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7 3-31,301
BEDE, John J e h a n g i r , 1940THE ARABS IN SIND, 712-1026 A.D.
U n iv e r s i t y o f U tah , P h .D ., 1973
H i s to r y , m edieval
Copyright 1973
A ll r ig h t s reserved
THE ARABS IN
SIND, 712 - 1026 A.D.
by
Jo hn J e h a n g i r Bede
A d i s s e r t a t i o n s u b m itte d t o t h e f a c u l t y o f t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f U tah in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts
f o r t h e d e g re e o f
D o cto r o f P h ilo s o p h y
D epartm ent o f H i s t o r y
U n i v e r s i t y o f Utah
August 1973
T h is d i s s e r t a t i o n Cor th e
Doctor of Philosophy Degree
by
John J e h a n g i r Bede
has been approved
J u l y 1973
/Q f/K d
Chairman,
S u p e r v is o rI
y Committee
*
Member
Memb e r
Member
Member
in. '"xkMu.i-dr&'fr'W'..
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
C h a p te r
I.
II.
INTRODUCTION.............................................................
THE SOURCES........................................................................................................7
H i s t o r i c a l .......................................................................................
G e o g ra p h ic a l...............................
III.
7
15
IV.
IMPERIAL EXPANSION:
Arab A rt o f W a r ............................................................................... 59
I n d i a n A rt o f W a r ...........................................................................71
V.
V I.
V II.
C h a p te r
V III.
IX.
CONCLUSION
APPENDIX I .
.............................................................................................223
APPENDIX t l :
APPENDIX I I I :
APPENDIX IV:
APPENDIX V:
APPENDIX VI:
APPENDIX V I I:
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................... 252
VITA.......................................................................................................................................... 269
L i s t o f Maps
Sind and V i c i n i t y , 630-1020 A.D. . . .
ABSTRACT
In 712 A.D. an Arab f o r c e from i t s b a s e s i n S h i r a z i n s o u th e r n
P e r s i a advanced upon t h e kingdom o f S in d in p r e s e n t - d a y P a k i s t a n and
w i t h i n t h e e n s u in g t h r e e y e a r s o v e r r a n t h e e n t i r e a r e a from Daybul i n
t h e s o u th t o M ultan i n t h e n o r t h .
F or the. n e x t t h i r t y - f i v e y e a r s S ind
somewhat p r e c a r i o u s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e r e g i o n .
The f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r y w i t n e s s e d t h e
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e r a p i d l y ex p an d in g G haznavid e m p ire .
Thus ended
S u b se q u e n t h i s t o r i a n s , on t h e
However, t h i s c l i m a t e o f
o p in io n f a i l s t o convey a b a l a n c e d a s s e s s m e n t .
The c a l i p h a t e ' s f i n a n c i a l s t r u c t u r e , s u b je c te d t o t h e r e c e n t
The r i c h lands
The f a r - f l u n g
With
I s la m ic l e g a l s t r u c t u r e was f o s t e r e d s i d e by s i d e t h e r e w i t h t o accommo
d a te t h e Muslims, b o th f o r e i g n e r s and n a t i v e c o n v e r ts a l i k e .
Cut o f f
f o r th e F a tim id -A b b asid c o n t e s t .
To d e p r iv e t h e i r r i v a l s o f l u c r a t i v e
The E g y p tian
Islam
The a c q u i s i t i o n o f
o f w e s te rn I n d i a - - a s i t u a t i o n which c a l l e d f o r p e a c e f u l i n t e r c o u r s e .
I t was t h e p r e v a le n c e o f t h i s a t t i t u d e t h a t re n d e re d i t p o s s i b l e f o r
t h e two g r e a t communities o f I n d ia t o l i v e p e a c e f u l l y s i d e by s i d e .
With t h e coming o f t h e T u rk s , how ever, t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s was r e
p l a c e d by an atm osphere o f g e n e r a l h o s t i l i t y .
th o u g h t and c u l t u r e was i m p r e s s i v e .
I n d ia n impact on I s la m ic
I n d ia n m e d ic in e , astronom y, mathe
In d ia n t r a d e c o n n e c tio n s were h ig h ly v a lu e d .
T h is im p o rta n t c h a p te r i n t h e m ediev al a n n a ls o f t h e s u b - c o n t i
n e n t h a s h i t h e r t o r e c e i v e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n from h i s t o r i a n s who based
t h e i r i n q u i r y on e x tre m e ly ten u o u s e v id e n c e , u s u a l l y A rabic o r I n d ia n ,
b u t s c a r c e l y on b o t h .
t o f i l l t h a t la c u n a .
Though o u r b i b l i o g r a p h y in c l u d e s an a r r a y o f th o s e
By w eighing t h e i r c o n f l i c t i n g s ta te m e n ts , i t i s
in t h e s e r v i c e o f h i s t o r i c a l s c h o la r s h i p .
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
I t i s c u sto m ary t o d a t e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p erm an en t M uslim
r u l e o v e r I n d i a a t 1206 A.D. when Qutb u d - d i n A ib ak , a l i e u t e n a n t o f
S u l t a n M u 'iz z u d - d i n o f Ghor i n modern A f g h a n i s t a n , p r o c la im e d h i m s e l f
t h e s u l t a n o f D e lh i f o l l o w i n g h i s m a s t e r s d e a t h . 1 Two c e n tu ries e a r l i e r
t h e T u r k i s h h o r d e s o f Mahmud o f Ghazna h ad r e p e a t e d l y d e a l t d e v a s t a t i n g
blow s t o t h e Hindu pow er i n n o r t h e r n I n d i a b u t had w ith d ra w n t o t h e
Afghan h i g h l a n d s w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g a p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t on t h e
G a n g e tic p l a i n s .
I n d i a n s , and b o th command a r e s p e c t a b l e p o s i t i o n i n t h e a n n a l s
Mislim
In d ia .
The e x p a n s io n o f Arab arms i n S i n d , w hich at i t s g r e a t e s t e x t e n t
em braced t h e e n t i r e lo w e r In d u s v a l l e y , v a s t a r e a s o f t h e B a l u c h i s t a n
p l a t e a u , a s w e ll as s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n s o f R a j a s t h a n and G u j a r a t , h as
b een r e l e g a t e d a somewhat i n s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i o n by h i s t o r i a n s .
T h is i s
Thus t h e p r e t i g i o u s Cambridge
H i s to r y o f I n d i a , c o n c lu d in g a b r i e f c h a p t e r on t h e Arab c o n q u e s t o f
S in d , rem arks somewhat d e r o g a t o r i l y t h a t , " o f t h e Arab co n q u est o f Sind
t h e r e i s n o th i n g more t o b e s a i d .
I t was a mere e p is o d e i n t h e h i s t o r y
o f I n d i a and a f f e c t e d o n ly a sm a ll p o r t i o n o f t h e f r i n g e o f t h a t v a s t
c o u n try ." 2
A s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e was ta k e n by t h e renowned B r i t i s h o r i e n
t a l i s t , S t a n l e y L a n e-P o o le.
Hindu
By f a r
Mughuls c r e a t e d an im p r e s s iv e body o f h i s t o r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e i n I n d i a .
The A rab s, g r e a t h i s t o r i a n s i n t h e i r own r i g h t , have a l s o l e f t abundant
l i t e r a r y monuments o f t h e i r p a s t g l o r y .
The c o n q u e st o f S p a in , f o r
Did S in d s ta n d so o b d u r a t e l y
i t d id n o t f i r e t h e im a g in a tio n o f Arab c h r o n i c a r s ?
Not so!
There i s
s t r o n g e v id e n c e t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e c o n q u e st o f S in d was w e ll r e c o rd e d
and so were t h e s u b se q u e n t e v e n ts o f t h e f o ll o w in g c e n t u r y . 1*
I t is
r e g r e t t a b l e , however, t h a t t h e s e o r i g i n a l works a r e no lo n g e r e x t a n t .
P o r ti o n s o f t h e s e l o s t works were ind eed co p ied by l a t e r m edieval
h i s t o r i a n s who sometimes added t h e i r own b r i e f knowledge o f a f f a i r s i n
S in d , m o stly s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t t h e i r voluminous u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r i e s .
