n and th e aged were a ls o

exempt from t o r t u r e t o e l i c i t c o n f e s s io n s .

The e q u a l i t y o f a l l

50J u l i u s J o l l y , Hindu Law and Custom, T r a n s la te d from German


by B a ta k rish n a Ghosh (C a lc u tta : G re a te r I n d ia S o c ie ty , 1928), C hapter
i , "The S o u r c e s ," pp. 1-101.
51Basham,
52J o l l y ,

0 .
0 .

c i t . , p. 110.
c i t . , C hapter v , " J u d i c i a l P ro ced u re," pp. 286-319.

53"The r i g h t o f making law f o r t h e i r c o rp o ra tio n s and com


p o sin g d i s p u t e s had been given to fa rm e rs, c ra fts m e n , cowherds, money
le n d e r s , members o f a s e c t , r o b b e rs , a c t o r s , a r t i s a n s , e t c . " J o l l y ,
o p . c i t . , p. 293.
5l* J o lly , o p . e f t . , pp. 260-81.

134

b e f o r e t h e law was n e v e r a d m i tt e d i n I n d i a

Thus a Brahmin s l a n d e r i n g

a K s h a t r i y a was f i n e d f i f t y p a n a s w h ile s l a n d e r i n g a V aish a o r a


S u d ra t h e f i n e s w ere o n ly t w e n t y - f i v e and tw e lv e p an as r e s p e c t i v e l y . 55
For c e n t u r i e s p r i o r t o t h e Arab i n v a s i o n , I n d i a h ad e x e r t e d
a p e c u l a r e n ch an tm en t o v e r t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f men, d raw in g f o r e i g n
m e r c h a n ts , s c h o l a r s , r e l i g i o u s p i l g r i m s and i n v a d e r s w i t h i n i t s
b o rd ers.

The co m p o site p a t t e r n o f t h e I n d ia n c i v i l i z a t i o n , as i t

ap p e a re d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , h a d much t o commend
itse lf.

I t i s t o b e r e g r e t f u l l y n o t e d , how ever, t h a t c u l t u r a l a c h i e v e

m ents o f g r e a t m ag n itu d e were n o t m atched by a p r o p o r t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l


u n i t y which in e f f e c t ex p o sed t h e I n d ia n c i v i l i z a t i o n t o t h e mercy
o f o u ts id e f o r c e s , o fte n d e s tr u c tiv e in n a tu re .

Arab A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
With t h e coming o f t h e A ra b s , I n d ia n h i s t o r y to o k an e n t i r e l y
new d i r e c t i o n .

F or though a l i e n r u l e was a phenomena v e r y f a m i l i a r

t o t h e I n d i a n s , n e v e r was an a t t e m p t made by o u t s i d e r s t o c r e a t e a
m i l i t a r y t h e o c r a c y so u n b en d in g i n i t s b e l i e f s y e t com prom ising i n
i ts p o lic ie s.

To t h e Arabs as t o t h e I n d i a n s , t h e e x p e r i e n c e and

t h e c h a l l e n g e was e n t i r e l y new.

E v e n tu a ll y a c l i m a t e o f o p i n i o n was

c r e a t e d w hich was a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e t o b o t h .

In itia l

d i f f i c u l t i e s and r e s e r v a t i o n s h ad t o b e overcom e. To t h e Arabs t h e

55Basham, o p . c i t . , p . 111.

13 5

I n d ia n s were f i r s t and fo rem o st i n f i d e l s who d id n o t even q u a l i t y as


"The p e o p le o f th e Book"; t o t h e In d ia n s t h e Arabs were u n c le a n
b a r b a r i s n unworthy o f a s s o c i a t i o n , who had by b r u t e f o r c e o ccup ied
p a r t o f t h e i r s a c r e d la n d .

R e a l i t i e s o f th e moment, however, were

s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g t o o v e r r i d e p r e - c o n c e iv e d p r e j u d i c e s and to
p r e p a r e th e way f o r a u n iq u e Indo-Arab c u l t u r e .
The g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n which t h e Arab p o l i c i e s assumed in
S in d was a p ro d u c t o f th e im a g in a tio n o f a l - H a j j a j , and b e a r w itn e s s
t o h i s u n d e r s ta n d in g and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e g e n iu s .

Where t h e d i s t a n c e

was g r e a t , communications hap h azard and t h e g e n e r a l mood o f an a l i e n


p o p u l a t i o n h o s t i l e , a n o te o f c a u t io n was j u d i c i o u s .

The g r e a t

v ic e r o y had re c o g n iz e d t h a t w h ile h i s w a r r i o r s ' l u s t f o r revenge and


p lu n d e r was t o be s a t i s f i e d , t h e f o r c e s o f d e s t r u c t i o n must be o v e r
come and a workable p l a n ev o lv ed g u a r a n te e in g t o some degree th e
s e c u r i t y and w e ll b e in g o f b o th t h e v i c t o r s and th e v an q u ish e d .

As

th e Arabs p ro ceed ed n o r th from D aybul, t h e o u t l i n e s o f t h i s p la n


became more and more v i s i b l e .
T here i s a s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y betw een th e Arab a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
in S ind and t h e B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n I n d i a a th ou san d y e a rs
l a t e r ; t h e y were b o th b ased upon th e prim acy o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
m i l i t a r y e s t a b li s h m e n t s , "am sars" in t h e case o f th e fo rm e r, and th e
cantonem ents in th e case o f th e l a t t e r .

Nor could i t have been t h e r e

any o t h e r way, p o p u la t co n sen t in t h e form o f H i n d u r e l i g i o u s s a n c


t i o n s b e in g d en ied to both o f them.

136

The Arab "am sar" f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l pu rpo ses assumed a form o f


a s t a t e w ith in a s t a t e :
From th e s e p o i n t s where th e y made t h e i r h ead
q u a r t e r s t h e Arabs k ep t th e p ro v in c e s in o b e d i e n c e . . . .
The Emirs, un der whose l e a d e r s h i p a land was ta k e n ,
were th e f i r s t " s t a t t h o l d e r s " and t h e i r s u c c e s s o rs
were f i r s t and forem ost m i l i t a r y commanders. But
j u s t as t h e army was a t th e same tim e th e "Umma,"
th e l e a d e r o f th e s e r v i c e in th e mosque, e s p e c i a l l y
on F r id a y , where he p re a c h e d . He was " a l a " lh arb wal
s a l a t . W arfare and w orship bo th came i n t o h i s
d ep artm en t. Along w ith t h i s he p o s se s se d n a t u r a l l y
t h e e x e c u tiv e power and c o n seq u en tly a l s o th e
j u d i c i a l supremacy in which l i e s th e power o f
commanding p e a c e . 56
In t h e amsar " t h e Arabs were s e t t l e d in q u a r t e r s a c c o rd in g t o
t h e i r t r i b e s . " 57

That th e w a r r i o r s were not accompanied by t h e i r

f a m ili e s in t h e case o f Sind can be deduced by t h r e e r e f e r e n c e s in


The Chachnamah. Only one baggage camel was allowed to every fo u r men
on th e march from S h ira z and i t argues f o r i t s e l f t h a t no f a m i l i e s
could be accommodated on so l i m i t e d a r a t i o n . 58

Before engaging th e

In d ia n army und er D a h ir, any Arab s o l d i e r was allow ed t o withdraw


from th e b a t t l e l i n e s and d e p a r t f o r home, p ro v id e d he had a com
p e l l i n g reaso n t o do s o .

Of th e t h r e e who step p e d forw ard t o claim

t h e i r d i s c h a r g e , two p o i n t e d out t h a t in case o f t h e i r d eath s no one


would be l e f t t o p r o v id e f o r t h e i r f a m i l i e s in S y r i a . 59

Commenting

56J u l i u s W ellhausen, The Arab Kingdom and i t s F a l l , p. 26.


57Bernard Lewis, The Arabs in H i s o t r y , p . 74.
58The Chachnamah, p. 77. The B r i t i s h g a r r i s o n s t o g e t h e r w ith
th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a f f were s t a t i o n e d o u t s i d e o f m ajor In d ia n
c i t i e s . These m i l i t a r y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a r e a s e v e n t u a l l y developed
i n t o s u b s t a n t i a l towns in t h e i r own r i g h t s and were known as " th e
contonem ents."
59I b i d . , p . 78.

1 37

on th e s e t t l i n g o f K a r d a il, a remote o u tp o st in th e neighborhood o f


S iw is ta n , The Chachnamah informs us t h a t th e "Arabs m arried and b e g a t
c h ild re n and com pletely su b ju g a te d and tamed th e J a t s . " 60
however, no d e a r th of female companionship.

There was,

Repeated r e f e r e n c e s to

la rg e numbers o f female c a p tiv e s r e f l e c t th e newcomers d e s i r e s to


in te rm a rry f r e e l y and s e t t l e down in t h e i r newly acq u ired p o s s e s s io n s
so t h a t th e r e was " p e rh a p s, among t h e descendents o f th e S in d ian
c o l o n i s t s , le s s in f u s i o n o f th e r e a l blood o f Arabs th a n in any o th e r
p ro v in c e s u b je c te d to t h e i r do m in io n ."6*
The amsars w ith t h e i r mixed A rab-S indian p o p u la tio n were s e l f co n tain ed a re a s complete w ith b a r r a c k s , government o f f i c e s , h o s p i t a l s ,
c o m m issa ria te s, c o u rts o f j u s t i c e and shopping c e n t e r s . 62

They were

u s u a lly carved out o f cap tu red s tr o n g h o ld s , Daybul b ein g a prime


example o f t h i s ty p e .

The c o n s tr u c t i o n o f new amsars a t s t r a t e g i c

p o i n t s i s a t t e s t e d by such s i t e s as Qairawan in T u n i s i a , , F u s ta t in
Egypt* Basra in Ira q and Mansurah in Sind.

A c tu a lly by t h e end o f

th e Umayyad r u le th e amsars were a lre a d y undergoing some s u b s t a n t i a l


changes:

60I b i d . , p. 173. In t h i s r e s p e c t th e Arab amsar d w e lle rs


d i f f e r e d r a d i c a l l y from th e B r i t i s h in In d ia who s t e a d f a s t l y and
o f te n contempuously m ain tain ed t h e i r a lo o fn e s s from th e ran ks o f th e
Indian s o c ie ty .
61Henry E l l i o t , The H is to ry o f I n d ia As Told by I t s Own
H i s t o r i a n s , Vol. V, 64.
62Syed Hashimi, "The Arab Rule in S in d ," Isla m ic C u ltu r e ,
Vol. I (1927), 199.

138

From t h i s tim e on t h e Arab tr i b e s m e n b eg an


t o abandon t h e Amsar, some r e v e r t i n g t o t h e
nomadism w hich th e y h a d n e v e r c o m p le te ly a b a n
d o n ed , o t h e r s s e t t l i n g on l a n d . The I s l a m i c town
changed i n c h a r a c t e r from t h e g a r r i s o n c i t y o f an
o c c u p y in g army i n a co n q u ered p r o v in c e t o a m ark et
and e x c h a n g e , w here t h e m e rc h a n ts and a r t i s a n s b eg an
t o o r g a n i z e th e m s e lv e s i n g u i l d s f o r j o i n t a i d and
defense. 63
In S in d t h e main am sars were l o c a t e d a t D a y b u l, N ir u n ,
S i w i s t a n , M ansurah, A l o r , M u lta n , Q a s d a r, Q a n d a b e l, B a iz a h , Mahfuzah
and J a n d o u r .
m isr.

The s t r e n g t h o f t h e g a r r i s o n no d o u b t v a r i e d w ith each

The s t a t i o n i n g o f f o u r th o u s a n d t r o o p s a t Daybul t e s t i f i e s t o

some d e g r e e t h e n o t e o f c a u t i o n a g a i n s t a p o s s i b l e g e n e r a l u p r i s i n g . 64
I t i s t o be n o te d t h a t such c a u t i o n was n o t w ith c e r t a i n j u s t i f i c a t i o n ;
a t S i w i s t a n t h e Arab g a r r i s o n was e x p e l l e d w h ile t h e m ain army was
p r e p a r i n g t o c r o s s t h e I n d u s . 65

When t h e n e c e s s i t y o f

m ain tain in g

s u b s t a n t i a l t r o o p s i n S in d was f o r c e d upon t h e A r a b s , t h e r e c r u i t m e n t
o f n a tiv e a u x i l i a r i e s in c re a s e d c o rre sp o n d in g ly .

At M ultan we a re

t o l d t h a t no l e s s th a n 5 0,0 0 0 c a v a l r y was s t a t i o n e d . 66

The number

m igh t b e an e x a g g e r a t i o n , b u t even i f o n e - f o u r t h o f i t may b e a c c e p te d


a t i t s f a c e v a l u e , i t s t i l l rem ain s an i m p r e s s i v e f i g u r e and we c a n
p r e c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a l l t h e s e horsem en came from t h e Arab
ranks.
63L ew is, oja. c i t . , p . 9 2.
64The Chachnamah, p .

; B a l a d h u r i , o p . c i t . , p . 218.

6 5The Chachnamah, p .
66I b i d . As p o i n t e d o u t p r e v i o u s l y , 4 ,0 0 0 J a t s had b e e n
r e c r u i t e d f o l l o w i n g t h e s eco n d c o n q u e s t o f S i w i s t a n .

139

The c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y , as i t g r a d u a l l y
ev olv ed betw een 712 and 715 A .D ., was l a r g e l y dependent upon t h e onth e-sp o t r e a l i t i e s .

I t was accompanied by numerous c o n c i l i a t o r y

g e s t u r e s ex ten d ed t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f governm ent.

The

s e n s e l e s s m assacre a t D aybul, i n s p i r e d by t h e c o l l e c t i v e f o r c e s o f
re v e n g e , g r e e d , r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c i s m and l u s t , co u ld l e a d to a
h id e o u s r e a c t i o n by th e S in d ia n p o p u l a t i o n a t l a r g e o r co uld f r i g h t e n
them i n t o u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u b m is s io n .

Except f o r N iru n , c irc u m s ta n c e s

l e a d i n g t o whose s u r r e n d e r a r e u n c l e a r a t b e s t , nowhere do we f in d
th e l a t t e r phenomena t a k i n g p l a c e . 67

The S ind h i n t e r l a n d , m oreover,

was stu d d e d w ith s t r o n g l y f o r t i f i e d c i t i e s

C Q

army u n d er D a h ir was y e t t o be reck on ed w i th .


c a t i o n were to be s a fe g u a r d e d .

and t h e main S in d ia n
Arab l i n e s o f communi

The advance up t h e r i v e r could be

v a s t l y f a c i l i t a t e d i f t h e i n i t i a l p o l i c y o f r u t h l e s s m assa c re s was
r e p l a c e d by one b e n e v o le n t and c o n c i l i a t o r y i n d e s ig n .

The f i r s t

s t e p s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n were ta k e n by a l - H a j j a j , soon a f t e r t h e
s u r r e n d e r o f Daybul:
When you have conquered th e c o u n try and s tr e n g t h e n e d
t h e f o r t s , endeavour t o c o n s o le t h e s u b j e c t s and t o
s o o th e th e r e s i d e n t s so t h a t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c l a s s e s
and a r t i s a n s and m erchants may, i f God so w i l l s , become
c o m fo rta b le and h ap p y , and t h e c o u n try may become f e r t i l e
and p o p u l o u s . 69

67See c h a p te r i i i , pp. 16-17.


66See c h a p te r I I , pp. 32-35.
69L e t t e r o f H a jja j t o Muhammad d a te d 20th o f Raj j i b 93 A .H .,
The Chachnamah, p . 90.

140

Follo w ing t h e s u r r e n d e r o f Nirun i n s t r u c t i o n s were r e c e iv e d


from H a j j a j :
Whoever seek s mercy and p r o t e c t i o n from you, l e t
him have i t . Those o f t h e n o b les and great, men who
ta k e you r s id e and j o i n you, h onour them by g iv in g
them ro b es o f honour and make them g r a t e f u l t o
y o u r s e l f . Give p r o p e r rew ards to them, and r e s p e c t
them a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r ra n k . Make re a s o n and
d i s c r e t i o n y o u r guide so t h a t t h e c h i e f men o f th e
p l a c e and n o t a b l e s o f th e neighborhood may rep o se
com plete t r u s t i n y o u r w o rd .70
In accordan ce w ith t h e newly i n s t i g a t e d p o l i c y , w h o le s a le
m assacres o f c i v i l i a n s ivere done away w ith and t h e l i v e s , l i b e r t i e s
and p r o p e r t i e s o f i n h a b i t a n t s were g e n e r a l l y g u a r a n t e e d . 71

P r is o n e r s

o f war w ere, however, s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s l a u g h t e r e d , t h e i r f a m i l i e s


e n s la v e d and p r o p e r t y c o n f i s c a t e d .

In an e f f o r t to win o v e r t h e

ran k s and f i l e o f t h e n o b i l i t y and t o s o l i c i t t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e ,


p ro c la m a tio n s o f g e n e ra l amnesty were i s s u e d and o c c a s io n a l s e c r e t
n e g o t i a t i o n s e n t e r e d i n t o by t h e Arabs which i n e f f e c t confirm ed th e
p o s i t i o n s o f t h e f o rm e r, i n c e r t a i n c ases a c t u a l l y enhancing them.
Evidence o f a t l e a s t p a r t i a l s u c c e s s o f t h i s new p o l i c y i s b o rn e o u t
by t h e f a c t t h a t a few men o f h ig h ran k s and n o b le b i r t h d id n o t show
t h e s l i g h t e s t h e s i t a t i o n i n exchanging t h e i r o v e r l o r d s .

Among th e

more e x a l t e d new Arab " a l l i e s " we may n o te S i y a k a r , t h e prim e m i n i s t e r


o f D a h ir , exchan gin g not m erely h i s a l l e g i a n c e b u t h i s r e l i g i o n as

70L e t t e r o f H a jj a j t o Muhammad, U ndated, The Chachnamah, p . 92.


71Major c i t i e s o f S ind seem t o have been c o n t r o l l e d by th e
B uddhist e c c l e s i a s t i c a l l e a d e r s o r by c o r p o r a te m e r c a n t i le i n t e r e s t s .
A cco rd in g ly t h e i r m ajo r concern in n e g o t i a t i o n s w ith t h e Arabs cen
t e r e d around n o n - i n j u r y t o th e non -com b atan ts as w e ll as p r o t e c t i o n
of p ro p erty .

141

w e l l , and r e c e i v i n g in t u r n h i s new p o s i t i o n Wazir o f th e new s t a t e


under t h e v ic e r o y Muhammad.72

Feudal l e v i e s under S in dian c h ie f s

a s s i s t e d th e newcomers a g a i n s t th e r o y a l f o r c e s , a t one p o in t a c t u a l l y
sav in g Muhammad's l i f e in th e m idst o f th e b a t t l e a g a in s t D a h i r .75
That by f a r a g r e a t e r number o f nobles remained lo y a l t o t h e i r r o y a l
m aster can be seen by t h e s te a d y r e s i s t a n c e t o Arab arms from Daybul
t o Multan.

The d e f e c t i o n o f a few a l b e i t i n f l u e n t i a l men to th e

enemy ranks can be d ism issed e i t h e r as a r e s u l t o f p e rso n a l grudge


a g a i n s t D ah ir, as in th e case o f Mokah B asayah,71* o r a s u p e r s t i t i o u s
b e l i e f t h a t th e end o f t h e Hindu r u l e had been f o r e t o l d by learn ed
men o f th e r e a l m . 75
Where g e n e ra l economic p r o s p e r i t y and r e l i g i o u s freedom had
been enjoyed by th e S in d ia n s , any a tte m p ts by th e Arabs to appear
as l i b e r a t o r s o f an oppressed p eople was doomed t o f a i l u r e .

N e ith e r

were th ey le d i n t o th e f o l l y o f ad v o catin g such p r e t e n t io u s cla im s.


Moved by p r a c t i c a l c o n s id e r a t i o n s , t h e new r u l e r s simply endeavored
to m ain tain t h e s t a t u s quo w h ile t r y i n g to a d j u s t them selves to th e
new m ilie u i n th e mainstream o f In d ia n economic and a d m i n i s t r a ti v e
72The Chachnamah, pp. 157-58.
75The fo rc e s o f th e S in d ian c h i e f Mokah Basayeh, an Arab
a l l y , p r o t e c t e d Muhammad w ith t h e i r own l i v e s when the l a t t e r was
i s o l a t e d and surrounded by enemy fo rc e s a t th e h e ig h t o f th e b a t t l e
a g a in s t D ahir. The Chachnamah, p. 142.
7t*I b i d . , p. 125.
75The Arabs f i r s t encountered t h i s s u p e r s t i t i o n on th e p a r t
o f th e Hindus o u ts id e th e w a lls o f Daybul when th e same Brahmin who
r e v e a le d th e s e c r e t o f th e f l a g p o s t a l s o informed th e Arabs o f t h i s
p r e v a le n t b e l i e f which was su b seq u en tly re p e a te d on numerous occa
s io n s .

142

c u rre n ts.

The h i g h e s t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t y , fo rm e rly i n v e s t e d i n

t h e S ind monarchy, was now r e p la c e d by t h e c a l i p h a t Damascus and


r e p r e s e n t e d in Sind by a g o v ern o r a p p o in te d i n t u r n by t h e v i c e r o y o f
Iraq.

A c o n t r o l l e r - g e n e r a l o r " s a h ib a l - K h a r a j , " in d ep en d en t o f th e

g o v e r n o r 's a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b l e d i r e c t l y t o t h e v i c e r o y , was


p la c e d i n charge o f a l l m a t t e r s d e a l i n g w ith p r o v i n c i a l f i n a n c e .
A d m in is t r a t i v e d i v i s i o n o f th e p r e - c o n q u e s t e r a a p p ear t o have been
m a in ta in e d where l i e u t e n a n t g o v e r n o rs , i n v a r i a b l y r e p u t a b l e m i l i t a r y
commanders, were s t a t i o n e d w ith s i z e a b l e b o d ie s o f t r o o p s .
Beyond t h e amsars t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e t a i l s were l e f t in
t h e hands o f In d ia n o f f i c i a l s , i n most c a s e s r o y a l c i v i l s e r v a n t s o f
t h e Brahmin Dynasty.

The move was a w ise one.

I n h e r i t i n g a compe

t e n t b u r e a u c r a t i c sy stem , t h e Arabs saw no need t o a l t e r o r r e p l a c e


it.

N e i t h e r could i t be any o t h e r way.

The newcomers sim ply lacked

t h e manpower t o e f f e c t a change so enormous i n sc o p e .

Large s e c t i o n s

o f S ind i n r e a l i t y were n e v e r co m p le te ly s u b ju g a te d ; many l o c a l


c h i e f s had managed to m a in ta in t h e i r in d ependence i n t h e m id st o f a l l
tu rm o ils.

From t h e i r s tr o n g h o ld s a t o r n e a r t h e urban c e n t e r s , t h e

Arab g a r r i s o n s were c o n s t a n t l y engaged i n o p e r a t i o n s o f v a r io u s


s c a l e s , r e q u i r i n g men and m a t e r i a l . 76

76Some o f t h e n o b le s were i n t r e a t y r e l a t i o n s w ith t h e Arabs


i n exchange f o r a i d re n d e re d t o t h e newcomers and were allo w ed to
keep t h e i r f i e f s i n t a c t . O t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g one o f D a h i r 's s o n s,
J a i s i a h , had r e t r e a t e d b e f o r e th e Arabs b u t l a t e r had i n s t i g a t e d a
g u e r r i l l a ty p e a c t i o n a g a i n s t them. A few had o s t e n s i b l y a ccep ted
I s la m , th e re b y managing t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r p r i o r s t r e n g t h s b u t l a t e r
had ta k e n up arms a g a i n s t t h e Arabs.

143

With th e s e c o n s id e r a t i o n s in mind and t h e f u t u r e o f Arab


dominion i n Sind m om entarily a s s u r e d , Muhammad i n h i g h - l e v e l p o l i c y
making d e c i s io n s l a i d down t h e g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e f u t u r e framework
o f government.

Brahminabad was s u b d iv id e d i n t o f o u r s e p a r a t e zones

and each one was p la c e d under an In d ia n p r e f e c t whose v a r i e d f u n c tio n s


in c lu d e d th e c o l l e c t i o n o f t a x e s , d i s p e n s a t i o n o f j u s t i c e and g e n e ra l
w e lf a re o f t h e p o p u l a c e .77

He no doubt was a s s i s t e d by a c o u n c il

composed o f prom inent c i t i z e n s , m ostly l a r g e p r o p e r ty h o ld e r s and


b usinessm en.

Pre-Arab urban d e fe n se complex had in c lu d e d th e

s t a t i o n i n g o f s i z e a b l e b o d ies o f tro o p s a t s t r a t e g i c p o i n t s .

This

p r a c t i c e was m a in ta in e d by th e newcomers w ith s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n ; th e


tro o p s and t h e i r commanders were a l l A rabs, s u b j e c t to t h e commandant
a t th e amsar h e a d q u a r te rs r a t h e r th a n to t h e In d ia n p r e f e c t s .
S in c e i t was t o t h e i r own advantage to keep th e c i t i e s s e c u re
and p r o s p e r o u s , t h e Arabs showed g r e a t t a l e n t in doing so .

From th e

o u t s e t H a jja j and Muhammad ap p ear to have i d e n t i f i e d urban i n t e r e s t s


w ith commercial i n t e r e s t s which in t u r n were l in k e d to th o s e o f t h e
Arabs.

The s t r e n g t h and development o f t h i s p o l i c y was i n s p i r e d by th e

m ajor m e r c a n t i le houses which had i n v a r i a b l y f a c i l i t a t e d t h e new


comers i n t h e i r march throu gh th e v a l l e y .

S im u ltan eo u sly th e p o l i c y

a l s o r e f l e c t s t h e p r e c a r io u s h o ld e x e r c i s e d by t h e Arabs on a
c o u n tr y s id e rem ain in g l a r g e l y in t h e hands o f pow erful Hindu feu d al
l o r d s o f th e p re v io u s d y n asty .

Given t h e s e c o n d itio n s th e m i l i t a r y -

77The Chachnamah, p. 165.

144

commercial a l l i a n c e could be a p p lie d beyond th e urban c e n te r s with


r e s u l t s haphazard and u n c e r t a i n a t b e s t .

The source o f Arab

s t r e n g t h , m i l i t a r y as w ell as f i s c a l , co n seq u en tly lay w ith in th e


w alled c i t i e s and t h e i r immediate s u rro u n d in g s .

The monied i n t e r

e s t s were soon to f e e l th e b en ev o len t e f f e c t s o f th e newcomers'


p o lic ie s.

One thousand members o f t h e i r c l a s s were s e l e c t e d and a

c a p i t a t i o n t a x ( j i z i a h ) o f merely tw elve dirhams p e r annum was


imposed upon each one o f th e m .78

This amount was c o n s id e ra b ly lower

th a n th e one g e n e r a l ly le v ie d upon th e p u b lic a t l a r g e inasmuch as


tw elve dirhams was th e amount p ay able by th e lowest income group and
tw e n ty -fo u r and f o r t y - e i g h t dirhams by th e n e x s t two s u c c e s s iv e
70

h igher le v e ls .

The g e n e ra l p u b l i c was given a d i s t i n c t im pression

t h a t t h i s ap p aren t concession was in l i e u o f th e damage i n f l i e c t e d


on p r o p e rty by t h e e n tr y o f somewhat e x c ite d Arab tro o p s i n t o th e
c i t y . 80

In r e a l i t y i t was t h e f i r s t s ig n o f an emerging a l l i a n c e

between two gro up s, m u tually dependent upon one a n o th e r.


I n i t i a l l y Muhammad toyed w ith t h e id e a o f b y -p a s s in g th e
Brahmins in a d m i n i s t r a ti v e a f f a i r s , p o s s i b l y due t o th e l a t t e r ' s
c lo s e co n n ectio n s w ith th e p rev io u s d y n asty .

A ccord ing ly , prominent

non-Brahmin c i t i z e n s , n o ta b ly merchants as w e ll as v i l l a g e headmen


were p laced i n charge o f p ro c u rin g ta x e s from t h e i r r e s p e c ti v e

78The Chachnamah, p. 165.


79I b id .
80"Muhammad Kasim o rd ered a c a p i t a t i o n t a x o f tw elve dirams
o f s i l v e r in weight only to be f ix e d on each o f them as th ey had
a lr e a d y l o s t t h e i r p r o p e rty by p l u n d e r ." I b i d . , p. 165.

145

a r e a s , a t a s k f o rm e r ly p erfo rm ed by t h e B ra h m in s.81

T h is d e v i a t i o n

from an e s t a b l i s h e d p r a c t i c e was n o t e n t i r e l y s u c c e s s f u l .

The

Brahm ins, who b e l i e v e d th e m se lv e s e s p e c i a l l y q u a l i f i e d f o r t h e t a s k


o f l o o k in g a f t e r p u b l i c f in a n c e s now lau n ch ed a fo rm al p r o t e s t w ith
t h e Arab commander.82

So e n tr e n c h e d was t h e p r a c t i c e o f Brahmin

d o m in a tio n in f i s c a l m a t t e r s t h a t t h e i r c la im s were a c t u a l l y s u b
s t a n t i a t e d by h ig h -p o w ered d e l e g a t i o n s o f Brahminabad c i t i z e n r y . 83
R e a li z i n g t h a t

Brahmin g o o d w ill co u ld b e n e f i t t h e Arab c a u s e ,

Muhammad now e f f e c t e d a change in h i s e a r l i e r p o l i c y , c o n f irm in g t h e


Brahmins i n t h e i r e a r l i e r p o s t s as c h i e f r o y a l re v e n u e c o l l e c t o r s . 014
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a l l p r e c i s e in f o r m a t i o n ab ou t p u b l i c rev en u e
i n S in d u n d e r t h e Arabs i s l a c k i n g .

An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h i s p o i n t

c a l l s f o r fo u r b a s i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

The f i r s t o f t h e s e r e l a t e s t o

t h e f a i t h o f th e co nquered p e o p le who c o n tin u e d t o p r o f e s s t h e i r


a n c e s t r a l r e l i g i o n and a c c o r d i n g l y became l i a b l e t o t h e " j i z i a h " o r
p o l l - t a x p a i d by a l l non-Muslim s u b j e c t s o f t h e C a lip h .

In term s o f

numbers o f p e o p le a s s e s s e d , t h i s form o f t a x a t i o n had t h e w id e s t


base.

I t was p r o g r e s s i v e i n d e s i g n ; t h e w e a l t h i e s t p a y in g f o r t y -

e i g h t dirham s a n n u a l l y w h il e t h e p o o r e s t o n ly t w e l v e . 85

In t h e

second p l a c e , t h e Kharaj la n d s i n S in d f a r exceeded t h e z a k a t

81 I b i d .
82I b i d . , p p. 165-66.
8 3I b i d .
814I b i d . , p . 166.
85I b i d . , p . 165.

146

e s t a t e s , th u s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e t r e a s u r y sums f a r g r e a t e r th a n
would have been p o s s i b l e had t h e r e v e r s e been t r u e .
s im p le .

The r e a s o n was

Except f o r a few i s o l a t e d c a s e s , t h e Arab advance tiirough

t h e lo w er Indus V a lle y was f a c i l i t a t e d th ro u g h n e g o t i a t e d s e t t l e


ments w ith v a r i o u s segm ents o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n which in e f f e c t
t e c h n i c a l l y q u a l i f i e d t h e l a t t e r as t h e r e s i d e n t s o f " d a r a l - S u l h . " 86
Such members o f s o c i e t y
ta in th e ir
sid e ra b ly
g e n t r y . 87

w i t h i n t h e c a l i p h a t e were p e r m i t t e d t o r e

la n d s on t h e pavment o f k h a r a j , a la n d a s s e s s m e n t con
h i g h e r i.,u;n z a k a t which was p a i d by t h e Muslim lan d ed
While t h e l a t t e r

i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y seldom

exceeded t e n

p e r c e n t o f th e c ro p s o r i t s e q u i v a l e n t i n c a s h , t h e fo rm e r f l u c t u a t e d
p e r p e t u a l l y , v a r y i n g anywhere from o n e - f i f t h t o t w o - f i f t h s o f th e
c ro p :
The l a n d - t a x was u s u a l l y r a t e d a t t w o - f i f t h s
o f t h e p ro du ce o f w heat and b a r l e y , i f t h e f i e l d s
were w a te r e d by p u b l i c c a n a l s ; t h r e e - t e n t h s , i f
i r r i g a t e d by w heels o r o t h e r a r t i f i c i a l means;
and o n e - f o u r t h , i f a l t o g e t h e r u n i r r i g a t e d .
I f a rab le
la n d were l e f t u n c u l t i v a t e d , i t seems t o have p a id
one dirh am p e r j a r i b , and o n e - t e n t h o f t h e o r o b a b le
p r o d u c e . . . .Of d a t e s , g r a p e s , and g ard en p r o d u c e , onet h i r d was t a k e n ,
e i t h e r i n k in d o r money; and onefifth
(khums) o f
t h e y i e l d o f w in e s , f i s h i n g ,
p e a r l s and g e n e r a l l y o f any p r o d u c t n o t d e r i v e d from

86See a b o v e, pp.
87Zakah was l e v i e d a t t h e r a t e o f t e n p e r c e n t i f t h e la n d was
w a te r e d by r a i n o r s tr e a m and a t f i v e p e r c e n t i f w a te r e d by a b u c k e t.
S h a r e e f a l - M u j a h i d , "Muslim F i n a n c e ," I s la m ic C u l t u r e , Vol. 40 (1952) ,
9.

147

c u l t i v a t i o n , was t o be d e l i v e r e d i n k i n d , o r
p a id in v a l u e , even b e f o r e t h e expenses had
b een d e f r a y e d . 88
The t h i r d c o n s i d e r a t i o n is t h e r a t h e r im p re s s iv e number o f
urban c e n t e r s th ro u g h o u t t h e low er Indus V a lle y .

The p o r t s

o f Sind

had s e rv e d as m ajor o u t l e t s f o r th e p r o d u c ts o f N o rth w estern I n d ia


and t o a l e s s e r d e g re e f o r C e n t r a l A sian commodities bound f o r th e
s e a . 89

The r e s u l t a n t growth o f m e r c a n t i l e c e n t e r s alo n g t h e Indus

had p ro v id e d a m ajor s o u rc e o f income f o r l o c a l r u l e r s who s t e a d


f a s t l y p r o t e c t e d and encouraged t h i s o v e r la n d and m a ritim e commerce
w i t h i n t h e i r re a lm s.

The f o r t i f i e d c i t i e s had w holly p a s se d i n t o

Arab h a n d s , p r o v i d i n g n o t m erely e x c e l l e n t b a s e s o f m i l i t a r y
o p e r a t i o n s and s u r v e i l l a n c e b u t c o r p o r a t e w e a lth o f g r e a t m agnitude
as w e ll .
F i n a l l y we must m ention ev ery c o n c e iv a b le means d e v is e d by
t h e In d ia n la w g iv e rs t o squ eeze money o u t o f t h e p u b l i c p u r s e which
were now r e t a i n e d by t h e A rabs.

As m entioned e a r l i e r in t h i s

c h a p t e r , such means had i n c lu d e d a sse ssm e n t on l i v e s t o c k , ch arg es


f o r th e u se o f s t a t e lan d s and f a c i l i t i e s such as h ig hw ay s, w e lls
and c a n a l s , as w e ll as p e r i o d i c f o r c e d l a b o r - - a l l t h i s in a d d i t i o n
t o t h e b a s i c t a x on la n d and commerce.98 R e feren ce t o t h e payment

88E l l i o t , o. c i t . , Vol. V, 74. These f i g u r e s


ap p ly to t h e r e i g n o f C alip h al-Mamun, 813-833 A.D.
89See C h ap ter V I I I , pp- 188-191.
" S e e ab o ve, pp. 131-132.

esp ec ia lly

148

o f " u su a l ta x " by th e Hindu p o p u la tio n t o t h e i r new m asters is


i n d i c a t i v e o f Arab d e te r m in a tio n t o re a p th e f r u i t s o f t h e i r p r e
d e c e s s o r s ' e v i l genius in b le e d in g t h e i r s u b j e c t s . 91
H i s t o r i c a l s o u rc e s a r e c u r io u s l y s i l e n t about th e t o t a l
assessm ent on Sind d u rin g th e Umayyad p e r io d .