These b r i e f r e f e r e n c e s were p e r i o d i c a l l y implemented by t h e i s o l a t e d
o b s e r v a t i o n o f rem ark ab le i n d i v i d u a l s g e n e r a l l y c a l l e d " g e o g r a p h e r s ,"
who v i s i t e d S in d d u r in g t h e n i n t h and t h e t e n t h c e n t u r i e s .
Of h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s from S in d i t s e l f we have no knowledge.
C e r t a i n l y t h e Ghaznavid s c h o l a r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e c e l e b r a t e d a l - B i r u n i ,
who w itn e s s e d t h e f i n a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f Arab power i n S in d , make no
r e f e r e n c e t o in d ig e n o u s c h r o n i c l e s .
I t is p o s s ib le , th en , th a t p r io r
t o t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y th e n a t i v e a c c o u n ts w ere, by some i n e x p l i c a b l e
phenomenon d e s tr o y e d .
There i s one o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o u r s e ; t h e
On t h e w hole, h i s t o r i
t o r e c o n s t r u c t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f t h e Arab p e r i o d .
See below , c h a p t e r I , pp . 7 -8 .
N in e te e n th c e n tu r y
te e n -th irtie s.
The same y e a r R. C.
and t e n t h
c e n tu rie s.8
The r e s e a r c h e s o f th e s e s c h o la r s have made s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i
b u tio n s t o Medieval Sind h i s t o r y .
Yet th e y ten d to be r e s t r i c t e d in
to rian s
In v a sio n o f I n d i a , "
Dacca U n iv e r s ity
None en d e a v o u rs t o lo o k i n t o t h e p o s
M oreover, a l l t e n d t o view
i t a s an i s o l a t e d i n c i d e n t , r a t h e r t h a n a p a r t o f an o v e r a l l and lo n g p la n n e d s t r a t e g y o f g e n e r a l e x p a n s io n in t h e E a s t .
B e s id e s none r e a l l y
d e a l s e x h a u s t i v e l y o f b o t h t h e A r a b ic and t h e I n d i a n s o u r c e s o f t h e
two cam ps.
On t h e whole t h e p a r t i c u l a r t r e a t m e n t i s g e n e r a l l y s u b j e c t t o
p r e c o n c e i v e d p r e j u d i c e s m ain ly c o l o r e d by t h e r e l i g i o u s o u t l o o k o f t h e
p a r t ic u la r au th o rs.
Hence E l l i o t t e n d s t o b e e x c e s s i v e l y h o s t i l e to
t h e Arabs w h ereas t h e r e v e r s e i s t h e c a s e w it h N ad v i.
The H indu h i s
t o r i a n s , th o u g h v ie w in g t h e Arab c o n q u e s t i n a g e n e r a l atm o sp h e re o f
h o s t i l i t y to w a rd I s l a m , te n d to b e l e s s b i a s e d t h a n e i t h e r E l l i o t o r
N ad v i.
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , t h e r e f o r e , i s t w o f o ld : t o r e
tVb
prevailing p o l i t i
C h a p te r V i s d e v o te d t o t h e
i n C h ap ter VI.
F i n a l l y t h e r e i s a b r i e f c o n c lu d in g s e c t i o n summing up
th e fin d in g s.
A ll co m p u ta tio n s o f t h e Muslim c a l e n d a r a r e b a s e d on
CHAPTER I I
THE SOURCES
The body o f l i t e r a t u r e c o v e rin g t h e Arab p e r i o d i n S ind i s
d e fic ie n t a t b e st.
T h is s c a r c i t y i s more s t r i k i n g i n view o f th e
Thus, th e Arab
(752-839 A.D.) i s
U n f o r tu n a t e l y , none o f th e s e a r e now
ex ta n t.
r u l e o v e r S in d , we a r e i n d e b te d to a n o t h e r Arab s c h o l a r , Ahmad
ib n J a b i r a l - B a l a d h u r i , who d ie d a t Baghdad in 892 A.D.
A s e c tio n of
The a u t h o r i s s a i d t o have h e ld
I t is re g re tta b le
t h a t B a la d h u ri d id n o t b r i n g t h e e v e n ts c l o s e r t o 892 A .D ., t h e y e a r o f
h i s d e a th .
The b r e v i t y o f t h e s e c t i o n s on S in d n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g th e
a c c o u n t ta k e s up l e s s th a n f i f t e e n p a g e s happens t o be t h e most r e
l i a b l e ac c o u n t e x t a n t and as su c h , i n d i s p e n s i b l e t o h i s t o r i a n s .
For th e most d e t a i l e d , though by no means t h e most d e p e n d a b le ,
v e r s i o n o f Arab con qu est o f S in d , we must r e f e r t o what h a s commonly
been known as The Chachnamah o r t h e F atahn am ah .3
We do n o t
2A l- B a la d h u r i, K itab Futuh a l - B u l d a n , t r a n s l a t e d by F r a n c is C.
M urgotten and P h i l i p K. H i t t i (New York: Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1 916). For A rab ic v e r s i o n , s e e B e l a d s o r i , L ib e r e x p u g n a tio n is
regionum , e d i t e d by M ichael J a n deGoeje (Lugd. B a t a v . : E. J . B r i l l ,
1866). For an e v a l u a t i o n o f a l - B a l a d h u r i , s e e C a rl Brockelmann,
G e s c h ic h te d e r A rab isch en L i t t e r a t u r (Weimar: E. F e l b e r , 1898-1902),
I , 141.
3The Chachnamah, t r a n s l a t e d by K alichbeg Frendunbeg (K a ra c h i:
The C om m issioner's P r e s s , 1900).
The t r a n s l a t o r
composed by one o f h i s a n c e s t o r s i n S in d .
There i s re a so n t o b e l i e v e ,
It is,
I ts m e rits,
The a u th o r d i s p l a y s an o u ts ta n d in g f a m i l i a r i t y
10
K h a l i f a ib n Khayyat a l - ' U s f u r i
( d i e d 854 A .D .) , i n h i s u n i v e r s a l h i s t o r y , T a r i k h K h a l i f a ib n
K h a y y a t, c o v e r s t h e S in d e p is o d e i n l e s s t h a n f i v e p a g e s w h ile
Ahmad ib n Y a'qu b a l - Y a 'q u b i ( d i e d 897 A . D .) , i n h i s T a r i k h a l - Y a * q u b i ,
d o es no b e t t e r . 5
A l l p r o v id e
The d a t e i s n o t i n c i d e n t a l .
I t is
As a l l t h e
The d a t e a l s o marks t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e
end o f A b b a s sid c o n t r o l o v e r t h e e a s t e r n s e c t i o n s o f t h e c a l i p h a t e
w here t h e T a h i r i d s o f K hurasan s u c c e s s f u l l y e x te n d e d t h e i r sway.
The T a h i r i d s w ere th e m s e lv e s r e p l a c e d by t h e S o cf a r i d s who annexed
Im p rim e rie
Dar S a d r ,
11
By 900 A.D. t h e
T h e s e , i n t u r n , were o v erth ro w n by t h e
T h u s, f o r a p e r i o d o f a p p r o x im a te ly one
h u nd red and e i g h t y - f i v e y e a r s , S in d , s t a n d in g o b d u r a t e l y o u t s i d e
t h e main c u r r e n t s o f I s l a m i c p o l i t i c a l a r e n a , f a i l e d t o a t t r a c t t h e
n o t i c e s o r a r o u s e t h e c u r i o s i t i e s o f Muslim h i s t o r i a n s .
To t h e Ghaznavid h i s t o r i a n s b e lo n g s t h e c r e d i t o f
re c o rd in g ,
Of t h e s e we may m ention t h r e e :
a l - ' U t b i , a l - B i r u n i and a l - G a r d i z i .