Ibn Khaldun, l a t e

f o u r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e p u t a b l e Arab h i s t o r i a n who does p ro v id e a


glim pse o f th e c a l i p h a t e ' s revenue from Sind d u rin g t h e Abbassid
p e r i o d , does so in a most u n s a t i s f a c t o r y manner.

For he contends

h im s e lf by m erely s t a t i n g t h a t t h e "revenu e" from Sind amounted to


e le v e n and a h a l f m i l l i o n d irh a m s .92

He f a i l s to e l a b o r a t e on

w hether t h i s sum embraced th e v a r io u s modes o f t a x a t i o n o r was simply


meant t o be th e land t a x .

N in e te e n th c e n tu ry B r i t i s h I n d i o l o g i s t ,

S i r Henry E l l i o t , commenting upon t h i s u n c e r ta i n a s p e c t o f Arab


dominion ov er Sind summed up h i s c o n c lu s io n s ad m irably:
But a f t e r g iv in g due w eight t o a l l t h e s e
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e sum s e t down a g a i n s t some
o f th e p ro v in c e s a re so l a r g e . . . t h a t we must
conceive them t o embrace th e e n t i r e c o l l e c t i o n s
o f every k in d , and must be allow ed t h e l i b e r t y o f
c o n s tr u in g k h a ra j in i t s e n la rg e d s en se o f t r i b u t e ,
th a n i t s li m i t e d one o f " l a n d - t a x , " . . .The a s s e s s
ment upon Sind and M u lta n --b e in g 11,500,000 d irh am s,
91The Chachnamah, p . 174.
g o

Ibn Khaldun, The Muqnddimah: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o H i s to r y ,


T r a n s l a t e d from th e A rabic by Franz R o s e n th a l, B o llin g e n S e r i e s , XLIII
(New York: Pantheon Books, 1958), Vol. I , 362. Comparative f i g u r e s
f o r some o t h e r e a s t e r n p ro v in c e s o f th e c a l i p h a t e a re as fo llo w s .
Makran a t f o u r hundred thousand dirham s, S i j i s t a n a t fo u r m i ll i o n
s i x hundred thousand d irh a m s; Kirman a t f o u r m i l l i o n two hundred
thousand d irh am s; T u k h a ris ta n a t one hundred and s i x thousand
d irh am s; Kabul a t one and a h a l f m i l l i o n d irham s; Bamian a t f i v e
thousand d irh am s; and Fars a t tw en ty -sev en m i l l i o n dirh am s. See A lfre d
von Kremer, C u l tu r g e s c h ic h te des O r ie n ts u n t e r den C h a lif e n (Wien:
W. B rau m u ller, 1875), Vol. I , 356-70.

149

o r about 2 7 0 ,0 0 0 --m u st be c o n s id e r e d m o d e ra te ,
i f i t i s in te n d e d to com p rise t h e l a n d - t a x , t h e
p o l l - t a x , t h e customs d u t i e s and a l l m is c e l l a n e o u s
item s i n t o t h e b a r g a i n ; b u t i t i s n o t an im p ro b ab le
a m o u n t.. . .Under t h e T a lp u r s ( e i g h t e e n t h centuryl o c a l d y n a s ty ) n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h a t many l a r g e
and p r o d u c t i v e t r a c t s were a f f o r e s t e d by them ,
S ind i s s a i d t o have o c c a s i o n a l l y y i e l d e d
4 0 0 ,0 0 0 , and u n d er t h e K olhoras (e a i'ly n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y d y n a s t y ) , t r a d i t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e re v e n u e
a t t h e e x a g g e r a te d amount o f 800,000. At p r e s e n t
( 1 8 7 0 's ) w ith s e c u r i t y on a l l i t s b o r d e r s , and
t r a n q u i l l i t y w i t h i n them , i t does n o t pay t o t h e
B r i t i s h Government more t h a n 30 0 ,0 0 0 , and th e
expenses have been h i t h e r t o more th a n do uble
t h a t sum. T h is d e f i c i e n c y , how ever, can n o t l a s t
lo n g , f o r i t s c u l t i v a t i o n and commerce a r e
r a p i d l y on t h e i n c r e a s e . 93
A ccording t o B a l a d h u r i , t h e S in d campaign had c o s t t h e
c a l i p h a t e s i x t y m i l l i o n d i r h a m s . 9** Twice t h a t amount was r e m i t t e d
t o th e c e n t r a l governm ent a t Damascus.

T h is sum i s most c e r t a i n l y

e x a g g e r a te d " s i n c e t h e c o u n try c o u ld n o t by any p o s s i b i l i t y have


y i e l d e d such a b o o ty even w ith t h e e x e r c i s e o f t h e u tm o st Arab
v i o l e n c e and e x t o r t i o n t o e n f o r c e i t s c o l l e c t i o n . . .W e.. . f i n d i t
d i f f i c u l t t o b e l i e v e . . . t h a t S in d and M ultan t o g e t h e r c o u ld a t t h a t
tim e have y i e l d e d two m i l l i o n and t h r e e q u a r t e r s s t e r l i n g . " 95
Chachnamah g iv e s t h e f i g u r e

The

o f s i x t y th o u sa n d dirham s as t h e c o s t

o f e x p e d i t i o n and we m ight a c c e p t t h i s as a more r e l i a b l e number.

93I b id .
9l4A l - B a l a d h u r i , K itab Futuh u l - B u l d a n , p . 223.
95E l l i o t , o p . c i t . , V o l .V ., 70.

150

The r e l i g i o u s co m p o sitio n o f th e C a l i p h 's new dominion p r e


s e n te d t h e Arabs w ith a

dilemma.

The overwhelming m a j o r i t y o f

S in d ia n s were H indu-B uddhist by f a i t h and th u s by d e f i n i t i o n d id n o t


q u a l i f y as t h e " p e o p le o f th e Book."

On t h e o t h e r h and , w h o le s a le

fo rc e d c o n v e rs io n s o r e x te m in a tio n o f so l a r g e a p o p u la t io n was w e ll
beyond t h e g ra sp o f r e a l i t y .
in e v ita b le .

The s o l u t i o n t h a t fo llo w e d was p erh ap s

The p o l i c y s ta t e m e n t on r e l i g i o u s a f f a i r s i s s u e d a t

Brahminabad and s u b s e q u e n tly r e p e a t e d a t A lo r , c a l l e d f o r th e


r e c o g n i t i o n o f Hinduism and

B uddhism

on equ al footing w ith C h r i s t i a n i t y ,

Judaism and Z o r o a s t r ia n i s m , whose f o ll o w e r s p r e v i o u s l y enjoyed th e


s t a t u s o f dhimmis and were t o l e r a t e d as p r o t e c t e d s u b j e c t s . 96
c o n c e s s io n was re m a rk a b le .

The

I t s pronouncement no doubt was l a r g e l y

f a c i l i t a t e d by a la c k o f any r i g i d s c h o o ls o f ju r i s p r u d e n c e in Islam
a t th is d a te .

As m entioned above97 such s c h o o ls were t o r i s e in th e

f o llo w in g c e n tu ry and c o n s e q u e n tly c o lo r e d t h e r e l i g i o u s o u tlo o k o f


l a t e r T u rk ish ho rdes which p o ured a c r o s s t h e Sulaim an m ountains i n t o
North I n d i a , b e g in n in g w ith t h e e l e v e n t h c e n tu r y .

For t h e Ghaznavid

96The Chachnamah, p. 168. "With r e g a r d to th e r e q u e s t o f th e


c h i e f s o f Brahminabad about t h e b u i l d i n g o f Budh te m p le s , and
t o l e r a t i o n in r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s , I do n o t see (when th e y have done
homage t o us by p l a c i n g t h e i r heads in th e yoke o f su b m issio n and
have u n d e rta k e n t o pay th e f i x e d t r i b u t e far th e K h alifah and
g u a ra n te e d i t s p aym ent), what f u r t h e r r i g h t s we have ov er them
beyond t h e u s u a l t a x . Because a f t e r th e y have become zijnmis ( p ro
t e c t e d s u b j e c t s ) we have no r i g h t w h atev er t o i n t e r f e r e w ith t h e i r
l i v e s o r t h e i r p r o p e r t y . . . .No one i s p r o h i b i t e d from o r p u n ish ed
f o r fo llo w in g h i s own r e l i g i o n . . . . " L e t t e r o f H a jja j t o Muhammad
r e c e iv e d a t Brahminabad, u n d a te d .
97See above, pp. 122-123.

151

and th e Ghorid Turks o f th e Afghan h ig h lan d s brought havoc on t h e Hindu


p o p u la tio n , indeed j u s t i f y i n g t h e i r very p resen ce in I n d ia on th e p r e
t e x t t h a t th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e h eath en s was t h e i r prime m o tiv e .98
The concession was follow ed by th e r e c o g n i tio n of the legitimate Brahmin
in te re sts.

The c o n firm a tio n o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n as chief revenue o f f i c i a l s

has been commented upon.

Under t h e p re v io u s d y nasty t h e populace was

f o rc e d to pay t h r e e p e r c e n t o f i t s income t o t h e B rahm ins.99

This

payment was a p p a r e n tly n o t through th e s t a t e a g e n c ie s , b u t o th e r w is e ,


we are in t h e dark as t o i t s enforcem ent.

T his p r a c t i c e was m ain tain ed

" T h ro u g h o u t th e medieval Muslim p e r io d , th e o lo g ia n s continued to


d is c u s s th e s t a t u s o f th e Hindus under t h e Is la m ic r u l e . F o u r te e n th c e n tu ry In dian Muslim s c h o la r Seikh Hamadani was c l e a r l y shocked a t th e
somewhat t o l e r a n t r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e o f t h e Delhi s u lt a n s :
I f Mahmud CSultan Mahmud o f Ghazna, d ied 1030 A . D .) .. .h a d gone
to I n d ia once more he would have brought under h i s sword a l l
th e Brahmins o f Hind who, i n t h a t v a s t la n d , a re t h e cause o f
th e con tin uance o f th e laws o f i n f i d e l i t y and t h e s tr e n g t h
o f i d o l a t o r s , he would have c u t o f f t h e heads o f two hundred
or t h r e e hundred thousand Hindu c h i e f s . He would n o t have
r e tu r n e d h i s " H in d u -s la u g h te rin g " sword t o th e scabbard u n t i l
thjj whole o f Hind had accepted Islam . For Mahmud was a
S h a f i i t e , and acco rd in g t o Imam S h a f f i , t h e d ecree f o r Hindus
i s " e i t h e r death o r Islam " - - t h a t i s t o sa y , th e y should
e i t h e r be p u t t o d eath o r embrace Islam . I t i s n o t lawful
t o accept " J i z i a " from Hindus as th e y have n e i t h e r a
p ro ph et n o r a r e v e a le d book.
Quoted in Theodore de-B ary, Sources o f t h e In d ia n T r a d i t i o n , p. 479,
from Hamadani's T r e a s u r i e s o f Kings.
" The Chachnamah, p. 169.

152

by Muhammad t o t h e g r e a t s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e B ra h m in s .100

As a f u r t h e r

g e s t u r e o f good w i l l , t h e r e l i g i o u s o r m en d ican t B rahm ins, e n t i r e l y


d ep en d en t on b eg g in g f o r t h e i r p h y s i c a l n e e d s , w ere

n o t t o b e m o le ste d

by t h e Arab s o l d i e r y whose h ig h -h a n d e d m ethods i n c e r t a i n c a s e s had


prom pted t h e r e q u e s t f o r t h e f o r m e r s p r o t e c t i o n . 101
c o u ld n o t be r e p a i r e d and new ones c o n s t r u c t e d .

Damaged te m p le s

W ith in t h i s p o l i c y p e r i

m e te r t h e n , t h e S i n d i a n s e n jo y e d a m easure o f r e l i g i o u s freedom , t h e
e x i s t e n c e o f w hich i s co n ced ed , th ough somewhat g r u d g in g l y , even by
S i r Henry E l l i o t , o t h e r w i s e g e n e r a l l y h o s t i l e t o t h e Arab c a u s e :
The t o l e r a t i o n which t h e n a t i v e S i n d i a n s en jo y e d i n
t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e i r r e l i g i o n , was g r e a t e r t h a n what was
u s u a l l y conceded i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s ; b u t i t was d i c t a t e d
l e s s by any p r i n c i p l e o f j u s t i c e o r h u m a n ity , t h a n t h e
i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f s u p p r e s s i n g t h e n a t i v e r e l i g i o n by t h e
s m a ll number o f Arab i n v a d e r s . When tim e had f u l l y shown
t h e n e c e s s i t y o f some r e l a x a t i o n i n t h e s t e m code o f
Moslim ( s i c ) c o n q u e s t , i t was d i r e c t e d t h a t t h e n a t i v e s
m ight r e b u i l d t h e i r te m p le s and p e rfo rm t h e i r w o rsh ip and
t h a t t h e t h r e e p e r c e n t which had been allo w ed t o t h e
p r i e s t s u n d er t h e fo rm er g ov ernm ent, s h o u ld n o t b e w i t h
h e l d by t h e l a i t y f o r whom t h e y o f f i c i a t e d . 102
The r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i r s t a t u s as "dhim m is" e n t i t l e d t h e
S in d i a n s t o t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e i r own p e r s o n a l la w s.

A ctu ally

t h e l e g a l s t a t u s o f non-M uslim s u b j e c t s i n I s l a m was modeled l a r g e l y


on t h e p o s i t i o n o f n o n - c i t i z e n g ro u ps i n t h e E a s t e r n Roman e m p ire .

By

t h e c o n t r a c t o f "dhimma" which embodied t h e n o t i o n o f " f i d e s " i n Roman


law , t h e J e w is h and C h r i s t i a n com m unities o r dhimmis p a i d a p o l l t a x in

100I b i d .
101I b i d .
102E l l i o t ,

0 .

c i t . , Vol. V, 69.

153

i n r e t u r n f o r t h e g u a r a n te e o f p r o t e c t i o n and t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e i r
own p e r s o n a l law a d m i n is t e r e d by t h e i r r a b b i n i c a l and e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
t r i b u n a l . 103

The dhimmis i n f a c t were l e f t i n "co m p lete l e g a l freedom

p ro v id e d no Muslim, and t h i s i n c l u d e s t h e t r i b u n a l o f t h e k a d i ; freedom


i n m a t t e r s o f r e l i g i o n i s g u a r a n te e d e x p l i c i t l y . " 104

P u b l i c and p o l i t i

c a l a f f a i r s and c a s e s i n v o lv i n g Muslims were t r i e d b e f o r e t h e Kadis, but


i n " a l l s u i t s f o r d e b t s , c o n t r a c t s , a d u l t e r y , i n h e r i t a n c e and t h e r i g h t s
o f p r o p e r t y , and t h e l i k e t h e H i n d u s . . . h a d t o accommodate t h e i r own
d i f f e r e n c e s and t h e r e f o r e m a in ta in e d t h e i r p a n c h a y a ts o r a r b i t r a t i o n
com m ittees i n f u l l e f f i c i e n c y . " 105

In e f f e c t th e n t h e non-Muslims

" f o l l o w t h e r u l e s o f t h e i r own r e l i g i o n s w ith r e g a r d t o what i s law fu l


f o r th e m ." 106
Among t h e d i s c r i m i n a t o r y l e g a l m easures a g a i n s t t h e dhimmis th e
f o llo w in g were p e rh a p s most o f f e n s i v e . a d i s p u t e in v o l v i n g a Muslim and
a dhimmi was d e c id e d by a Muslim ju d g e ; t h e te s tim o n y o f a dhimmi against
a Muslim was i n v a l i d ; t h e c h i l d r e n o f a Muslim and a dhimmi woman were to
be r a i s e d as Muslims; a dhimmi co u ld n o t m arry a Muslim woman; a dhimmi
co u ld n o t own a Muslim s l a v e ; a dhimmi c o u ld n o t e n t e r i n t o a f u l l p a r t
n e r s h i p ( b u s in e s s ) w ith a M uslim .107
The Arab framework o f government as i t emerged f u l l y by 715 A.D.
i n S ind was l a r g e l y shaped by two c o n s i d e r a t i o n s : t h e c a l i p h a t e ' s
103C oulson, o p . c i t . , p . 27.
104Jo sep h S c h a c h t, An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o I s l a m i c Law (Oxford:
t h e C larendon P r e s s , 1964), p . 133.
105E l l i o t , o p . c i t . , V ol. V, 79.
106S c h a c h t, o p . c i t . , p . 131.
107S c h a c h t,

0 .

c i t . , p. 132.

At

15 4

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e x p e rie n c e over th e p a s t e i g h t y years, and th e impact o f


th e In d ia n environm ent as i t e x e r te d i t s e l f upon t h e i r e x p e r ie n c e . The
v ery n a t u r e o f t h e I s la m ic governm ent, i n s t i t u t e d as i t was t o e n su re
s o l e l y th e h ap p in ess o f t h e Umma in t h i s w orld and h e r e a f t e r , reduced
th e non-Muslim s u b j e c t s t o s e c o n d - r a te c i t i z e n s a t b e s t .

E xperienced

a d m i n i s t r a t o r s l i k e H a j j a j , and p o l i t i c a l r e a l i s t s l i k e Muhammad ib n
al-Q asim , w is e ly re c o g n iz e d th e need t o in c lu d e t h e H indu-Buddhist
p o p u la tio n in t h e c a te g o r y o f dhimmis. Yet i t was no g r e a t in d u lg e n c e ;
r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n , one o f the c i v i l i z i n g f o r c e s cf th e Hindu s o c i e t y ,
had been enjoyed by th e In d ia n s for hundreds cf y e a rs p r i o r to th e Muslim
co n q u est. A s i m i l a r aroma of r e l i g i o u s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n also perm eated th e
b ureaucracy , th e u pp er l e v e l s o f which were m ainly s t a f f e d by t h e Arabs
who o th e rw is e do n o t seem to have c o n t r ib u t e d any redeeming f e a t u r e s to
an a l r e a d y competent a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m achinery.

I n i t i a l l y th e Arab

economic leg acy i n S in d , an i n e v i t a b l e consequence o f t h e i r a d m i n i s tr a


t i v e p o l i c y , became s u s p e c t on t h r e e a c c o u n t s - - t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f l i f e
and p r o p e r ty caused by t h e Arab arms from 712 to 715; annual d r a i n o f
e le v e n and a h a l f m i l l i o n dirhams on th e S ind t r e a s u r y i n th e form o f
assessm ent r e m it t e d f i r s t to Damascus and l a t e r t o Baghdad, and a lack
o f p o l i t i c a l u n i t y in S in d , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e e n t i r e Arab ep iso d e
which s e r i o u s l y im paired t h e economic p r o g re s s o f t h e a r e a .

As th e

wounds o f d e s t r u c t i o n h e a le d and as Sind began to f e e l t h e b en ev o len t


impact o f w orld-w ide Arab t r a d e , th e economy o f t h e a r e a no doubt
g r a d u a lly improved.

I t must be a d m itte d , in a l l f a i r n e s s t o th e Arabs

t h a t a c o n c e rte d e f f o r t was made by them to g a in t h e co n fid en ce o f


th e p eo p le th e y had conquered, y e t th e y were

s e v e r e ly handicapped

155

i n t h i s noble endeavor by t h e very id eo lo g y which had b rou gh t them to


Sind i n th e f i r s t p la c e .

CHAPTER V I I

WAR AND POLITICS IN SIND TO THE YEAR 1026 A.D.


The t o t a l d u r in g o f Arab r u l e o v e r S in d was t h r e e hun dred
and f o u r t e e n y e a r s - - f r o m t h e f a l l o f Daybul i n 712 A.D. t o t h e sack
o f Mansura by S u l t a n Mahmood o f Ghazna i n 1026 A.D.

Of t h e s e , t h e

y e a r s 712-750 A.D. were co vered by t h e Umayyad a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and


t h e y e a r s 750-871 A.D. by t h e A bbassid c o n t r o l , t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f
which was f a i r l y i n e f f e c t i v e .

The b r i e f S a f f a r i d in te rre g n u m

l a s t e d f o r alm ost t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s , d u r in g which t h e Arab r u l i n g


elem ent was r e p l a c e d by t h e P e r s i a n s from S i s t a n .

The S a f f a r i d s in

t u r n were r e p l a c e d by two in d e p e n d e n t l o c a l Arab d y n a s t i e s , e s t a b


l i s h e d a t M ultan i n t h e n o r t h and Mansura i n t h e s o u th , b o th o f
which su cceed ed i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r somewhat p r e c a r i o u s h o ld o v e r
t h e a r e a u n t i l t h e i r f i n a l o v erth ro w by t h e G haznavids f o r c e s by
1026 A .D .1
The c l a n n i s h r i v a l r i e s w i t h i n t h e Umayyad b u r e a u c r a c y
soon e x e r t e d t h e i r e v i l i n f l u e n c e upon S in d .

As m entioned e a r l i e r ,

Muhammad ib n al-Q asim a lo n g w ith o t h e r p ro m in en t members o f

1The r u l e r s o f Multan and Mansura c o n tin u e d t o r e c o g n iz e


t h e C alip h a t Baghdad as t h e nom inal head o f t h e I s la m ic w o rld .
In a l l o t h e r m a t t e r s th e y e x e r c i s e d com plete freedom o f a c t i o n .
Even t h i s nominal a l l e g i a n c e was s h i f t e d t o t h e F atim id C a lip h s
d u r in g t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y .

157

A l - H a j j a j 's c l i q u e had f a l l e n v ic tim t o C aliph S u la im a n 's w rath in


715 A.D.2

U n fo rtu n a te ly Muhammad's s u c c e s s o rs r i v a l e d him n e i t h e r

i n t a l e n t nor i n wisdom.

S a l i h ib n Abd ar-Rahman, th e v ic e r o y o f

I r a q ap p o in ted Yazid a s -S a k s a k i as t h e governor o v er S in d , b u t th e


l a t t e r d ie d merely e ig h te e n days fo llo w in g h i s a r r i v a l t h e r e . 3

In

th e meantime th e S in d ia n s had s u c c e s s f u l l y overthrown t h e i r Arab


o v e r lo rd s a t numerous s tr o n g h o l d s .

The new g o v e r n o r- d e s ig n a te Habib

ib n al-M uhallab had t o f i g h t h i s way throu gh to A lor which was


i n v e s t e d by th e Arabs.

Brahminabad and M ultan, however, co n tin u ed

t o remain in t h e p o s s e s s io n o f J a is im a h a , son o f th e l a t e S in dian


monarch.1*

During th e c a l i p h a t e o f Umar I I , 717-720 A.D. , Isla m ic

m iss io n a ry a c t i v i t i e s were ste p p e d up e s p e c i a l l y i n North A f r ic a ,


Spain and S i n d . 5

Consequently th e C aliph wrote t o th e independent

S in d ia n c h i e f s " i n v i t i n g them t o become Moslems and to be s u b je c t t o


him a g r e e in g t o l e t them c o n tin u e on t h e i r th ro n e s and have th e same
p r i v i l e g e s and o b l i g a t i o n s as th e M oslem s."5

A cco rd in g ly , some

members o f S in d ia n n o b i l i t y in c lu d in g J a is im a h a a c c e p te d Islam .
move might have been prompted by r a i s o n d ' e t a t , f o r J a is im a h a was

2 See above, C hapter V,


3A 1 -B alad h u ri, Kitab Futuh a l- B u id a n , p . 224.
**I b i d .
5W illiam M uir, The C a lip h a te :
(Edinburgh: J . G ra n t, 1915), p . 371.
6B a la d h u ri,

ojk

c i t . , p. 225.

I t s R is e , D ecline and F a l l

The

158

c o n firm e d i n h i s p o s s e s s i o n s o f n o r t h e r n S in d by t h e C a l i p h . 7

The

d e a t h o f Umar I I was f o llo w e d by a b r i e f c i v i l war i n t h e I s l a m i c


w o rld as Y azid ib n a l - M u h a ll a b , a p r o t e g e e o f C a lip h S u la im a n ,
c h a l l e n g e d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e new C a lip h Y azid I I . 8
t i o n was c ru s h e d and i t s

lead er k i l l e d . 9

The i n s u r r e c

However, p r i o r t o h i s d e a th

Y azid ib n M uhallab had a c q u i r e d s u f f i c i e n t s u p p o r t t o a p p o i n t g o v e rn o rs


o v e r Ahwaz, F a r s , Kirman, Makran and A r a b - c o n t r o l l e d p o r t i o n s o f S in d .
F o llo w in g h i s d e a th some o f M u h a lla b 's b r o t h e r s a l o n g w ith t h e i r
f a m i l i e s f l e d t o t h e f o r t r e s s o f K and abil i n w e s t e r n S in d , b u t t h e
commander o f t h e g a r r i s o n , Wadda ib n Hamid a l - A z d i , t r e a c h e r o u s l y p u t
them t o d e a t h . 10
Upon t h e d e a th o f Y azid ib n M uhallab and h i s b r o t h e r s J u n a i d
ib n Abd ar-Rahman had b een a p p o in te d as l i e u t e n a n t o v e r t h e " f r o n t i e r
o f a s - S i n d , " and h i s a p p o in tm en t was c o n firm e d by C a lip h Hisham
(724-743 A .D .) .

J u n a i d p r o c e e d e d t o S in d b u t was c h a l l e n g e d by

D a h i r 1s son J a is i m a h a who p o i n t e d o u t w ith c o n s i d e r a b l e j u s t i f i c a t i o n


t h a t he had a c c e p te d I s la m and a c c o r d i n g l y h a d b e e n e n t r u s t e d w ith
t h e a f f a i r s o f S in d by Umar I I .

The e n s u in g b a t t l e o f l a k e A sh -S h a rk i

7I b i d .
8C a lip h Y a z i d 's w if e was t h e n i e c e o f a l - H a j j a j and so a sworn
enemy o f t h e M u h a l l a b i t e s .
9C a r l B rockelm an, A H i s t o r y o f t h e I s l a m i c P e o p le , T r a n s l a t e d
from German by J o e l C arm ich ael and Moshe P erlm an (New York: C a p r i c o r n
Books, 1 9 60 ), p . 93.
10B a l a d h u r i , o p . c i t . , p . 226.

159

r e s u l t e d in J a i s i m h a 's d e f e a t and d e a t h . T h e

s la in r u l e r 's b ro th e r

p ro ceed ed t o I r a q t o p r e s e n t t h e c a s e b e f o r e t h e C a lip h .

He was, how

e v e r , t r e a c h e r o u s l y murdered by J u n a i d ' s a g e n ts n o t w it h s t a n d in g t h e
prom ise o f s a f e c o n d u c t . 12
Under J u n a id and h i s s u c c e s s o r Tamim ib n Z a id , t h e g r e a t e s t
e x p an sio n o f Arab arm ies i n I n d i a was e f f e c t e d . 13

F ollow in g th e

c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e i r r u l e i n S in d t h e Arabs s t r u c k i n a s o u th
e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n . The Arab " b l i t z k r i e g " around 726 A.D. swung
th ro u g h R a jp u ta n a , overwhelming numerous p e t t y s t a t e s in th e p r o c e s s . 14
At C h i t o r , in s o u t h e a s t e r n R a jp u ta n a , t h e Arab arm ies were t u r n e d
back by Bappa, a v a s s a l t o th e Mori Raja Man, r u l e r o f Mewar.15

The

second in v a s io n o f R ajp u tan a was u n d e rta k e n around 733 A.D. u n d er t h e


command o f Tamin ib n Z aid.

A ll R ajpu t r e s i s t a n c e was re n d e re d

i n e f f e c t i v e , t h e whole o f G u ja ra t was o v e rru n and t h e c i t i e s o f


V alabhi and Broach were d e s t r o y e d . 16

The Arabs now ap p eared on th e

n At t h e h e i g h t o f t h e b a t t l e t h e b o a t c a r r y i n g Jusim aha cap


s i z e d and he was ta k e n p r i s o n e r and s u b s e q u e n tly e x e c u te d . B a la d h u r i,
o p . c i t . , p . 226.
12I b i d . ,
13J u n a id was summoned to C e n t r a l A sia i n 430 A.D. t o r e l i e v e
t h e h a r d - p r e s s e d Arab g a r r i s o n s t h e r e . He d ie d t h e r e in 734 A.D.
See H. A. R. Gibb, Arab Conquests in C e n t r a l A sia (London: Royal
A s i a t i c S o c i e t y , 1923), pp. 72-77.
14B a l a d h u r i , 0 . c i t . , pp. 227-28; M. L. M athur, " E a r ly R ulers
o f Mewar and T h e ir F ig h ts w ith A r a b s ," The In d ia n H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y ,
Vol. XXIX (Dec. 1953), 327, 328.
15I b i d . , p. 329.
15B a la d h u r i, o p . c i t . , p . 228; Rama S. Avasthy and Amalananda
Ghosh, "R eferen ce to Muhammadans i n S a n s k r i t I n s c r i p t i o n s in N o rth e rn
I n d i a - A.D. 730 t o 1320," J o u r n a l o f I n d ia n H i s t o r y , Vol. XV (1 9 3 6 ),
162-63.

160

b o rd e rs o f p r e s e n t day Bombay s t a t e .

A c a v a lr y column had p r e v i o u s l y

been d etach ed from t h e main army and s e n t a g a i n s t th e c i t y o f U jj a i n


in C e n tr a l I n d ia .

The Arab l i n e s o f communication were o v e r-e x te n d e d .

Bombay f r o n t i e r was ap p ro x im a te ly s i x hundred m iles from Daybul w h ile


U jja in was even f u r t h e r .

At N a v a s i r i , in t h e s o u th e rn e x tr e m ity o f

G u j a r a t , In d ia n c o n tin g e n ts o f v a rio u s r u l e r s were h a s t i l y g a th e re d


and p la c e d und er t h e command o f P rin c e P u la k e s in , r u l e r o f th e s t a t e
o f L a ta , v a s s a l to th e Chalukyas o f t h e Deccan and h i m s e l f a member
o f th e im p e ria l house.

At t h e B a t t l e o f N a v a s i r i , th e Arabs were

h u r le d back and p u rsued a c r o s s G u j a r a t . 17

This c e l e b r a t e d v i c t o r y

was du ly reco rd ed in th e N a v a s iri copper p l a t e s s tr u c k f iv e y e a rs


fo llo w in g th e ev en t:
The i l l u s t r i o u s k in g A v a n ija n a s ra y a P u lak esin
S a r a j h a , th e g r e a t l o r d and th e g r e a t d evo tee o f
Mahesvara, whom t h e i l l u s t r i o u s k in g V allab h a,
a p p r e c i a t i n g h i s v a l o u r , fav ou red w ith t h e fo u r
fo llo w in g t i t l e s , " th e s o l i d p i l a r o f th e Deccan,"
" th e ornament o f th e C h alukika (Chalukya) d y n a s ty ,"
" th e lo r d o f t h e e a r t h , " and " t h e r e p e l l e r o f th e
u n r e p e l le d (A ra b s )," when t h e T a ji k a army, which
vomited f o r t h arrows and maces, which d e s tr o y e d by
i t s b r i g h t l y g l i t t e r i n g sh arp swords th e p ro sp e ro u s
Saindhava ( S in d ) , K acchela (C u tch ), S a u r a s t r a
( G u j a r a t ) , Chavotaka, Maurya and G u rja ra kin gs
and o t h e r s , and which w ish in g t o e n t e r t h e Deccan w ith
a view t o con q u erin g a l l th e s o u th e r n k in g s , came in
th e f i r s t i n s t a n c e t o redu ce t h e N av asarik a c o u n t r y . 18

1V

I t i s o f some s i g n i f i c a n c e to n o te t h a t t h e b a t t l e o f
N a v a s iri was fought m erely a few months a f t e r t h a t o f Tours in 732
A.D. Both engagements ended t h e Arab t h r e a t s to I n d ia and Western
Europe r e s p e c t i v e l y . The comparison i s even more s t r i k i n g when i t
i s r e c a l l e d t h a t th e conquest o f Sind in 712 A.D. follow ed t h a t o f
Spain by l e s s th a n a y e a r .
18A v a s t h y ,

op. c i t .,

pp.

162-63.

161

The f l y i n g column a g a i n s t U j j a i n s h a r e d a s i m i l a r f a t e .

Here t h e

P r a t h i h a r a r u l e r N ag abh ata I r o u t e d t h e Arabs o u t s i d e th e w a l l s o f


th e c ity .

The I n d ia n v i c t o r y h a s b e e n r e c o r d e d i n t h e G w a lia r

i n s c r i p t i o n o f Bhoja:
He shone w i t h f o u r arms b r i l l i a n t w ith g l i t t e r i n g
and t e r r i b l e weapons as he c ru s h e d t h e army o f th e
V a la c a (B alo ch ) M leccha l o r d , t h e d e s t r o y e r o f
v i r t u e . 19
The march o f t h e Arab a rm ie s a c r o s s R a jp u ta n a and G u ja r a t cau sed
c o n s i d e r a b l e o p p r e s s io n among t h e two m a jo r powers o f N orth I n d i a ,
Kashmir and K a n a u j.

As n o te d ab o ve, b o t h t h e s e s t a t e s w ere p r e v i o u s l y

engaged i n h o s t i l i t i e s a g a i n s t each o t h e r . 20

The Arab " b l i t z k r i e g "

m o m e n ta rily b r o u g h t a b o u t a new e r a i n t h e K an au j-K ash m ir r e l a t i o n


s h ip .

We l e a r n from t h e C h in ese s o u r c e s t h a t i n 736 A.D. a K ashm irian

embassy a p p e a re d a t t h e Tang c o u r t t o s o l i c i t a i d a g a i n s t t h e A r a b s . 2 *
The K ashm irian monarch L a l i t a d i t y a - M u k t a p i d a (725-756 A .D .) , i n
s e n d in g t h e embassy t o C h in a , " p r o b a b ly r e f e r r e d t o Yasovarman ( o f
Kanauj) as an a l l y . " 22 The p r a c t i c e o f s o l i c i t i n g Tang a i d a g a i n s t
t h e Arabs was n o t a l t o g e t h e r new, f o r t h e r e i s some e v id e n c e t o
show t h a t Yasovarman o f Kanauj h ad d i s p a t c h e d a s i m i l a r embassy t o

19I b i d . , p . 163.
20See a b o v e, C h a p te r I I I .
21K alh an a, Raj a t a r a n g i n i , T r a n s l a t e d from S a n s k r i t , e d i t e d
by M. A. S t e i n , V ol. I , 67.
22R. C. Majumdar ( e d . ) , The C l a s s i c a l Age, V ol. I l l i n t h e
s e r i e s The H i s t o r y and C u l t u r e o f t h e I n d ia n P e o p le (Bombay: B h a r a ti y a
V idya Bhavan, 1 9 5 5 ), p . 130 .

162

China as e a r l y as 7 3 1 .23

The Kashmir c o u r t and R a t b i l o f S i j i s t a n had

ta k e n s i m i l a r a c t i o n s i n 713 and 710 A.D. r e s p e c t i v e l y . 24

With th e

e x c e p tio n o f an a b o r t iv e e x p e d i t i o n i n t o R a jp u ta n a i n 836 A .D .,
which was h u r le d back by t h e P r a t h i h a r a r u l e r N agabhata I I , t h e
g r e a t e s t momentum o f Arab t h r u s t i n I n d i a was c l e a r l y o v e r by 760
A.D .25

The c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e P r a t h i h a r a and R a s h tra k u ta em pires

in n o r t h e r n and c e n t r a l I n d ia r e s p e c t i v e l y had begun by 760 A.D. as


w e l l . 26

The d a te a l s o marks t h e f i n a l c o n c lu s io n o f h o s t i l i t i e s

betw een th e Arabs and t h e Chinese i n e a s t e r n C e n t r a l A sia and t h e


e s ta b li s h m e n t o f t h e f o r m e r 's supremacy i n t h a t r e g i o n . 27

S ijista n

and Kabul, though o c c a s i o n a l l y a c c e p t i n g a nominal Arab hegemony,


rem ained s u f f i c i e n t l y s tr o n g t o th w a r t any f u r t h e r Arab e x p a n s i o n is t
d e s ig n s s o u th and e a s t o f t h e Kindukush.

A p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n had

now begun t o p r e v a i l alo ng t h e e n t i r e Indo-Arab f r o n t i e r which r e -

23A ccording t o Majumdar, " I t i s now g e n e r a l l y re c o g n iz e d t h a t


Yasovarman i s p o s s i b l y i d e n t i f i e d w ith Y i-sh a -fu -m o , k in g o f C e n tr a l
I n d i a who s e n t h i s m i n i s t e r , t h e B uddhist Monk P u - t a - s i n (Buddahasena)
t o t h e Court o f China in 7 3 1 ." Majumdar, The C l a s s i c a l Age, p . 130.
24For Kashmir embassy o f 713 A .D ., see above, C h apter I , p . 6.
For S i j i s t a n s e e H. A. R. Gibb, Arab Conquests i n C e n tr a l A sia (London
Royal A s i a t i c S o c i e t y , 1923), pp. 4 1 -42 .
25For t h i s e x p e d i t i o n , s e e D. C. Ganguly, "A F o r g o tte n
Moslem I n v a s i o n , " In d ia n H i s t o r i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , Vol. XIV (1928),
816.
2GSee R. C. Majumdar ( E d . ) , The Age o f I m p e ria l K anauj, Vol.
IV, i n th e s e r i e s H is to r y and C u ltu r e o f t h e I n d ia n P e o p le , C hapter
I , "The R a s h tra k u ta E m p ire," pp. 1-16 and C h apter I I , " R is e and F a l l
o f t h e P r a t h i h a r a E m p ire," pp . 19-39.
27See Gibb, Arab Conquests in C e n tr a l A s i a , C h apter V, "The
Reconquest o f T r a n s o x ia n a ," pp. 88-98.

163

mained e s s e n t i a l l y u n a l t e r e d f o r more th a n a c e n tu r y .

When i t d id

change, i t was due t o no i n i t i a t i v e on th e p a r t o f th e A rabs, b u t by


th e P e r s ia n s in S i j i s t a n and K ab ul.28
In Sind i t s e l f J u n a i d 's s u c c e s s o r Tamim found th e im p re s siv e
sum o f e ig h te e n m i l l i o n dirhams in t h e t r e a s u r y p a r t o f which was
d o u b t l e s s l y s p e n t on th e e x p e d itio n s a lr e a d y a l lu d e d t o .

The m i l i t a r y

d i s a s t e r s a p p a r e n tly p la c e d heavy burdens upon t h e S t a t e f i n a n c e s . 29


Meanwhile, th e ind igeno us p o p u la tio n o f

Sind r o s e i n arms so t h a t

" I n t h e days o f Tamim t h e Moslems withdrew from th e la n d o f al-H in d


and abandoned t h e i r h e a d q u a r t e r s , and th e y have n o t r e tu r n e d so f a r as
t h a t s i n c e . " 38

Follow ing t h e d e a th o f Tamim a t Daybul, al-Hakim b in

Awanah a l- K a lb i was ap p o in ted t o ta k e charge o f o p e r a tio n s in S i n d . 31


He was accompanied by Amr b in Muhammad ib n al-Q asim , son o f th e con
q u e ro r o f S ind.

T o g e th e r th e y im m ediately c o n s tr u c te d th e M isr o f

al-M ahfuthah n e a r Nirum, s in c e "A p la c e o f re fu g e t o which t h e Moslems


might f l e e was n o t t o be f o u n d ." 32

Hakim was k i l l e d i n a c ti o n a g a i n s t

th e I n d i a n s , 33 b u t not b e f o r e "he had won back from th e hands o f t h e

28In 870 A.D. Yakub ib n L a ith a l - S a f f a r , a P e r s ia n from S is ta n


and t h e fo u n d er o f S a f f a r i d d y n asty o f e a s t e r n P e r s i a (860-1002 A.D.)
annexed S i j i s t a n , Z a b u lis ta n and Kabul to h i s domains. See Theodore
Noldeke, Sketches From E a s te rn H i s t o r y , T r a n s l a t e d from German by
C h arles Black (London: Adam and C harles B lack, 1892), C hapter VI,
"Yakub th e C oppersm ith, and His D y n asty ," pp. 176-206.
29B a la d h u ri, o p . c i t . , p. 228.
30 I b i d .
31I b id .
32I b id .
33A1-Yaqubi, T a rik h al-Y aqubi ( B a ir u t:
Vol. I I , 389-90.

Dar S ad ar, 1960),

164

enemy a l l t h a t t h e y had con qu ered from h i m . " 34

A c o n t e s t now d e v e lo p e d

f o r t h e g o v e r n o r s h ip o f S in d b etw een Amr and Ibn A r a r , a p r o t e g e o f


a l-A m ir W alid , l a t e r W alid I I .

The g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l o f I r a q , Y usuf

ib n Umar, d e c id e d i n f a v o r o f A m r.35

I t was Amr who c o n s t r u c t e d t h e

am sar o f al-M an su rah "where t h e g o v e r n o rs r e s i d e t o d a y . " 36

The newly

c o n s t r u c t e d s i t e was soon b e s ie g e d by t h e I n d ia n f o r c e s who w ithd rew


o n ly a f t e r f o u r th o u s a n d Arab t r o o p s a r r i v e d t o r e l i e v e t h e b e s i e g e d
g a r r i s o n . 37

W alid I I became C a lip h i n 743 A.D. and im m e d ia te ly r e

p l a c e d Amr w ith ib n A ra r who engaged t h e I n d ia n s on e i g h t e e n o c c a s i o n s


w it h d u b io u s r e s u l t s . 38

Marwan I I a p p o i n te d Y azid ib n Umar ib n

Hubayrah as g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l o f I r a q i n 744 A . D . , 39 w hereas Mansur


ib n Jam hur, Y azid I l l ' s

a p p o i n te e o v e r I r a q , e s c a p e d t o S in d , k i l l i n g

h i s r e l a t i v e ib n A ra r and e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e a r e a . 1*0
Thus i t was t h a t by 750 A .D ., t h e d a t e m ark in g t h e f a l l o f t h e Umayyad
d y n a s ty , S in d was c o n t r o l l e d by a r u l e r owing no a l l e g i a n c e t o
Damas c u s .

3l* B a la d h u r i, o p . c i t . , p . 229.
35B a l a d h u r i , o . c i t . , p . 229.
36I b i d .
37Y a q u b i, ojs. c i t . , V ol. I I , 390.
38I b i d . , Vol. I I , 399-400.
39W illiam M u ir, The C a l i p h a t e R is e :
I t s R i s e , D e c lin e and
F a l l , p . 406. Y azid I I I and Marwan I I w ere m o r t a l e n e m ie s . Y azid
was t h e so n o f C a lip h Walid I , d u r i n g whose r e i g n t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f
S in d was e f f e c t e d . Marwan I I was th'e g r a n d s o n o f C a lip h Marwan I
(6 8 4 -6 8 5 ) .
* Y a q u b i ,

op.

c i t .,

V ol.

II,

407,

under th e y e a r

131 A.H .

165

A b b a ssid A d m i n i s t r a t i o n

750-871 A.D.

With t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n o f t h e A b bassid C a l i p h a t e i n 750 A.D.


s t e p s were im m e d ia te ly u n d e r ta k e n t o b r i n g S in d u n d e r t h e e f f e c t i v e
co n tro l o f th e c e n tra l

Arab governm ent.

d i r e c t i o n w e re , how ever, u n s u c c e s s f u l .

The f i r s t en d eav o u rs in t h i s
The A b bassid f o r c e s , d i s p a t c h e d

from b a s e s i n K hurasan, w ere r o u t e d and t h e i r commander, M u g h a llis a l Abdi k i l l e d . 1*1

A seco nd f o r c e u n d e r Musa ib n Ka*ab w r e s te d t h e c o n t r o l

o f S in d from Mansur who p e r i s h e d o f t h i r s t i n t h e d e s e r t w h ile a


f u g i t i v e . 1*2

C a lip h a l-M a n su r (754-775 A.D.) a p p o in te d Hisham ib n Amr

g o v e r n o r o v e r S in d .

He lau n ch ed a v ig o ro u s e x p a n s i o n i s t p o l i c y so

t h a t w i t h i n a few y e a r s t h e triu m p h o f A b bassid arm ies i n t h e a r e a


was co m p lete:
He co nquered what was l e f t unsubdued and s e n t
Amr ib n Jam al w ith a f l e e t t o N a rin d . He a l s o
s e n t t o t h e r e g i o n s o f a l - H i n d and co nquered Kahsm ir,
o b t a i n i n g many p r i s o n e r s and s l a v e s . He conquered
a l- M u lta n and c l e a r e d o u t a f a c t i o n o f Arabs which
was i n K a n d a b il. He w ent t o al-K u n d u h ar w ith t h e
f l e e t and conquered i t , th ro w in g down t h e "Budd"
and b u i l d i n g a mosque i n i t s p l a c e . 1*3
From t h i s s t a t e m e n t , i t w i l l a p p e a r t h a t b o th la n d and n a v a l o p e r a
t i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t .
c e rta in ty .

The p l a c e s s t a t e d can n o t be i d e n t i f i e d w ith

N arin d and Kunduhar w ere most p r o b a b ly s e a p o r t s on t h e

1*1B a l a d h u r i , ojs. c i t . , p . 230.


1+2I b i d .
1*3I b i d . , pp. 230-31.

166

c o a s t o f G u j a r a t . T h e r e f e r e n c e t o Kashmir does n o t apply t o t h e


Vale o f Kashmir b u t r a t h e r t o t h e a r e a s o f n o r th e r n Punjab c o n t r o l l e d
by th e Kashmir m o narchy .145 The f a c t i o n o f Arabs c l e a r e d from K andabil
co u ld c o n c e iv a b ly have been t h e K h a r i j i t e s who were numerous i n t h e
n eighbourhood o f S i j i s t a n . 46

Hisham was su cceeded by Umar ib n Hafs

Hazarmand whose term in o f f i c e p r o b a b ly l a s t e d u n t i l 771 A.D.47

We

a r e now c o n f ro n te d w ith a b la n k o f a p p ro x im a te ly t e n y e a r s in th e
l i s t o f s u c c e s s i v e Abbassid go v ern o rs o f S in d .
c u r i o u s l y s i l e n t about t h i s p e r i o d .

Arab h i s t o r i a n s a re

However, a h i n t o f dubious v a lu e

i s p ro v id e d by an e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y In d ia n h i s t o r i a n who s t a t e s t h a t
a c e r t a i n Abu T u ra b , p r e f e c t o f S in d , d ie d i n 787 A.D.48

The d a t e

o f h i s d e a th i s n o t a l t o g e t h e r r e l i a b l e u n le s s one i s t o b e l i e v e t h a t
he d ie d o u t o f o f f i c e , f o r a c c o rd in g t o a l - T a b a r i , Ruh ib n Hatim took
o v e r t h e o f f i c e as g o v ern o r o f Sind in 787 A.D.49

The n e x t e ig h te e n

44Henry E l l i o t , The H is to r y o f I n d i a as Told by i t s Own H is


t o r i a n s ( C a l c u t t a : S i s i r Gupta, 1956), Vol. V, 42, n o te 108.
45The V ale o f Kashmir was n e v e r conquered by th e Arabs n o r ,
f o r t h a t m a t t e r , by I s la m ic arm ies u n t i l t h e l a t e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y
when Grand Mughal Akbar (1556-1604) annexed i t t o h i s em pire. The
Muslim d y n a s ty which was e s t a b l i s h e d o v e r Kashmir i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h
c e n tu r y was o f l o c a l o r i g i n . For t h e geography and to po g rap h y o f
Kashmir which e n a b le d i t t o en jo y r e l a t i v e s e c u r i t y , s e e above,
C h ap ter I I I ,
46See H. A. R. G ibb, "C hinese Records o f th e Arabs in C e n tr a l
A s i a ," B u l l e t i n o f t h e School o f O r i e n t a l S t u d i e s , Vol. I I (1 9 2 1 -2 3 ),
616-17.
47B a la d h u r i, . c i t . , p . 231. A ccording t o T a b a r i , however,
t h e appointm ent o f Umar p re c e d e d t h a t o f Hisham. He f u r t h e r p o i n t s
o u t t h a t i n 151 A.H. (77. A .D .) , Umar was t r a n s f e r r e d t o A f r i c a . See
T a b a r i , . c i t . , T h ir d S e r i e s , Vol. I , 351.
48A li K ani, T a h a fa t a l - K i r a n , T r a n s l a t e d from P e r s i a n by J .
P o stan s ( C a l c u t t a : Bishops C o lle g e P r e s s , 1 843), p . 27.
49T a b a r i,

op. c i t .,

T hird S e r i e s ,

V ol.

I,

482.

167

y e a rs were covered by Ruh's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , b u t we a r e unaware o f any


d e t a i l s r e g a rd in g t h i s lo ng p e r i o d .

In 800 A.D. Da'ud ib n Yazid ibn

Hatim succeeded Ruh50 whose term in o f f i c e cannot be s u b s t a n t i a t e d


w ith any degree o f r e l i a b i l i t y .

That he was out o f o f f i c e by 822 A.D.

i s e v id e n t from t h e o u tb re a k o f r e b e l l i o n by B ish r ib n -D a'u d th e th e n


gov ern or o f S i n d . 51

I t was o n ly a f t e r th e d i s p a t c h o f Ghassan ib n

'Abbad, a t r u s t e d l i e u t e n a n t o f C aliph al-Ma'mun t o Sind t h a t th e


r e b e l was p ersuaded to la y down h i s arms and seek t h e C a l i p h 's p a r d o n . 52
The tim e ly a c t i o n p r e v e n te d any s e r i o u s m i l i t a r y c o n f r o n t a t i o n b u t
th e c r i s i s d em o n strated w ith some f o r c e th e d i f f i c u l t y which b e s e t
th e government a t Baghdad in e x e r t i n g p o l i t i c a l c o n tr o l o v er d i s t a n t
areas.

G h assan 's a p p o in te e , Musa ib n Yahya al-B arm ak, f e l t s u f f i c i e n t l y

s e c u re and perhaps a r ro g a n t enough t o nominate h i s own son 'Im ran a t


th e tim e o f h i s d e a th i n 836 A.D.53

'I m r a n 's r e i g n was marked by th e

lo s s o f S indan, a n av al o u tp o s t i n th e p r e s e n t- d a y Cutch a r e a o f
G u j a r a t . 51* M i l i t a r y campaigns were waged a g a i n s t th e J a t s o f a l Kikan though t h e i r outcome i s unknown.

S in d ia n navy a l s o engaged th e

50Yaqubi,

o p . c i t . , Vol. I I , 409; B a la d h u r i, o p .c i t . ,

51Yaqubi,

o p . c i t . , Vol. I I , 458.

52Ibn Khaldun, T a rik h ibn Khaldun ( B a i r u t:


Lubnani, 1957), Vol. I l l , 539-41.
53Y aqubi, 0 . c i t . , I I , 458; Khaldun,
B a la d h u r i, 0. c i t . , p . 231.

0 .

p . 231.

D a ra l-K ita b a l c i t . , I I I , 541;

51*The main mosque o f Sindan was s p a re d by th e enemy a f t e r


f a l l o f the c i t y . B a la d h u r i, o p . c i t . , p. 233.

th e

168

p i r a t e s o f f Cutch w ith some s u c c e s s . 55


th e Arab t r i b a l feuds w ith in S i n d . 55

In 842 'Im ran f e l l v ic tim to


The manner o f h i s a c c e s sio n

and d eath i l l u s t r a t e s in no common measure th e decay to which th e


Abbassid government was now s u b je c te d .

For in th e absence o f a

s tr o n g g u id in g hand from Baghdad, th e Arabs in Sind d eg en erated w ith


v a rio u s t r i b a l groupings re m in is c e n t o f p r e - I s l a m ic A rabia.

The

u n s e t t l e d s t a t e o f S in d ian p o l i t i c s fo llo w in g th e d eath o f 'Im ran in


841 l a s t e d f o r n e a r ly t h i r t y y e a r s .

In t h i s r e s p e c t , Sind s u f f e r e d

th e nemesis which overtook most o f t h e o u tly in g Abbassid t e r r i t o r i e s .


We h e a r n o th in g o f Sind f o r t h r e e decades.
The r i s e o f th e lo c a l P e r s ia n and T u rkish d y n a s tie s in
Kirman, S i j i s t a n and Khurasan c r e a te d a p h y s ic a l b a r r i e r between th e
Arabs o f Sind and th o se o f I ra q and o t h e r A rab ic-speakin g la n d s.

In

e f f e c t , t h i s exposed th e Arab t r i b e s o f Sind t o th e am bitions of


P e r s ia n s and T urks, men who were a l i e n in lang uage, manners and to
some degree in i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n s t i t u t i o n .
As e a r ly as 821 A.D., w ith th e appointm ent o f T a h ir ibn a l Husayn as governor o f Khurasan,

th e e a s t e r n p ro v in c e s o f th e C a li

p h a te were independent f o r a l l i n t e n t and p u r p o s e s . 57

T a h ir promptly

o m itte d th e name o f th e Caliph i n th e F riday p ra y e rs and h i s T a h irid


descend ants m ain tain ed t h e i r power in th e a re a f o r alm ost h a l f a
c e n tu ry .

The T a h ir id s were in e f f e c t i v e c o n tr o l o f Khurasan as l a t e


55B a la d h u ri,

0 .

56I b i d . ; Yaqubi,

c i t . , p. 233.
o jk

c i t . , I I , 489.

57V a s i l l i i B a rth o ld , T u rk estan Down t o th e Mongol I n v a s io n ,


Second E d itio n (London:
M essrs. Luzac and Company, L t d . , 1958), p.
208.

------

169

as 862, b u t t h e r e a f t e r t h e i r power d e c l i n e d . 58

A f t e r 821 A.D. Sind

was p h y s i c a l l y c u t o f f from I r a q by t h e i n t e r v e n i n g T a h i r i d domains.


I t a p p e a r s , how ever, t h a t t h e governm ent o f Khurasan made no s e r i o u s
e f f o r t to p r e v e n t Baghdad from e x e r t i n g some d e g re e o f p o l i t i c a l
c o n t r o l o v e r S in d p r i o r t o 841 A .D .58

Beyond t h i s d a t e t h e r e i s no

e v id e n c e t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e Baghdad government e x e r c i s e d any p o l i


t i c a l c o n t r o l o v e r t h e a r e a in te rm s o f g u b e r n a t o r i a l o r r e l a t e d
a p p o in tm e n ts .
841 A.D.?

Was S ind i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e T a h i r i d dom inions a f t e r

We do n o t know w ith c e r t a i n t y .

What we do know i s t h e

i n a b i l i t y o f t h e T a h ir i d s t o subdue n e ig h b o r in g S i j i s t a n , an a r e a
c o n t i n g e n t on S i n d . 60

On t h e b a s i s o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , i t i s

r e a s o n a b l e to s u g g e s t t h a t S ind rem ained r e l a t i v e l y f r e e o f T a h i r i d


in te rv e n tio n .
The T a h i r i d e p is o d e was n e a r l y a p r e l u d e t o t h e weakening o f
Arab h o ld on S in d .

I t was t h e S a f f a r i d s who, from t h e i r b a s e s i n

S i j i s t a n , su cceed ed i n e x te n d in g t h e i r sway o v e r Sind and in so d o in g


became t h e f i r s t non-Arab Muslims t o s u b o r d i n a t e Arab i n t e r e s t s in
t h e r e g i o n t o t h e i r own.
K h a rijite h e r e tic s .

S i j i s t a n was one o f t h e s t r o n g h o ld s o f t h e

Here " a s i n o t h e r d e s e r t l a n d s , a K h a r i j i t e was

o f t e n l i t t l e more th a n a p o l i t e name f o r b a n d i t .

We th u s u n d e r s ta n d

how i t was t h a t i n t h e m id s t o f t h i s v ig o r o u s p o p u l a t i o n , as t h e

58I b i d . , p . 216.
59See ab ov e, p. 167.
60Theodore N oldeke, S k e tc h e s From E a s t e r n H i s t o r y , T r a n s l a t e d
from German by C.K. Black (London: Adam and C h a rle s B lack , 1892), p . 177.

170

power o f th e s t a t e d w in d led , v o l u n t e e r bands were formed f o r d efen ce


a g a i n s t t h e K h a r i j i t e s . " 61

Yakub ib n a l- L a y th a l - S a f f a r , a P e r s ia n

and a n a t i v e o f S i s t a n , was t h e le a d e r o f a band o f such v o l u n t e e r s .


By 861 A.D., he had c o n s o lid a te d h i s p o s i t i o n i n S i j i s t a n , e v i c t i n g
th e T a h ir i d g o v ern or and s u b ju g a tin g t h e K h a r i j i t e s . 62

By 867 A.D.

Kabul, Makran and Sind had f a l l e n i n h i s h a n d s , and by 873 A.D. Kirman,


Balkh, T u k h a ris ta n and Khurasan were added t o h i s domains.

The z e n ith

o f t h e S a f f a r i d s was a t t a i n e d when th e C alip h extended r e c o g n i t i o n


to Yakub's c o n t r o l o v er th e t e r r i t o r i e s which t h e l a t t e r had a c q u i r e d ,
and s im u lta n e o u s ly a p p o in te d him m i l i t a r y governor o f Baghdad.63
Yakub d ie d i n 879 A.D. and h i s a u t h o r i t y descended to h i s son, 'Amr
b i n a l - L a y t h , who r i v a l e d h i s f a t h e r n e i t h e r i n fo rc e o f p e r s o n a l i t y
nor in ta l e n t .

'Amr's c o n t r o l was s u c c e s s f u l l y ch a lle n g e d by th e

r i s i n g power o f th e Samanids o f T ran so x ian a. 6l*

In 900 A.D. th e

Samanids i n f l i c t e d a c ru sh in g d e f e a t upon Amr, w r e s tin g th e c o n t r o l


o f Khurasan and d i s p a t c h i n g t h e S a f f a r i d monarch t o Baghdad where he
ended h i s days as a p r i s o n e r o f th e C alip h i n 902 A.D.65

61Noldeke, oj>. c i t . , p. 177.


62B a r th o ld , o p . c i t . , p p. 216-17.
63Noldeke, 0 . c i t . , p. 190. For a d e t a i l e d account o f Y akub's
cam paigns, s e e T a r i k h - i - S i s t a n . A P e r s ia n work compiled between 1053
and 1324 A.D. and e d i t e d by Bahar Khurasani (Tehran: K itabkhana
Zaddar, 1935), pp. 190-233.
6**For t h e S a m a n id -S a ffa rid c o n f l i c t , s e e B a rth o ld , T u rk e sta n
Down t o th e Mongol Invas.ion, pp. 235-40.
65Noldeke,

0 .

c i t . , pp. 202-04.

171

Independent D yn asties t o 1026 A.D.


For th e fo llo w in g one hundred y ears Sind enjoyed a r e s p i t e
from th e T u rk o -P e rsia n i n t e r f e r e n c e .

H i s t o r i c a l works on Sind d u rin g

t h e l a s t ce n tu ry o f Arab r u l e a re fragm entary in most cases and


erron eo u s in some.

We must t h e r e f o r e r e l y upon th e b r i e f b u t h ig h ly

v a lu a b le accounts o f m edieval Muslim t r a v e l l e r s and geographers who


v i s i t e d S ind and reco rd ed t h e i r im p ressio n s on i t s s t a t e f o r p r o s t e r i t y .
In o r d e r o f t h e i r appearance th e y in c lu d e d a l- M a s 'u d i in 915 A.D.;
a l - I s t a k h r i i n 951 A.D.; Ibn Hauqal i n 976 A.D.; and al-Muqaddasi in
985 A.D.66
A l-M as'udi reco rd ed h i s remarks about Sind i n h i s famous
book Muruj al-Zahab (Meadows o f G o ld ) .67

He observed two independent

p r i n c i p a l i t i e s in S ind , Multan i n th e n o r th and Mansura i n t h e so u th .


The form er was r u le d by a Q u r a i s h i te and a descendant o f Usamah ibn
Lawi ibn Ghalib who p ro b ab ly a r r i v e d i n t h e a r e a w ith Muhammad ibn

66Major A rabic g eo g rap h ical works were c o l l e c t e d and e d i t e d


by De Goeje in B ib lio th e c a Geographorum Arabicorum (Leiden : E. J .
B r i l l , 1870-1906), 8 Vols. P o r tio n s o f Arab g eo g rap h ical works
d e a lin g w ith I n d ia were ren d ered i n t o E n g lish by S i r Henry E l l i o t and
can be found in The Arab Geographers, Vol. I i n t h e s e r i e s , The H is to r y
o f I n d ia as Told by i t s Own H i s t o r i a n s , Second E d itio n ( C a lc u tta :
S i s i r Gupta, 1956).
67E l l i o t , 0 . c i t . , Vol. I , 23-33. P o r tio n s o f M a s 'u d i's
work were t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n glish by Aloys S prenger under th e t i t l e
El-Masudis H i s t o r i c a l Encyclopedia (London : O r i e n t a l T r a n s la t io n Fund,
1841), Vol. I . A ll r e f e r e n c e t o M as'udi a re from S prenger u n le ss
o th e rw ise s t a t e d .

172

a l - Q a s i m . 68

Lower S in d , i n c l u d i n g M ansura, A lo r and Daybul was h e ld

by a n o th e r Q u r a i s h i t e Arab "who i s d escen d ed from Habbar Ben a l A sw ad."88


The t e r r i t o r y d ep en d en t upon M ultan in c lu d e d "one hundred and
tw en ty th ou san d towns and v i l l a g e s " w h ile " t h e e s t a t e s and v i l l a g e s
d ep en d en t on Mansura amount t o t h r e e h u n d red t h o u s a n d . " 78

Both t h e s e

e s t i m a t e s a r e p r e p o s t e r o u s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when we c o n s i d e r t h a t d u r in g
t h e B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w ith one o f t h e most e x t e n s i v e i r r i g a t i o n
sy stem s i n t h e w o r ld , t h e t o t a l number o f towns and v i l l a g e s i n Sind
d i d n o t exceed f o u r th o u san d and f i v e h u n d r e d . 71

Hence "Masudi does

n o t mean 'tow n s and v i l l a g e s ' b u t 'f a r m s and h a m l e t s , ' t h a t i s f a rm s ,

G8A ccording t o M a s 'u d i, " t h e crown o f e l- M u lta n h a s been h e r e


d i t a r y i n t h e fa m ily which r u l e s a t p r e s e n t , s i n c e a n c i e n t tim e s and
n e a r l y from t h e b e g in n in g o f I s l a m ," p . 234. The "crown" o f M u ltan ,
h ow ever, was n o t h e r e d i t a r y i n any f a m ily p r i o r to t h e S a f f a r i d i n t e r
regnum as a l r e a d y n o te d . I t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t members o f t h i s fa m ily
had h e l d p ro m in en t p o s i t i o n s i n t h e a f f a i r s o f M ultan s i n c e th e e a r l y
e i g h t h c e n t u r y . Arab h i s t o r i a n Ibn Rustah m en tio n s t h e r u l i n g f a m ily
o f M ultan as e a r l y as 900 A.D. i n h i s b o ok , K itab a l - A 'A l a k a n - N a f i s a .
De G o e g e , o. c i t . , Vol. V I I , 135. M a s 'u d i, h ow ev er, was t h e
f i r s t w r i t e r t o have a c t u a l l y v i s i t e d S in d .
G9M a s 'u d i, oj3. c i t . , p . 234. The o r i g i n s o f t h e s e two l o c a l
d y n a s t i e s a r e sh ro u d ed in o b s c u r i t y . They w e re , no d o u b t , p ro m in en t
i n l o c a l p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s and u t i l i z e d t h e i r p o s i t i o n s w ith c o n s i d e r a b l e
s k i l l a f t e r 845 A .D ., as a c o r o l l a r y t o c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e i r h o ld o v e r
t h e a r e a once t h e S a f f a r i d h o ld o v e r S in d d e t e r i o r a t e d .
For a b r i e f
b u t v a l u a b l e a cco u n t on t h i s p o i n t , s e e N a d v i, "Muslim C o lo n ie s i n
I n d i a B efore t h e Muslim C o n q u e s t," T r a n s l a t e d from Urdu and p u b l i s h e d
i n t h e I s l a m i c C u l t u r e , V ol. V I II (1934) , 611-14 and V ol. IX (1 9 3 5 ),
151-55.
70M a s 'u d i,

o jd .

c i t . , pp . 3 8 4, 386.

7 1Shahpurshah H o d iv a la , S t u d i e s i n Indo-Muslim H i s t o r y : A
C r i t i c a l Commentary on E l l i o t and Dowson's H i s to r y o f I n d i a : As Told
by I t s Own H i s t o r i a n s (Bombay; H o d iv a la , 1 9 3 9 ), Vol. I , 26.

173

e s t a t e s o r h o ld in g s g iv en on m i l i t a r y t e n u r e t o Musalman s o l d i e r s
and v i l l a g e s o ccu p ied and c u l t i v a t e d by th e i n d i g n e s . " 72

M a s 'u d i 's

o b s e r v a t i o n does i n d i c a t e t h a t Mansura commanded l a r g e r j u r i s d i c t i o n a l


t e r r i t o r y as w e ll as t h e v i t a l o u t l e t t o th e s e a .
en joy ed one d e c id e d ad vantage o v e r M ansura.

M u ltan , how ever,

I t c o n ta in e d a m a g n ifi

c e n t tem ple which housed an i d o l renowned th ro u g h o u t North I n d i a . 73


P ilg rim s f lo c k e d to i t u n c e a s i n g l y .

"The g r e a t e s t p a r t o f t h e rev enu e

o f t h e King o f Multan i s d e r iv e d from t h e r i c h p r e s e n t s b ro u g h t t o


th e i d o l ."

S t a t e s M a s 'u d i, "When th e u n b e l i e v e r s march a g a i n s t M ultan

and th e f a i t h f u l do not f e e l th em selv es s t r o n g enough t o oppose them


th ey t h r e a t e n t o b re a k t h e i d o l and t h e i r enemies im m ed iately w i t h
d r a w ." 74

C on sid ered a s ' a m easure o f d o m estic p o l i c y , t h i s s t e p was

perhaps rem ark ab le b u t M a s 'u d i 's s ta te m e n t s e r v e s t o expose th e p r e


c a r io u s p o s i t i o n th e Arabs found th em selv es in once th e S a f f a r i d
g a r r i s o n s were withdraw n from t h e a r e a f o r d u ty e lse w h e re .
72I b i d .
73The id o l was f i r s t n o t i c e d by t h e C h in ese B uddhist p i l g r i m
Hiuen T sian g a p p ro x im a te ly s e v e n t y - f i v e y e a r s p r i o r t o t h e I s la m ic
c o n q u e s t. The i d o l was " d e d i c a t e d t o t h e Sun which was v e r y m a g n i f i
c e n t and p r o f u s e l y d e c o r a t e d , t o which t h e k in g s o f h ig h f a m i l i e s o f
th e f i v e i n d i e s n e v e r f a i l e d t o make t h e i r o f f e r i n g s and t o which men
from a l l c o u n t r ie s came to o f f e r up p r a y e r s . " Hiuen T s ia n g , Si Yu Ki:
Buddhist Records o f t h e W estern W orld, T r a n s l a t e d by Samuel Beal
(London: T rub ner and Company, 1 900), Vol. I I , 274. According t o The
Chachnamah, pp. 190-191, t h e i d o l was made o f gold w ith two re d r u b i e s
f o r eyes and " i t was so l i k e a l i v i n g man t h a t Muhammad Kasim m istook
i t f o r o n e ." The i d o l was s p a re d by th e y o u t h f u l Arab commander.
But a l - B i r u n i inform s us t h a t Muhammad Kasim hung a p i e c e o f cow's
f l e s h on i t s neck. See A l b e r u n i 's I n d i a , T r a n s l a t e d by Edward Sachau
(London: T ru bn er and Son, 1 8 8 8 ), Vol. I I , 116.
74M a s 'u d i,

op. c i t .,

I,

384.

1 74

By th e tim e o f M a s 'u d i's v i s i t , th e p o l i t i c s o f I n d ia had


assumed a new a s p e c t .

The Arabs o f Sind were now on th e d e fe n siv e

a g a i n s t t h e r i s i n g power o f th e P r a th i h a r a s o f Kanauj who dominated


n o r th e r n I n d ia d u rin g th e n i n t h and t e n t h c e n t u r i e s . 75
hand, th e R ash tra k u ta s o f
h a ra s h e ld
m iddle

On th e o th e r

th e Deccan, im p lacab le enemies o f th e P r a t h i

sway over most o f C e n tra l and Southern In d ia from th e

o f th e e ig h th t o th e end o f t h e t e n t h cen tu ry and as a m a tte r

o f p o lic y

c u l t i v a t e d f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w ith t h e Arabs.

I t was the

R a s h tra k u ta monarchs known to th e Arab geographers as "B alh ara"


(V allabha Raja) a t i t l e borne by a l l members o f th e d y n asty .

Thus,

i t was t h a t w hile th e Arabs were a s s u re d o f R a s h tra k u ta g o o d w ill, they


sim u lta n e o u s ly b ro ug ht upon them selves th e i n t e n s e h o s t i l i t y o f th e
P ra th ih a ra s.

As e a r l y as 851 A.D. th e A ra b -P r a th ih a ra -R a s h tr a k u ta

r e l a t i o n s had assumed somewhat o f a d ip lo m a tic q u ie s c e n c e .

An unknown

Arab merchant v i s i t i n g In d ia in 851 A.D. was a b le to re c o rd i t :


The B alhara i s th e most eminent o f th e p r in c e s
o f I n d ia .. .T h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e B alharas country
say t h a t i f t h e i r king s r e i g n and l i v e f o r a long
tim e , i t i s s o le l y in consequence o f th e fa v o r
shown to th e Arabs. In f a c t among a l l th e k in g s
t h e r e i s no one to be found who i s so p a r t i a l t o
th e Arabs as th e B a lh a ra ; and h i s s u b je c ts follow
h i s exam ple.76
75R. C. Majumdar ( e d . ) , The Age o f Impe r i a l K anauj, Vol. IV,
in th e s e r i e s The H is to ry and C u ltu re o f th ^ In d ia n People (Bombay:
B h a ra tiy a Vidya Bhavan, 1955), 19-40.
76S i l s i l a t u - l - T w a r i k h , T r a n s la te d i n t o E n glish by Eusebius
Renaudot, 1733 and su b seq u en tly p u b lish e d i n Vol. I o f Robert Kerr,
A General H is to ry and C o lle c tio n o f Voyages and T rav eles (London:
W illiam Blackwood, 1824). Under th e t i t l e o f "T rav els o f Two Mahomedans in In d ia and China in th e Ninth C e n tu ry ," p. 56. The a u th o r
s h ip o f t h i s account had t r a d i t i o n a l l y been a t t r i b u t e d to a c e r t a i n
merchant Sulaiman. See E l l i o t , H is to r y o f In d ia as Told by i t s Own

175

The P r a t h i h a r a em peror "has v e ry numerous f o r c e s , and i s s t r o n g e r i n


c a v a lry th an a l l th e o th e r p rin c e s o f th e I n d ie s .

He i s an enemy t o

th e A ra b s, n e i t h e r i s t h e r e a -y p r i n c e in I n d i a who has a g r e a t e r
a v e r s i o n t o t h e Mahomedans ( s i c ) . " 77
More t h a n f i f t y y e a r s l a t e r , M as'u di co n firm s t h e same s t a t u s
quo, " o f a l l t h e k in g s o f S in d and I n d i a ; t h e r e i s no one who pays
g r e a t e r r e s p e c t t o t h e Musulmans th a n t h e B a lh a r a .
Isla m i s honoured and p r o t e c t e d . "

In h i s kingdom

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e P r a t h i h a r a

em peror " h a s f o u r a r m ie s , a c c o r d in g t o th e f o u r q u a r t e r s o f t h e w ind.