A l - U tb i l a c k s h i s t o r i c a l p r e c i s i o n
and i s r e p e a t e d l y vague a b o u t d e t a i l s .
d i s c u s s e d by him a r e o f some v a l u e .
a l - B i r u n i i s c o n s id e r e d by some t o be t h e g r e a t e s t o f Muslim
s c h o la rs .8
12
I t i s m ostly to a l - B i r u n i ' s p a s s io n f o r
A l-G a rd iz i la c k s th e same s p i r i t o f h i s t o r i c a l
He i s ,
During t h i s time
cal d ata.
Ibn a l -
'I z z ad-Din
For th e l a s t y e a r s o f Arab c o n tr o l
He i s , however,
F o u rte e n th
14
d e g r e e , on a l - * U t b i ' s K ita b u l Y am in i.
I t i s t h e o n ly work composed i n S in d i t s e l f , w i t h t h e
The a u t h o r was t h e r e
He i s t h e s o l e w r i t e r who p r o v i d e s us w ith a
One can sy m p a th iz e
w ith a l - B i r u n i ' s c o n c e rn a s e a r l y as t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y .
" U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e Hindus do n o t pay much a t t e n t i o n t o t h e h i s t o r i
c a l o r d e r o f t h i n g s , " he la m e n ts .
"They a r e v e r y c a r e l e s s i n
r e l a t i n g t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l s u c c e s s i o n o f t h e i r k i n g s , and when th e y
a r e p r e s s e d f o r i n f o r m a t i o n an d a r e a t a l o s s , n o t knowing w hat t o
s a y , t h e y i n v a r i a b l y t a k e t o t a l e - t e l l i n g . " 16
o f a l l t h e I n d i a n r e g i o n s , can p r o u d l y b o a s t o f a w r i t t e n c h r o n i c l e
which t r a c e s i t s h i s t o r y from t h e e a r l i e s t tim e s down t o t h e y e a r
15Mir A li S h e r K ani, T u h f a t a l - K i r a m , t r a n s l a t e d by J . P o s ta n s
( C a l c u t t a : B ish op s C o lle g e P r e s s , 1 8 4 3 ).
16S a c h a u , A1 B i r u n i s I n d i a , I I , 11.
15
1027 A.D.
poem, assum es a f a i r l y r e l i a b l e a s p e c t f o ll o w i n g t h e fo u n d in g o f
t h e K a rk o ta d y n a s ty a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e v e n th c e n t u r y .
D uring
t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y Kashmir was i n c o n t r o l o f s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n s o f
n o r t h e r n P unjab and i n co n seq u en ce came i n t o c o n f l i c t w ith t h e Arabs
p u s h in g n o r t h from t h e i r b a s e s a t M u lta n .
T hese
Of t h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y we
p o s s e s s t h e d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f t h e C h in e s e B u d d h is t p i l g r i m
H iuen T s i a n g , who s p e n t no l e s s th a n t h i r t e e n y e a r s i n I n d i a , from
630 t o 643 A .D .17
T h is p i l g r i m ' s o b s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t S in d i n p a r t i
c u l a r and I n d i a i n g e n e r a l , th o u g h much c o l o r e d by h i s r e l i g i o u s o u t
lo o k , a r e o f p r im a r y im p o rta n c e t o t h e s t u d e n t s o f S in d h i s t o r y .
16
The a u th o r
Abu Zaid in fo rm s us
o f h is purpose:
H aving v e r y c a r e f u l l y examined t h e book I was
d e s i r e d t o p e r s u e , t h a t I m ight c o n firm what
t h e a u t h o r r e l a t e s so f a r as h e a g r e e s w ith
what I hav e l e a r n t c o n c e r n in g t h e a f f a i r s o f
n a v i g a t i o n , t h e kingdoms on t h e c o a s t , and
t h e s t a t e o f t h e c o u n t r i e s o f which he t r e a t s
and t h a t I m ight add what I have e ls e w h e re
c o l l e c t e d c o n c e rn in g t h e s e m a t t e r s : 1 f in d
t h a t t h i s book was composed i n t h e y e a r o f
t h e H e g ir a 237 (851 A .D .) , and t h a t t h e
a c c o u n ts g iv e n by t h e a u th o r a r e co nfo rm ab le
w ith what I have h e a r d from m erch an ts who
have s a i l e d from I r a k o r P e r s i a , th ro u g h
t h e s e s e a s . 19
17
Yet t h e y o c c a s i o n a l l y r e v e a l
v e r y u s e f u l i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s a s p e c t s
o f v a r i o u s a r e a s i n c l u d i n g S in d .
During t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y a P e r s i a n s e a c a p t a i n , Buzurg ibn
S h a h r i y a r , composed t h e work, A j a i b u l H i n d , b e i n g a c o l l e c t i o n o f
h i s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s on h i s many voyages t o I n d i a and t h e Far
E a s t , as w e l l as m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e d t o him by o t h e r merchants and
s a i l o r s . 20
R e f e r e n c e t o S i n d , thoug h r a r e , a r e o f p r i m a r y impor
tance.
I t i s t o t h e t h i r d c a t e g o r y o f t r a v e l l e r s t h a t we a r e most
indebted .
In o r d e r o f t h e i r a p p e a r
18
u n d e r s t a n d a b l y s o , t h e main p o r t i o n s o f t h e i r n a r r a t i v e s .
Yet
h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h i s n o t a l t o g e t h e r l a c k i n g and i n M as 'u di i t
finds considerable expression.
In enum erating t h e s o u r c e s , we must m ention t h e r o l e o f
epigraphy.
Hindu r u l e r s o f t h e I n d i a n s t a t e s o f R a j a s t h a n and
G u j a r a t c l a i m i n g t o be
champions o f Hinduism a g a i n s t t h e h a t e d
E lliot,
19
o u t s i d e r s , b o a s t f u l l y r e c o rd e d t h e s u c c e s s f u l outcome o f t h e i r
en c o u n t e r s a g a i n s t t h e Arabs on co pper p l a t e s .
This e p i g r a p h i c e v i
I t i s u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t more i s
CHAPTER I I I
In
f a c t s i n c e t h e f a l l o f t h e Maurya Empire i n t h e f i r s t
century B .C .,
th e northw est
e x e r c i s e f u l l p o l i t i c a l a u t h o r i t y o v e r most o f t h e I n d i a n s u b
c o n t i n e n t u n t i l t h e Mughal Empire r e a c h e d i t s g r e a t e s t e x t e n t i n t h e
second h a l f o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
To be s u r e , a t t e m p t s were
made t o b r i n g n o r t h e r n I n d i a u n d e r one r u l e .
The o u t l y i n g
p a r t s o f I n d i a i n t h e n o r t h w e s t , however, remained o u t s i d e t h e p a l e
o f t h e Gupta Empire and t h a t o f H ar sh a.
E a s t e r n A f g h a n i s t a n , Punjab
At t h e i n c e p t i o n o f t h e e i g h t h
21
i n C e n t r a l A s ia.
The s t a t e s on t h e w e s te r n b o r d e r l a n d o f I n d i a now
f ac ed a s o l i d w a l l o f Arab arms.
The f o l l o w i n g a r e a s were p a r t i c u
l a r l y h a r d p r e s s e d by t h e Arab might:
Kashmir, e a s t e r n A f g h a n is t a n ,
Kashmir
One o f t h e most pow erful s t a t e s i n I n d i a a t t h e time o f t h e
Arab i n v a s i o n was Kashmir.
The t o t a l a r e a o f t h e s t a t e a t t h e time
At t h e
No p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s a r e a v a i l
e x p l a i n t h e r e l a t i v e s e c u r i t y from f o r e i g n i n v a s i o n s which t h e s t a t e
has enjoyed o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s .
Lying i n t h e extreme n o r th w e s t
c o m e r o f t h e I n d ia n s u b - c o n t i n e n t , Kashmir i s n o r t h o f t h e main
i n v a s i o n r o u t e s which lead from C e n t r a l and Western Asia i n t o I n d i a . 2
Whereas most o f t h e I n d ia n s u b - c o n t i n e n t i s l o c a t e d s o u th o f l a t i t u d e
22
33 N. , a l l o f Kashmir l i e s n o r t h o f t h a t l i n o .
The main d e f e n se o f
The P i r P a n ja l r an ges
Th is range i s n e a r l y
I t i s named a f t e r t h e famous
O ther p a s s e s in t h e
r ic h e s t s o il in the e n t i r e s t a t e .
Nearly t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f Kashmir's
Three
Immediately n o r t h
Between t h i s
The n o r t h e r n
The e n t i r e a r e a l y i n g n o r t h o f t h e
I t c o n t a i n s some
7P i t h a w a l l a , o. c i t . , pp. 77-78.
0For d e s c r i p t i o n s o f th e n o r t h e r n a r e a s o f Kashmir, see S p a t e ,
pp. 380-91; and P i t h a w a l l a , o j k c i t . , pp. 25-27.
9S. R. Sharma, Mughal Empire in I n d i a , Revised E d i t i o n (Agra:
Lakshmi Narain Agarwal, 1966), p. 200.
24
As a m a t t e r o f
f a c t , a lm o s t a hundred y e a r s b e f o r e t h e c o n q u e s t o f Sin d by t h e
Arab':, i n 715 A .D ., t h e r u l e r s o f Kashmir had begun a v i g o r o u s
campaign o f e x p a n s i o n i n t h e s o u t h and s o u t h w e s t o f Kashmir which
e v e n t u a l l y b r o u g h t them i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e Arabs i n S in d .
At t h e
b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y A . D ., D u r la b h a v a r d h a v a founded t h e
Kar ko ta d y n a s t y which l a s t e d u n t i l 855 A.D.
The d a t e o f t h i s
D u r la b h a v a r d h a v a r u l e d f o r
t h i r t y - s i x y e a r s and d u r i n g h i s r e i g n h e w r e s t e d p a r t s o f n o r t h
w e s t e r n Punjab from t h e T u r k i S a h i d y n a s t y o f K a b u l . 12
I t was d u r i n g
c o n d i t i o n s i n Kashmir:
10I b i d .
11Gwasha K a u l , Kashmir Through t h e Ages ( S r i n a g a r :
Chronicle
P u b l i s h i n g House, 1954 ), p . 10; H. C. Ray, The D y n a s t i c H i s t o r y o f
N o r t h e r n I n d i a ( C a l c u t t a : The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 93 1 ) , I , 112;
K a l h a n a ' s R a j a t a r a n g i n i , t r a n s . from S a n s k r i t by M. A. S t e i n ( D e l h i :
M o t i l a l B a n a r s i d a s s , 19 61), I , 87.
Kal han a, a Kashmiri P a n d i t , w r o t e
t h i s c h r o n i c l e o f t h e k i n g s o f Kashmir i n 1149 A.D.
12S i - Y u - K i , B uddh is t Records o f t h e W es tern W or ld, t r a n s .
from C hines e o f Hiuen T s i a n g by Samuel Beal (London: T r u e b n e r and
Company, 19 0 0 ) , I , 136; Ray, o p . c i t . , I , 112.
25
I t was d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f t h i s r u l e r
The t h r e a t o f
the
King L a l i t a d i t y a - M u k d a p i d a
n o r t h e a s t e r n A f g h a n i s t a n , p a r t s o f C e n t r a l A s i a , and a l l o f n o r t h e r n
I n d i a and even p a r t s o f t h e D e c c a n . 16
S i r A u r c . S t e i n who e d i t e d
R a j a t a r a n g i n i r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t t h e s e e x t e n s i v e c o n q u e s t s as r e a l i t y ,
a r g u i n g t h a t such e x t e n s i v e campaigns were sim ply beyond t h e p o s s i
b i l i t i e s o f f e r e d by t h e manpower and r e s o u r c e s o f K a s h m ir . 17
How
13S i - Y u - K i , I ,
148.
There a r e ab o ut 3 l i t o one m i l e .
11+The d a t e s o f t h i s r u l e r ' s r e i g n a r e a m a t t e r o f c o n s i d e r a b l e
d i s p u t e . See R a j a t a r a n g i n i , I , 67; Ray, op. c i t . , I , 112; Hermann
G o e tz , S t u d i e s i n t h e H i s t o r y and Art of~Tas hm ir and t h e I n d ia n
Himalaya (Weisbaden: O t t o H a r r a s s c w i t z , 1969) , pp. 8-12 .
15G oe tz,
0 .
16R a j a t a r a n g i n i , I , 128-35.
17I b i d . , I , 82- 92 .
26
In
E a s t e r n A f g h a n is t a n and Punjab
At t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y t h e r e were two s t a t e s
l o c a t e d on t h e extreme n o r t h w e s t e r n c o r n e r o f I n d i a .
kingdom o f Z a b u l i s t a n and t h e kingdom o f K a p i s i.
These were t h e
The kingdom o f
K a p is i i n c l u d e d t h e t e r r i t o r y e n c lo s e d by t h e Indus on t h e e a s t , t h e
Hindukush mountains on t h e n o r t h and west and 34 N. on t h e s o u th i n
27
I t commanded
i s o l a t e d h i l l s i n t o t h e R e g i s t a n , t h e g r e a t d e s e r t s t r e t c h i n g away
t o t h e P e r s i a n b o r d e r , unbroken save by t h e Helmand R i v e r . " 23
By 631 th e r u l e r s o f Kapisi had l o s t t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s l y i n g
e a s t o f th e Indus t o Kashmir.2*1
190.
23William K. F r a s e r - T y t l e r , A f g h a n is ta n . A Study o f P o l i t i c a l
Developments in C e n t r a l and Southern A s i a , T h ir d e d i t i o n (London :
Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966), p. 8. This a r e a corre sp on ds roughly
t o S i j i s t a n o f t h e Arab g e o g r a p h e rs . See G. Le S t r a n g e , Lands o f t h e
E a s t e r n C a l i p h a t e (London: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1905), Chapter
x xiv.
2llThis i n f o r m a t i o n i s p r o v id e d by Hieun Tsiang who v i s i t e d
t h e s e t e r r i t o r i e s , now mainly t h e Rawalpindi d i s t r i - t o f th e Punjab,
i n 631 A.D. and observed t h a t f o rm erly th ey were p a r t o f t h e kingdom
o f K a p is i. S i-Y u-K i, I I , 136-47.
25Gandhara was t h e home o f t h e famous Indo-Greek s c u l p t u r e
which f l o u r i s h e d i n n o r th w e s t e r n I n d i a between th e second c e n tu r y
B.C. and 300 A.D.
28
p o r t i o n o f t h e kingdom o f K a p i s i by t h e b a r r e n mountain r a n g e o f t h e
S a f i d Koh.
p r e s e n t f o r m i d a b l e b a r r i e r s t o i n v a d i n g a r m i e s . 26
When Hieun T s i a n g p a s s e d t h r o u g h n o r t h e r n A f g h a n i s t a n i n
630 A.D. he found t h e t e r r i t o r i e s
t h e r u l e o f t h e Western T u r k s .
l y i n g n o r t h o f t h e Kindukush u n d e r
o f t h e W este rn Turks on t h e s h o r e o f t h e l a k e I s s i k - k u l .
T a k in g
A s i a became a b a t t l e ground b e tw e e n f o u r c o n t e n d i n g g r o u p s :
A r a b s , t h e C h i n e s e , t h e Turks and t h e I n d i a n s .
the
T h i s f o ur- w ay c o n t e s t
l a s t e d f o r more t h a n a h u n d r e d y e a r s . 28
26There a r e some p a s s e s which l e a d t h r o u g h t h e s e m o u n tain s
i n t o t h e Kabul V a l l e y .
In t h e n o r t h t h e s e i n c l u d e t h e Khawak P a s s ,
11 ,640 f e e t ; t h e Qipchak P a s s , 13,900 f e e t ; t h e S a l a n g P a s s , 14,237
f e e t , and t h e Kaoshan P a s s .
In t h e west a re t h e Kharzar P ass, th e
S h i b a r P a s s , t h e H a j i Gak Pass and t h e Unai P a s s .