Each o f them numbers 700,000 o r 900,000 men.

The army o f t h e n o r th

wars a g a i n s t t h e P r in c e o f M u ltan , and w ith th e Musulmans. . . .The


army o f t h e s o u th f i g h t s a g a i n s t th e B a l h a r a . " 78
A ppro xim ately f o r t y y e a r s a f t e r M a s 'u d i 's v i s i t , S in d was
v i s i t e d by Abu 'I s h a q a l - I s t a k h r i , 79

He found t h e i d o l o f M ultan

H i s t o r i a n s , Vol. I , "The Arab G e o g r a p h e r s ," 1 -3 . In 1948 French


s c h o l a r J . S au v ag et argued w ith c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e n g t h t h a t t h e
a u t h o r s h i p o f t h e s a i d acco un t rem ains d u b io u s a t b e s t . See J .
S a u v a g e t, R e l a t i o n de l a Chine e t d e l ' I n d e r e d e g e e en 851 ( P a r i s :
S o c i e t e d ' e d i t i o n "Les B e lle s L e t t r e s , " 1 9 4 8), p . 3.
77K e r r ,

o jj.

c i t . , V ol. I , 5 6 -5 7 .

78E l l i o t , H i s to r y o f I n d i a as Told by i t s Own H i s t o r i a n s ,


Vol. I , 3 0-32. S p r e n g c r 's t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s s e c t i o n i s in a d e q u a te .
He c o n fu se s t h e B a lh a ra s w ith t h e P r a t h i h a r a em p ero rs.
79For A rab ic a c c o u n t, s e e DeGoeje, B i b l i o t h e c a Geographorum
A rabicorum , Vol. I I . A ll r e f e r e n c e s t o I s t a k h r i i n t h i s work a r e
ta k e n from E l l i o t , The H is to r y o f I n d i a as Told by i t s Own H i s t o r i a n s ,
Vol. I , 3 3 -3 9 , "K itab -A k alim o f Abu Ish a k a l - I s t a k h r i . " The o b s e r v a
t i o n o f Arab v o y a g e r s , r e l a t i n g t o t h e n o n - p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s o f S ind
would be s u b s e q u e n t l y d e a l t w ith .

176

p la y in g t h e same v i t a l r o l e in t h e d efen se mechanism o f th e c i t y which


Masu d i had ob served.

His account a l s o r e v e a l s th e f r i e n d l y i n t e r

co u rse p r e v a i l i n g between th e Arabs and t h e R a s h tra k u ta s ,

Multan

and Mansura were in depend ent o f each o t h e r and r u l e d by th e same


d y n a s tie s which M as'udi had n o te d .

Ibn Hauqal was i n Sind on two

d i f f e r e n t o c c a s io n s , 951 A.D. and p ro b a b ly in 9 7 6 , 80

On th e former

o c c a s io n , he a c t u a l l y met I s t a k h r i in Sind and exchange o b s e r v a t i o n s .


The p o l i t i c a l scen e had m ain tain ed e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same f e a t u r e s as
had e x i s t e d d u r in g t h e p re c e d in g h a l f c e n tu r y .

During h i s v i s i t , th e

t r a v e l e r came upon a t l e a s t fo u r t i n y b u t in dep en dent p r i n c i p a l i t i e s


west o f Mansura.

These in c lu d e d Kusdar, Makran, Muski and T u r a n .81

Like t h e i r l a r g e r n e ig h b o r s , Mansura and M ultan, a l l fo u r d e f e r r e d


to th e s p i r i t u a l a u t h o r i t y o f th e C a lip h .
The o b s e rv a tio n s o f t h e s e t r a v e l e r - s c h o l a r s a re o f v i t a l
in te re st.

What emerges from i t a l l , on t h e p o l i t i c a l l e v e l , i s th e

g e n e ra l atm osphere o f h o s t i l i t y between th e Arabs and th e P r a t h i h a r a s


d a t i n g back t o t h e m iddle o f th e n i n t h c e n tu r y .

The f r i e n d l y i n t e r

co u rse between th e form er and t h e R a s h tra k u ta s i s amply t e s t i f i e d .


The t h r e a t o f T u rk o -P e rs ia n i n t e r v e n t i o n had been minimized fo llo w in g
th e S a f f a r i d e p iso d e .

Mansura and M ultan, now r e p l a c i n g a u n i te d

S in d, were independent o f Baghdad though acknowledged th e s p i r i t u a l


8QFor Ibn H au q al's a c c o u n t, see De G eoje, ojs. c i t . , Vol. I I .
Unless o th e rw is e s t a t e d , a l l r e f e r e n c e s to Ibn Hauqal a re ta k e n from
E l l i o t ' s H is to ry o f I n d ia as Told by i t s Own H i s t o r i a n s , Vol. I , 3951, "Ashkalu-1 B ilad o r th e K itabu-1 M asalik Wa-1 Mamalik o f Ibn
H au kal."
8 1 De G e o j e , o p . c i t . , V o l .

II,

231-35.

177

a u t h o r i t y o f t h e C a lip h .

On t h e w hole, b o th p r i n c i p a l i t i e s had been

p h y s i c a l l y cu t o f f from A ra b ic -s p e a k in g land s by th e i n t e r v e n i n g
I r a n i a n elem ent and were b e s e t by c o n s ta n t t h r e a t s o f l o c a l Hindu
c h ie fs.

In e x t e n t o f t e r r i t o r y , th e y had been a p p r e c ia b ly reduced

s i n c e th e days o f th e c o n q u e s t.

There i s no evidence to i n d i c a t e

t h a t b o th th e s u c c e s s o r s t a t e s to a u n it e d Sind were m u tu a lly h o s t i l e


to one a n o th e r .
Ibn Hauqal com pleted h i s work around 976 A.D.

E ighty y e a rs

l a t e r , Sind was a g ain v i s i t e d by an Arab s c h o l a r , Muhammad ib n Ahmad


B ashari a l- M u q a d d is i.

His s ta te m e n t on th e p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s o f

Multan p ro v id e s a s t r i k i n g theme f o r th e h i s t o r i a n .

" I n Multan th e

p eo p le m ention in th e Khutbah th e F atim id C aliph o f Egypt and e v ery


t h i n g i s managed a c c o rd in g t o h i s o r d e r s .
from t h i s p la c e t o E g y p t." 82

P r e s e n ts a r e always s e n t

Did th e change o f a l l e g i a n c e fromBaghdad

t o Egypt o c c u r p r i o r to M u q ad d isi's v i s i t and d id t h i s change in v o lv e


a c o rre s p o n d in g change in th e r u l i n g house?

According t o r e l i a b l e

I s m a ilia n s o u rc e s p r e d a t i n g ibn H au q al's account I s m a i li a n c o n tr o l


over Multan was c o n s o lid a te d between 957 and 962 A.D.

Moreover,

th is

p o l i t i c a l ta k e o v e r was l a r g e l y f a c i l i t a t e d by winning ov er th e r u l i n g
fam ily t o t h e I s m a i li a n c a u s e . 83

82A1-M uqaddisi, Ahsanu11-Taqasim , quoted in Sulaiman N advi,


"Muslim C olonies in I n d ia Before th e Muslim C o n q u est," Is la m ic C u l t u r e ,
Vol. V III (19 34 ), 613. M u q ad d isi's s ta te m e n t has been s u b s t a n t i a t e d
by an ind ep end en t s o u rc e . A P e r s ia n g e o g ra p h ic a l t r e a t i s e by an
unknown a u t h o r , completed around 985 A .D ., t e l l s us t h a t a t Multan
" th e Khutba i s re a d in t h e name o f t h e Western o n e ." Hudud a l Alam,
T r a n s la te d and e d i t e d by V. Minorsky (London: M essrs. Luzac and
Company, 1937), p . 89.
83For more d e t a i l s see C hapter V I I I , pp. 218-219.

178

During t h e f i n a l q u a r t e r o f t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e T urkoP e r s i a n t h r e a t , dormant f o r alm o st s e v e n ty y e a r s , was renew ed.

The

main s t e p s i n t h i s p r o c e s s can b e fo llo w e d i n a s e r i e s o f s u c c e s s i v e


e v e n t s , w hich commence w i th t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e Ghaznavid d y n a s ty
i n t h e h ig h la n d s o f A f g h a n is ta n by 962 A.D.

The G haznavids had formed

a p l a n t o re d u c e t h e Hindu S hahis o f e a s t e r n A f g h a n is ta n and n o r t h e r n


Punjab t o v a s s a l a g e .

As e a r l y as 963 A.D. t h i s p l a n had assumed

menacing p r o p o r t i o n s .
By 970 A.D. t h e P r a t h i h a r a e m p ire , once t h e dom inant power o f
n o r t h I n d i a , had c o l l a p s e d .

I ts successor s ta te s riv a le d i t n e ith e r

i n e x t e n t o f t e r r i t o r y n o r in m i l i t a r y p o w e r .84

The R a s h t r a k u ta s o f

t h e Deccan, lo n g - tim e Arab a l l i e s , d i s a p p e a r e d from t h e sc e n e by


9 7 3 . 85
The b o r d e r s t a t e s
G haznavids.

in t h e n o r th w e s t w ere now h a r d p r e s s e d by th e

Of t h e s e , t h e S h a h is had t o b e a r t h e f i r s t im pact o f

T u rk is h h o r d e s .

L e s s e r s t a t e s , a t t h i s j u n c t u r e , r e a l i z e d t h e immi

n e n t d an g er and seemed t o have a c t e d t o g e t h e r w ith c o r d i a l i t y .

Thus

i t was t h a t as e a r l y as 963 A.D. a d e f e n s i v e a l l i a n c e was con clu d ed


betw een t h e S h a h i s , t h e Arabs o f M ultan and t h e r u l e r o f B h a tin d a , a
s t a t e l y i n g w est o f t h e S a t l a j r i v e r i n t h e P u n j a b . 86

The f o rm a tio n

84R. C. Majumdar, The Age o f I m p e ria l K an au j, Vol. IV, i n The


H i s t o r y and C u l t u r e o f th e In d ia n P e o p le , 82-131.
85H. G. R aw linson, I n d i a : A S h o r t C u l t u r a l H i s t o r y (New Y ork,
F r e d e r i c k A. P r a e g e r , I n c . , 1 9 6 7 ), p . 164.
86Muhammad Qasim F a r i s h t a , The H is to r y o f t h e R ise o f t h e
Mohemedan ( s i c ) Power i n I n d i a , T r a n s l a t e d from t h e P e r s i a n by Joh n
B rig g ( C a l c u t t a : S. Dey, 1 9 6 6 ), V ol. I , 6. A ccord ing t o F a r i s h t a ,

179

o f t h i s a l l i a n c e f o r c e d t h e Ghaznavids t o r e l i n q u i s h a l l th o u g h ts o f
s u b ju g a t i n g n o r th w e s te r n I n d i a f o r t h e tim e b e in g .
In 977 A .D ., w ith t h e a c c e s s i o n o f S u b u k tag in as t h e r u l e r o f
G hazni, t h e e v e n ts to o k a d r a m a tic t u r n .

S ub u ktag in *s f i r s t concern

was t o b r e a k th e M u lta n -S h a h i-B h a tin d a a l l i a n c e .

T his he was a b le

t o acco m p lish by w inning o v e r t h e r u l e r o f M ultan , though by what


means he d i d s o , we do n o t know.87

By 978 A.D. a l l t h e s t a t e s ly in g

west o f S in d , i n c l u d i n g K usdar, were sw allow ed up by t h e G h a z n a v id s .88


The lo n g -a w a ite d G haznavid-Shahi c o n t e s t was now underway.

By 990

A .D ., t h e S hahis were d e f e a t e d and f o r c e d t o cede s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n s


o f t h e i r w e s te rn t e r r i t o r i e s t o t h e G h a z n a v id s .89

The t e r r i t o r i a l

am b itio n s o f t h e Ghaznavids were such t o e x c i t e s u f f i c i e n t alarm


among t h e Arabs o f M ultan.

C o n se q u e n tly , a second d e f e n s i v e a l l i a n c e

was conclud ed betw een Abul F atah Dawood, t h e r u l e r o f M u ltan , and


A nandpal, th e Shahi monarch who su cceed ed h i s f a t h e r J a i p a l i n 1002
A .D .90
t h e r u l e r o f Multan who co nclud ed t h i s a l l i a n c e was a S eikh Humeed
who was t h e grandson o f Abul F atah Dawood, t h e l a s t Arab r u l e r o f
M ultan. Ghaznavid h i s t o r i a n s co n firm t h e r u l e o f Dawood b u t a re
s i l e n t on h i s P e d ig re e .
Hence
F a r i s h t a , w r i t i n g f i v e hundred
y e a r s a f t e r th e Ghaznavid h i s t o r i a n s , p ro b a b ly f a b r i c a t e d t h e myth
o f S eikh Humeed.
87F a r i s h t a , o p . c i t . , Vf).l I> 6.
88Muhammad Nazim, The L if e and Time o f S u l t a n Mahmud o f
Ghazna (Cambridge: At t h e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 1 ), p . 29.
89Abu Nasr Muhammad a l - U t b i , K ita b u l-Y a m in i, T r a n s l a t e d
i n t o P e r s i a n by N a s ir a l - J u r b a d h g a n i i n 1206 A.D. (Tehran: n. p . ,
1855), p. 33.
90P arish ta,

o p . c i t . , V ol.

I,

23.

180

S u lta n Mahmud (997-1030 A .D .), t h e most i l l u s t r i o u s o f th e


Ghaznavid m onarchs, now d e c id e d t o p u rsu e th e t e r r i t o r i a l am b itio n s
o f h is fa th e r.

A p r e t e x t was e a s i l y found.

M ultan, which a few y e a r s

e a r l i e r had p r o f e s s e d f r i e n d s h i p w ith th e G haznavids, now had


d e s e r t e d them.

Such an a c t co u ld n o t go u n pu nished .

e x p e d itio n must t h e r e f o r e be conducted a g a i n s t M ultan.

A p u n a tiv e
The r o u te

p ursued in t h a t campaign la y a c r o s s Shahi t e r r i t o r i e s and th e Shahis


r e fu s e d p e rm is s io n f o r such a p a s s a g e .
c o n t e s t had begun.

The second Shahi-G haznavid

In 1006 A.D. th e Shahi f o r c e s were r o u te d n e a r

P esh aw ar.91
Ghaznavid f o r c e s now marched a g a i n s t Multan and c a r r i e d th e
c i t y f o llo w in g a w eek 's s i e g e .
f o llo w e d .92

A d r e a d f u l m assacre o f t h e Karm atians

A sudden r e b e l l i o n i n Khurasan, however, com pelled th e

S u lta n t o r e t u r n t o C e n tr a l A sia.

In 1010 A .D ., Mahmud d e c id e d to

complete t h e s u b ju g a t io n o f M ultan.
out f o r C e n tr a l P unjab.

In O ctober o f t h a t y e a r he s e t

M ultan was w re ste d from i t s f e e b l e r u l e r

Dawood, who was c a r r i e d away i n c a p t i v i t y , th e Karm atians were once


more m assacred , and M ultan a n n e x e d .93

91U t b i, o p . c i t . , pp. 290-91; Abu S a 'i d Muhammad G a r d i z i ,


Kitab Z ain ul Akhbar, E d ited by Muhammad Nazim (Cambridge: E. G.
Brown Memorial Fund, 1928), p . 67; Nazim, o p . c i t . , pp. 88-89.
92U t b i , o p . c i t . , pp. 290-91. According t o one accou nt so
many Karmatians were s la u g n t e r e d t h a t "a s tream o f b lo o d flowed from
Lohari g a te which was on th e w e s te rn s i d e o f th e town" and " t h e hand
o f th e S u lta n was s tu c k f a s t to t h e h i l t o f t h e sword on acco un t o f
congealed b lo o d , and had t o be immersed in a b a th o f h o t w a te r b e f o r e
i t could be lo o s e d ." Quoted i n Nazim, . c i t . , p . 9 from Adabu11Muluk Wa K ifayalu'1-M am luk, a m edieval work o f u n d e r t a in a u t h o r s h i p .
93G a r d i z i , o p . c i t . , p . 70; F a r i s h t a ,
Nazim, . c i t . , p . 99.

0 .

c i t . , Vol. I , 29;

181

As p o in te d out e a r l i e r , Kusdar had been annexed by Amir


Subuktagin as e a r l y as 978 A.D., b u t Mansura, ly in g immediately t o the
e a s t o f i t , was s p a r e d . 9** Mansura enjoyed a n o th e r f o r t y y e a rs o f
re sp ite .

On th e r e t u r n jo urney from th e Somnath e x p e d itio n in G u jarat

i n 1025 A .D ., S u lta n Mahmud passed through lower Sind and annexed


Mansura.

The name o f i t s l a s t r u l e r i s mentioned only by F a rru k h i,

one o f t h e S u l t a n 's c o u r t - p o e ts .

I t was K h a f i f . 95

Thus ended th e a u t h o r it y which th e Arabs had e x e r c is e d over


Sind s in c e th e p assag e o f t h e i r trium p han t armies through th e V alley
o f th e Indus from 712 t o 715 A.D.

To be s u r e , Muslim dominion o v er

Sind was nev er ch a lle n g e d u n t i l February 1843 when, on th e b a t t l e


f i e l d o f M iani, S i r Charles Napier i n f l i c t e d a c ru sh in g d e f e a t upon
t h e motley h o s t o f t h e n a ti v e a m i r s .96

But th e Arabs had p assed away

from th e In d ia n scene as e f f e c t i v e r u l e r s o f any p a r t i c u l a r s e c t io n .


The t a s k o f s u b ju g a tin g a l l n o rth In d ia f o r Isla m ic arms was l e f t
f o r th e T urkish horsemen, who from t h e i r b a s e s in th e Hindukush
m ountains descended upon t h e p l a i n s o f th e Indus and Ganges w ith
f r i g h t f u l fu ry .
The Arab dominion ov er S ind , though o f o v er a r e l a t i v e l y
sm all p o r ti o n o f I n d i a , was n o t w ith o u t s i g n i f i c a n c e .

See above, p.
(Tehran:

Through long

179.

f a r r u k h i S i s t a n i , Diwan, E d ited by Muhammad D abir S ia q i


S h a r q a t - i - N i s b i , 1957), p. 82.
96

P e r c iv a l S p ear, The Oxford H is to ry o f Modern I n d ia , 18701947 (Oxford: At t h e Clarendon P r e s s , 1965), p. 165.

182

s ta n d i n g i n th e a r e a , th e Arabs indeed l e f t t h e i r perm anent marks on


i t s h e rita g e .

In l i f t i n g t h e f r o n t i e r b a r r i e r s betw een S ind and

t h e i r w e s te rn em pire a c r o s s P e r s i a , t h e i r p rim ary c o n t r i b u t i o n en


l i v e n e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l commerce in t h a t d i s t a n t r e g i o n .

F u rth e rm o re ,

t h e c u l t u r a l exchanges which p e r c o l a t e d i n t h i s new and e x o t i c t e r r a i n


became v i s i b l e .

I t i s t o t h e s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t h a t we s h o u ld d ev o te

o u r d i s c u s s i o n s i n t h e fo llo w in g c h a p te r s in c e th e y h e lp e d i n th e
c r e a t i o n o f a p e c u l i a r c i v i l i z a t i o n , n e i t h e r a l t o g e t h e r Arab n o r
c o m p le te ly I n d ia n .

CHAPTER V I I I

COMMERCE AND CULTURE IN SIND


For t h r e e c e n t u r i e s t h e Arabs dominated t h e p o l i t i c s o f t h e
low er Indus V a lle y , though seldom w ith any marked d eg ree o f e f f i c i e n c y .
Perhaps th e most profound im pact o f t h i s p o l i t i c a l upheaval was e x e r te d
over t h e commerce o f t h e a r e a which was now d i v e r t e d t o new c h a n n e ls .
For S ind was now drawn i n t o t h e w h ir lp o o l o f I s la m ic m aritim e
a c t i v i t i e s s t r e t c h i n g from Canton i n t h e e a s t t o Spain i n th e w e s t .
C u l t u r a l exchanges grew s i d e by s id e w ith th o s e of p o l i t i c s and commerce,
so t h a t by th e b e g in n in g o f t h e e le v e n th c e n tu ry an Indo-Arab c u l t u r e
was c l e a r l y v i s i b l e i n t h e a r e a .

Commerce
Arab commercial a c t i v i t i e s in t h e In d ia n Ocean d a t e back t o
t h e f i r s t milenium B.C.

That t r a d e was m ain ly doncuted v i a t h e Red Sea

and t h e P e r s ia n B u lf. The South A rahian kingdoms o f t h e Minaeans and


t h e Sabaeans were t h e c h i e f b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f t h a t t r a f f i c . 1

Through-

^"The f i r s t m ajor kingdoms d i s c e r n i b l e th rou gh t h e m is ts o f


South A rabian a n t i q u i t y were t h e Sabaean and t h e Minaean which d u r in g
a c o n s id e r a b le p a r t o f t h e i r h i s t o r y were c o n te m p o r a rie s ." H i t t i ,
H is to r y o f th e A rabs, p. 52. The Minaean kingdom in n o r th Yemen
extended i t s g r e a t e s t in f l u e n c e between t h e e i g h th and t h e t h i r d
c e n tu ry b e f o re C h r i s t . "The Sabaeans were t h e most d i s t i n g u i s h e d
b ranch o f t h e e n t i r e South A rabian f a m il y . . .T h e i r o r i g i n a l homeland

184

o u t t h e n e x t s e v e n c e n t u r i e s t h e r i c h e s o f t h o s e s t a t e s were r a p i d l y
i n c r e a s i n g though by t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y b e f o r e C h r i s t t h e M inaeans had
b e e n re d u c e d t o v a s s a l a g e by t h e S a b a e a n s .

South A ra b ia n p r o s p e r i t y

was d u ly n o te d in 113 B.C. by A g a t h a r c h i d e s , p r e s i d e n t o f t h e r e


nowned A l e x a n d r i a l i b r a r y :
T hese a r e t h e n a t i o n s which h av e e n r i c h e d t h e
S y r i a o f P to lem y; t h e s e a r e t h e n a t i o n s t h a t
f u r n i s h e d t h e most p r o f i t a b l e a g e n c i e s t o t h e
i n d u s t r y o f t h e P h o e n ic ia n s and a v a r i e t y o f
a d v a n ta g e s which a r e i n c a l c u l a b l e . They p o s s e s s
th e m s e lv e s e v e r y p r o f u s i o n i n l u x a r y . . . , f a r
s u p e r i o r i n d e g re e t o a n y th i n g t h a t i s se e n i n
E urope. T h e ir ex pen se o f l i v i n g r i v a l s t h e
m a g n ific a n c e o f p r i n c e s . 2
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s u n p r e c e d e n te d p r o s p e r i t y w ere n o t alw ays
g ra tify in g .

In o r d e r t o s e c u r e a f o o th o l d i n t h i s l u c r a t i v e t r a d e ,

t h e Roman Emperor A ugustus d i s p a t c h e d A e l i u s Gallu:- t o S outh A ra b ia


i n 24 B.C.

The e x p e d i t i o n was a c o m p le te f a i l u r e . 3

Rome, h o w ev er,

was d e t e r m in e d , by means f a i r o r f o u l , t o s h a r e i n t h e w e a l t h o f
South A r a b ia .

E ig h ty

y e a r s a f t e r t h e a b o r t i v e a t t e m p t t o subdue t h e

a r e a by f o r c e , we f i n d Rome

i n a l l i a n c e w ith t h e H im y a r ite p r i n c e

l a y S o uth N a j r a n i n t h e Yemen d i s t r i c t . " H i t t i , o p . c i t . , p . 53.


"The 'P h o e n i c i a n s ' o f t h e s o u t h , t h e S a b a e a n s , d e v e lo p e d a h i g h l y
p r o f i t a b l e r e - e x p o r t b u s i n e s s and c a r r y i n g t r a d e f o r t h e f r a n k i n c e n s e ,
c l o t h and s i l k s o f C h in a , t h e p e a r l s from t h e P e r s i a n G u lf and t h e
f a b r i c s o f I n d i a , as w e l l as f o r t h e i r own home-grown s p i c e s and p e r
f u m e s . . . " Anthony N u t t i n g , The Arabs (New York: C la r k s o n N. P o t t e r ,
I n c . , 1 9 6 4 ), p . 6. Also s e e De Lacy O 'L e a r y , A ra b ia B e fo re Muhammad
(London: Kegan P a u l , T re n c h , T ru b n e r and C o ., L t d . , 1 9 2 7 ), p p . 86106 and George H o u r a n i, Arab S e a f a r i n g i n t h e I n d ia n Ocean i n A n c ie n t
andM edieval Times ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 1 ), p . 11.
2Quoted i n W illia m V i n c e n t , Commerce and N a v ig a tio n o f t h e
A n c ie n ts i n t h e I n d ia n Ocean (London: T. C a d e ll and W. D a v ie s , 1 8 0 7 ),
V ol. I I , 3 3 -3 5 .
3A. S p r e n g e r , "The Campaign o f A e li u s G a llu s i n A r a b i a , "
The J o u r n a l o f Royal A s i a t i c S o c i e t y ( 1 8 7 2 ), pp . 1 21 -41 ; O 'L e a r y , o p .
c i t . , p p . 7 4 -7 9 .

185

Z a fa r i n p r e s e n t - d a y Yamen, where t h e t r i b e o f Himyar was r e p l a c i n g


t h e Sabaens as t h e l e a d i n g power o f South A r a b i a . 1* The f e a r o f Roman
i n t e r v e n t i o n " p u t whole f e a r w ith t h e h e a r t s o f t h e Arabs and t h i s
w ith t h e s u f f i c i e n t p o l i c i n g o f t h e Red S e a , v e r y soon p rod uced good
r e s u l t s so t h a t t h e t r a d e around A rab ia r e v iv e d and i n c r e a s e d beyond
i t s p r o p o r t i o n s i n P to le m a ic t i m e s . " 5
The P e r i p l u s o f th e E r y th r a e a n S e a , a handbook o f t h e
c o a s t o f t h e I n d ia n Ocean f o r u s e by m e rc h a n ts and p i l o t s , com piled
by an unknown Greek m erchant o f Egypt around 50-60 A .D ., d e s c r i b e s
v i v i d l y t h e p o s t o f Muza, l o c a t e d a t t h e s o u th e r n end o f t h e Red Sea:
The whole p l a c e i s crowded w ith Arab sh ip o w ners
and s e a f a r i n g men and i s busy w ith a f f a i r s o f
commerce; f o r th e y c a r r y on a t r a d e w ith th e
f a r - s i d e c o a s t ( e a s t A f r i c a ) and w ith Barygaza
(G u lf o f Cambay) s e n d in g t h e i r own s h ip s t h e r e . 6
The p o r t o f Cane was s i t u a t e d ro u g h ly f o u r h u nd red m ile s e a s t o f
p r e s e n t - d a y Aden.

Here " a l l t h e F r a n k in c e n s e grown i n t h e c o u n try

i s b r o u g h t t o i t as a m art on camels and l o c a l s k i n - r a f t s and b o a t s .


And t h i s p l a c e to o has a t r a d e w ith t h e f a r - s i d e m ark et tow n s, w ith
B arygaza and S c y t h i a (S in d ) and Omana."7

The i s l a n d o f S o c o tr a l y i n g

14The P e r i p l u s o f t h e E r y th r a e a n S e a , t r a n s l a t e d and e d i t e d
by W i l l f r e d S c h o f f (New York: Longmans, Green and C o ., 1 912),
C h a p te r 23. In 115 B.C. t h e Sabaeans had b een su cceed ed by th e
H im y a r it e s , a h ig h la n d t r i b e from t h e s o u th w e s t, who e s t a b l i s h e d a
kingdom t h a t was t o l a s t s i x h u n d red y e a r s .
50 'L e a r y ,

0 .

c i t . , p . 79.

6The P e r i p l u s , C h a p te rs 20-34.
7Ib id .

186

a p p ro x im a te ly f o u r hundred m ile s s o u t h e a s t o f Cane and commanding some


d e g re e o f t r a f f i c , betw een t h e Red Sea p o r t s and I n d i a , had a su b
s t a n t i a l p o p u l a t i o n o f A rab s, In d ia n s and Greek t r a d e r s . 8

In th e

P e r s i a n G u lf , l o c a t e d c l o s e t o t h e p r e s e n t - d a y S h a t t a l-A rab r e g i o n ,
were two f l o u r i s h i n g commercial c e n t e r s , Charax and A pologus, b o th
m ain ly Arab i n c h a r a c t e r and engaged in l u c r a t i v e o v e r s e a s t r a d e
w ith I n d i a on t h e one hand and w ith South A rab ia and th e Red Sea
r e g i o n s on th e o t h e r . 9
The n a v i g a t i o n a l c o m p le x itie s in v o lv e d in t h e g r e a t E ast-W est
t r a d e were g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e d i s c o v e r y t h a t t h e Monsoons
fo llo w e d a s e t p a t t e r n .

They blew s t e a d i l y f o r s i x months from e a s t

t o w est and th e n f o r t h e same d u r a t i o n i n t h e o p p o s it e d i r e c t i o n . 10


The d a te o f t h i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y d is c o v e r y i s a m a t t e r o f some d i s p u t e
and i t h as been p la c e d as e a r l y as 90 B.C. and as l a t e as 45 A .D .,
b u t we do know t h a t t h e wind movements were re c o rd e d by a Greek
p i l o t named H i p p a l u s . 11

V e s s e ls c o u ld now s a i l d i r e c t l y t o th e Indus

d e l t a from South A rab ian p o r t s and Greek s h ip s soon i n s t i t u t e d d i r e c t


s a i l i n g t o M alabar in South I n d i a .

The P e r i p l u s does n o t m ention

Arab s h ip s s a i l i n g s o u th o f Barygaza i n G u jr a t r e g io n o f W estern

8I b i d .
^Hourani, o p . c i t . , p . 16,
^ ^The P e r i p l u s , C hapter 57; P l i n y , N a tu r a l H i s t o r y , T r a n s l a t e d
by H. Rackham, No. 352 in Loeb C l a s s i c a l L ib r a r y (Cam bridge: Harvard
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 9), Vol. I I , Book V I, 415.
^ O 'L e a r y p l a c e s i t i n 45 A .D ., p . 79, w h ile Hourani d a t e s i t
around 90 B .C ., p. 27.

187

In d ia " b u t i t i s v e ry p ro b a b le t h a t th e y had been s a i l i n g t o Malabar


f o r c e n t u r i e s to f e t c h t h e tim b er o f which t h e i r own s h ip s were
b u i l t . " 12
By 200 A.D. t h e Greek m arin e rs had s u c c e s s f u l l y rounded Ceylon
and were engaged i n commercial i n t e r c o u r s e w ith p o r t s on the Ganges
d e l t a on th e one hand and th o s e o f South China on t h e o t h e r . 13

Chinese

a n n als speak o f an embassy d i s p a tc h e d by An-Tun (Emperor Marcus


A u re liu s A ntonius) t o th e c o u r t o f Emperor. H u an -ti in 166 A.D.

It

a r r i v e d a t Tongkin and proceeded o v e rla n d t o t h e i m p e r ia l c o u r t . lt+


Roman t r a d e w ith th e Far East and I n d ia was indeed i m p r e s s iv e , b u t
so was t h e t r a d e d e f i c i t a g a i n s t t h e realm o f t h e C e a sa rs.

P lin y

laments t h a t " i n no y e a r does I n d ia d r a i n our empire o f l e s s th a n


f i v e hundred and f i f t y m i l l i o n o f s e s t e r c e s , g iv in g back h e r own wares
i n exchange, which a re s o ld among us a t f u l l y one hundred tim es t h e i r
own prime c o s t . " 15

Ju d g in g from th e l e v e l o f g e n e r a l p r o s p e r i t y

enjoyed by th e Arab kingdoms we may f a i r l y i n f e r t h a t th e Arab m id d le


men i n many cases were r e s p o n s i b le in no mean deg ree f o r th e r i s e in
p r i c e s , lam ented by P lin y .
12H ou rani, o p . c i t . , p . 33.
13I b i d . , p . 35. As e a r l y as 45 A.D. a Ceylonese embassy had
v i s i t e d Rome. See H. A. H u l u g a l l i , Ceylon o f t h e E a rly T r a v e l l e r s
(Columbo: M u lti- P a c k s , L t d . , 1965), P a r t I , "Ceylon Envoys in Rome
(45 A . D .) ," p . 29.
lltF r i e d r i c h H i r t h , China and th e Roman O r ie n t (New York:
Paragon Book R e p rin t C o r p ., 1966), p. 42. The t e x t c o n ta in s b o th
t h e C hinese and t h e E n g lish v e r s i o n s . According to H ourani, "The
'em bassy' p ro b a b ly c o n s is t e d o f m erchants c r o s s i n g from E ast A f r i c a , "
p . 35.
15P l i n y ,

op . c i t . , V ol. XII,

34.

188

The p r o s p e r i t y w hich t h i s t r a d e h a d c r e a t e d f o r t h e c o a s t a l
Arab kingdoms was i t s e l f d e p e n d e n t upon c e r t a i n ite m s f lo w in g m a in ly
from t h e E a s t t o t h e W est.
p la c e s.

O f t h e s e , p e p p e r commanded t h e h i g h e s t

T h is p r o d u c t was m a in ly c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e S outh I n d ia n

c o a s t a l a r e a o f M a la b a r.

I t was t h e im p o rta n c e o f p e p p e r t r a d e w hich

b r o u g h t ab o u t d i r e c t s a i l i n g from t h e West t o t h e M alab ar c o a s t as


p r e v i o u s l y p o i n t e d o u t . 16

Cinnamon, a n o t h e r I n d i a n p r o d u c t , was

c a r r i e d i n t h e I n d ia n v e s s e l s up t o S o c o t r a o r G u a rd a fu i whence i t
was s u p p l i e d t o Rome t h ro u g h t h e N ile r o u t e by t h e A rab ian t r a d e r s . 17
The P e r i p l u s in fo rm s us t h a t c o s t s was e x p o r t e d from B arbaricum on
t h e Indus and from B ary g aza on t h e G u lf o f Cambay.18

I t was t h e

p r o d u c t o f Kashmir and was u s e d b y t h e Romans as a s p i c e , perfu m e and


o in tm en t.

In d ig o was e x p o r t e d t o t h e West from B a r b a r i c u m .19

I t was

u s e d i n W estern A s i a , Egypt and t h e M e d ite r r a n e a n c o u n t r i e s as a dye


and a s m e d i c i n e . 20
In d ia .

Wheat was m a in ly t h e p r o d u c t o f n o r t h w e s t e r n

In h i s t r a v e l s t h ro u g h t h e Ind us V a l le y i n t h e m id d le o f t h e

s e v e n t h c e n t u r y , H iuen T s ia n g r e f e r s t o t h e abundance o f w h e a t . 21
B ary g aza was t h e m ain o u t l e t f o r i t s e x p o r t . 22
16See a l s o H a rip a d a C h a k r a b o r t i , T ra d e and Commerce o f A n c ie n t
I n d i a (C. 200 B .C .-C . 650 A.D. ) ( C a l c u t t a : Academic P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 6 6 ),
p . 227.
17I b i d . , p . 228.
18The P e r i p l u s , C h a p te r s 3 9, 49.
19I b i d . J C h a p te r 39.
20P l i n y , o. c i t . , V ol. XXXV, 2 5 -27 .
21S i-Y u -K i, B u d d h is t Records o f t h e W estern W orld, T r a n s l a t e d
by Samuel Beal (London: T r u e b n e r s and C o ., 1 9 0 0 ), V ol. I I , 272.
22The P e r i p l u s , C h a p te r 14. C h in ese B u d d h is t p i l g r i m Hiuen
T s ia n g r e f e r s t o abundance o f w heat i n lo w er Indus d e l t a i n t h e m id d le
o f th e se v en th c e n tu ry .
B e a l, o j d . c i t . , V ol. I I , 272.