In t h e s o u th i s
t h e Khurd Kabul P a s s . Bamiyan V a l l e y can be a p p r o ach ed from t h e n o r t h
by p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e Ak Robat P a s s , 12,650 f e e t , and from t h e west
t h r o u g h t h e N i l P a s s . See F r a s e r - T y t l e r , o p . c i t . , pp. 10-1 3.
27H. A. R. G ib b , The Arab Conquests i n C e n t r a l As ia (London:
Royal A s i a t i c S o c i e t y , 1923), pp. 3 - 1 1 ; Per cy S ykes, A H i s t o r y o f
A f g h a n i s t a n (London: Macmillan and Company, 19 4 0 ) , I , 151.
28See H.A.R. Gibb, The Arab Con qu es ts i n C e n t r a l A s i a (London :
The Royal A s i a t i c S o c i e t y , 19 23) .
29
Z a b u l i s t a n was b o r d e r e d on t h e
so u th w e st by S a s s a n i d t e r r i t o r i e s and on t h e s o u t h e a s t by t h e k i n g
dom o f S i n d . 29
As mentioned e a r l i e r , t h e p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y o f t h e kingdoms
o f Kap isi
and Z a b u l i s t a n from t h e s i x t h t o t h e t e n t h c e n t u r i e s i s
ex t r e m e l y
obscure.
Hieun T s i a n g , who p a s s e d t h ro u g h K a p is i
in
The o r i g i n s o f
In 1893 M.A.
0 Q
B. D. M ir chandani, "Chach-Nama: R e f e r e n c e s t o P e r s i a ,
Za bu l, Kashmir and K a n a u j J o u r n a l o f I n d i a n H i s t o r y , XLIII (lgbS) .
371.
30S i-Y u -K i, I , 54-55.
t h e Kabul V a lle y .
This a cco u n t a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y t o
30
The
32
l e t t e r s ">A0NAN0^A0'.34
The te r m a p p a r e n t l y came t o d e n o te
Thus
0 .
c i t . , pp. 263-67.
31
A f g h an istan and w e s te r n P u n j a b . 35
t h e s e l a t e r Kushans b e a r t h e word
^AONANOPAO. 36
35Ray,
0.
c i t . , I , 55 and 57.
32
The u s u r p a t i o n o f th e
Thus, ac co rd in g t o A l - B i r u n i , th e r u l e r s o f
I f t h e r u l e r was an E p h t h a l i t e , he could
Majumdar merely d e s c r i b e s th e r u l e r as
"an I n d ia n , K s h a t t r i y a by c a s t e . " 46
39Smith,
Ray,
0.
0 .
c i t . , p. 277.
40The e x a c t d a t e o f t h e event i s s u b j e c t t o d i s p u t e .
c i t . , I , 72-76.
See
33
As was a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t , Hieun T s i a n g d e s c r i b e s t h e r u l e r
o f K a p is i as a " K s h a t t r y a . "
S i n c e K s h a t t r i y a i s t h e second c a s t e o f
Hinduism, c o u l d t h e r u l e r be o f Hindu o r i g i n ?
None o f t h e s c h o l a r s
m e n t io n e d i n t h i s p a p e r a c c e p t s t h e t h e o r y o f t h e Hindu o r i g i n s o f
th e r u l e r s o f K apisi.
Ray b r u s h e d t h i s i d e a a s i d e i n a few s e n t e n c e s :
By t h i s t h e p i l g r i m p r o b a b l y meant n o t h i n g
more t h a n t h a t t h e k in g b e l o n g e d t o t h e Brahmanical
f a i t h ; b u t ev-en i f he was r i g h t i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n
o f t h e c a s t e o f t h e p r i n c e i t p r e s e n t s no i n s u p e r a b l e
d ifficu lties.
The h i s t o r y o f t h e g r a d u a l a s s i m i l a
t i o n o f t h e Yueh -ch i h o r d e s i n t h e f o l d o f Hinduism
i s w e l l kn o w n .. . . T h e r e i s no r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t
t h i s p r o c e s s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n d i d n o t c o n t i n u e amongst
t h e s u c c e s s o r s o f t h e G r e a t Kusans; and i t i s q u i t e
l i k e l y t h a t some o f t h e i r c h i e f s even c l a i m e d
K s a t r i y a r a n k . 47
The c a p i t a l o f t h e kingdom o f K a p i s i a t t h e tim e o f Hieun
T s i a n g ' s v i s i t was t h e c i t y o f K a p i s i , l o c a t e d on t h e banks o f t h e
Ghorband R i v e r some f o r t y m i l e s n o r t h o f t h e p r e s e n t c i t y o f K a b u l . 48
The h i s t o r y o f t h e kingdom o f Z a b u l i s t a n which l a y s o u t h o f
t h e kingdom o f K a p i s i i s e x t r e m e l y o b s c u r e .
t h e kingdom i n 630 A.D.
Hieun T s i a n g v i s i t e d
He c a l l e d i t T s a o - t a o r T s a o - l i :
T h is c o u n t r y i s a b o u t 7000 l i i n c i r c u i t ,
t h e c a p i t a l o f which i s c a l l e d Hosina (Ghazna)
. . . . M o u n t a i n s and v a l l e y s s u c c e e d each o t h e r ,
w ith p la in s in te rv e n in g , f i t f o r c u l t i v a t i o n . . . .
The c l i m a t e i s c o l d ; t h e r e a r e f r e q u e n t h a i l and
snow s t o r m s . The p e o p l e a r e n a t u r a l l y l i g h t
h e a r t e d and i m p u l s i v e . . . . T h e i r w r i t i n g and langua ge
d i f f e r from t h o s e o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . Althoug h
47Ray, o p . c i t . , I , 6 1 - 6 2 .
48 F r a s e r - T y t l e r , 0 . c i t . , p . 9.
A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t i n 328 B.C.
34
t h e y worsh ip a hundred s p i r i t s , y e t th e y a l s o
g r e a t l y r e v e r e t h e t h r e e p r e c i o u s ones (Buddhism).
The r e i g n i n g s o v e r e i g n . . . i s t h e s u c c e s s o r o f a
long l i n e o f k i n g s . ***
The c a p i t a l o f t h i s kingdom, Ho-Si-Na, has been i d e n t i f i e d
by some s c h o l a r s w i th modem G h a z n i . 50
Numismatic ev id en ce p o i n t s
out t o a l i n e o f powerful r u l e r s i n Z a b u l i s t a n d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t h
c e n t u r y A.D.
One o f
I n d ia n s c r i p t .
t h o s e o f Z a b u l i s t a n i s p r e s e n t l y n o t known.
Sind
The p r e s e n t s t a t e o f Sind i n West P a k i s t a n cover s an a r e a
o f 57,117 s q u a r e m i l e s and has a p o p u l a t i o n o f 6 , 4 2 4 , 6 9 9 . 52
^ S i-Y u -K i, I I , 283-84.
50Thomas W a t t e r s , On Yuan Chwang's T r a v e l s i n I n d i a (629-645
A.D.) , I n d ia n e d i t i o n (D el hi: Munshi Ram Manohar L a i , 1961), I I , 625.
Also, Smith, oj>. e f t . , map f a c i n g p. 354. Cunningham, however, i n
c lu d e s Kandhar which i s n e a r l y 200 m i le s s o u t h o f Ghazni i n t h e
t e r r i t o r i e s o f t h e kingdom o f K a p i s i. Alexander Cunningham, Ancient
Geography o f I n d i a (London: Trubner and Company, 1871), pp. 19-20.
510n t h e c o i n s o f Z a b u l i s t a n , see Alexan de r Cunningham, L a t e r
I n d o - S c y t h ia n s ( V a r a n a s i , I n d i a : I n d o l o g i c a l B o o ks tore , 1962), pp. 269272, 291.
52Kazi Saied- Uddin Ahmad, " S i n d , " Encycl oped ia B r i t a n i c a , 1972
e d . , Vol. XX, 559.