189

O th e r a r t i c l e s o f e x p o r t t o t h e West i n c l u d e d h i g h l y p r i z e d
I n d ia n m u slin f o r which B arygaza was one o f t h e main o u t l e t s . 23
V ariou s k in d s o f wood was i n g r e a t demand, such as ebony, teakw ood,
blackw ood and sandalw ood.

The P e r i p l u s r e c o r d s t h a t l a r g e n a v a l

v e s s e l s were d i s p a t c h e d w ith ebony and o t h e r k in d s o f p r e c i o u s tim b e r


from B arygaza t o t h e m arts on t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . 24

In f a c t , t h e e n t i r e

W estern c o a s t o f I n d i a , i n c l u d i n g G u j a r a t and t h e M alabar r e g i o n s ,


engaged e x t e n s i v e l y i n m a ritim e commerce i n r a r e t i m b e r . 25
w ere e x p o r te d from t h e p o r t s o f M u z iris and N e le y n d a .26
t u t e d one o f t h e main a r t i c l e s o f t r a d e .

Diamonds

I v o ry c o n s t i

The main o u t l e t s f o r t h i s

ite m were t h e p o r t s o f B ary gaza, M u z iris and N e le y n d a .27


Such th e n were t h e main I n d ia n e x p o r t s t o t h e West.

T h e ir

t r a f f i c c re a te d a fa v o ra b le b alan ce o f tr a d e in fa v o r o f In d ia .

In

t h e p r o c e s s , t h e Arab m iddlem an, p r e s e n t i n g a f o rm id a b le c h a l l e n g e


t o h i s Greek and I n d ia n r i v a l s , accu m u lated v a s t f o r t u n e s .

To be

23The P e r i p l u s , p p . 48 , 51.
24I b i d . , p . 36.

Also s e e P l i n y , op. c i t . , Book X I I , p p .

8, 9 .
25Teakwood i s t h e most im p o rta n t b u i l d i n g t im b e r o f I n d ia
s i n c e i t r e s i s t s a c t i o n o f w a t e r . I t i s found i n t h e f o r e s t s o f
M a la b a r, T ra v a n c o re and G u j a r a t . Sandalwood i s a n a t i v e o f South
I n d i a . Eminent t r a v e l e r s such as Cosmos I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , s i x t h c e n t u r y C h r i s t i a n monk, and Hiuen T s ia n g , s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y C h inese
B u d d h ist monk, t a k e n o te o f t h e p r o d u c t io n and e x p o r t o f I n d ia n t im
b e r . See Cosmos I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , The C h r i s t i a n Topology o f Cosmas,
an E g y p tia n Monk, T r a n s l a t e d from t h e Greek and e d i t e d by J . W.
M cCrindle (London: The H ak lu yt S o c i e t y , 1 8 9 7 ), p . 366; B e a l, o p .
c i t . , Vol. I I , 232; The P e r i p l u s , p . 36.
26The P e r i p l u s , p . 56; B e a l, op. c i t . , V ol. I , 178 and
Vol. I I , 229, 265 and 277.
27I b i d . , p . 218.
V I I I , p . 4.

Also s e e P l i n y , N a tu r a l H is to ry ^ Book

190

s u r e , th e same middlemen a l s o b ro u g h t m erchandise t o I n d i a from a r e a s


as f a r as I t a l y .

These item s can be enum erated b r i e f l y .

The P e r i p l u s

speaks o f s la v e t r a d e which was c a r r i e d on from Omana t o Barygaza.


In g e n e r a l , s l a v e t r a d e was n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o Omana b u t v a r io u s p o r t s
in d u lg e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n human t r a f f i c .

A ccording to one a u t h o r i t y ,

th e "Arabs were i n v e t e r a t e s l a v e - t r a d e r s . " 28


h o rs e s were g r e a t l y i n demand i n I n d i a . 29
exempt from im port d u t y . 30

A rabian and E g yp tian

In Ceylon th e h o r s e s were

F lax and l i n e n were im p orted a t Barbaricum ,

M u z ir is , Neleynda and B arygaza, m ainly from E g y p t .31

O ther item s

a r r i v i n g a t I n d ia n p o r t s from th e West in c lu d e d w in e, c h i e f l y from


Omana, and A p o lo g u s ;32 f r a n k in c e n s e from South A r a b i a ; 33 g o ld c o in s
and p l a t e s from Rome;3** antimony from e a s t e r n A rab ia and C a rm a n ia .35
Amber, g l a s s , copper and c o r a l a r r i v e d from v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e W e s t.36
The m a ritim e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s d e s c r i b e d above l a s t e d t o t h e
end o f th e second c e n tu r y A.D.

T h e r e a f t e r follo w ed a p e r i o d o f r e -

28See S c h o f f 's commentary on The P e r i p l u s , p . 161.


29The P e r i p l u s , pp. 24, 28.
30Cosmos,

0 .

c i t . , p.

31The P e r i p l u s , p . 27.

Also see P l i n y , o p . c i t . , Book XIX,

pp. 1-3.
32The P e r i p l u s , p . 29.
33P l i n y ,

0 .

c i t . , Book X II, p . 30.

3t*The P e r i p l u s , p . 49.
35I b i d . , p . 49.
36The P e r i p l u s , p . 49 and C h a k r a b o r t i , o p . c i t . , p . 280.

1 91

t r a c t i o n by th e Arab commercial e n t e r p r i s e l a s t i n g f o r f o u r c e n t u r i e s .
George Hourani has summed i t up adm irab ly :
The commercial s i t u a t i o n a t t h i s p e r io d was as
f o llo w s . Ceylon was t h e e n t r e p o t f o r s e a t r a d e
between China, and t h e Near E a s t. Ships o f th e
Chinese and o t h e r Far E a s te r n n a tio n s used t o s a i l
as f a r w est as Ceylon, and from h e re w est-w ard.
The t r a d e was i n t h e hands o f th e P e r s ia n s and
Axumites. Greek merchant s h ip s used t o s a i l as
f a r as A d ulis o r o c c a s i o n a l l y a l i t t l e beyond Bab
al-Mandab. Of Arab n a v i g a t i o n we h e a r n o th in g
a t a l l . 37
The main agency which e f f e c t e d t h i s change was th e r i s e o f th e
S a s sa n id s i n I r a n who were determ ined to g a in c o n t r o l o f t h e m aritim e
commerce between I n d ia and th e West.

In so d o in g , th e y red uced th e

Arab commercial a c t i v i t i e s to a mere t r i c k l e .

The South Arabian

kingdoms were n o t a b le to w ith s ta n d th e f o r e ig n p r e s s u r e , so t h a t


tow ard th e end o f th e f o u r th c e n tu ry th e kingdom o f Axum undertook
an in v a s io n o f t h e c o a s t o f H ija z and by 350 A.D. annexed Himyar
fal-Y am an). 30

Axumite a u t h o r i t y dwindled d u rin g t h e f o llo w in g two

c e n t u r i e s so t h a t i n 522 A.D. a second in v a s io n o f South A rabia was


u n d e r t a k e n . 39

The somewhat i n e f f e c t u a l Axumite a u t h o r i t y l a s t e d

u n t i l 575 A.D., when South A rab ia was annexed t o t h e P e r s ia n

37H ourani, Arab S e a f a r i n g , p . 40.


30O 'L eary , A rabia Before Muhammad, p . 102. "Before th e
Axumite in v a s io n , t h e r e f o r e , a l l kingdoms o f th e so u th -w e st were
u n i t e d under th e H im yarites and th u s l a t e r w r i t e r s , b o th Greek and
Arab, u se 'H im y a r i te s ' as a g e n e r a l name f o r a l l th e p eo ple o f
South A r a b ia ." O 'L eary , I b i d .
39Cosmos was a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t a t A dulis when th e Axumite
n a v a l f o r c e s were b e in g d is p a tc h e d t o South A rab ia. Cosmos, o p .
c i t . , p . 55.

192

e m p i r e . 40

The p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f South A rab ia v i v i d l y i l l u s t r a t e

t h e economic r i v a l r i e s p r e v a l e n t i n t h e I n d ia n Ocean.

The Axumite

i n v a s i o n o f South A ra b ia was u n d e r ta k e n on t h e u r g i n g o f t h e B y z a n tin e


em peror, t h e n a v a l v e s s e l s o f B y z a n tin e a c t i v e l y r e n d e r e d a i d t o t h e
Axumite f o r c e s on t h e i r way t o South A r a b i a . 41

B y z a n tin e i n t e r e s t s

had been s t i m u l a t e d in t h e enorm ously p r o f i t a b l e s i l k t r a d e a lm o st


e x c l u s i v e l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e P e r s i a n s .

Emperor J u s t i n i a n (483-565

A.D.) had e n t e r e d i n t o n e g o t i a t i o n w ith t h e Axumites i n 530 A.D. w ith


th e pro p o sal t h a t :
By p u r c h a s i n g s i l k from t h e I n d ia n s and r e s e l l i n g
i t t o t h e Romans ( th e y ) would th e m se lv e s g a in much
money and ca u se b e n e f i t t o t h e Romans i n t h i s r e s
p e c t a lo n e t h a t t h e y would b e no l o n g e r com pelled t o
pay t h e i r money t o t h e e n e m y ...B u t i t was im p o s s ib le
f o r t h e E th io p ia n s t o buy s i l k from t h e In d ia n s
b e c a u s e t h e P e r s i a n m erch an ts always e s t a b l i s h e d
th e m se lv e s a t t h e h a r b o u r s where t h e I n d ia n s h ip s
f i r s t p u t in b e c a u s e t h e y i n h a b i t t h e a d j o i n i n g
c o u n tr y and buy up t h e e n t i r e c a r g o . 42
The B y z a n tin e -A b b y s in ia n p r e s s u r e , h ow ever, f a i l e d t o b r e a k th e
P e r s i a n h o ld on t h e I n d ia n Ocean, and by t h e tim e o f t h e P r o p h e t 's
d e a th i n 632 A.D. t h e P e r s i a n n a v a l supremacy i n t h e I n d ia n Ocean was

40P r o c o p iu s , H i s t o r y o f t h e Wars, T r a n s l a t e d from Greek by


H. B. Dewing, No. 48 i n t h e Loeb C l a s s i c a l S e r i e s (Cambridge: H arv ard
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 971), V ol. I , C h a p te r XX, Sec. 9 - 1 2 ; T a b a r i ,
T a rik h a l- R u s u l Wa a l- M u lu k , E d ite d by De G o eje, Prim a S e r i e s , Vol.
I I , 898, 9 5 7 -5 8 ; Hadi H assan , A H i s t o r y o f th e P e r s i a n N a v ig a tio n
(London: Methuen and C o ., L t d . , 1 9 2 8 ), p . 72.
4 *0' L e a ry , oj). c i t . , pp. 119-120.
42P rocopiu s,

o.

c i t . , V ol.

I,

C h a p t e r XX,

S ection s

9-13.

193

f a i r l y u n c h a l l e n g e d . 43

There i s s tr o n g ev id en ce t o show t h a t even

p r i o r t o t h e r i s e o f Isla m t h e I r a n i a n s had su cceeded in ro u n d in g t h e


Malaya P e n in s u l a and had begun t o a r r i v e a t C a n t o n . ^
With t h e ov erth ro w o f t h e P e r s i a n empire by t h e r i s i n g f o r c e s
o f I s la m , th e Arabs i n h e r i t e d a m aritim e t r a f f i c t h e im p o rtan ce o f
which t h e y were q u ic k t o r e a l i z e .

For alm ost f o u r c e n t u r i e s th e

S a s s a n id s h ad s u c c e s s f u l l y s u b o r d in a te d Arab commercial i n t e r e s t s to
t h e i r own.

The newcomers were now anxious t o s t e p i n t o t h e w e l l -

e s t a b l i s h e d s e a r o u te s and m a r ts .

The B yzantin es had managed to

m a in ta in t h e i r n o r t h e r n t e r r i t o r y i n t a c t and were th u s a b l e t o p r e
s e n t a fo rm id a b le b a r r i e r t o th e Arab n av al a c t i v i t y on t h e M e d ite r
ra n e a n .

So h e l p l e s s were th e Arabs on t h e s e a t h a t i n 645 A.D. a

B y za n tin e n a v a l t a s k f o r c e succeeded in w r e s ti n g A le x a n d r ia o u t o f
Arab hands f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d . 1*5
1*3For a d e t a i l e d acco u n t o f S a s s a n id paramountcy i n t h e In d ia n
Ocean, s e e Hadi H assan , A H i s to r y o f t h e P e r s i a n N a v i g a t i o n , pp. 59-62.
^ H o u r a n i , o p . c i t . , Appendix t o C h ap ter I . " D i r e c t s a i l i n g
between t h e P e r s i a n G u lf and China i n P r e - I s la m i c T im es," pp. 4 6 -47 .
T h is e v id e n c e i s b ased upon th e r e c o r d o f a C hinese t r a v e l l e r I-C h in g
who s a i l e d on a P e r s ia n v e s s e l from Canton to Sumatra in 671 A.D.
See I -C h in g , A Record o f t h e Buddhi s t R e l i g i o n , t r a n s l a t e d by J .
Takakusu (Oxford: The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 896), pp. x x v i i i - x x x . Though
t h e voyage to o k p l a c e alm o st f o u r decades a f t e r t h e o v erth ro w o f t h e
P e r s ia n empire by t h e A ra b s, H ourani b e l i e v e s t h a t " i t does n o t seem
l i k e l y t h a t t h e P e r s i a n s began t h e s e e n t e r p r i s i n g voyages im m ed iately
a f t e r t h e i r d e f e a t by th e A rabs; i t i s f a r more c r e d i b l e t h a t th e y
d a te back t o t h e S a s s a n id p e r i o d . " See H o u ran i, op. c i t . , p . 47.
45Aly Muhammad Fahmy, "The Muslim Navy During t h e Days o f th e
E a rly C a l i p h a t e , " I s l a m i c Review (March 1952), p . 25; P h i l i p K. H i t t i ,
H i s to r y o f t h e Arabs: From t h e E a r l i e s t Times t o th e P r e s e n t , t e n t h
e d i t i o n (New York: M acmillan and C o ., L t d . , 1970), p. 166; A. J .
B u t l e r , The Arab Conquest o f Egypt (Oxford: At t h e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1902), pp. 121-12S.

194

The Arab nav al m ig h t, however, was quick t o a s s e r t i t s e l f in


a rem arkably s h o r t p e r io d so t h a t Cyprus was occupied in 649 A.D. and
in 655 A.D., a j o i n t S y ria n -E g y p tia n f l e e t d e s tro y e d a B yzantine
armada o f roug hly f i v e hundred s h ip s a t t h e n av al b a t t l e o f P h o e n ix .46
B yzantine nav al supremacy in th e M ed iterran ean was th r e a t e n e d b u t
n e v e r com p letely d e s tr o y e d .

In f a c t , " in t h e fo llo w in g c e n t u r i e s th e

Arabs were always h e ld in check in t h e E a s te rn M ed iterran ean by th e


Byzantine navy; in d e e d , i t s r a i d s on th e c o a s t s o f S y r i a , P a l e s t i n e
and Egypt were lo ng a cause o f a l a r m ." 47

Follow ing th e Arab advance

i n th e land s s u rro u n d in g t h e e a s t e r n and s o u th e rn M e d ite rra n e a n , a


v i t a l change had ta k e n e f f e c t in t h e economic l i f e o f th e a r e a .

For

" a f t e r th e sev en th c e n tu ry two r i v a l f a i t h s s u p p o rte d by t h e o r g a n i z a


t i o n o f empires sto o d f a c in g each o t h e r a c ro s s t h e narrow w a te r s .
I n s te a d o f a highway th e M e d iterran ean became a f r o n t i e r , a sea o f
w a r -- a change which ru in e d A l e x a n d r i a ." 48
Arab n a v a l achievem ents i n t h e In d ia n Ocean were more
s p e c t a c u l a r th a n i n t h e M e d ite rra n e a n .

T h e ir i n t e r e s t s in th e

l u c r a t i v e commerce o f t h e r e g io n h av in g been s t i m u l a t e d once more,


a p o l i c y now r a p i d ly evolved which aimed a t e s t a b l i s h i n g m aritim e
supremacy o v er t h e e a s t e r n w a te r s .
t h i s development l e s s d i f f i c u l t

The f a l l o f th e S a s sa n id s re n d e re d

to be c a r r i e d

o u t . I n i t i a l a tte m p ts

in th e e x e c u tio n o f t h i s p o l i c y were d is c o u r a g in g .

46H i t t i ,

0 .

c i t . , p . 167.

47H ou ran i, o p . c i t . , p. 56.


48H o urani, oja. c i t . , p. 52.

A n av al t a s k

195

f o r c e d i s p a t c h e d a g a i n s t s o u th e r n P e r s i a i n 638 A.D. met w ith c o m p le te


f a i l u r e . 1*9

T h ree y e a r s l a t e r , C a lip h Umar (634-644 A .D .) , i n o r d e r

t o ward o f f a t t a c k s on f e llo w Muslims on t h e c o a s t o f A b y s in n ia ,


d i s p a t c h e d n a v a l v e s s e l s u n d e r Alqama ib n M i j a z z iz .
f o r c e was w r e c k e d . 50

The e n t i r e

A more d a r i n g a c t was u n d e r t a k e n i n 636 A.D.

by t h e Arab g o v e r n o r o f B a h ra in who p r o m p tly b u t u n s u c c e s s f u l l y


a t t e m p t e d t o c a p t u r e t h r e e I n d ia n c o a s t a l s t r o n g h o l d s more t h a n a
th o u s a n d m ile s a w a y .51
With t h e f a l l o f t h e S a s s a n id s b e f o r e t h e m id d le o f t h e
s e v e n th c e n t u r y , h o w ev er, t h e I n d i a n Ocean was w ide open f o r Arab
com m ercial p e n e t r a t i o n .

The p r o c e s s was r e m a rk a b ly s w i f t .

By 660

A.D. t h e Red Sea and t h e P e r s i a n G u lf h ad become Arab l a k e s , and


Arab v e s s e l s c o u ld roam a g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e I n d ia n Ocean u n c h a l l e n g e d .
The w e st c o a s t o f I n d i a was t o f e e l t h e f u l l im pact o f Arab com m ercial
e n te rp ris e s fo r th e next th re e c e n tu rie s .

I n i t i a l a t t e m p t s t o g a in

a f o o t h o l d on I n d i a ' s w est c o a s t were m i l i t a r y i n d e s i g n .

Hence t h e

a t t a c k s on B ro ach , Tana and D ay bu l, w hich h a v e b e e n p r e v i o u s l y


a llu d ed to .

By 715 S in d and Daybul t h e r e w i t h w ere i n Arab h a n d s .

F u r t h e r a t t e m p t s aimed a t e x t e n d i n g Arab hegemony o v e r t h e c o a s t a l

" A l - A l a a ib n a l- H a d ra m i, t h e g o v e r n o r o f B a h ra in c r o s s e d
t h e P e r s i a n G u lf and la n d e d on t h e c o a s t o f S o u th e rn I r a n , p r o
c e e d in g t h e n c e t o P e r s e p o l i s . He was c u t o f f from t h e s e a by t h e
P e r s i a n s and h i s f o r c e s t r a p p e d . A r e l i e f column s e n t o v e r la n d
r e s c u e d t h e t r a p p e d g o v e rn o r. See T a b a r i , oj>. c i t . , Prim a S e r i e s ,
V ol. V, 2545; Fahmy, o p . c i t . , p . 24; H a s sa n , o p . c i t . , p . 95 .
50Fahmy, o p . c i t . , p . 24.
51See a b o v e , C h a p te r V, pp< 84_g5.

196

a r e a s o f G u j a r a t f a i l e d when an Arab f l e e t was d e s tr o y e d o f f t h e


c o a s t o f K athiaw ar P e n i n s u l a i n 756 A .D .52
w ith d i s a s t e r tw e n ty y e a r s l a t e r . 53

A s i m i l a r a tte m p t met

On b o th o c c a s i o n s , t h e n a v a l

power o f t h e S a in d h a v a s , f e u d a t o r i e s o f t h e P r a t h i h a r a s , a c t e d as
t h e main d e t e r r e n t t o t h e e x p a n s i o n i s t schemes o f t h e A r a b s . 51*
The y e a r 776 A.D. i s s i g n i f i c a n t .

I t marks t h e end o f any

f u r t h e r Arab m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s on t h e I n d ia n C o a s t.

H e n c e fo rth

Arab p e n e t r a t i o n became p u r e l y commercial and p e a c e f u l . We have no


w r itte n re c o rd to u ch in g th e e x is te n c e o f p o s t- I s la m ic m e rc a n tile
Arab com m unities on t h e I n d ia n c o a s t p r i o r t o th e f a l l o f S in d .
However, such s e t t l e m e n t s i n Ceylon a n t i - d a t e t h e e s ta b l i s h m e n t o f
Arab dominion o v e r S i n d . 55

Such a c o n s i d e r a t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t p e r

haps Arab m erch ants had s im u lt a n e o u s ly s e t t l e d a lo n g t h e M alabar


c o a s t b e f o r e t h e end o f t h e s e v e n th c e n t u r y .

The p o i n t can be

f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e e x i s t e n c e o f p r e - I s l a m i c P e r s i a n s e t t l e
ments on I n d i a ' s w e st c o a s t , f o r " t h e P e r s i a n s e s t a b l i s h e d c h u rc h e s
in t h e p o r t s o f Male i n M alabar and C a l l i a n a n e a r B o m b a y ..." 56
52K. S r i d h a r a n , A M aritim e H i s to r y o f I n d i a (New D e lh i:
M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n and B r o a d c a s t i n g , 1 9 6 5 ), p . 24.
53I b i d .
5I*According t o R. C. Majumdar, " t h e c r e d i t o f s a v in g I n d i a
from Arab i n v a s i o n by s e a j u s t l y b e lo n g s t o th e S a in d h a v a s , who a r e
c h i e f l y re m a rk a b le as b e i n g one o f t h e few powers i n a n c i e n t I n d i a
w ith a d i s t i n g u i s h e d r e c o r d o f n a v a l e x p l o i t s . " See R. C. Majumdar,
A n cien t I n d ia (D e lh i: M o ti l a l B a n a r s i d a s s , 1960), p . 360.
55As p r e v i o u s l y p o i n t e d o u t , t h e c a p t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i v e s o f
d e c e a se d Arab m e rc h a n ts i n Ceylon by t h e p i r a t e s o f f Daybul had p r o
v id e d t h e p r e t e x t t o e x ten d Arab c o n t r o l o v e r S in d . See ab o ve,
C h a p te r I I I , p p . 11-12.
56H o u r a n i , o p . c i t . ,

p.

41.

197

The A ra b s, f o llo w in g t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e P e r s i a n e m p ire , accom


modated th em selv es w i t h i n t h e P e r s ia n commercial c h a n n e ls and i n so
d o in g might have c o n c e iv a b ly p la n t e d m e r c a n t i l e c o l o n i e s a lo n g w ith
t h e P e r s i a n s . 57
The g r e a t e s t e r a o f Arab m a ritim e e n t e r p r i s e s , however,
commence w ith t h e f a l l o f S in d .
ra p id ly in creased .

C o n ta c ts w ith t h e F ar E ast were

By 758 A.D. t h e number o f Arab and P e r s i a n t r a d e r s

a t Canton had sw o llen a p p r e c ia b ly .

In t h a t y e a r , f o r some re a s o n

unknown t o u s , th e s e d i s s a t i s f i e d t r a d e r s p i l l a g e d th e c i t y , s e t t i n g
i t on f i r e and t h e n f l e d to t h e i r v e s s e l s . 58
Canton was reopened i n 792 t o f o r e i g n t r a d e . 59

In te rn a l

u p h eav als o f C hina, however, i n t e r r u p t e d t h i s t r a d e i n 879 A.D. when


t h e f o r c e s o f t h e r e b e l Huang C h'ao sacked Canton and s l a u g h t e r e d th e
f o r e i g n s e t t l e r s b e f o r e th e y had tim e t o e s c a p e . 60

Beyond t h i s d a t e ,

57A ccording t o t h e n a t i v e t r a d i t i o n s o f M alabar Muslims, known


as Moplas, t h e Arab t r a d e r s s e t t l e d i n t h e a r e a d u r in g t h e s e v e n th
c e n tu r y and i n t e r m a r r i e d w ith t h e n a t i v e p o p u l a t i o n . See T ara Chand,
I n f l u e n c e o f Is la m on In d ia n C u ltu r e (A llah ab ad : The In d ia n P r e s s ,
L t d . , 1946), p . 32.
58E. B r e t s c h n e i d e r , On t h e Knowledge P o ss e s se d by t h e A n cien t
C hinese o f t h e Arabs and A rabian C olo n ies and O th e r W estern C o u n trie s
(London: T rub ner and C o ., 1 8 7 1), p. 10; Henry Y u le, Cathay and t h e
Way T h i t h e r (London: The Hakluyt S o c i e t y , 1866), p . ix x x ; Chau Ju -K u a :
His Work on t h e C hinese and Arab Trade i n t h e T w elfth and T h i r t e e n t h
C e n t u r i e s , e n t i t l e d C h u - f a n - c h i, T r a n s la t e d from th e C hinese and
a n n o ta te d by F r i e d r i c h H i r th and W. W. R o c k h ill (New York: Paragon
Book R e p rin t C o r p ., 1966), pp. 14-15; Edward H. S c h a f e r , The Golden
Peaches o f Samarkand: A Study o f T 'a n g E x o tic s (B erk eley and Los
A n g eles: The U n i v e r s i ty o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 963), pp. 15-16.
59H o u ran i, o p . c i t . , p . 66. From 758 t o 792 A .D ., f o r e i g n
v e s s e l s c a l l e d a t Hanoi i n s t e a d o f Canton.
60Abu Z a id , S i l s i l a t u 11 -T aw arik h , i n Robert K e rr, A G eneral
H i s to r y and C o l l e c t i o n o f Voyages and T r a v e le s (London: W illiam B lack
wood, 1824), Vol. I , 69. A ccording t o Abu Z a id , " t h e r e p e r i s h e d one
hundred and tw enty th o usan d Mahometans, Jew s, C h r i s t i a n s and P a r s e e s " ;

198

th e t r a d e w ith th e F ar East r a p i d l y d e c li n e d .

However, t h e Arab and

Chinese m erchants c o n tin u e d t o meet a t Kalah on t h e west c o a s t o f t h e


Malaccan p e n i n s u l a . 61

These c o n ta c ts l a s t e d a t l e a s t throu gh th e

f i r s t q u a r t e r o f t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y . 62
The w estern emporia o f t h i s f a r - f l u n g e a s t e r n t r a d e were th e
P e r s ia n G u lf p o r t s o f a l - B a s r a h , a l-U b u lla h and S i r a f .

The former

two were lo c a te d a t t h e d e l t a o f t h e T i g r i s w hile S i r a f was s i t u a t e d


on th e c o a s t o f I ra n and a p p ro x im a te ly t h r e e hundred m iles s o u th e a s t
o f B a s r a h .63

Treacherous sh allo w s and w h ir lp o o ls c r e a t e d n a v i g a t i o n a l

d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r Basrah and U b allah , and c o n se q u e n tly S i r a f gained


a p o s i t i o n o f pre-em inence as th e c h i e f h e a d q u a r te r o f E a s te rn t r a d e
by 850 A.D.61* Hence t h e S i r a f i m erchants had amassed fab u lo u s sums
o f money on account o f E a s te rn t r a d e .

Both I s t a k h r i and Ibn Hauqal

were im pressed by th e w ealth and s p le n d o u r o f t h a t c i t y . 65

M as'u d i, Muruj a l - Zuhab, Vol. I , 325-25. M as'udi p u ts t h e number o f


f o r e i g n m erchants s la i n e d a t two hundred th o u san d .
61Chan Ju-K ua, p . 18; H ourani, 0 . c i t . , p. 78; Muhammad
Husayn N a in a r, J a v a as N oticed by Arab Geographers (Madras: The
U n iv e r s ity o f Madras P r e s s , 1953), p. 2.
62M a s'u d i,

0 .

c i t . , p . 328.

630n U ballah and B asrah, see Hassan, o. c i t . , pp. 62;73;


Le S tr a n g e , The Lands o f th e E a s te rn C a l i p h a t e , T h ird Im pression
(London: Frank Cass and C o ., L t d . , 1966), pp. 43-46, 47; H ourani,
o p . c i t . , p . 69; M as'u d i, o p . c i t . , pp. 258-59; I s t a k h r i , Kitab
M asalik a l Mamalik, in De G oeje, o p . c i t . , Vol. I , 32.
61*Akhbar a s -S in Wal-Hind: R e la tio n s de l a Chine e t de 1' Inde
redegee en 851, S e c tio n 13; Robert K err, 0 . c i t . , Vol. 1 , 5 2 .
65According t o I s t a k h r i , numerous houses were c o n s tr u c t e d o f
teakwood and c o n s is t e d o f s e v e r a l s t o r i e s . The c i t y r i v a l e d S h ira z
i n s p le n d o u r. A f r i e n d o f I s t a k h r i , engaged in E a s te rn t r a d e , had

199

Two a l t e r n a t e r o u t e s c o u ld b e f o llo w e d on t h e way t o C anton.


Both have been d e s c r i b e d i n c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t a i l by Arab a u t h o r s .

In

Akhbar a l - S i n Wal-Hind can b e found t h e v a r i o u s s t a g e s betw een S i r a f


and Canton i f one was t o c u t a c r o s s t o South I n d i a r a t h e r t h a n c o a s t
t h e e n t i r e w e s te r n s e a b o a rd o f I n d i a . 66

Cargo was lo ad ed a t S i r a f

and i t i n c l u d e d goods r e c e i v e d from B asrah , Oman and o t h e r p l a c e s .


The v e s s e l s th e n s e t s a i l f o r Masqat and o b t a i n e d f r e s h s u p p ly o f
w a te r .

C u t t i n g a c r o s s t h e I n d ia n Ocean, t h e y c a l l e d a t Kulam-Mali

on th e M alabar c o a s t , " a m o n th 's voyage from Masqat w ith t h e wind


a ft."

From h e r e , t h e n e x t s t o p was Langabalus (N ico b ar I s l a n d s )

where " t h e men w ear no c l o t h e s and n e i t h e r u n d e r s ta n d A r a b i c . "

The

n e x t main c a l l i n g s t a t i o n s were K a la h - b a r on t h e w e s te r n c o a s t o f t h e
Malaya p e n i n s u l a , Tiyuma, an i s l a n d o f f t h e e a s t c o a s t o f t h a t p e n i n
s u l a , Kundranj and S a n f , b o t h on t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t o f V ie t Nam, t h e
la n d o f S u n d u r - f u l a t and f i n a l l y Canton,

The t o t a l number o f days

r e q u i r e d t o n e g o t i a t e t h e d i s t a n c e from Masqat t o Canton amounted t o


one hun dred and tw e n ty , e x c l u d i n g s t o p s .

The r o u t e from t h e P e r s i a n

G u lf t o Canton "was t h e l o n g e s t i n r e g u l a r u s e by mankind b e f o r e t h e


European e x p a n s io n i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y and i t m e r i t s a t t e n t i o n
as a re m a rk a b le a c h i e v e m e n t ." 67

The a l t e r n a t e r o u t e r e q u i r e d t h e

s p e n t t h i r t y th o u sa n d d i n a r s on a new h o u se . See I s t a k h r i , K itab


M asalik a l Mamalik, i n De G o e je , o. c i t . , V ol. I I , 128. Ibn Hauqal
in fo rm s us t h a t a S i r a f i m erch an t had g a in e d s i x t y m i l l i o n dirham s
from o v e r s e a commerce. Ibn H au q al, K itab a l M asalik wal M amalik, i n
De G o eje, o p . c i t . , Vol. I , 206.
66

Akhbar a l - S i n W al-Hind, S e c t i o n s 11-16.


67H ourani,

op.

c i t .,

p.

61.

200

c o a s t i n g o f t h e e n t i r e w e s te r n and e a s t e r n s e a b o a rd o f I n d ia o r j u s t
th e w e ste rn s e c t i o n and t h e n c u t t i n g a c r o s s th e Bay o f B engal.

The

Arab g eo g ra p h e r ib n Khurdhadbah p r o v id e s t h e names o f f o u r t e e n p o r t s


o f c a l l between Basrah and C e y lo n .68

Of t h e s e , t h e more im p o rta n t

ones in c lu d e d Tez i n Makran, Daybul i n S in d , Khambayat and Tana in


G u ja r a t and Kolam M ali i n M alabar.

By f a r t h e g r e a t e r number o f s h ip s

c u t a c r o s s th e Bay o f Bengal from Ceylon on t h e i r way t o t h e Far E a s t . 69


Main Arab e x p o r ts t o China in c lu d e d c o s t l y f a b r i c s o f l i n e n , c o t t o n
o r w o o l .in c l u d i n g r u g s , m etal w ork, i r o n o re and b u l l i o n . 70

At

Canton, cargo es o f s i l k f a b r i c s , camphor, musk and s p i c e s were lo a d


e d . 71

T h is l i s t i s n o t e x h a u s t iv e by any means.

We must b e a r i n mind

t h a t Arab v e s s e l s a c te d as main c a r r i e r s o f t r a d e in t h e In d ia n and


P a c i f i c Oceans and i n so d o in g were c o n s t a n t l y t r a n s p o r t i n g goods o f
many r e g i o n s . 72
As a n a t u r a l consequence o f t h i s v a s t m a ritim e a c t i v i t y ,
numerous Arab m e r c a n t i l e c o lo n ie s

had sprung up alo n g t h e whole

68Ibn Khurdhadbah, K i t a b 11 M asalik w a 'l Mamalik, i n De G o eje,


0 . c i t . , Vol. I l l , 6 1 -6 4.
69The Bay o f Bengal was known t o t h e Arab m a r in e rs as a l - R a n a j .
See S. M. Y usuf, "A l-R an aj: The Route o f Arab M ariners Across th e Bay
o f Bengal and t h e G u lf o f Siam i n t h e 3 rd and 4 th C e n tu r ie s A.D."
I s la m ic C u l t u r e , Vol. XXIX (195 5).
70H ou ran i,

0 .

c i t . , p . 70.

71I b i d . , p . 73.
72For an e x h a u s t iv e t r e a t m e n t o f a r t i c l e s o f t r a d e betw een
China and t h e I s la m ic l a n d s , s e e Chau J u -K u a , General In d e x , pp . 243267. A lso, c o n s u lt S c h a f e r , Golden Peaches o f Samarkand: A Study o f
T 'a n g E x o t i c s , pp. 13-26, 169-174, 185-189, 198-199.

2 01

w e s te rn c o a s t o f I n d ia and as f a r away as Canton.

At t h e l a t t e r p l a c e ,

d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith e x i s t i n g r e g u l a t i o n s had le d to th e p i l l a g i n g
and b u r n in g o f t h e c i t y by t h e f o r e i g n e r s , t h e m a j o r i t y o f whom were
Arabs and P e r s i a n s . 73

P r i o r t o th e m assacre o f 879 A.D. a lr e a d y

a l l u d e d t o , t h e I m p e ria l C hinese a u t h o r i t i e s had deemed i t p ru d e n t


t o a p p o in t a Muhammadan ju d g e o r "Q adi" from amongst t h e f o r e i g n e r s
to e x e r c i s e j u r i s d i c t i o n o v er h i s f e llo w c o - r e l i g i o n i s t s a c c o rd in g to
th e " S h a r i a " o r t h e Q uranic p r e c e p t s o f I s la m ic law.

On F r id a y , t h e

ju d g e c i t e d t h e name o f t h e r e i g n i n g C alip h i n th e " K h u tb a ." 71* The


Arab s e t t l e m e n t s in t h e R a s h tra k u ta dominions f a r e d w e l l .

"In f a c t,

among a l l th e k in g s t h e r e i s no one t o be found who i s so p a r t i a l to


t h e Arabs as t h e B a lh a ra ; and h i s s u b j e c t s fo llo w h i s e x a m p le ." 75
M a s 'u d i, who v i s i t e d I n d i a in 915 A .D ., was im p ressed a t t h e f l o u r i s h
in g Muslim com m unities:
In 304 A .H ., I went from Lar in t h e kingdom o f
B i l h a r a t o Cheymur. The tame o f t h e r u l e r o f t h i s
town was " J a n c h ." At t h .t. tim e t h e r e was a p o p u la
t i o n o f t e n th o u sa n d Muslims which was composed o f
t h o s e who were bo rn i n I n d i a , i n S e y r a f , Oman,
B asrah , Baghdad and o t h e r p l a c e s , and who had
s e t t l e d down h e r e . Among them t h e r e a r e r e s p e c t a b l e
m erch ants l i k e Musa b i n Ish a g o f Sandalun. Abu
S a 'i d M a 'ru f b i n Zakarya f i l l e d t h e p o s t o f

73See above, p.
714Akhbar a s - S i n Wal-Hind, S e c tio n 11; A ls o , K e rr,

0 .

c i t .,

p . 52.
75T h is q u o t a t i o n i s ta k e n from E l l i o t , H is to r y o f I n d ia as
T old by i t s Own H i s t o r i a n s , Vol. I , 5 ; in K e rr, i t re a d s s l i g h t l y
d i f f e r e n t , " f o r t h e r e a r e no p r in c e s more h e a r t i l y a f f e c t i o n a t e t o
t h e A rab s, and t h e i r s u b j e c t s p r o f e s s t h e same k in d n e ss f o r u s . "
p . 56.

202

"Hunarm and." Hunarmand means t h e S i r d a r o f


Muslims and t h e R ajah s e l e c t s one o f t h e Muslim
n o b le s t o whom a r e e n t r u s t e d a l l m a t t e r s co n
c e r n i n g t h e M uslim s. B ey a sarah means t h e
Muslims b o m i n I n d i a . 76
The mosques i n R a h t r a k u t a dom in ion s were " l a r g e and s p l e n d i d . " 77
Ibn Hauqal v i s i t i n g I n d i a i n 977 A.D. c o n firm s M a s 'u d i 's i m p r e s s i o n s .
"T h ere a r e Jama M a sjid s a t Fam hal, S in d a n , Saimur and Kanibaya, a l l
o f which a r e s t r o n g and g r e a t c i t i e s and t h e Muhammadan p r e c e p t s a r e
o p e n ly o b s e r v e d . " 78
Thus i t was t h a t f o r t h r e e c e n t u r i e s f o l l o w i n g t h e s u b j u g a t i o n
o f S in d , Arab com m ercial e n e r g i e s c o n ti n u e d t o a s s e r t th e m s e lv e s
r e l e n t l e s s l y o v e r a v a s t a r e a , s t r e t c h i n g from B asrah t o C an to n.

The

p r o s p e r i t y which th e y h ad c r e a t e d was p a r t i c u l a r l y marked in S in d .


The s t r a t e g i c s t r e n g t h o f t h e lo w e r Indus V a lle y was o b v i o u s l y e n o r
mous.

I t w as, a f t e r a l l , t h e s o l e p o r t i o n o f I n d i a t h e Arabs had

most s u c c e s s f u l l y o c c u p ie d , and i t commanded t h e t r a d e r o u t e s l e a d i n g


from C e n t r a l A sia and n o r th w e s t I n d i a t o t h e I n d ia n Ocean on t h e one

76A 1 -M a s 'u d i, Muruj a l- d h a h a b (Egypt: A l-A z h a r, 1 8 8 5 ), V ol.


I I , 85-86, N e i t h e r E l l i o t n o r S p r e n g e r c o n t a i n t h i s s e c t i o n i n t h e i r
E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n s . The above t r a n s l a t i o n i s t a k e n from Suleyman
N a d v i, "Muslim C o lo n ie s i n I n d i a B e fo re t h e Muslim C o n q u e s t," I s l a m i c
C u l t u r e , V o l. V I II (1 9 3 4 ), 488.
77M a s 'u d i, o p . c i t . , p . 389.
78Ibn H a u q a l, A sh k alu -1 B i l a d , i n E l l i o t , o p . c i t . , V ol. I ,
49. Buzurg ib n S h a h r i y a r , a P e r s i a n m a r i n e r , co m piled h i s w ork,
A j a i b u 11-H ind e i t h e r at t h e c l o s e o f t h e n i n t h o r t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e
t e n t h c e n t u r y . He r e f e r s t o t h e p r o s p e r o u s Muslim com m unities i n
I n d i a on a number o f o c c a s i o n s .
For E n g lis h t r a n s l a t i o n , s e e The
Book o f t h e M arvels o f I n d i a , t r a n s l a t e d by Marcel D evic (London:
G. R o u tle d g e and S o n s, L t d . , 1 9 2 8 ), p p . 30, 4 2 , 5 1 , 60 and 71. T h is
w ork, h ow ever, h a s n o t commanded a r e s p e c t a b l e p o s i t i o n as a work
of h is to r ic a u th e n tic ity .

203

h an d , and p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e m a r itim e c o a s t a l t r a d e on t h e o t h e r .
As p a r t o f t h e C a l i p h a t e , S in d en jo y ed t h e s e c u r i t y and p r e s t i g e
which i s d e r i v e d from a s s o c i a t i o n w ith a v a s t and w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d
e m p ire .

The S in d d i n a r was w id e ly used as a medium o f exchange in

t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a n s a c t i o n s . 79

Daybul was a b u s t l i n g s e a p o r t .

" I t i s a l a r g e m a r t , " r e p o r t s Ibn H au q al, "and t h e p o r t n o t o n ly o f


t h i s b u t n e i g h b o r in g r e g i o n s . . . I t i s famous f o r t h e m a n u fa c tu re o f
sw ords.

The i n h a b i t a n t s g e n e r a l l y m a in t a in th e m se lv e s by t h e i r

com m erce."80

M ultan was on t h e main r o u t e from Khurasan t o Daybul

and c o n s e q u e n tly " t h e c a ra v a n s f o r Khurasan assem ble h e r e . " 81


K a n d a b il, ly i n g on t h e h ig h ro a d t o S i j i s t a n , was a l s o a f l o u r i s h i n g
t r a d e c e n t e r . 82

The A b b a s sid s , from t h e i r b a s e s i n K hurasan, were

f u l l y aware o f t h e s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n en jo y e d by S ind i n c o n t r o l l i n g
t h e o u t l e t f o r C e n tr a l A sian goods bound f o r s e a .

T h is e x p l a i n s

t h e i r a n x i e t y and t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o f o r c e open t h i s r o u t e even


b e f o r e t h e i r r u l e was c o n s o l i d a t e d o v e r t h e C a l i p h a t e . 83

At a l a t e r

d a t e , t h e F a t i m i d i s , im p la c a b le enem ies o f t h e A b b a s s id s , e x e c u te d
a s e r i e s o f maneuvers i n S in d , aimed a t d i v e r t i n g t h e commercial
c h a n n e ls to Egypt.

T h is th e y were a b le t o a cco m p lish by a m assive

79Abu Z a id , S i l s i l a t u ' l Tw arikh, i n R o bert K e rr, op. c i t . ,


I , 95.
80Ibn H au qal, o p . c i t . , p . 49.
8 M a s ' u d i , o. c i t . , i n E l l i o t , H is to r y o f I n d i a , Vol. I , 27.
82Ibn H au qal, o p . c i t . , p . 49.
83See above, pp.

113-114.

204

m is s io n a ry propaganda fo llo w e d by a p o l i t i c a l s t r o k e which e v e n t u a l l y


d e l i v e r e d Multan i n t h e i r h a n d s . 81* The p o s s e s s i o n o f M ultan was
m erely a p a r t o f t h e v a s t Fatam id scheme to undermine t h e A b b assid s:
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e i r ( F a tim id s ) p r o p a
g a n d i s t e f f o r t s on t h e Sea and la n d r o u t e to
I n d ia and on I n d ia i t s e l f ; th e v a s t development
o f t h e i r t r a d e w ith t h e E a st and t h e growth o f
t h e Red Sea p o r t s t o t h e d e tr im e n t o f th o s e o f
th e P e r s i a n G u l f - - a l l t h e s e , c o n s id e re d in th e
l i g h t o f t h e known I s m a i l i c a p a c i t y f o r d e t a i l e d
lo n g -ra n g e p la n n in g c r e a t e , t o sa y t h e l e a s t , a
s t r o n g s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t th e y a r e t h e r e s u l t o f a
d e l i b e r a t e p o l i c y , co n ceiv ed and e x e c u te d as p a r t
o f t h e grand F atim id p l a n t o d e s tr o y t h e power o f
th e Abbasids and r e p l a c e them as s o l e s o v e re ig n s
o f I s l a m . 85
In s tu d y in g t h e
Ocean a f t e r t h e r i s e o f

Arab m a ritim e a c t i v i t i e s in t h e In d ia n
I s la m , we may f a i r l y i n f e r t h a t o f a l l t h e

ad vantages S ind d e r iv e d from Arab c o n n e c tio n s , th o s e i n v o l v i n g


commerce s ta n d o ut p r e - e m i n e n t l y .

S ind was drawn i n t o t h e w h ir lp o o l

o f f r a n t i c economic e n e r g ie s u n le a s h e d by a new f a i t h and s u p p o rte d


by t h e m ight o f an em pire s t r e t c h i n g from F rance t o t h e b o r d e r s o f

01*On t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e F atim id p o l i t i c o - e c o n o m i c s t r a t e g y
in S in d , s e e B ernard Lewis, "The F atim id s and t h e Route t o I n d i a , "
E x t r a c t de l a Revue de l a F acu ete Des S c ie n c e s Economiques Des
LU n i v e r s i t e D ' I s t a n b u l , l i e an n ee, No; 1-4 (1953).
85I b i d . , p . 5. E g y p tian commercial t i e s w ith w e s te rn I n d ia
i n g e n e r a l and w ith G u ja r a t in p a r t i c u l a r c o n tin u e d t o rem ain s t r o n g .
As t h e P o rtu g e s e n a v a l m ight t h r e a t e n e d t h i s t r a d e a t t h e b e g in n in g
o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , schemes f o r j o i n t n a v a l a c t i o n s f o r t h i s
European i n t r u d e r were worked o u t . Thus a combined E g y p tia n - G u jr a ti
f l e e t d e s tr o y e d t h e P o rtu g e s e war v e s s e l s a t t h e b a t t l e o f C haul,
n e a r p r e s e n t - d a y Bombay, i n 1508 A.D. A y e a r l a t e r , however, th e
P o rtu g e s e avenged t h i s d e f e a t by e l i m i n a t i n g t h e a l l i e d f l e e t , th u s
f i n a l l y end ing t h e E gy ptian commercial c o n t a c t s w ith I n d ia f o r cen
t u r i e s t o come. See Donald F. Lach, I n d ia in t h e Eyes o f Europe:
The S i x t e e n t h C entury (Chicago: The U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago, 1968),
p. 393.

205

China.

As t h e Arab h o ld o v e r t h e e a s t e r n p o r ti o n s o f th e C a lip h a te

weakened, and as t h e la n d - o r i e n t e d T u rk s, Afghans and Mughuls extended


t h e i r s u c c e s s iv e sways o v er S in d , a l u l l came o v e r t h e m aritim e d i s p l a y
which once was so v i s i b l e .

I t was n o t u n t i l th e l a t t e r h a l f o f th e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu ry when Sind was annexed t o t h e B r i t i s h empire in


I n d i a t h a t th e lower Indus V a lle y once more began to p la y an im p re ssiv e
r o l e i n th e commerce o f th e r e g io n .

C u l t u r a l Achievements
The c lo s e p o l i t i c a l c o n t a c t s w ith t h e C a lip h a te e s t a b l i s h e d
a f t e r 715 A.D. en ab led Sind t o e x p e rie n c e a h e a l th y c u l t u r a l exchange
w ith th e a r e a s o u t s i d e I n d ia .

T his exchange in many ways i s th e most

s t r i k i n g and i n a sen se most s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f Arab a u t h o r i t y o v er


th e are a .

From th e Arab c u l t u r a l p o i n t o f view, t h e y e a r s 750-900 A.D.

have been c l a s s i f i e d as "The Age o f T r a n s l a t i o n , " s i g n i f y i n g th e


w ealth o f m a te r ia l accum ulated from a re a s as f a r a p a r t as Spain and
C e n tr a l A sia and th e n re n d e re d i n t o A r a b i c . 86
A.D. have been c a l l e d "The Golden Age."

The y e a r s 900 t o 1100

During t h i s age t h e Muslims

"b eg in t o r e l y upon t h e i r own r e s o u r c e s and t o develop from w i t h i n . " 97


Throughout t h e f i r s t p e r io d and d u rin g t h e second h a l f o f th e l a t t e r ,
Sind c o n tin u e d t o m a in ta in commercial as w ell as c u l t u r a l c o n ta c ts
w ith t h e Arab w orld.

86A rnold, The Legacy o f Is la m , p . 160.


87I b id .

206

Arab h i s t o r i a n s r e p e a t e d l y have a d m itte d th e d e b t owed by


t h e i r f e l lo w kinsmen t o t h e S in d ia n men o f l e t t e r s and s c i e n c e .

Two

p e r i o d s s t a n d o u t d u r in g which t h e im pact from I n d i a was most p r o f o u n d - t h e r e i g n s o f C a lip h s al-M a n su r (753-774 A.D.) and Harun a l - R a s h id
(786-809 A .D .).

We l e a r n from a l - B i r u n i t h a t no few er th a n f o u r

m is s io n s a r r i v e d a t Baghdad from S in d betw een 753 and 778 A .D ., and


i n c lu d e d i n t h e i r e n to u r a g e Hindu s c h o l a r s o f o u t s t a n d i n g r e p u t a t i o n . 88
I t was w ith t h e embassy o f 771 A.D. t h a t a c e r t a i n I n d ia n b r o u g h t w ith
him a t r e a t i s e on astronom y i n S a n s k r i t c a l l e d S id d h a n ta (A rabic
S i n d h i n d ) . 89

T w e n ty -fiv e y e a r s l a t e r t h e work was r e n d e r e d i n t o

A ra b ic by Muhammad ib n Ib ra h im a l - F a z a r i who s u b s e q u e n t l y became t h e


f i r s t a stro n o m e r i n I s l a m . 90

"The a s tr o n o m ic a l d a t a so d e r i v e d were

a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o I s l a m i c S c ie n c e and became a c c e s s i b l e t o L a tin


C h ristia n d o m i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y th ro u g h t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e
work o f A l - B a t t i n i : " 91
The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f Hindu n um erals d o u b t l e s s l y
came a b o u t th ro u g h t h e s e s c h o l a r s . The p r a c t i c e
was r e v o l u t i o n a r y : The i n f l u e n c e w hich t h e
d ecim al system o f r e c k o n in g d ep en d en t on th o s e
f i g u r e s h a s had n o t o n ly on m a th e m a tic s , b u t cn
t h e p r o g r e s s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n i n g e n e r a l can
h a r d l y b e o v e r - e s t i m a t e d . D uring t h e e i g h t h

88S achau, A l b e r u n i 's I n d i a , Vol. I I , 15, 67, 313.


89I b i d .

A lso s e e M a s 'u d i,

ojj .

c i t . , pp . 153-55.

90S a ' i d ib n Ahmad a l - A n d a l u s i , T abaqat a 1 - Umam ( B e i r u t :


Im p rim e rie C a t h o l i q u e , 1912), pp. 4 9 -5 0 ; J . J . W in t e r s , "F o rm ativ e
I n f l u e n c e i n I s l a m i c S c i e n c e , " I n t e r n a t i o n a l e s d ' H i s t o i r e des
S c i e n c e , Vol. 32 (1 9 5 3 ), 185; H i t t i , op. c i t . , p . 307; A r n o ld , The
Legacy o f I s l a m , p . 380.
91W in t e r s ,

op. c i t .,

p.

185.

207

and n i n t h c e n t u r i e s t h e In d ia n s became t e a c h e r s
i n a r i t h m e t i c and a lg e b r a o f t h e A rabs, and
th ro u g h them o f t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e W e s t.52
During t h e C a li p h a t e o f Harun a l - R a s h id (786-809 A.D.) t h e Barmakides
had a c q u ir e d m i n i s t r i a l i n f l u e n c e o v er t h e c o u r t a t Baghdad.

T h is

fa m ily t r a c e d i t s o r i g i n s t o p r e - I s l a m i c Balkh ( B a c t r a ) , which had


been a f l o u r i s h i n g c e n t e r o f B u dd hist l e a r n i n g , and was c o n s e q u e n tly
p e c u l i a r l y l i a b l e t o I n d ia n i n f l u e n c e even a f t e r t h e i r c o n v e rs io n
t o Isla m .

I t was th ro u g h t h e i r i n t e r e s t and in f l u e n c e t h a t In d ia n

m ed ical l o r e and wisdom l i t e r a t u r e a r r i v e d a t t h e A bbassid c o u r t .


Among t h e form er ty p e we can cou n t th e C h arak a, th e S u s r u t a , th e
Ninda and t h e Ashtanga o f V agbhata, a l l m edical t r e a t i s e s . 93

The

l a s t named was r e n d e re d i n t o A rab ic by an In d ia n p h y s i c i a n , Mankah,


who so im p resse d Harun a l - R a s h id by c u r in g him o f some s e r i o u s i l l n e s s
t h a t t h e C alip h a p p o in te d him as head o f t h e Royal H o s p i t a l . 911
By f a r th e most o u t s t a n d i n g example o f In d ia n wisdom l i t e r a
t u r e a r r i v i n g a t Baghdad was t h e f a b l e s o f B id p a i, K a l i l a h Wa-Dimnah,

92A r th u r M acd o n ell, H i s to r y o f S a n s k r i t L i t e r a t u r e (New York:


A pp leto n and C o ., 1900), p . 424. Arab m ath em atician al-K hw arizm i was
t h e f i r s t a d v o c a te o f Hindu num erals i n c l u d i n g z e r o . His work on
In d ia n methods o f c a l c u l a t i o n , w r i t t e n a t t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e n i n t h
c e n t u r y , was t r a n s l a t e d by A belard o f Bath i n t h e t w e l f t h c e n tu r y
u n d er t h e t i t l e De numero i n d i c o . H i t t i , ojs. c i t . , p. 573.
"M a ju m d a r, The Age o f I m p e ria l K anauj, p . 450.
9I+Muwaffiq u d d in ib n A b u -U saib iah , 'Uyun al-A n b iah f i T abaqat
a l - A t t i b a (F o un dation s o f in f o r m a tio n r e s p e c t i n g t h e c l a s s e s o f
p h y s i c i a n s ) . E x t r a c t co n c e rn in g In d ia n p h y s ic i a n s a t Baghdad, t r a n s
l a t e d i n E n g lis h by Rev. W. C ureton and p u b lis h e d i n The J o u r n a l o f
th e Royal A s i a t i c S o c i e t y , Vol. VI (1 8 41 ), 105-119; Ibn Nadim,
A l - F a h r i s t (C airo : A l-K utba a l - T a j a r a t a l - K u b r i , 1929), pp . 342, 378,
421.

208

which e n te r e d t h e Arab w orld v i a P e r s i a where i t had been ren d ered


i n t o P a h la v i d u rin g t h e r e i g n o f Khusrow Anushirwan (531-578 A .D .) - 95
I t i s commonplace t o say t h a t f o r e i g n arm ies occupying In d ia
f o r any le n g th o f tim e have in tu r n been c u l t u r a l l y I n d ia n iz e d .

We

f in d t h i s phenomenon very c l e a r l y e x e r t i n g i t s e l f upon t h e Arabs in


S in d ,th o u g h th e Arab o c c u p a tio n d id manage to g iv e t h a t co u n try
some degree o f A rabian c u l t u r e .

Arab v i s i t o r s t o t h e a r e a convey

a f a i r l y b a la n c e d assessm ent o f p r e v a i l i n g s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l t r e n d s .


To th e v e ry end o f Arab r u l e , A rabic was used as th e language o f t h e
b u re a u c ra c y though Sind rem ained th e lin g u a f ra n c a o f a l l . 96

In

t im e , excep t f o r r e l i g i o u s p u r p o s e s , however, th e use o f A rabic


began t o give way t o th e n a t i v e tongue u n t i l i t was e li m i n a t e d a l
t o g e t h e r . 97

The p r e - I s l a m i c S in d ia n a l p h a b e t , d e riv e d from S a n s k r i t ,

was p erm an ently r e p la c e d by A rabic a lp h a b e t w ith s l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n s .


The Arab n o b i l i t y had begun to copy t h e i r In d ia n c o u n te r
p a r t s and th u s we a r e inform ed by I s t a k h r i t h a t " t h e d r e s s o f t h e i r
kin d s resem bles t h a t o f th e k in g s o f In d ia n s in r e s p e c t o f t h e h a i r

95Nadim, o p . e f t . , pp. 423-25.


96Ibn Hauqal n o te s t h a t A rabic and S in d i were b o th u n d e rs to o d ,
b u t I s t a k h r i found t h a t P e r s ia n was w id ely used s i d e by s i d e w ith
S i n d i . The d i f f e r e n c e in t h e i r o b s e r v a tio n s l i e s i n th e l i n g u i s t i c
background o f t h e two v i s i t o r s .
Ibn H auqal, as any Arab perhaps
d id n o t u n d e rsta n d P e r s i a n , whereas t h e m other-to ng ue o f I s t a k h r i
was P e r s i a n . See Ibn H auqal, o p . c i t . , p . 50; I s t a k h r i , o p . c i t . ,
p. 36.
97This change was p ro b a b ly b ro u g h t about d u rin g t h e Ghaznavid
in te rre g n u m . For alth o u g h t h e Ghaznavid were Turk, th e y u t i l i z e d
P e r s ia n as c o u rt language. The Sumras and th e Sammas were In d ia n by
o r i g i n and most c e r t a i n l y d is c a r d e d t h e use o f A rabic in f a v o r o f
P e r s i a n , th e use o f which was u n i v e r s a l i n I s la m ic lan ds e a s t o f
th e E uphrates i n c l u d i n g I n d ia .

209

and t h e t u n i c . " 98

The rese m b la n c e o f d r e s s betw een t h e I r a q i s and

t h e S in d ia n s i s n o te d by b o th I s t a k h r i and ib n H au q al, though n e i t h e r


o f them e l a b o r a t e s on th e s u b j e c t any f u r t h e r . 99
P erh ap s t h e most v i s i b l e an d , i n a s e n s e , most t r a g i c a s p e c t
o f t h i s I n d i a n i z a t i o n was t h e r e l i a n c e on e l e p h a n t s in b a t t l e form a
tio n s.

M as'u d i to o k s p e c i a l n o t e o f t h i s .

"The k in g o f Mansura has

e i g h t y war e l e p h a n t s , e v e ry one o f which i s s u p p o r te d by f i v e hund red


i n f a n t r y i n b a t t l e , as we have a lr e a d y rem ark ed ; and t h e s e e l e p h a n t s
oppose th o u sa n d s o f h o r s e s . " 108

The I n d i a n iz e d Arab war machine was

r e n d e r e d h e l p l e s s a g a i n s t f a s t c a v a l r y m aneuvers o f t h e S a f f a r i d and
t h e Ghaznavid arm ies and u l t i m a t e l y t h e Arabs f e l l v i c t i m s t o th e
i m p e r i a l e x p a n s io n s o f C e n t r a l A sian m onarchs.
U n like t h e T u rk s , t h e Afghans and t h e M ughuls, who e r e c t e d
s p le n d i d a r c h i t e c t u r a l monuments as p a r t o f t h e i r l e g a c i e s , we look
i n v a in f o r s i m i l a r Arab a c h ie v e m e n ts .

I t i s not to suggest th a t th e

l a t t e r w ere w h o lly d ev o id o f any such u n d e r t a k i n g s ; b u t n a t u r a l


c a l a m i t i e s combined w ith d e s t r u c t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n s o f l a t e r in v a d in g
h o rd e s have e r a d i c a t e d any s ig n s o f In d o -A ra b ic a r c h i t e c t u r e .

Whole

c i t i e s , f l o u r i s h i n g d u r in g p a r t o r whole o f t h e Arab p e r i o d have so


c o m p le te ly d i s a p p e a r e d t h a t t h e i r p ro b a b ly l o c a t i o n s i s a m a t t e r o f
c o n je c tu re .

Among t h e s e we may c o u n t D aybul, A lo r and M a n s u ra .181

" i s t a k h r i , o. c i t . , p . 35. A ccording t o Ibn H au qal, " t h e


d r e s s o f t h e s o v e r e ig n s o f t h e c o u n tr y re se m b le s i n th e t r o u s e r s and
t u n i c t h a t i s worn by t h e k in g s o f H in d ," o. c i t . , p . 45.
" i s t a k h r i , oj3. c i t . , p . 35; Ibn H au q al, o. c i t . , p . 45.
188M a s 'u d i, o p . c i t . , p . 386.
101For an e x c e l l e n t and co m p reh en sive a c c o u n t o f p r o b a b l e l o c a
t i o n s o f t h e s e s i t e s , se e Henry Cousens, The A n t i q u i t i e s o f S i n d ,

210

Of r e l i g i o u s a s p e c ts o f I s la m ic c u l t u r e , th e s p re a d o f I s m a ' i l ism in t h e a r e a was th e most p ro fo u n d .

I s m a 'i l i s m was one o f t h e o f f

sh o o ts o f S h i 'i s m w hich, i n t u r n , was one o f t h e m ajo r s u b - d i v i s i o n s


o f Islam .

The S h i ' i t e d o c t r i n e d i f f e r e d from t h e Orthodox Sunni

b e l i e f s ap p reciab ly :
U nlike th e S u n n ite C alip h t h e S h i ' i t e imam ( le a d e r )
had i n h e r i t e d from Muhammad n o t o n ly h i s tem perol
s o v e r e ig n ty b u t t h e p r e r o g a t i v e o f i n t e r p r e t i n g th e
law.
In t h a t c a p a c i t y he was an i n f a l l i b l e t e a c h e r
and t o h i s i n f a l l a b i l i t y he added th e d i v i n e g i f t
o f i m p e c c a b i l i t y . C o n tra ry t o th e S u n n ite and S u fi
d o c t r in e th e S h i ' i t e s m a in ta in e d t h a t r e l i g i o u s
c e r t a i n t y co uld be g ain ed on ly from t h e i n s t r u c t i o n
o f such an imam d i v i n e l y p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t e r r o r
and s i n . 102
A l i , t h e i r f i r s t Imam and t h e f o u r t h Orthodox C alip h (6S6-661 A.D.)
was t h e o r e t i c a l l y succeeded by h i s son al-H asan and th e n in 669 A.D.
by h i s second son al-H usayn .

The l a t t e r was a s s a s s i n a t e d by a hand

f u l o f S u n n ite f o llo w e r s o f t h e Umayyad C a lip h a te on t h e t e n t h o f


O ctober 680 A.D. a t K arbala i n I r a q t o g e t h e r w ith a number o f h i s
companions.
fa th e r,

"The b lo o d o f al-H u say n , even more th a n t h a t o f h i s

prov ed t o be t h e se e d o f t h e S h i ' i t e 'c h u r c h . '

b o m on t h e t e n t h o f Muharram.

S h i 'i s m was

From now on t h e imamship in A l i ' s

progency became as much o f a dogma i n t h e S h i ' i t e c re e d as t h a t o f


t h e p rophethood o f Muhammad in I s l a m . " 103

Vol. XLVI, in t h e A rc h a e o lo g ic a l Survey o f I n d i a , I m p e ria l S e r ie s


( C a l c u t t a : Government o f I n d ia C e n tr a l P u b l i c a t i o n Branch, 1927),
pp. 4 8-80, 110-31.
102H i t t i , H is to r y o f th e A rab s, p . 440.
103I b id . , p.

191.

211

A l a r g e m a j o r i ty o f t h e S h i ' i t e s swore a l l e g i a n c e to tw elve


imams in a l l , th e l a s t n in e o f whom were th e d escen d an ts o f a l Husayn and a r e c o n seq u en tly c a l l e d th e "Tw elvers" ( I t h n a 'A s h a r iy a h ).
The l a s t o f t h e s e imams i s s a i d to have d is a p p e a re d i n 878 A.D.
w ith o u t le a v in g any o f f s p r i n g .

He i s p r e s e n t l y in a tem porary s t a t e

o f o c c u l t a t i o n , whence he w i l l

ap p ear ag ain as th e Mahdi o r d i v i n e l y

guided one t o r e s t o r e t r u e Islam .


th e "h idd en " o r th e " e x p e c te d "

He i s v a r i o u s l y r e f e r r e d to

as

imam. A branch o f th e S h i i t e s

r e f u t e d th e change o f s u c c e s s io n i n s t i t u t e d by th e s i x t h imam J a ' f a r


a l - S a d iq who d e s ig n a te d h i s son I s m a 'i l as h i s s u c c e s s o r b u t l a t e r
nominated h i s younger son Musa as h i s h e i r .

That s e l e c t i o n o f th e

S h i ' i t e community, c o n s id e r in g I s m a 'i l as th e r i g h t f u l imam, i s


a c c o r d in g ly c a l l e d th e I s m a 'i l i a n s o r th e " S e v e n e rs ."

To t h i s group

I s m a 'i l became th e hidden M ah d i.104


Three d i s t i n c t elem ents can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d in t h e I s m a ' i l i a n
sect:
( i ) th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l elem ent which i s one o f
th e r e s u l t s o f Greek p h ilo so p h y and e s p e c i a l l y
o f t h e te a c h in g o f A r i s t o t l e as i n t e r p r e t e d
by t h e n e o - P l a t o n i s t s and p r e s e n t e d in an
o r i e n t a l d r e s s a f t e r p a s s in g thro ug h a S y rian
and P e r s ia n m e d ia n .. . ( i i ) The d e f i n i t e l y S h i ' i

104W. Ivanow, " I s m a i l i s and Q aram atian s," J o u rn a l o f th e


A s i a t i c S o c ie ty o f Bombay, New S e r i e s , Vol. XVI (1940, 50-65. Also
see Bernard Lewis, The O r ig in s o f Ism ailism : A Study o f t h e H i s t o r i
c a l Background o f th e F atim id C a lip h a te (Cambridge: W. H e ffe r and
Sons, L t d . , 1940), C hapter I ; Reuben Levy, "The Account o f th e
I s m a i ' l i D o c trin e s in th e J a m i' al-T aw arik h o f Rashid a l-D in
F a d l a l l a h , " J o u r n a l o f th e Royal A s i a t i c S o c ie ty (1930), P a r t I I I ,
pp. 510-36.

212

d o c t r i n e o f t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f th e d i v i n e s p i r i t
i n t h e Imam p a s s e d on by t r a n s m i g r a t i o n from
A li t o h i s d e s c e n d a n t s . And ( i i i ) t h e p u r e l y
p o l i t i c a l elem en t which c a r e d n o t h i n g about
p h ilo so p h ic a l s p e c u la tio n or S h i 'i d o c trin e , but
saw i n t h e s e c t p r o m is in g e le m e n ts o f a c o n s p ir a c y
a g a i n s t t h e A bbasid K h a l i f a t e . 105
The I s m a ' i l i a n s " o r g a n iz e d one o f t h e most s u b t l e and
e f f e c t i v e means o f p o l i t i c o - r e l i g i o u s p ropoganda t h a t t h e w orld o f
Isla m e v e r e x p e r i e n c e d . " 106

The c h i e f in s t r u m e n t i n t h i s p ro p o

ganda machine was t h e " d a ' i " o r m is s i o n a r y :


The I s m a i l i d a i , i . e . , a c c r e d i t e d a g e n t o f t h e
Imam, i s o r d a i n e d .
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e p o s i t i o n
o f o r d in a r y I s l a m i c m u l l a , he h a s s p i r i t u a l a u t h o r i t y ,
com m ission, r e c e i v e d e i t h e r d i r e c t l y from t h e s o u rc e
o f t h e r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t y , t h e Imam, o r i n d i r e c t l y ,
th ro u g h t h o s e who th e m se lv e s r e c e i v e d i t from him ,
t o g e t h e r w ith t h e r i g h t o f t r a n s f e r r i n g i t t o
o t h e r s . The Sacram ent which he i s commissioned
t o p e r fo r m i s n o t o n ly t e a c h i n g , i . e . , d i s t r i b u t i n g
t h e s a c r e d wisdom o f t h e Imam, b u t a l s o a c c e p t i n g ,
on t h e i r b e h a l f , t h e o a th o f a l l e g i a n c e o f t h e
f o l l o w e r s . 107
A number o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y q u a l i t i e s w ere combined i n t h e " d a ' i " :
As e l u s i v e and o m n ip re s e n t as t h e ' S c a r l e t P i m p e r n e l , '
as m a l i c i o u s , r u t h l e s s l y c r u e l , and u n s c ru p u lo u s in
f a r f e t c h e d d i a b o l i c a l schemes as t h e l e a d e r o f a
c r i m i n a l gang i n any d e t e c t i v e b e s t s e l l e r , as
superhum anly c l e v e r , b r a v e , p e r s e v e r i n g , and d a r i n g
as any d e t e c t i v e h e r o o f t h e b e s t American cinema
f i l m - - t h e d a ' i a p p e a rs as t h e c h i e f ' v i l l a i n o f t h e

(London:
257-58.

I0 5 DeLacy O 'L e a r y , A S h o r t H i s t o r y o f t h e F a tim id K h a l i f a t e


Kegan P a u l , T re n c h , T ru b n e r and C o ., L t d . , 1 9 2 3 ), pp.
106H i t t i , o p . c i t . , p . 443.

107W. Ivanow, "The O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e F a tim id P ro p o g an d a,"


J o u r n a l o f t h e Bombay Branch o f t h e Royal A s i a t i c S o c i e t y , Vol.
XV (1 9 3 9 ), 6.

p l o t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r many f a i l u r e s and
which t h e c o r r u p t and i n c a p a b l e Abbasid
t r a t i o n ahd t o s u f f e r . 108

d e fe a ts
a d m in is

By t h e t h i r d q u a r t e r o f t h e n i n t h c e n tu r y th e I s l a m i c w orld
was f e e l i n g t h e f u l l im pact o f I s m a ' i l i a n " d a ' i s . "

From t h e i r

h e a d q u a r te r s i n Basrah and l a t e r i n n o r th e r n S y r i a , t h e " d a ' i s " l e t


lo o se a t o r r e n t o f propoganda t h e l i k e o f which t h e I s l a m i c w orld
h as n o t o f t e n w it n e s s e d .

The m asterm ind b e h in d t h i s movement was

a c e r t a i n A b d u llah , a n a t i v e o f Ahwaz i n p r e s e n t - d a y I r a n .
f e l l to

t h e I s m a ' i l i a n s by 910 A .D ., m ainly due t o

e ffo rts

o f a " d a ' i " known as Ibn

Yemen

th e t i r e l e s s

Hawshab, surnamed M ansuru'1-Y am an.1

I t was from t h e b a s e s i n Yemen t h a t e f f o r t s were d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t


North A f r i c a w ith a s t o n i s h i n g s u c c e s s so t h a t by 909 A.D. T u n i s i a
was e f f e c t i v e l y in I s m a ' i l i a n h an d s.

S i x t y y e a r s l a t e r , Egypt

p a s se d i n t o t h e i r hands as w e l l . 110
T his phenomenal s u c c e s s was n o t a c h ie v e d w ith o u t s e r i o u s
c h a lle n g e s from w i t h i n .

Of t h e s e , th e most f o rm id a b le was th e

Karm atian (Q aram itah) s e c t .