35
The Chachnamah5t|
namely, Diw aj i, h i s son
36
m e n ti o n e d i n l U h f a t a l - K i r a m , a P e r s i a n work w r i t t e n by A l i S h e r Kani
i n 1774-75 i n I n d i a , namely S i h r a s I I , son o f S a h a s i , and S a h a s i I I ,
s o n o f S i h r a s I I . 56
T h i s work a l s o a s s i g n s a p e r i o d o f 137 y e a r s t o
t h e f i v e r u l e r s o f t h e Rai d y n a s t y . 57
The o r i g i n s o f t h e Rai d y n a s t y h av e b e e n much d e b a t e d by t h e
histo rian s.
The I m p e r i a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a s u p p o r t e d Cunningham's
A. F. H o e r n le i n 1889 b e l i e v e d t h a t
Postans
57I b i d . , p . 6.
58Cunningham s e t f o r t h h i s views a b o u t t h e Rai d y n a s t y i n a
p a p e r he r e a d b e f o r e t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r i e n t a l Congress i n London
i n 1892. See S i r A. Cunningham, " L a t e r I n d o - S c y t h i a n s , White Huns
o r E p h t h a l i t e s Numismatic C h r o n i c l e , XII ( 1 8 9 4 ) , 243-93.
59Impe ri a l G a z e t t e e r o f I n d i a , XXII ( C a l c u t t a :
o f Government P r i n t i n g , 1 9 0 8 ) , 177.
Supritendent
80Henry C o u s e n s , The A n t i q u i t i e s o f S i n d w i t h H i s t o r i c a l
O u t l i n e , Vol. 4 6 , i n The A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Survey o f I n d i a , I m p e r i a l
S e r i e s ( C a l c u t t a : C e n t r a l P u b l i s h i n g B r a n c h , 1 9 2 9 ) , p. 7.
37
I n d ia n h i s t o r i a n s a r e e i t h e r s i l e n t
In 1964, B. D. Mirchandani i n an a r t i c l e ,
He r e j e c t e d t h e t h e o r y o f t h e Hunnish o r i g i n s o f t h e Rai
d y n a s t y , b u t f a i l e d t o e s t a b l i s h any new b a s i s f o r i t s o r i g i n s . 64
The Rai d y n a s ty r u l e d Sind f o r a p e r i o d o f 137 y e a r s . 65
The
I t was "a l a r g e c i t y
I t was s i t u a t e d on
At t h e
It
I t was d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r p r o v in c e s
The g e o g r a p h ic a l l o c a
political
g r e a t I n d ia n empires a f t e r t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a .
39
d id n o t in c l u d e Sind i n t h e i r t e r r i t o r i e s . 68
As a l r e a d y p o i n t e d o u t ,
Sind
The p r e s e n t P a k i s t a n - I r a n
l o s t h i s l i f e i n a campaign a g a i n s t th e P e r s i a n s i n Makran.70
The f e r t i l e lands o f s o u t h e r n Punjab i n t h e n o r t h , however,
were more rew ar ding th an t h e dry lands o f Makran and S i s t a n in t h e
w es t.
S in d ia n expansion i n t h e n o r t h .
40
a t t h e modern c i t y o f S i a l k o t i n n o r t h e a s t e r n
b o r d e r s o f K a s h m ir . 71
s i o n o f t h e r u l e r o f S i n d . 73
Sihras II l o s t h i s l i f e a g a in s t the
Upon t h e d e a t h o f S a h a s i I I , a n o t h e r p e r i o d o f
I t i s t h e r e f o r e p o s s i b l e t o conclude t h a t
T u h f a t a l- K ir a m as b e i n g " a b o u t t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e H i j e r a . " 77
T his d a t e has p r e s e n t e d h i s t o r i a n s w ith a s e r i o u s pr oblem.
When
71S i - Y u - K i , I I , 274.
72The Chachnamah, p. 12.
73I b i d . , p. 28.
74I b i d . , p. 13.
75I b i d . , pp. 21-36.
76I b i d . , pp. 18-22; Kani, . c i t . , pp. 6 - 7 .
77Kani, o p . c i t . , p. 7.
41
According t o t h e Chachnamah
A f t e r a y e a r , Duraj
For t h e nex t
The d a t e s f o r
t h e r u l e r s o f t h e Brahmin d y n a s ty can be a r r a n g e d as f o l l o w s : 82
Chach
Chandar
(Dahir
Duraj
fDahir
40 y e a r s . . . A.D.
622-662
8 years . . .A .D .
662-669
1year
. . .A .D .
669-670
30 y e a r s . . . A.D.
670-700
(Dah arsiah
D ahir
8 years
+ X y e a r s . . . A.D. 700-708
+ X years
Total =
87 y e a r s + X y e a r s
78S i - Y u - K i, I I , 272.
79The Chachnamah, p. 39.
80I b i d . , p. 42.
81I b i d . , p. 55.
82Majumdar, "The Arab I n v a s i o n , " p. 12.
42
Supposing t h a t
"as i t i s supposed
The p r o b
o f S i n d . 87
43
The p i l g r i m ' s
t h e r e f o r e , has no b e a r i n g on th e d a t e o f Chach's a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e
th ro n e o f Sind which took p l a c e , ac co rding t o Mirchandani, in 622 A.D.
Chach seems t o have been a vigorous r u l e r .
When he ascended
th e t h r o n e , t h e p r o v i n c i a l governors r e f u s e d t o acc ep t h i s a u t h o r i t y .
Chach proceeded t o p a c i f y t h e country and i n so doing g r e a t l y
expanded the a r e a o f t h e c o u n t r y . 88
On th e b a s i s o f in fo r m a tio n
In t h e n o r th
w ith p e t t y Rajput s t a t e s .
In th e n o r t h e a s t the e x p a n s i o n i s t p o l i c i e s
Even d u r in g t h e l i f e t i m e
44
Rajputana and G u ja r a t
At t h e time o f t h e Arab i n v a s i o n , Sind was bordere d on th e
e a s t and s o u t h e a s t by numerous p e t t y kingdoms.
powerful o f t h e s e s t a t e s was t h a t o f Kanauj.
One o f t h e most
Emperor Harsha Verdhana,
(Kanauj) h i s t o r y . " 92
"When t h e o b s c u r i t y l i f t s
The t e r r i t o r i a l
However, b e f o r e t h e Kashmir-Kanauj c o n f l i c t
45
Under t h e G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a
D e s e rt o r T har c o v e r in g a p p ro x im a te ly 100,000 s q u a re m i l e s . 98
Except i n t h e extrem e s o u t h , r a i n f a l l i s
u n d e r , g e n e r a l l y w e ll u n d e r , 10 i n c h e s . Mean
m onthly te m p e r a t u r e s ra n g e from 60 F a h r e n h e it
(J a n u a ry ) t o 95 F a h r e n h e it (May) b u t d i u r n a l
r a n g e s a r e n a t u r a l l y h i g h - -2 0-30 a t a l l s e a s o n s .
V e g e ta tio n i s e x tre m e ly s t u n t e d and th o rn y
open s c r u b , l a r g e l y a c a c i a : " th e term 't r e e *
i s r a t h e r a c o u r te o u s acknowledgement o f d e s c e n t
th a n an i n d i c a t i o n o f s i z e " . . . . P a s t o r a l i s m i s
i m p o r t a n t , sh eep and g o a ts p r o v id i n g raw m a t e r i a l s
f o r t h e c r a f t s o f t h e few to w n s ; and t h e camel
i s s t i l l one o f t h e c h i e f means o f t r a n s p o r t . 99
In t h i s v a s t s t r e t c h o f t h e d e s e r t no c e n t r a l i z e d a u t h o r i t y
e x i s t e d a t t h e tim e o f t h e Arab i n v a s i o n o f S in d .
V ario u s R ajp u t
c h i e f s had c a rv e d o u t in d e p e n d e n t kingdoms f o r th e m s e lv e s .
96Ray, o p . c i t . , I , 72.
97See b elo w , c h a p t e r V I I , p . 162.
98S p a t e , . c i t . , p . 567.
" i b i d . , p . 568.