The o r i g i n s and b e l i e f s o f t h i s s e c t

a r e o b s c u re a t b e s t and so a re i t s h i s t o r i c c o n n e c tio n s w ith th e

108I b i d . , p . I .
109W. Ivanow, B r i e f Survey o f t h e E v o lu tio n o f Is m a ilis m
(L eiden:
I s m a i l i S o c i e t y , Najm A d -d in , 1952), pp. 12-13. Also
s ee Omarah al-H ak am i, Yaman: I t s E a r l y Medieval H i s to r y : Also
th e A bridged H is to r y o f i t s D y n a s tie s by Ibn Khaldun and an Account
o f t h e Karam athians o f Yaman by'Abu~ *Abd A lla h ad-D in A l - J a n a d i ,
T r a n s l a t e d and e d i t e d by Henry C. Kay (London: Edward A rn o ld ,
1892), pp. 191-211.
110O 'L e a ry , H i s to r y o f th e F a tim id C a l i p h a t e , p p . 93-114.

214

l a r g e r body o f th e I s m a ' i l i a n s . 111

I t i s g e n e ra lly b eliev ed th a t i t s

founder was a p u p i l o f a c e r t a i n Hamadan Qaramat, a p u p il o f Abdullah


who was "chosen to a c t as head o f t h e b ran ch founded n e a r Kufa, and
he seems to have been
th e

d i l i g e n t in sen d in g o u t m i s s i o n a r i e s th ro u g h o u t

whole d i s t r i c t o f Sawad (S outhern I r a q ) , where su c c e ss was

easy

as th e o p p re sse d Nabataean v i l l a g e r s were s t i l l g ro an in g under t h e


ty ra n n y o f t h e Arab c o l o n i s t s o f t h e two c a m p - c i t i e s , Kufa and
B a s r a . " 112

Non-Arab p e a s a n tr y as w e ll as s e v e r a l d i s s a t i s f i e d Arab

t r i b e s were won o v er to th e new cause and t h e Abbasid c o n t r o l o v e r


th e area th re a te n e d .

Beyond t h i s p o i n t a system o f communism was

e s t a b l i s h e d where th e community su p p o rte d i t s e l f from a common fund:


Then i t i s s a id t h e d a ' i assem bled men and women
t o g e t h e r on a c e r t a i n n i g h t , and encouraged them
t o in d u lg e in promiscuous i n t e r c o u r s e . A f te r t h i s ,
a s s u r e d o f t h e i r a b s o lu te o b e d ie n c e , he began t o
te a c h them t h e more s e c r e t d o c t r i n e s o f th e s e c t ,
and so d e p riv e d them o f a l l b e l i e f s i n r e l i g i o n
and d isc o u ra g e d th e observance o f e x t e r n a l r i t e s such
as p r a y e r , f a s t i n g , and th e l i k e . 113

111For a comprehensive stu d y o f th e o r i g i n s and b e l i e f s o f


t h i s s e c t , see B ernard Lewis, The O rig in s o f I s m a i l i , C hapter I I I ,
"The Caram atians o f B a h ra in ," pp. 77-89; L. M assignon, " K a rm a tia n s ,"
E ncy clo pedia o f I s la m , e d i t e d by M. Th. Houtsma and T. W. Arnold
(Leyden: E. J . B r i l l , L t d . , 1913), Vol. I I , 766-72; W. Ivanow,
" I s m a i l i s and Q a rm a tia n s," J o u rn a l o f t h e A s i a t i c S o c ie ty o f Bombay,
New S e r i e s , Vol. XVI (1940), 43-85; Joseph DeSomogyl, "A T r e a t i s e
on t h e Qarm atians in th e Kitab Al-Muntazam o f Ibn A l - J a u z i , " R i v i s t a
D egli S tu d i O r i e n t a l i , Vol. X III (193 2), 248-58; O 'L eary , S ho rt
H is to r y o f th e F atim id K a l i f a t e , C h ap ter I I I , "The Q a rm a tia n s,"
pp. 34-50.
1120 'L e a r y , S h o rt H is to r y o f th e F atim id K a l i f a t e , p . 43.
v

1130 f L eary , A S h o rt H is to r y o f th e F atim id K a l i f a t e , p . 44.

215

H i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e s a re s i l e n t about th e e x is te n c e o f imams
among th e K arm atians.

This i s e a s i l y e x p la in a b le :

As Muhammad b . I s m a 'i l was th e u l t i m a t e A postle


o f God, th e M essiah, e t c . , th e new S h a r i 'a which
was giv en t o th e w orld was o b v io u sly com plete,
c o n ta in in g b o th t h e o r d in a ry and th e hidden p a r t s .
I t t h e r e f o r e no lo n g er r e q u ir e d t h e Imam, in th e
S h i ' i t e s e n s e , whose c h i e f f u n c tio n was to keep
and t o convey t o th e masses th e u n -re v e a le d p o r ti o n
o f th e o r i g i n a l Divine R e v e la tio n , r e c e iv e d by
Muhammad th e P ro p h et, and e n t r u s t e d by him t o A li
and h i s s u c c e s s o r i n o r d e r t o d i s c l o s e i t
g r a d u a lly . 11*
A ccordingly, "This h y p o th e s is e x c e l l e n t l y e x p la in s t h a t f i e r c e a n t i Is la m ic s p i r i t which i s m a n ife ste d in a l l th e t e r r i b l e e x p l o i t s o f
th e Q a r m a tia n s ." 115

The Isla m ic world was t o r e c e iv e a rude shock

in 930 A.D., when th e Karmatians s e i 2ed th e holy c i t y o f Mecca and


c a r r i e d o f f t h e Black Stone (K a 'a b a ), th e most s a c re d o b je c t in th e
Muslim v ie w .116
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o t r a c e t h e o r ig i n s o f Fatim id-K arm atian
c o n f l i c t which r e s u l t e d in an open b re a k i n 971 A.D.

I t has been

su g g ested t h a t th e Karmatian S t a t e o f Bahrain was shaken by se v e re


i n t e r n a l c r i s e s around 968 A.D.

"As a r e s u l t o f t h i s s t r u g g l e o f

f a c t i o n s , a new le a d e r s h ip emerged, which


A f ric a n C a l i p h s . " 117

was h o s t i l e to th e N.

By 977 A.D., however, th e breach seemed to

11!*Ivanow, " I s m a i l i s and Q arm atian s," o. c i t . , pp. 81-82.


115I b i d . , p. 82. The s to n e was r e s t o r e d on o r d e rs o f th e
Fatim id Caliph i n 950 A.D.
116H i t t i , , c i t . , p. 445.
117Lewis, O rig in s o f I s m a ilis m , p . 85.

216

have been mended and " i b n Hauqal m en tio n s i n 977 t h a t th e y (Karma


t i a n s ) s e n t an an n u al t r i b u t e t o t h e Imam."118
Our knowledge c o n c e rn in g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f K arm atian r u l e
i n M ultan i s v e r y l i m i t e d .

What we do know w ith c e r t a i n t y i s t h e

f a c t t h a t m is s io n a r y a c t i v i t i e s i n Sind were c a r r i e d o u t by t h e
" d a ' i " d i s p a t c h e d from Yemen.

For t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n we a r e in d e b t e d

t o th e I s m a ' i l i a n w r i t e r and ju d g e a l- Q a d i al-N u'm an who com pleted


h i s work I f t i t a h a l da'w a i n 957 A.D.

A ccording t o t h i s s o u r c e ,

Mansuru'1-Yaman " s e n t h i s c o u s i n , a l- H a s a n , a s a ' d a ' i * t o t h e c o u n try


o f S in d ; th e l a t t e r c o n v e r te d many o f i t s

i n h a b i t a n t s and h i s d a 'w a

( m is sio n ) s t i l l s u r v i v e s i n S i n d . " 118

a n o t h e r work o f h i s , K itab

In

a l - M a j a l i s W a -l-M u sa y a ra t, com p leted i n 962 A .D ., a l- Q a d i al-N u'm an


f u r n i s h e s us w ith a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t i n t o I s m a ' i l i a n a f f a i r s in
S in d .

These have been summarized by S t e m i n h i s a r t i c l e " Is m a i l i

Popoganda and F a tim id Rule i n S in d " :


In t h e tim e o f a l - M u 'i z z , t h e r e was i n c h arg e o f
t h e m is s io n o f S in d a d a ' i whose view s and whose
con d uct were u t t e r l y a t v a r i a n c e w ith t h e I s m a i ' l i
o rth o d o x y t a u g h t by t h e Imam and h i s c l o s e a s s o
c i a t e s . Not o n ly d i d h e ad op t a l a t i t u d i n a r i a n
a t t i t u d e tow ards t h o s e members o f h i s f l o c k who
had made a d i r e c t p a s s a g e from t h e i r o l d r e l i g i o n
t o Ism a 1ilism --w hom he allo w e d t o keep many o f
t h e u n - I s l a m i c p r a c t i c e s o f t h e i r fo rm er r e l i g i o n - - b u t h e even r e l a x e d c e r t a i n s t a t u t e s o f Islam
f o r t h o s e who h ad been Muslims b e f o r e j o i n i n g
I s m a ' i l i s m . . . As f a r as p o l i t i c a l s u c c e s s was con-

118I b i d . , p . 89.
119Quoted i n S. M. S t e m , " I s m a ' i l i Propoganda and F atim id
Rule in S i n d ," I s la m ic C u l t u r e , Vol. XXIII (1 9 4 9 ), 299.

217

c e m e d , t h e d a ' i o f Sind had an im p o rta n t a c h ie v e


ment t o h i s c r e d i t : he su cceed ed i n w inning o v er
t o t h e F atim id c a u s e one o f t h e r u l e r s o f S in d.
The s o v e r e i g n t y o f a l - M u 'iz z was openly p r o
c la im e d , and t h e Khutba r e a d i n h i s name. With
th e h e lp o f t h e p r i n c e l y c o n v e r t , t h e I s m a ' i l i s
o f S ind were a b le t o d e f e a t a c o a l i t i o n o f t h e
r u l e r s o f t h e c o u n tr y which a t t a c k e d them and t o
c o n s o l i d a t e t h e i r p o s i t i o n ; t h e f o r t r e s s which
t h e I s m a ' i l i s made t h e i r c a p i t a l and d a r h i j r a
i s p ro b a b ly no o t h e r b u t t h e c i t y o f M u lta n .120
The C alip h a l- M u 'iz z was a d v is e d by h i s
h e re tic a l

" d a 'i ."

c o u r t to r e p l a c e t h e

While t h e s e p ro c e e d in g s were going on, an u n f o r t u n a t e

a c c i d e n t removed t h e s a i d " d a ' i " from th e s c e n e .

He was succeeded

by Halam ib n S h aib an , whose f i r s t concern was " t o do away w ith t h e


r e l i g i o u s abuses o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r . . .Not o n ly was he i n t e n t on
e n f o rc in g a s t r i c t I s la m ic orthodoxy in t h e conduct o f th e d a 'w a ,
b u t a ls o went o u t o f h i s way t o d e s tr o y t h e famous i d o l o f M u lt a n . " 121
For h i s a c t s , Halam was d u ly c o n g r a tu le d by t h e C a lip h :
R e f e r r in g t o what you have w r i t t e n : t h a t God has
g r a n te d you a v i c t o r y o v e r th o s e who had a t t a c k e d
you and w anted t o o u s t you from y o u r p l a c e ; t h a t
t e r r i b l e b a t t l e s have been fo u g h t betw een you,
t i l l God gave you t h e v i c t o r y , by His h e lp and
a s s i s t a n c e and you have e x te r m in a te d them c o m p le te ly ;
t h a t you d e s tr o y e d t h e i r i d o l and b u i l t a mosque
on i t s s i g h t what a g r e a t f a v o u r , .. .W e would
be v e ry much p l e a s e d i f you c o u ld send us th e
head o f t h a t i d o l . . . 122
From t h e above e p i s t l e , i t a p p e a rs t h a t th e change o f command
i n Multan in v o lv e d c o n s id e r a b l e b lo o d sh e d .

We a r e now i n a p o s i t i o n

120I b i d . , pp. 299-300.


121I b i d .
122C alip h a l- M u 'iz z t o Halam b i n S h a ib a n , d a te d Sunday, t h e
19th o f Ramadan, 354 A.H. Quoted in S t e r n , o p . c i t . , pp. 301-302.

218

t o d a te th e I s m a 'i l i a n cause in Sind w ith some a c cu racy .

The

I f t i t a h a l - d a 'w a o f a l-Q a d i al-Nu'man was completed i n 957 A.D. and


r e f e r s t o th e I s m a ' i l i propoganda i n Sind b u t does n o t mention th e
f a l l o f M ultan.

The Kitab a l - M a j a l i s w a-l-M usay arat was completed

i n 962 A.D. and r e f e r s to th e c a p tu r e o f Multan on th e one hand and


th e appointm ent o f Halam b i n Shaiban on th e o t h e r .

C le a rly , then,

th e I s m a ' i l i s succeeded i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e i r c o n t r o l o v er Multan


between 957 and 962 A.D.

In t h i s i n s t a n c e , i t i s p u z z lin g as t o why

Ibn H auqal, an I s m a 'i l i a n h i m s e lf , and v i s i t i n g Sind a f t e r th e


e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e F atim id r u l e i n M ultan, f a i l s t o mention i t a t
a ll.

Ibn H au q al's s ta te m e n t t h a t "The Governor i s o f th e t r i b e o f

K u raish , o f th e sons o f Samah, th e son o f Lawi, who f i r s t occupied


th e p l a c e .

He owes no a l l e g i a n c e t o th e c h i e f o f Mansura.

He, how

e v e r , always read s t h e Khutba in th e name o f t h e K h a l i f a ," throws


some l i g h t on t h e a f f a i r s o f S i n d . 123

I t confirm s a l-Q a d i al-N u 'm a n 's

accou nt t h a t i t was w ith t h e h e lp o f t h e " p r i n c e l y c o n v e r t" t h a t


I s m a 'i l i a n r u l e was e s t a b l i s h e d ov er M ultan.

Thus t h e change in

a l l e g i a n c e from Baghdad to Egypt d id n o t in v o lv e a c o rre sp o n d in g


change in t h e r u l i n g h ouse.

The " K h a lifa " o f Ibn Hauqal i s o b v io u sly

th e F atim id and not th e A bbassid.


As p r e v i o u s l y m ention ed , Mansura was annexed t o th e 'Ghaznavid
realm s in 1026 A.D.

Only a few y e a r s p r i o r t h e I s m a 'i l i a n s had

succeeded in ex ten d in g t h e i r p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l o v er t h e a r e a . 12*1

123E l l i o t , o p . c i t . , Vol. I , 47.


12t*Ibn a l - A t h i r , Al-Kamil f i - T a r i k h (Leiden:
1867), X, 201.

E. J . B r i l l .

219

T h is was o b v io u s l y acco m p lish e d betw een 985 and 1025 A .D ., f o r


M uqaddisi v i s i t i n g t h e a r e a a t t h e fo rm er d a t e found t h e r u l i n g house
owing a l l e g i a n c e t o Baghdad.

I t i s e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e t h a t f o llo w i n g

t h e p o l i t i c a l b lo o d b a th a t t h e hands o f t h e G h azn av id is t h e I s m a ' i l i a n s


o f M ultan s t r u c k i n t h e s o u t h e r l y d i r e c t i o n and i n so d o in g o v e r r a n
Mansura.

I t i s e q u a l l y p o s s i b l e t h a t i n t e n s i v e m is s io n a r y work was

c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e a r e a p r i o r t o t h e Ghaznavid a n n e x a tio n o f M ultan.


The commencement o f I s m a 'i l i s m i n S in d was t o e x e r c i s e s i g n i
f i c a n t im pact on t h e p o p u l a t i o n as a w hole.

By t h e v e ry n a t u r e o f

t h e i r m is s io n a r y a c t i v i t i e s t h e I s m a ' i l i a n s were b e t t e r s u i t e d and


c o n s e q u e n tly more s u c c e s s f u l among t h e non-Muslim

p o p u la tio n than

t h e i r Sunni r i v a l s :
In th o s e days t h e I s m a i l i s h ad a t r a d i t i o n o f p o s in g
a s a d h e r e n ts o f th e f a i t h w i t h i n which t h e y w o r k e d ...
There a r e s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s on r e c o r d where an
I s m a i l i m is s i o n a r y posed as a Brahmin o r a Hindu
p r i e s t and i n s t e a d o f f l a t l y c o n t r a d i c t i n g t h e d o c
t r i n e s o f t h e f a i t h he so u g h t t o s u b v e r t , he a c c e p te d
i t s b a s i c assu m p tio n s and i n t r o d u c e d some o f I s m a i l i
b e l i e f s i n a d i s g u is h e d form and th u s slo w ly and
g r a d u a l l y paved t h e way f o r t o t a l c o n v e r s i o n . . .Very
o f t e n A li was d e p i c t e d as an i n c a r n a t i o n o f Vishnu
among t h e V i s h n a v i t e s . In s h o r t , a f t e r some p e r s o n a l
l o y a l t y had b e e n c r e a t e d , t h e d i s c i p l e was ta k e n
th ro u g h v a r i o u s s t a g e s i n t o f u l l - f l e d g e d b e l i e f in
t h e t e a c h i n g s o f I s m a i l i I s la m . The I s m a i l i s were
h e r e a t an a d v a n ta g e compared t o t h e S unnis b e c a u s e
t h e l a t t e r i n s i s t upon t o t a l c o n v e r s io n r i g h t from
t h e b e g i n n i n g and a r e n o t w i l l i n g t o make t h e l e a s t
compromise i n t h e m a t t e r o f d o c t r i n e . 125

125I s h t i a q H usain Q u r e s h i , The Muslim Community o f t h e In d o P a k i s t a n S u b c o n tin e n t (610-1947) (The Hague: Mouton and C o ., 1 9 62 ),
p . 45.

220

I s la m ic o rth o d o x y was now h a r d - p r e s s e d .

In an e f f o r t t o meet

th e I s m a ' i l i a n c h a l l e n g e , i t f i n a l l y found a champion i n Sufism .


Sufism in I n d ia n environm ent was b e t t e r s u i t e d t o c o n f r o n t t h e f o r m i
d a b le c h a lle n g e t o I s m a ' i l i a n h e tro d o x y th a n S u n n ism .126

I t i s t o be

a d m itte d t h a t t h e orth o d o x y could and d id in d eed l e a n upon th e m i l i t a r y


power o f t h e G haznavids.

However, t h e Ghaznavid g a r r i s o n s had been

e v i c t e d by t h e Sumras, champions o f I s m a 'i l i s m and r e c e n t c o n v e r ts


from H in d u ism .127

The I s m a ' i l i a n - S u f i r i v a l r y c o lo r e d t h e e n t i r e

s u b se q u e n t m ed iev al p e r i o d o f S in d h i s t o r y which i s p r o p e r l y s p e a k in g ,
w e ll beyond t h e c h r o n o lo g ic a l l i m i t s o f t h i s p a p e r .

In th e fo u rte e n th

c e n tu r y t h e Sumras were won o v e r to t h e cause o f t h e o rth o d o x y by S u f i


e ffo rts.

The Sammas, who i n v e s t e d Sind from t h e Sumras by th e m id dle

o f th e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , were m ainly o f Sunni p e r s u a s i o n a t th e


h e i g h t o f t h e i r p o w e r .128
The I s m a ' i l i a n - S u f i antagonism gave a trem endous b o o s t t o
I s l a m i c m is s io n a r y a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e a r e a .

As i t was b o th s id e s

competed f r a n t i c a l l y t o win o v er t h e non-Muslim p o p u l a t i o n t o t h e i r

126For a d i s c u s s i o n o f Sufism i n I n d ia n en viron m ent s e e T ara


Chand, I n f l u e n c e o f Isla m on In d ia n C u l t u r e , pp. 65-83. F or a g e n e r a l
d i s c u s s i o n o f Sufism s e e N ic h o ls o n 's a r t i c l e , " M y s t i c i s n , " in Thomas
Arnold and A l f r e d Guillaum e ( e d s . ) , The Legacy o f Islam (Oxford:
At t h e C larendon P r e s s , 1931), pp. 210-38.
127E l l i o t , H is to r y o f I n d ia as Told by i t s Own H i s t o r i a n s ,
Vol. V, 85-95.
128See R iazu l Is la m , "The R ise o f th e Sammas i n S i n d ,"
I s la m ic C u l t u r e , Vol. XXII (1 9 4 8 ), 359-82.

2 21

c a u s e . 129

The danger o f I s m a ' i l i a n h e tro d o x y appears t o have been

e l i m i n a t e d even b e f o r e th e founding o f th e Mughul empire in I n d ia


in th e e a r l y p a r t o f th e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y . The legacy o f Sufism ,
however, rem ained.

Hence, i t i s ob served t h a t " l a t e r t h e r e was such

expansion o f Sufism in Sind t h a t th e a r e a i s f u l l o f th e d escen d en ts


o f th e S u f is who a t one tim e o r a n o th e r earn ed th e r e s p e c t o f th e
p o p u l a t i o n . " 130
So f a r , t h e d i s u c s s io n has been c o n fin e d c h i e f l y to the
I s m a ' i l i a n im pact upon th e a r e a as a whole.

On th e b r o a d e r h o riz o n

we n o te t h a t th e Arab p e r i o d i s t o be commended f o r i t s s i n g u l a r
t o l e r a n c e tow ards indig en ou s r e l i g i o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s .

As p o in te d

out e a r l i e r , th e H indu-Buddhist p o p u la tio n had come t o be t r e a t e d as


th e " a h l - a l - K i t a b " o r p eo p le o f t h e book o r th e co venant, alth ou gh
by s t r i c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e l i g i o u s law such a r e c o g n i t io n was t o
be exten ded only t o th e C h r i s t i a n s , t h e Jews and t h e S a b i a n s . 131
This co n c e ssio n ren d ered i t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e non-Muslims t o h o ld h ig h ra n k in g b u r e a u c r a t i c p o s ts th ro u g h o u t t h e Arab r u l e and beyond.

The

well-known Hindu community o f S in d i Amils, which has p lay ed a s i g n i f i -

129Q u re sh i, o p . c i t . , pp. 42-59; T. W. A rnold, The P reach in g


o f Islam : A H is to ry o f t h e P ro p o g atio n o f t h e Muslim F a i t h , Second
E d itio n (London: C on stab le and Company, L t d . , 1913), C hapter IX, "The
Spread o f Islam i n I n d i a , " pp. 254-293; The G a z e tte e r o f t h e Bombay
P re sid e n c y (Bombay: Government C e n tr a l P r e s s , 1877-1904), Vol. IX,
P a r t I I , 38, 46, 66, 76.
130Q u re sh i, o. c i t . , p . 53. A ccording t o E l l i o t , " I t n o to r io u s l y
swarms w ith s a n c t i f i e d b eg gars and im p o s te r s , and c o n t a i n s , a c c o rd in g
t o th e c u r r e n t s a y in g , no l e s s th an 100,000 tombs o f s a i n t s and m a r ty r s ,
b e s id e s e c c l e s i a s t i c a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . . . " E l l i o t , o p . c i t . , Vol. V, 134.
131S e e a b o v e , C h a p te r V I . P P -

1 2 2 -1 2 3 .

222

c a n t r o l e i n t h e S i n d i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o v e r t h e p a s t tw e lv e c e n t u r i e s ,
owes i t s o r i g i n s t o t h e Arab p e r i o d .
The s u c c e s s o r s o f t h e A ra b s, th o u g h Muslims t h e m s e l v e s , w i s e l y
m a in t a in e d a t o l e r a n t a t t i t u d e to w ard t h e i r non-M uslim s u b j e c t s . 132
In t h i s t h e y d i f f e r e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h e f a n a t i c T u r k s , t h e Afghans
and t h e Mughuls whose narrow p o l i c i e s i n t h e s p i r i t u a l r e a lm d i d so
much t o w iden t h e Hindu-Muslim a n ta g o n is m .

T h is l a r g e n e s s o f com pre

h e n s io n on t h e p a r t o f t h e Arabs goes a lo n g way t o e x p l a i n why s u b


s t a n t i a l numbers o f S i n d ia n s rem ain ed t r u e t o t h e f a i t h o f t h e i r f o r e
f a t h e r s w h ereas i n S i j i s t a n , Kabul and t h e p r e s e n t - d a y N o rth West
F r o n t i e r P r o v i n c e , a r e a s which f e l l u n d e r t h e Muslim sway c e n t u r i e s
a f t e r t h e f a l l o f S in d , t h e Hindu e le m e n t was e n t i r e l y e r a d i c a t e d
from t h e p o p u l a t i o n . 133

1 32 A s h a s been m e n tio n e d , e x c e p t f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d when t h e


T u r k i s h G haznavid c o n t r o l was e x te n d e d o v e r S in d , S in d was ru ^ e d by
l o c a l Muslim d y n a s t i e s o f t h e Sumras and t h e Sammas, b o t h Hindu i n
o rig in .

1330n t h e eve o f I n d ia n in d e p e n d e n c e i n 1947 A.D. r o u g h ly


o n e - f o u r t h o f t h e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n o f S in d was non-M uslim .

CHAPTER IX

CONCLUSION
The a n n e x a tio n o f S ind was n e i t h e r i n s p i r e d by f a n a t i c r e l i
g io u s z e a l n o r was i t p u r e l y p u n i t i v e in n a t u r e .

Any c o n s p ir a c y between

the government o f Sind, on t h e one h and, and t h e p i r a t e s on t h e o t h e r


a g a i n s t Arab s e a f a r i n g t r a d e s h i p s , a ch arg e im p lie d by m edieval Muslim
h i s t o r i a n s , must be r u l e d o u t .

A s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e a r e a ' s com

m e r c ia l p r o s p e r i t y was dependent upon t h e t h r i v i n g c o a s t a l t r a d e w ith


t h e I s l a m i c lan d s i n t h e w e s t.

To r e t a r d t h i s a c t i v i t y i n any manner

w h a tso e v e r would have been an a c t o f s i n g u l a r u n s ta te s m a n s h ip on th e


p a r t o f t h e S ind monarchy.

The p i r a t e s had i n f e s t e d t h e S ind c o a s t

from tim e immemorial, a f a c t w e ll known t o Arab s e a c a p t a i n s and th e


g o v e rn o rs o f t h e m aritim e p r o v in c e s a l i k e .
The e x c e e d in g ly d i f f i c u l t f i n a n c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f a c a l i
p h a t e v i s i b l y shaken b y a r e c e n t l y concluded b lo o d y c i v i l w ar, as w e ll
as a lo n g n u r t u r e d d e s i r e t o g a in a s u i t a b l e p o r t o f c a l l on t h e In d ia n
c o a s t were t h e prim e movers f o r t h i s Drang nach o s t e n .

The c e n t r a l

government a t Damascus was moved t o a c t i o n o n ly when a s s u re d o f s u b


s t a n t i a l m onetary r e t u r n s from S in d , which i n c i d e n t a l l y amounted t o
tw ic e t h e sum a c t u a l l y r e q u i r e d t o f in a n c e t h e campaign and was im p le
mented by t h e v a s t sum o f e le v e n m i l l i o n dirham s a n n u a lly in t h e form
of trib u te .

P r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o rs , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e o f m aritim e

a r e a s , had d i s p l a y e d an un usual e n th u sia s m in f a v o r o f a c q u i r i n g a


f o o th o l d on t h e I n d ia n c o a s t , t h e i r a c t i o n s i n 637 A.D. a g a i n s t

224

In d ia n c o a s t a l s i t e s h av in g b o rn e t h i s o u t w ith c l a r i t y .

With t h e

i n c r e a s e o f Arab m aritim e a c t i v i t i e s , t h i s enth usiasm assumed g r e a t e r


p ro p o rtio n s.

Thus i t was t h a t th e commercial p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e low er

Indus v a l l e y , t o g e t h e r w ith i t s e x c e l l e n t s e a p o r t a t Daybul, re n d e re d


Sind p e c u l i a r l y l i a b l e t o Arab m i l i t a r y a c t i o n .
I n i t i a l l y th w a rte d i n h i s a tte m p ts to p e n e t r a t e t h e a r e a s , a l H a j j a j ib n Yusuf, th e Umayyad v ic e r o y o f a l - I r a q , r e q u e s te d a d d i t i o n a l
tro o p s and funds from Damascusa move which c l e a r l y e x h i b i t s h i s
a n x ie ty o v e r t h e campaign, on t h e one h an d, and t h e m i l i t a r y p o t e n t i a l
o f Sind on th e o t h e r .

For more th an s i x decades t h e arm ies o f th e

c a l i p h a t e had a tte m p te d t o p e n e t r a t e t h e d e fe n se s o f I n d i a a c r o s s th e
mighty Hindu-Kush w ith v a r y in g i n t e n s i t y , b u t had f a i l e d .

The v a s t

and a r i d B a lu c h is ta n p l a t e a u , s e p a r a t i n g S ind from t h e I s la m ic t e r r i


t o r y , was ad m irably s u i t e d to Arab m i l i t a r y s k i l l .
th e in v a d e rs had to surmount a number o f o b s t a c l e s .

On r e a c h in g Sind
Of t h e s e t h e

c h i e f were f o u r a very complex and advanced ty p e s o f f o r t i f i c a t i o n s ;


a p o p u la tio n which h arb o u red no m ajor grudge a g a i n s t th e s t a t e ;
numerous and w e ll-e q u ip p e d "armies'* which must be engaged i n s e p a r a t e
e n c o u n te r s , and a c i v i l i z a t i o n w hich looked upon a l l o u t s i d e r s sim ply
as " b a r b a r i a n s . "

That a l l t h e s e o b s t a c l e s were e v e n t u a l l y overcome i s

t o th e c r e d i t o f t h e A rabs.

To be s u r e , t h e newcomers were a id e d i n

t h e i r seem ingly im probable endeavor by c e r t a i n u n f o re s e e a b le elem ents


t o a unique d eg ree.

Among t h e s e we may count t h e t r e a c h e r y o f some

h ig h - r a n k in g S in d ia n commanders, r e p e a te d w i l l i n g n e s s o f c o r p o r a te
i n t e r e s t s t o e n t e r i n t o s e c r e t n e g o t i a t i o n s w ith th e enemy and i n d i v i
dual In d ia n t r a i t o r s d i s c l o s i n g w ell guarded m i l i t a r y s e c r e t s .
v i t a l elem ent o f m o b i l i ty d e c i s i v e l y fav o red t h e Arabs w h ile th e

The

225

I n d ia n s d i s p l a y e d an a d v a n ta g e i n equipm ent and

o c c a s io n a lly in

n u m b ers.
The " I n d i a p o l i c y , " p r o d u c t o f t h e i m a g i n a t i v e minds o f a l H a j j a j and Muhammad ib n a l- Q a s im , Arab commander i n S in d , e n v i s i o n e d
an a r e a p a c i f i e d n o t so much on t h e b a s i s o f m i l i t a r y a c t i o n as on t h e
common i d e n t i t y o f i n t e r e s t s .

The I n d i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e w i th

i t s s t a b l e f o u n d a t io n s and d e e p ly imbedded i n t h e s o c i a l o r d e r c h a r a c
t e r i z e d b y t h e c a s t e s y ste m w as, on t h e w h o le , m a i n ta in e d i n f a c t .

The

i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s t a t e w ere i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h o s e o f t h e m e r c a n t i l e
co m m u n itie s, a s w e l l as w ith t h o s e o f t h e r e l i g i o u s and r u r a l e l i t e .
The H in d u -B u d d h ist p o p u l a t i o n was l e g a l l y p l a c e d on a p a r w i t h t h e
C h r i s t i a n s and t h e Jews w i t h i n t h e I s l a m i c commonwealth, t h e e x e c u t i o n
o f which became p o s s i b l e o n l y i n t h e a b s e n c e o f any r i g i d s c h o o ls o f
j u r i s p r u d e n c e u n d e r t h e Umayyads.

The p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n o f th e

Brahmins among t h e n a t i v e s was w i s e l y r e c o g n i z e d .

The v i l l a g e commu

n i t i e s w ere n o t m o le s te d w h il e l o c a l laws and custom s w ere g u a r a n t e e d .


I s l a m i c l e g a l s t r u c t u r e was e r e c t e d t o accommodate t h e M uslim s, Arabs
and n a t i v e c o n v e r t s a l i k e . The c l o s e p o l i t i c a l c o n n e c t io n s w i t h t h e
c a l i p h a t e f o s t e r e d an a l r e a d y t h r i v i n g commerce, c h i e f l y d i r e c t e d by
non-M uslim m e r c a n t i l e co m m u n ities.
F o r t h r e e c e n t u r i e s , t h e n , S in d was g o v ern ed by an A ra b ic
s p e a k i n g n o b i l i t y w hich e x e r c i s e d a m a rg in o f p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l by a
c l o s e l y k n i t m i l i t a r y s y ste m e n t i r e l y s t a f f e d by t h e M uslim s, and
c e n t e r i n g around t h e h e a v i l y f o r t i f i e d s i t e s o r " a m s a r s ."

The p h y s i

c a l b a r r i e r w hich s e p a r a t e d S in d from t h e o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e c a l i p h a t e
e x e r t e d i t s im p act upon t h e a r e a .

The l a s t Umayyad g o v e r n o r had w i t h

drawn h i s a l l e g i a n c e from Damascus w i t h im p u n ity .

W ith t h e r i s e o f

226

t h e l o c a l d y n a s t i e s i n e a s t e r n and n o r t h e r n P e r s i a , t h e c a l i p h a t e ' s
c o n n e c tio n s w ith t h e low er In du s v a l l e y were weakened.

In S in d i t s e l f

t h e r u l i n g e l i t e , c u t o f f from t h e A ra b ic s p e a k in g la n d s by t h e i n t e r
v e n in g P e r s i a n t e r r i t o r i e s , d e g e n e r a te d i n t o w a r r in g f a c t i o n s and
p ro m p tly f e l l v i c t i m , th ou gh b r i e f l y , t o t h e e x p a n s i o n i s t d e s ig n s o f
t h e S a f f a r i d s i n - 871 A.D.

But n e i t h e r t h e S a f f a r i d s n o r t h e Samanids

from t h e i r b a s e s i n S i s t a n and Khorasan were c a p a b le o f , n o r in d e e d


w i l l i n g t o expend t h e i r e n e r g i e s f o r any c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h o v e r an
area not e a s ily a c c e ssib le .

The main com m unication r o u t e s on la n d r a n

a lo n g t h e Indus and n o t a c r o s s t h e B a l u c h i s t a n p l a t e a u .

Throughout t h e

t e n t h c e n t u r y t h e c h a l l e n g e t o l o c a l Arab d y n a s t i e s , now e s t a b l i s h e d
a t M ultan and Mansurah, a r o s e from t h e n e i g h b o r in g Hindu p r i n c e s and
n o t from t h e w e s t.
D uring t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y a s e n s i t i v e m i l i t a r y b a l a n c e began t o
p r e v a i l betw een t h e t h r e e g r e a t powers o f t h e s u b - c o n t i n e n t , t h e
P r a t h i h a r a s o f n o r t h e r n I n d i a , t h e P a la s o f Bengal and t h e R a s h t r a k u ta s
o f t h e Deccan.

The Arabs w ere c o u r t e d by t h e R a s h t r a k u ta s w h ile t h e

P r a t h i h a r a s c u l t i v a t e d i n t e n s e h o s t i l i t y to w ards t h e " b a r b a r i a n s . "


I r o n i c a l l y , t h e Hindu powers were n o t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e
f i n a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Arab a u t h o r i t y i n S in d , b u t r a t h e r i t was t h e
Muslim T urks o f C e n t r a l A s ia .

The Arabs had b een s u f f i c i e n t l y alarm ed

by t h e r a p i d r i s e o f t h e G haznavids t o co n clu d e a d e f e n s i v e p a c t w ith


t h e Hindu p r i n c e s o f t h e P u n ja b .

The G h azn av ids, p a s s i o n a t e l y

o b s e s s e d w i th t h e d e s i r e t o in v ad e t h e r i c h lan d s o f t h e G a n g e tic
v a l l e y , c o n s id e r e d t h i s a l l i a n c e as t h e m a jo r o b s t a c l e t o t h e i r
e x p a n s io n is t d e sig n s.

D uring t h e f i r s t t h r e e d ecades o f t h e e l e v e n t h

c e n t u r y , a l l n o r th w e s te r n I n d i a was o v e rru n by th e T u r k is h f o r c e s ,

227

among th e v ic tim s b e in g t h e Arabs o f Multan and Mansurah.