46
T a ta and h i s t h r e e s u c c e s s o rs p ro b a b ly
The n e x t k i n g , S i l u k a , was t h e
47
i n R a jp u ta n a .10** E i t h e r S i l u k a o r h i s s u c c e s s o r was on th e th ro n e
when th e Arabs o f Sind swept o v e r a g r e a t e r p a r t o f R ajp utan a and
G u ja ra t between 724 and 738 A .D .105
Of a l l th e R ajput s t a t e s t h a t o f J a is a l m e r was n e a r e s t t o
th e Arab t e r r i t o r i e s in S in d , and as such was th e f i r s t to b e a r th e
b r u n t o f th e Arab arms from S i n d . 106
q u e s t o f S in d , t h e c l a n o f B h a t ti was r u l i n g i n J a i s a l m e r .
o r i g i n o f t h i s c la n i s n o t c l e a r . 107
The
Hard p r e s s e d by th e Arabs on t h e i r
48
T his c o n f l i c t p rov ed d i s a s t r o u s t o t h e R a jp u t s t a t e s .
At t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e e i g h t h c e n tu r y A.D. t h e G u r j a r a -
P r a t h i h a r a s had e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r r u l e i n two o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f
w e s te rn I n d i a as w e l l - - s o u t h e r n G u j a r a t and w e s te rn Malwa.
The e x a c t
d a t e o f t h e fo u n d in g o f G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a d y n a s t i e s i n t h e s e two
r e g io n s i s n o t known.
However, i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t " t h e G u r ja r a s
In s o u th e r n G u j a r a t t h e G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a
c a p i t a l was t h e c i t y o f N a n d i p u r i. 110
At t h e tim e o f t h e Arab
i n v a s i o n s o f S in d , J a y a b h a t a I I I was r u l i n g i n N a n d i p u r i . 111
In
Here
Hind K ita b ,
49
The
50
s o u th e r n n e ig h b o r , b u t i n b o th c a s e s th e V alab h i o c c u p a tio n o f th e
G u r j a r a - P r a t h i h a r a kingdom seems t o have been o f a s h o r t d u r a t i o n . 115
From 691 t o 762 A.D. S i l a d i t y a IV and S i l a d i t y a V r u l e d o v e r
V a la b h i.
The d a te o f t h e a c c e s s io n o f S i l a d i t y a V to t h e t h r o n e i s
The e x p a n i o n i s t p o l i c i e s o f some o f t h e s e s t a t e s
were d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e s e c u r i t y o f I n d i a in th e fa c e o f an Arab
th ru st.
K a p is i, Z a b u li s t a n and S in d , s t a t e s which fa c e d a s o l i d w a ll
51
Only
CHAPTER IV
IMPERIAL EXPANSION:
Both S i r
U nlike
53
Arab p a s s e n g e r s on
The demand o f
S u b je c t as th e y
The t h w a r t i n g o f
t h i s Drang nach O s te n , d i p l o m a t i c a l l y i f p o s s i b l e , m i l i t a r i l y i f
n e c e s s a r y , h a v in g become t h e c h i e f co ncern o f S in d ia n p o l i c y m akers.
Punishm ent o f p i r a t e s , had i t been w i t h i n t h e i r pow er, would be in
c o n f o rm ity w ith t h e i r s t r i c t p o l i c y o f a v o id in g any a n t a g o n i s t i c
a c t s tow ards t h e i r n e i g h b o r s , a f a c t o f g r e a t in c o n v e n ie n c e t o Muslim
h i s t o r i a n s who have endeavo red t o p l a c e t h e blame s q u a r e l y upon th e
Hindu r u l e r o f S i n d . 5
3F or d e t a i l s , s e e below , C h a p te r i i i .
4S i j i s t a n and w e s te r n Makran had b een o v e rru n by t h e Arabs
p r i o r t o t h e a n n e x a tio n o f S in d . From h e r e o c c a s i o n a l f o r e y s were
cond ucted a g a i n s t S in d ia n t e r r i t o r i e s .
See below , C h a p te r V , pp.
4 -1 1 .
5Muslim h i s t o r i a n s have n e v e r a d m itte d t h e v a l i d i t y o f any
o t h e r argum ent. See a l - B a l a d h u r i , o p . c i t . , p . 216; The Chachnamah,
pp . 69 -70 ; T u h fa t a l- K ir a m , p . 10. Eminent In d ia n Muslim s c h o l a r
Syed Amir A l i , i n h i s H is to r y o f t h e S a r a c e n s , h a s t h i s t o say :
"About t h e same tim e Mohammad, t h e son o f Kasim, g o v ern o r o f Makran,
h a r a s s e d by t h e p r e d a t o r y t r i b e s who i n h a b i t e d t h e c o u n try between
S ind and B a l u c h i s t a n , le d an e x p e d i t i o n i n t o I n d ia which ended i n t h e
a n n e x a tio n o f S in d , M ultan and p a r t o f th e Punjab as f a r as t h e B e a s ,"
p . 104.
54
The
convinced o f t h e r ig h t e o u s n e s s o f t h e i r a c t s .
Mawali g r ie v a n c e s
e x p r e s s e d i n terms o f p o l i t i c a l d i s c o n t e n t were r u t h l e s s l y c r u s h e d . 7
I r o n i c a l l y t h e v ery g r ie v a n c e s which had i n s p i r e d r e b e l l i o u s a c t s
were now m u l t i p l i e d - - t h e Umayyads demanding " j i z i a h " even from th e
55
kingdom o f S in d , as y e t unconquered.
H a jja j e n t e r t a i n e d no f a l s e
Yet i t i s
I t is
S6
The i n c l u s i o n o f
The
57
C i v i l s t r i f e and r e b e l l i o n s a g a in r e n t t h e I s l a m i c em pire f o r
alm ost two decades and p eace was n o t f u l l y r e s t o r e d u n t i l t h e l a s t
y e a r s o f C a lip h A b d u l-M a lik 's r e i g n (685-705 A .D .)-
Under C a lip h
I t i s n o t in c o n
c e i v a b l e t h a t H a j j a j , who h ad p la y e d a m ajo r r o l e i n th e c o n s o l i d a
t i o n o f t h e c o n q u e s ts made betw een 685 and 705 A .D ., would have
a c c e p te d D a h i r 's e x p l a n a t i o n w ith a more r e a s o n a b l e a t t i t u d e th a n
he a c t u a l l y d i d , had t h e I s l a m i c em pire been a t r i f l e more u n s t a b l e
th a n i t was.
As i t w as, t h e t h i r d p e r i o d o f c o n s o l i d a t i o n was
S in d , S p a in , and
C e n t r a l A sia became v ic t im s o f t h i s c y c l e .
The co n q u est o f S in d can a l s o b e r e g a r d e d as t h e i n e v i t a b l e
r e s u l t o f Arab o c c u p a tio n o f t h e I r a n i a n p l a t e a u .
Over th e c e n t u r i e s
t h e I n d ia n s u b c o n t i n e n t has b een in v a d e d by t h e h o rd e s o f v a r i o u s
e t h n i c groups o f p e o p le who have p o u re d i n t o i t s p l a i n s th ro u g h t h e
m ountain p a s s e s o f t h e N o rth w e st, i n s e a r c h o f b e t t e r p a s t u r e s .
H i s t o r i c a l l y t h e s e in v a d in g arm ie s have always f i r s t c o n s o li d a t e d
t h e i r h o ld s on t h e m ountains o f t h e Hindukush i n t h e n o r th o r on
t h e B a l u c h i s t a n p l a t e a u in t h e s o u th .
Once i n c o n t r o l o f t h e s e
T h is u rg e c o u ld be checked o n ly i f a s t r o n g c e n t r a l
58
B .C ., p u r s u in g a v ig o ro u s e x p a n s i o n is t p o l i c y , e v i c t e d t h e Greek
g a r r i s o n s l e f t b eh in d by A lexander t h e G reat i n n o r th w e s te r n I n d i a .
Long a f te r w a r d s t h e s e t a c t i c s r e c u r r e d w ith th e same s u c c e s s .