Why d id th e Arabs f a i l t o e x te n d t h e i r p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l o v er
a l l n o r th e r n In d ia ? For one th i n g S in d , by i t s v e ry l o c a t i o n , d id n o t
p r o v id e a s u i t a b l e b a s e from which l a r g e s c a l e o p e r a t io n s co u ld be
s u c c e s s f u l l y launched a g a i n s t t h e upper Indus and th e G an getic p l a i n s .
I t i s s e p a r a te d from t h e g r e a t c e n t e r s o f p o p u la tio n by m assive and
i n h o s p i t a l d e s e r t , and l i e s w e ll s o u th o f th e main i n v a s io n r o u te s
le a d in g from C e n tr a l A sia i n t o I n d ia .

Moreover, u n li k e t h e Turks who

could draw upon t h e v a s t s o u rc e s o f manpower from b a s e s i n C e n tra l


A sia , t h e A rabs, always a t i n y m in o r ity i n S in d , were c u t o f f from
t h e A rabic sp eak in g lan d s by t h e i n t e r v e n i n g I r a n i a n p o p u l a t i o n .
Yet t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e Arab conquest o f S ind sho uld n o t
be m inim ized.

I t was t h e f i r s t s u c c e s s f u l in v a s io n o f t h e s u b - c o n t i

n e n t launched a c r o s s t h e v a s t s t r e t c h e s o f B a l u c h i s t a n - - a f e a t n ev er
b e f o r e o r s in c e matched.

The e n t i r e low er Indus v a l l e y was thrown

open t o Arab commerce, s t r e t c h i n g from S p ain t o Canton.

I t was t h i s

commercial p r o s p e r i t y which i n v i t e d t h e Patim id i n t e r v e n t i o n in th e


a f f a i r s o f S in d , b u t i n a somewhat unorthodox manner, t h e I s m a i 'l i a n
m i s s i o n a r ie s sim ply undermined t h e Suqni orthodoxy in t h e a r e a and
w ith i t t h e A bassid c o n n e c tio n s .
m e rc ia l i n t e r c o u r s e .

C u l t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n fo llo w e d com

In d ia n m ath em atics, astronom y, m edicine and

l i t e r a t u r e c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e " m ira c le o f th e Arab mind and c u l t u r e . "


C o n v ersely , Islam perm an en tly a f f e c t e d t h e r e l i g i o u s lan d sc ap e o f
I n d ia and made i t s e l f a f o r c e in In d ia n c i v i l i z a t i o n .

Commercial and

c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t s promoted and n u r tu r e d t h e d e s i r e f o r p e a c e f u l co
e x i s t e n c e between I n d i a 's two main r e l i g i o u s com m unities.

U n fo rtu

228

n a t e l y , t h e coming o f t h e T u rk s c o n c lu d e d t h i s p e r i o d o f f r i e n d l y i n t e r
c o u r s e and r e p l a c e d i t w i t h one o f e x trem e h o s t i l i t y and a n ta g o n is m .

APPENDIX I
HIUEN TSIANG'S ACCOUNT OF SIND AND MULTAN1
S in-T u (Sindh)
T h is c o u n tr y i s ab o u t 7000 l i i n c i r c u i t ; t h e c a p i t a l c i t y , c a l l e d
P i - s h e n - p 'o - p u - l o , i s abo ut 30 l i ro un d.

The s o i l i s f a v o u r a b l e f o r

t h e growth o f c e r e a l s and p ro d u ces abundance o f wheat and m i l l e t .


a l s o abounds i n g o ld and s i l v e r and n a t i v e co p p er.

It

I t is s u ita b le fo r

t h e b r e e d i n g o f oxen, sh e e p , c am els, m ules, and o t h e r k in d s o f b e a s t s .


The camels a r e sm a ll i n s i z e and have o n ly one hump.

They f i n d h e r e a

g r e a t q u a n t i t y o f s a l t , which i s r e d l i k e c i n n a b a r ; a l s o w h ite s a l t ,
b la c k s a l t and ro c k s a l t .

In d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s , b o th f a r and n e a r , t h i s

s a l t i s u sed f o r m e d ic in e .

The d i s p o s i t i o n o f t h e men i s h a r d and

im p u ls iv e ; b u t th e y a r e h o n e s t and u p r i g h t .
g iv e n t o c o n t r a d i c t i o n .

They q u a r r e l and a r e much

They s tu d y w ith o u t aim ing t o e x c e l ; th e y have

f a i t h i n t h e law o f Buddha.

T here a re s e v e r a l hundred sangharamas,

o c c u p ie d by ab o u t 10,000 p r i e s t s .
t o t h e Sammatiya s c h o o l.
in d u lg e n c e and d eb au ch ery .

They s tu d y t h e LittJe Vehicle a c c o r d in g

As a r u l e , th e y a r e i n d o l e n t and g iv e n t o
Those who a r e v e r y e a r n e s t as f o ll o w e r s o f

t h e v i r t u e o f t h e sag es l i v e a lo n e i n d e s e r t p l a c e s , d w e llin g f a r o f f i n

1From S i-Y u -K i: B ud dh ist Records o f t h e W estern W orld. T r a n s l a t e d


from t h e C hin ese by Hiuen T s ia n g by Samuel Beal (London: Kegan P a u l,
T ren ch , T ru b n e r and C o ., L t d . , 1 9 06 ), I I , 272-73.

230

t h e m ountains and t h e f o r e s t s .

T here n i g h t and day t h e y e x e r t them

s e l v e s i n aim ing a f t e r t h e acquirem ent o f t h e h o ly f r u i t (o f Arhat-

ship).

T here a r e about t h i r t y Deva t e m p l e s , 2 i n which s e c t a r i e s o f

v a r io u s k in d s c o n g r e g a te .
The k in g i s o f t h e S ud ra C S h u - t'o - lo ) c a s t e .

He i s by n a t u r e

h o n e s t and s i n c e r e , and he r e v e r e n c e s t h e law o f Buddha.


When T a t h a g a t a 3 was i n t h e w o rld , he f r e q u e n t l y p a s s e d th ro u g h
t h i s c o u n tr y , t h e r e f o r e A s o k a -r a ja has founded s e v e r a l t e n s o f stupas
i n p l a c e s where t h e s a c r e d t r a c e s o f h i s p r e s e n c e were found.

Upagup-

t a , t h e g r e a t A r h a t, s o jo u rn e d v e r y f r e q u e n t l y i n t h i s kingdom, ex
p l a i n i n g t h e law and co n v in c in g and g u id in g men.

The p la c e s where he

sto p p ed and t h e t r a c e s he l e f t a r e a l l commemorated by t h e b u i l d i n g o f

sangharamas o r t h e e r e c t i o n o f stupas.

T hese b u i l d i n g s a r e seen e v e r y

where; we can o n ly speak o f them b r i e f l y .


By t h e s id e o f t h e r i v e r S in d h , a lo n g t h e f l a t marshy low lands
f o r some th o u san d l i , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l h u nd red s o f th o u san d s (a very

great many) o f f a m i l i e s s e t t l e d .

They a r e o f an u n f e e l i n g and h a s ty

tem p er, and a r e given t o b loo d sh ed o n ly .

They g iv e th e m se lv e s e x c l u

s i v e l y t o te n d i n g c a t t l e , and from t h i s d e r i v e t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d .

They

have no m a s t e r s , and, w h ether men o r women, have n e i t h e r r i c h n o r


p o o r ; t h e y shave t h e i r heads and wear t h e Kashaya ro b es o f B h ikshus,
whom th e y resem ble o u tw a rd ly , w h i l s t th e y engage th em selv es i n t h e o r
d in a r y a f f a i r s o f l a y l i f e .
and a t t a c k t h e G reat V e h ic le .
2Hindu te m p le s .
3Buddha.

They h o ld to t h e i r narrow ( l i t t l e ) views

231

The o ld r e p o r t s s t a t e t h a t fo rm e rly t h e s e p eo p le were ex tre m e ly


h a s ty ( im patient ) , and o n ly p r a c t i s e d v io le n c e and c r u e l t y .

At t h i s

tim e t h e r e was an A rh a t, who, p i t y i n g t h e i r p e r v e r s i t y , and d e s i r i n g t o


co n v ert them, mounted in t h e a i r and came amoungst them.

He e x h i b i t e d

h i s m ira c u lo u s powers and d is p la y e d h i s w onderful c a p a b i l i t i e s .

Thus

he le d t h e p eo p le t o b e l i e v e and a c c e p t t h e d o c t r i n e , and g r a d u a l ly he
ta u g h t them i n w ords; a l l o f them j o y f u l l y ac c e p te d h i s t e a c h i n g and
r e s p e c t f u l l y pray ed him t o d i r e c t them i n t h e i r r e l i g i o u s l i f e .

The

Arhat p e r c e i v i n g t h a t t h e h e a r t s o f t h e p eo p le had become s u b m is s iv e ,


d e l iv e r e d t o them t h e t h r e e "R efuges" and r e s t r a i n e d t h e i r c r u e l t e n
d e n c ie s ; th e y e n t i r e l y gave up " t a k i n g l i f e , " th e y shaved t h e i r h e a d s ,
and assumed th e s o i l e d rob es o f a Bhikshu,4 and o b e d i e n tl y walked
a c c o rd in g t o t h e d o c t r i n e o f r e l i g i o n .

S ince t h e n , g e n e r a tio n s have

p assed by and t h e changed tim es have weakened t h e i r v i r t u e , b u t as f o r


t h e r e s t , t h e y r e t a i n t h e i r o ld custom s.

But though th e y w ear th e

robes o f r e l i g i o n , t h e y l i v e w ith o u t any moral r u l e s , and t h e i r sons


and grandsons c o n tin u e to l i v e as w o rld ly p e o p le , w ith o u t any r e g a r d
to t h e i r r e lig io u s p ro fe ssio n .
Going from t h i s eastw ard 900 l i o r s o , c r o s s i n g th e Sindh
r i v e r and p ro c e e d in g alon g t h e e a s t e r n bank, we come to t h e kingdom
o f M u -lo -sa n -p ' u - l u .
M u - l o - s a n - p 'u - l u (Multan)
T h is co u n try i s about 4000 l i i n c i r c u i t ; t h e c a p i t a l town i s
some 30 l i round.

I t i s t h i c k l y p o p u la te d .

Buddhist m is s io n a ry .

The e s ta b lis h m e n ts are

232

w e a lth y .
k ia ) .

T h is c o u n tr y i s i n dependence on t h e kingdom o f Cheka (T se-

The s o i l i s r i c h and f e r t i l e .

The c l i m a t e i s s o f t and a g r e e

a b l e ; t h e manners o f t h e p e o p le a r e s im p le and h o n e s t ; t h e y lo v e
l e a r n i n g and honour t h e v i r t u o u s .

The g r e a t e r p a r t s a c r i f i c e t o t h e

s p i r i t s ; few b e l i e v e i n t h e law o f Buddha.

T here a r e ab ou t t e n sang-

haramas, m o stly i n r u i n s ; t h e r e a r e a few p r i e s t s , who s tu d y in d e e d ,


b u t w it h o u t any w ish t o ejccel.

T here a r e e i g h t Deva te m p l e s , i n which

s e c t a r i e s o f v a r i o u s c l a s s e s d w e ll.

T h e re i s a tem p le d e d i c a t e d t o

t h e s u n , v e r y m a g n i f i c e n t and p r o f u s e l y d e c o r a t e d .

The image o f t h e

S un-deva i s c a s t i n y e llo w g o ld and ornam ented w ith r a r e gems.

Its

d i v i n e i n s i g h t i s m y s t e r i o u s l y m a n i f e s t e d and i t s s p i r i t u a l power made


p la in to a l l .

Women p l a y t h e i r m u sic, l i g h t t h e i r t o r c h e s , o f f e r

t h e i r f lo w e rs and perfum es t o h o n ou r i t .
nued from t h e v e r y f i r s t .

T h is custom h as been c o n t i

The k in g s and h ig h f a m i l i e s o f t h e f i v e

I n d i e s n e v e r f a i l t o make t h e i r o f f e r i n g s o f gems and p r e c i o u s s to n e s

(to th is Deva] .

They have founded a ho use o f mercy Chappiness ) , i n

which th e y p r o v id e f o o d , and d r i n k , and m e d ic in e s f o r t h e p o o r and


s i c k , a f f o r d i n g s u c c o u r and s u s t e n a n c e .

Men from a l l c o u n t r i e s come

h e r e t o o f f e r up t h e i r p r a y e r s ; t h e r e a r e alw ays some th o u s a n d s d o in g


so.

On t h e f o u r s i d e s o f t h e tem p le a r e ta n k s w ith f lo w e r in g g ro v es

where one can w ander a b o u t w ith o u t r e s t r a i n t .

APPENDIX I I

LETTERS OF YUSUF IBN AL-HAJJAJ TO MUHAMMAD IBN AL-QASIM,


ARAB COMMANDER,
I.

From H a j j a j son o f Y u s if .

IN SIND1

0 Muhammad Kasim, you m ust know t h a t

o u r mind a s s u r e s us t h a t o u r w ish es and hopes w i l l be f u l f i l l e d ,


and you w i l l be s u c c e s s f u l i n e v e ry way.

You w i l l be s u c c e s s f u l

and v i c t o r i o u s , and by t h e g r a c e o f God, t h e g r e a t and g l o r i o u s ,


y o u r enemies w i l l soon be v a n q u ish e d and p u n ish e d and w i l l r e p e a t
e d ly be o v e r ta k e n by p r e s e n t to rm e n t and f u t u r e m is e r y .

Do n o t ,

p r a y , e n t e r t a i n th e e v i l th o u g h t t h a t a l l t h o s e e l e p h a n ts
and w e a lth and o t h e r p r o p e r t y o f y o u r enemies w i l l be your l o t .
Live h a p p ily w ith your f r i e n d s , and t r e a t e v e ry one k in d l y .
Encourage them a l l t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e whole c o u n tr y w i l l be y o u rs .
Whenever you ta k e any f o r t i f i e d p l a c e , l e t y o u r s o l d i e r s spend
a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r w a n ts.

Let t h e b o o ty be u t i l i s e d f o r t h e

n e c e s s a r y e x p e n d itu r e o f t h e army, and f o r k ee p in g up t h e pomp


and c irc u m sta n c e o f w ar.
f o r them.

Let them e a t and d r in k as much as is good

Do n o t s c o ld them o r p r e v e n t them from d o in g so.

E x e rt

y o u r s e l f t o t h e u tm o st t o su p p ly p r o v i s i o n s i n abundance, and f i x
th e r a t e s , so t h a t c o m may be had cheap in yo u r camp.

Whatever

h as been l e f t b ehin d i n Debal had b e t t e r be s p e n t i n s u p p ly in g


t h e t r o o p s w ith p r o v i s i o n s th a n i n l a y i n g up s t o r e s i n th e f o r t .
When you have conquered t h e c o u n tr y and s tr e n g t h e n e d t h e f o r t s ,

^ S e e T h e C h a ch n a m a h , p p .

91 and 1 6 9 .

234

endeavour t o co n s o le t h e s u b j e c ts and t o so o th e th e r e s i d e n t s ,
so t h a t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c l a s s e s and a r t i s a n s and m erchants
may, i f God so w i l l s , become co m fo rtab le and happy, and th e
c o u n try may become f e r t i l e and p op u lo u s.

W r itte n t h i s 20th

day o f Raj j i b 93.

II.

I have r e c e i v e d my d e a r c o u s in Muhammad K a s in 's l e t t e r , and have


become a c q u a in te d w ith i t s c o n te n t s .

With r e g a r d to t h e r e q u e s t

o f t h e c h i e f s o f Brahminabad about t h e b u i l d i n g o f Budh te m p le s ,


and t o l e r a t i o n i n r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s , I do n o t see (when th e y have
done homage t o us by p l a c i n g t h e i r heads i n t h e yoke o f sub
m is s io n , and have u n d e rta k e n to pay t h e f ix e d t r i b u t e f o r th e
K h a lifa h and g u a ra n te e d i t s paym ent), what f u r t h e r r i g h t s we
have o v er them beyond th e u s u a l t a x .

Because a f t e r t h e y have

become sirnmis ( p r o t e c t e d s u b j e c ts ) we have no r i g h t w h atev er to


i n t e r f e r e w ith t h e i r l i v e s o r t h e i r p r o p e r t y .

Do, t h e r e f o r e ,

p e rm it them t o b u i l d t h e tem ples o f th o s e t h e y w o rsh ip .

No

one i s p r o h i b i t e d from o r p u n ished f o r fo llo w in g h i s own


r e l i g i o n , and l e t no one p r e v e n t them from doing s o , so t h a t
t h e y may l i v e happy in t h e i r own homes,

(undated)

APPENDIX I I I

AL-SHEIKH ABU ISHAQ AL-FARISI

AL-ISTAKHRI'S ACCOUNT

OF SIND, 951 A.D. TAKEN FROM HIS BOOK


ENTITLED KITABUL AOALIM1

^ P e rso n a l copy o f Dr. Aziz S. A tiy a , D is tin g u is h e d P r o f e s s o r


o f H is to r y , The U n iv e r s ity o f U tah, S a l t Lake C it y , Utah, Gotha MSS,
Arabic No. 312, d ated 569 A.H. 1484 C alend ar o f A lexander.

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241

T ra n sla tio n
The c o u n try o f S ind and t h e b o r d e r i n g lands a r e i n s e r t e d in
one map, which th u s c o n ta i n s t h e c o u n try o f S in d and p o r t i o n s o f Hind,
Kirman, T u ran, and Budha.
C i t i e s o f S in d Mansura, Debal N iru r ( N ir u n ) , Kalwi ( K a l l a r i l
A n n ari, Balwi ( B a l l a r i ) , Maswahi, B aniya, Manhanari ( M a n ja b a ri),
S adusan, and A1 Ruz (A lor) .
C i t i e s o f Hind - - Amhal, Kambaya, S u b ara, S in d an , Saim ur,
M ultan, J a n d ru d , and Basmand.
From Karabaya t o Saimur i s t h e lan d o f t h e B a lh a r a , and in i t
t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l In d ia n k in g s .

I t i s a lan d o f i n f i d e l s , b u t t h e r e

a r e Musulmans i n i t s c i t i e s , and none b u t Musalmans r u l e o v e r them on


th e p a r t o f th e B a lh a ra .

There a re jama* m a sjid s in them.

The c i t y

i n which t h e B alh ara dw ells i s Mankir, which has an e x te n s iv e t e r r i


to ry .
Mansura i s about a m ile long and a m ile b r o a d , and i s s u rro u n d
ed by a b ra n c h o f th e M ihran.

The i n h a b i t a n t s a r e Musalmans.

d a te t r e e and t h e s u g a r cane grow h e r e .

The

The la n d o f Mansura a l s o p r o

duces a f r u i t o f t h e s i z e o f t h e a p p le , which i s c a l l e d Laimun, and i s


e x c e e d in g ly s o u r.

The lan d a ls o p rod uces a f r u i t c a l l e d Ambaj (mango),

which i s l i k e th e p each.
tifu l.

The p r i c e o f them i s low, and th e y a r e p l e n

The d r e s s o f t h e p eo p le i s l i k e t h a t o f t h e p eo p le o f ' I r a k ,

b u t t h e d r e s s o f t h e i r k in g s resem bles t h a t o f th e k in g s o f I n d ia i n
r e s p e c t o f t h e h a i r and t h e t u n i c .
Multan i s a c i t y about h a l f th e s i z e o f Mansura.

T here i s an

id o l t h e r e h e ld in g r e a t v e n e r a t io n by t h e Hindus, and ev ery y e a r

242

p eo ple from th e most d i s t a n t p a r t s u n d e rta k e p ilg rim a g e s to i t , and


b r i n g t o i t v a s t sums o f moneyk which th ey expend upon t h e temple and
on th o s e who le a d t h e r e a l i f e o f d e v o tio n .

The tem ple o f th e i d o l i s

a s tr o n g e d i f i c e , s i t u a t e d i n t h e most populous p a r t o f th e c i t y , in
th e market o f Multan, between t h e b a z a r o f th e iv o ry d e a le r s and th e
shops o f th e co p p ersm ith s.

The id o l i s p la c e d under a cupola in th e

m idst o f t h e b u i l d i n g , and th e m i n i s t e r s o f th e id o l and th o s e devoted


t o i t s s e r v i c e dwell around th e cupola.

In Multan t h e r e a r e no men

e i t h e r o f Hind o r Sind who w orship i d o l s except th o s e who w orship t h i s


i d o l and in t h i s tem ple.

The id o l has a human shape, and i s s e a te d

w ith i t s le g s b en t in a q u ad ran g u lar p o s tu r e on a th ro n e made o f b r i c k


and m o rtar.

I t s whole body i s covered w ith a red s k in l i k e morocco

l e a t h e r , and n o th in g b u t i t s eyes a re v i s i b l e .

Some b e l i e v e t h a t th e

body i s made o f wood, some deny t h i s ; b u t th e body i s n o t allowed to


be uncovered t o decide t h e p o i n t ,

th e eyes o f th e id o l a r e p r e c io u s

gems, and i t s head i s covered w ith a crown o f g old .

I t s i t s in a

q u ad ran g u lar p o s i t i o n on t h e th r o n e , i t s hands r e s t i n g upon i t s k n ees,


w ith th e f i n g e r s c lo s e d , so t h a t only fo u r can be counted.

When th e

In d ia n s make war upon them and endeavour t o s e i z e th e i d o l , t h e i n h a b i


t a n t s b r i n g i t o u t , p r e te n d in g t h a t th e y w i l l break i t and b u m i t .
Upon t h i s th e In d ia n s r e t i r e , o th erw ise th ey would d e s tr o y Multan.
Mansura i s more f e r t i l e .

At h a l f a p arasan g from Multan t h e r e i s a

la r g e cantonm ent, which i s th e abode o f th e c h i e f , who nev er e n t e r s


Multan except on F r id a y s , when he goes on th e back o f an eleph'.int, in
o r d e r t o j o i n i n th e p r a y e rs o f t h a t day.

The gov erno r i s o f th e t r i b e

o f K uraish , and i s n o t s u b je c t t o th e r u l e r o f Mansura, b u t read s th e


khutba in t h e name k h a l i f a .

243

Samand i s a sm all c i t y s i t u a t e d l i k e M u ltan , on t h e e a s t o f t h e


r i v e r M ihran; b etw een each o f t h e s e p l a c e s and t h e r i v e r t h e d i s t a n c e
i s two p a r a s a n g s .

The w a te r i s o b t a i n e d from w e l l s .

The c i t y o f A1 Rur ap p ro ach es M ultan i n s i z e .

I t h a s two w a l l s ,

i s s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e M ihran, and i s on t h e b o r d e r s o f Mansura.


N ir u i s h a l f way betw een Debal and MansuTa.
From Saim ur to Famhal, i n

H in d , and from Famhal t o Makran and

Budha, and beyond t h a t as f a r as t h e b o u n d a r ie s o f M u ltan , a l l


t o S in d .

b elo n g

Budha i s t h e r e a d e s e r t .
The p e o p le o f M ultan wear t r o u s e r s , and most o f them speak

P e r s i a n and S i n d i , as i n Mansura.
Makran i s a l a r g e t e r r i t o r y , f o r t h e m ost p a r t d e s e r t and
barren .

The l a r g e s t c i t y i n Makran i s Kannazbun.


K andabil i s a g r e a t c i t y .

The palm t r e e does n o t grow t h e r e .

I t i s i n th e d e s e r t , and w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f Budha.
f i e l d s a r e m o stly i r r i g a t e d .
tu re d .

The c u l t i v a t e d

V ines grow t h e r e , and c a t t l e a r e p a s

The v i c i n i t y i s f r u i t f u l .

A b il i s t h e name o f t h e man who

subdued t h i s tow n, w hich i s named a f t e r him.


D is ta n c e s From T iz t o T i r CKiz) a b o u t f i v e d a y s .
t o Kannazbun two d a y s .
ro a d p a s s e s by K iz.
t o A sghafa two d a y s .
one day.

From Kiz

Going from Kannazbun t o T i z , i n Makran, t h e

From Rasak t o F a h a lfa h u h t h r e e d a y s .


From th e n c e t o Band one d ay .

From t h e n c e t o Kasrkand one d ay .

days.

From

Armabil t o Kambali two d a y s .

d a y s.

From Mansura t o Debal s i x d a y s.

d a y s.

From Mansura t o T uran f i f t e e n d a y s .

From th e n c e

From Band t o Bah

From Kiz t o Arm abil s i x

From th e n c e t o Debal f o u r
From Mansura t o Multan tw e lv e
From Mansura t o t h e n e a r -

244

e s t f r o n t i e r o f Budha f i v e d a y s .

From Budha t o T iz ab o u t f i f t e e n d a y s .

The le n g th o f Makran from T iz t o Kasdan i s abo ut f i f t e e n d ay s.

From

M ultan t o t h e n e a r e s t b o r d e r o f t h e to n g u e ( o f land ) known as B iy a la s


ab ou t t e n d ay s.
o f Budha.

Here t h e Mihran must be c ro s s e d t o

From K andabil t o Mansura e i g h t d ay s.

t a n , by t h e d e s e r t , about t e n d a y s.
days.

From Kambaya t o t h e s e a abo ut

From Kambaya t o S urabaya ab o u t f o u r d a y s , and S urabaya

i s abo ut h a l f a p a r a s a n g from t h e s e a .
abo ut f i v e d ay s.

Between S urabaya and S indan

From S indan to Saimur f i v e d a y s.

S a ra n d ib f i f t e e n d ay s.

K a l l a r i two days.

Debal t o T iz f o u r d a y s.

Between Saimur and

Between M ultan and Basmad ab o u t two d a y s.

Basmad t o A1 Ruz t h r e e d a y s.
Annari t o

From Kandabil t o Mul

Between Mansura and Kamhal e i g h t

From Kamhal to Kambaya f o u r d ay s.

two p a r a s a n g s .

g e t i n t o t h e la n d

From A1 Ruz t o Annari f o u r d ay s.


From th e n c e t o Mansura one day.

From th e n c e t o M anjabari two d a y s.

Kalwi ( K a l l a r i ) t o Maldan (M ultan?) ab ou t f o u r d ay s.

From

From
From

From

Barband l i e s

between Mansura and Kamhal a t one d a y 's jo u rn e y from Mansura.


T here i s a r i v e r i n S ind c a l l e d t h e M ihran.

I t i s sa id th a t

i t s p r i n g s from t h e summit o f a m ountain from which many e f f l u e n t s o f


t h e J ih u n r i s e .

The Mihran p a s s e s by t h e b o r d e rs o f Samand and A1 Rur

(A lor) t o t h e neighbourhood o f M ultan; from th e n c e t o M ansura, and


onwards u n t i l i t j o i n s t h e s e a t t o th e e a s t o f D ebal.
v e ry sw eet.

I t s w a te r i s

I t i s s a i d t h a t t h e r e a r e c r o c o d i l e s i n i t as l a r g e as

t h o s e o f th e M ile.

I t r i s e s l i k e as t h e N ile r i s e s , and in u n d a te s

t h e la n d , which on t h e s u b s id e n c e o f t h e w a te r i s sown in t h e manner


we have d e s c r i b e d i n th e la n d o f Egypt.

The S in d Rud i s about t h r e e

245

s ta g e s from M ultan.
Mihran.

I t s w a te r i s v e ry sw eet, even b e f o re i t j o i n s t h e

Makran i s m o stly d e s e r t , and has v e ry few r i v e r s .

w a te rs flow i n t o t h e Mihran on b o th s id e s o f Mansura.

T h e ir

APPENDIX IV

IBN HAUQAL'S MAP OF SIND

MAP

OF SIND

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APPENDIX V

LETTER OF THE FATIMID CALIPH AL-MU'IZZ TO HALAM IBN SHAIBAN,


CHIEF ISMA'ILIAN DA'I IN SIND
DATED 354 A.H. (965 A .D .) 1
R e f e r r i n g t o what you have w r i t t e n :

t h a t God has g r a n te d you a

v i c t o r y o v e r t h o s e who had a t t a c k e d you and wanted to o u s t you from


you r p l a c e ; t h a t t e r r i b l e b a t t l e s have been f o u g h t betw een you, t i l l
God gave you t h e v i c t o r y , by His h e lp and a s s i s t a n c e you e x te r m in a te d
them c o m p le te ly ; t h a t you d e s tr o y e d t h e i r i d o l and b u i l t a mosque on
s i t e what a g r e a t f a v o u r , what m a n i f e s t and p a l p a b l e e x c e l l e n c e and
l a s t i n g g lo r y

is t h a t from God!

We would be v e r y much p l e a s e d i f you

c o u ld send us t h e head o f t h a t i d o l ; i t would a c c u re t o y o u r l a s t i n g


g lo r y and would i n s p i r e y o u r b r e t h r e n a t o u r end t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r z e a l
and t h e i r d e s i r e t o u n i t e w ith you i n a common e f f o r t i n t h e c a u s e o f
God.

The r e a l i z a t i o n o f God's p ro m ise t o u s , which used t o seem so

rem o te , h a s , in d e e d , become im m inent. . .We have s e n t you some o f our


b a n n e r s , which you can u n f u r l i n c a s e o f need.

Whenever th e y a r e

u n f u r l e d o v e r t h e heads o f t h e b e l i e v e r s , God i n c r e a s e s t h e i r g l o r y by
t h e b a n n e rs and r a i l s them w ith His a s s i t a n c e ; on t h e o t h e r hand when
th e y a r e u n f u r l e d o v e r t h e heads o f t h e u n b e l i e v e r s , b a n n e rs h u m il i a t e d
t h e i r p r i d e and overwhelm them by t h e power o f God Who i s o u r B e n e f a c to r .
W r itte n on Sunday, t h e 1 9 th o f Ramadan, o f t h e y e a r 354.

^ P r i n t e d i n S.M. S t e m , " I s m a ' i l i a n Propoganda and F a tim id Rule in


S i n d ," I s l a m i c C u l t u r e , V ol. XXIII (1 9 4 9 ), 301-302.

APPENDIX VI

REFERENCES TO ARABS IN SIND IN


SANSKRIT INSCRIPTIONS1
1.

The N au sari Grant o f P u la k a s in .

Dated 738 A.D.

P vCHF R
T - '3 1 $ : - . <!I f f c i
m S H T - rT
rT T

T W

l P

^ w

9W E T M V .
^ W

4 ," ^ ^

s t

5 ^ re rte rf3 T g iL -w iW

fcjfcf^r f n t e r ^ ,

T ^ f t u , ,

'The i l l u s t r i o u s k in g A v a n ija n a s ra y a P u la k e s in S a r a jh a , th e
g r e a t l o r d and t h e g r e a t d ev o tee o f M ahesvara, whom t h e i l l u s t r i o u s
k in g V a lla b h a , a p p r e c i a t i n g h i s v a l o u r , favoured w ith t h e f o u r
f o llo w in g t i t l e s , " th e s o l i d p i l a r o f th e D e c c a n (? )," " t h e o rn a
ment o f th e C halukika (Chalukya) d y n a s ty , " " t h e l o r d o f th e e a r t h , "
and " t h e r e p e l l e r o f t h e u n r e p e l l e d ( A ra b s )," when t h e T a jik a
army, which v o m itte d f o r t h arrow s and maces, which d e s tr o y e d by
i t s b r i g h t l y g l i t t e r i n g s h arp swords th e p ro sp e ro u s Saindhava
( S in d ) , Kacchela (C u tc h ), S a u r a s t r a ( G u j r a t ) , C havotaka, Maurya
and G u rja ra k in g s and o t h e r s , and which w ish in g t o e n t e r th e
Deccan w ith a view t o conq uering a l l th e s o u th e rn k i n g s , came
i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e t o redu ce t h e N av asarik a c o u n t r y . '

^ a m a S. Avasthy and Amalananda Gosh, "R eferen ces t o Muhammadans


in S a n s k r i t I n s c r i p t i o n s in N o rthern I n d i a A.D. 730 to 1320," J o u r n a l
o f In d ia n H i s t o r y , Vol. XV (1 9 36 ), p p. 161-165.

249

2.

The G w aliar I n s c r i p t i o n o f Bhoja.

P ro b a b le d a t e 733 A.D.

^ 2 T rf

-W

He shone w ith a l l f o u r arms b r i l l i a n t w ith g l i t t e r i n g and


t e r r i b l e weapons as he cru sh ed t h e army o f t h e V alaca C?)
(Baloch) m leccha l o r d , t h e d e s t r o y e r o f v i r t u e . '

3.

The G w aliar I n s c r i p t i o n .

P ro b ab ly Recorded Between 800 and

835 A.D.

& \M tf-

I n i4 - V arik* H -

(i

cjr y -

'By f o r c i b l y s n a tc h in g away t h e h i l l - f o r t s o f A n a rta ,


M alava, K i r a t a , T u ru sk a, V a ts a , Matsya and o t h e r k i n g s . '

APPENDIX V I I

ARAB GOVERNORS OF SIND WITH KNOWN DATES


I.

G o verno rs o f The Umayyads

1.

Muhammad i b n a l- Q a s im ,

712 - 715 A.D.

2.

Y azid a s - S a k s a k i , 715 A.D.

3.

Habib ib n a l - M u h a l l a b ,

4.

Amr ib n Muslim a l - B a h i l i , 717 -

720 A.D.

5.

J u n a i d i b n Abd ar-R ahm an, 720 -

730 A.D.

6.

Tamim ib n Z a id a l - ' U t b i

715 - 717 A.D.

8.

)
)
Al-Hakim ib n Awanah
)
)
Amr ib n Muhammad i b n a l-Q a sim )

9.

Ibn A r a r , 743 - 745 A.D.

7.

10.

Mansur ib n Ja m h u r, 745 - 750


II.

A.D.

G ov ern o rs o f t h e A bbasids

1.

Musa ib n K a 'a b , 750 - 754 A.D.

2.

Hisham ib n Amr, 754 - 759 A.D.

3.

Umar ib n Hafz Hazarmand, 759 -

4.

M a'bad ib n a l - K h a l i l

5.

Bustam ib n

6.

Abu Turab

)
)
)

7.

Ruh ib n H atim ,

Amr

730 - 743 A.D.

771 A.D.

771 - 781 A.D.

781 - 800 A.D.

251

8.

D a'ud ib n D a 'u d , 800 - 822 A.D.

9.
10.

B is h r ib n D a'ud
)
_
_ _
_ )
Musa ib n Yahya al-Barm ak )

11.

Imran ib n Musa, 836 - 842 A.D.

822 - 836 A.D.

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VITA

John J e h a n g i r Bede was b o m on J a n u a ry 5, 1940 in G u j r a t ,


w e ste rn Punjab, now p a r t o f P a k i s t a n .

In 1949 h i s fam ily moved t o

Peshawar i n th e N orth West F r o n t i e r P ro v in ce where he g ra d u a te d from


t h e C an tt P u b lic High School in 1956.

A f t e r b r i e f l y a tt e n d in g Edwards

C olleg e a t Peshawar, he came to t h e U n ited S t a t e s i n 1957 and a tte n d e d


Elon C o lleg e in North C a r o l in a , g r a d u a tin g w ith a B achelor o f A rts
degree in 1961.
In 1965 he r e c e iv e d h i s M aster o f A rts degree from E a st Caro
l i n a C o lle g e , now E a s te rn C a r o lin a U n i v e r s i t y in N orth C a r o lin a .

In

1968 he e n r o l l e d a t t h e U n iv e r s it y o f Utah to work tow ard t h e d o c t o r a t e


in H i s to r y .

C oncurrent w ith h i s d o c to r a l s t u d i e s , he h e ld a te a c h in g

a s s i s t a n t s h i p in t h e H i s to r y Department o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Utah.
th e p r e s e n t tim e , he i s A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f H is to r y a t Lone
Mountain C o lleg e i n San F r a n c is c o , C a l i f o r n i a .
Mr. Bede i s m arried to Lynne Hansen o f Monroe, Utah.
have two c h i l d r e n :

Rebecca ( 3 ) , and E r ic (9 m onths).

They

At

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