During th e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n te e n th c e n t u r i e s t h e Mughul em pire
s u c c e s s f u l l y d efend ed t h e n o r th w e s te r n i n v a s io n r o u te s a g a i n s t th e
P e r s i a n s and t h e T u rk s.
More r e c e n t l y i n s e a r c h o f a " s c i e n t i f i c
s t r o n g enough to p u rsu e a v ig o ro u s n o r th w e s te r n p o l i c y .
As soon as
Such a c o n d it i o n e x i s t e d on t h e eve
o f th e Arab
i n v a s i o n o f S in d .
As seen i n t h e f o re g o in g p a g e s , no c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y
had e x i s t e d in I n d i a a t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , b u t f o u r
r e g i o n a l kingdoms --nam ely Kashm ir, K a p is i, Z a b u l i s t a n and S in d -- h a d
been e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e N o r t h w e s t .11* The Arabs had o v e rru n P e r s i a
and were i n p a r t i a l c o n t r o l o f t h e Hindukush.
By th e v e ry l o g i c o f
As i t was by t h e i r
n a t u r e and d e s e r t t r a i n i n g , th ey were b e t t e r s u i t e d t o in v ad e I n d ia
th ro u g h t h e s o u th e r n r o u t e , and i n so doin g t h e y s u c c e s s f u l l y o v e r-
59
Arab A rt o f War
The phenomenal r i s e o f t h e Arab empire from i t s b i r t h p l a c e
in t h e d e s e r t o f A rabia to th e b o r d e rs o f I n d ia on th e one hand, and
t o th o se o f s o u th e rn France on th e o t h e r , w i t h i n a s i n g l e c e n tu ry
i s one o f t h e m ir a c le s o f h i s t o r y .
60
I t seems to me m is le a d in g , i n d e s c r ib in g
th e s e e a r l y Arabian b a t t l e s , t o speak as some
European h i s t o r i a n s h ave, o f arm ie s, g e n e r a ls
and s o l d i e r s . In A rabia every man was in an
emergency expected t o f i g h t f o r h i s t r i b e . Apart
from such c r i s e s th e r e were no s o l d i e r s , n o r was
any t r a i n i n g deemed n e c e s s a ry . The w a r r io r s
fought n o t in companies o r b a t t a l i o n s , but
grouped by t r i b e s and c l a n s , each commanded by
i t s c h i e f . B a ttle s norm ally commenced by
s in g le combats between champions, watched by
th e fo rces o f b o th s id e s drawn up o p p o s ite each
o t h e r . F in a l ly th e r i v a l war p a r t i e s charged,
and th e is s u e was d ecid ed in a w ild melde, con
s i s t i n g o f a g r e a t number o f confused h a n d -to hand e n c o u n te r s . 15
In p r e - I s l a m i c Arabia where nomadic t r i b e s formed the
e s s e n t i a l elem ents o f a l l p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , economic and even
r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s , s ta n d in g armies could have h a r d ly been t h e
o r d e r o f th e day.
61
t h e Muslim f o r c e s on b o th o c c a s io n s was t h e P ro p h et h i m s e l f .
The
were grouped t o g e t h e r a c c o r d i n g t o t r i b a l a f f i l i a t i o n s , b e in g d i s
t i n g u i s h e d by d i s t i n c t b a n n e r s and commanded by t h e i r own c h i e f s .
O th e r t h a n t h e supreme commander, Muhammad, i n t h e c a s e o f Muslim
f o r c e s no o t h e r h i e r a r c h y o f coirmand e x i s t e d , n e i t h e r were t h e r e
any u n ifo r m s .
In b o th c a s e s t h e c a v a l r y formed t h e most im p o r ta n t
b ra n c h o f c o n te n d in g f o r c e s .
S in c e each s o l d i e r was t o p r o v id e h i s
Muslim i n f a n t r y , which in c l u d e d a
However, i n
l a t e r b a t t l e s o f Isla m t h i s p r o p o r t i o n was r e v e r s e d .
The p r i n c i p a l
At Badr t h e P r o p h e t 's o r d e r s
as t o t h e u s e o f t h e weapons w ere e x p l i c i t .
"Do n o t w a s te y o u r
o jd .
62
I t n o rm a lly c o n s i s t e d o f a p o t helm et
During t h e b a t t l e he r e c e i v e d a blow on t h e
Had th e blow
Three
I t was on ly a f t e r th e s e
18I b i d . ,
p. 17; Glubb,
0 .
In
c i t . , pp. 72-73.
19I b i d . ,
p. 71. A ccording t o one a u t h o r i t y t h e Arab women
accompanied t h e w a r r i o r s w ith bows and arrow s and p a r t o f t h e i r duty
was " t h e p u r s u i t
and punishm ent o f d e s e r t e r s and ev en , i f circu m
s ta n c e s w a r r a n t e d , w ith p u t t i n g them t o d e a t h . " J a c q u e s Boudet,
The A ncient Art o f W arfare (London: The C r e s s e t P r e s s , 1 966), p .
178.
63
There was
In t h e i r l a t e r b a t t l e s a g a i n s t th e
The
t h e i r fundamental p r i n c i p l e s n e v e r t o fa c e f r e s h l y a r r i v e d enemy
tro o p s and p a r t i c u l a r l y a t a s i t e s e l e c t e d f o r b a t t l e by t h e i r r i v a l s .
The enemy fo rc e s had to be h a r a s s e d i n a manner which Glubb l a b e l s
as " th e p i r a t e s t r a t e g y . " 21
64
w ith o u t b e i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y p u r s u e d i n t o t h e d e s e r t .
l i n e s were t h e main t a r g e t f o r Arab " p i r a t e s . "
Enemy su p p ly
T here were no c o n v e n t i o n a l b a t t l e f o r m a t i o n s - - i n d i v i d u a l
In c a s e
t h i s was n o t a c c o m p lish e d ,
65
If
These i n c lu d e d c u t t i n g o f f t h e i r t r u n k s , p o k in g t h e i r
The Arabs p r e f e r r e d
They p a id d e a r l y a t t h e B a t t l e
t i o n s a g a i n s t f r e s h l y a r r i v e d F ra n k is h f o r c e s .
The F ra n k is h c e n t e r
66
The Arabs
A f te r lo s i n g
Byzantine
67
t h e i r r e a r by a r i v e r , marsh o r d e f i l e .
I n f a n t r y was t o be p l a c e d
H e e d le s s p u r s u i t by t h e c a v a l r y was e s p e c i a l l y t o
The P e r s i a n s , t h e T u rk s , t h e I n d i a n s , t h e B y z a n tin e s
In view o f
t h e i r nomadic e x i s t e n c e i n A r a b ia , t h i s i s n o t h a r d t o u n d e r s t a n d .
The s im p le e x p e d ie n c e o f d i g g i n g a d i t c h around t h e c i t y o f Madina
i n 627 A.D. had p r e v e n t e d t h e Meccan f o r c e s from i n v e s t i n g i t . 30
The
The c i t y
In c a s e t h e c i t y was
The
m e t r o p o l i s o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e managed t o w i t h s t a n d t h e Arabs s u c c e s s
f u l l y , p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e t h e above f a c t o r s were f a v o r i n g i t . 31
2 9 I b i d . , V ol. V, 206.
30The s i e g e o f Madina i s a l s o known as t h e b a t t l e o f Khanduq
o r D itc h . See H a m id u lla h , o. c i t . (December 1 9 5 2 ), 8 -1 3 ; G lubb,
o p . c i t . , p p . 8 2 -8 6 .
31The Arabs b e s ie g e d C o n s t a n t i n o p l e i n 669, 677 and th e n a g a in
i n 717 A.D. See G lu bb , o p . c i t . , p p . 35 0-5 2; Lynn M o n tro s s , War
Through t h e Ages (New York: H arp er and B r o t h e r s , 1 9 4 4 ), p p . 12 3-25;
H i t t i , o p . c i t . , p p . 201-204.
68
I n s o f a r as t h e Arabs a t l a r g e were c o n c e rn e d , t h e i r b e l i e f
t h a t b a t t l e s were won by d e s p e r a t e co u rag e a l o n e , and t h a t no s k i l l e d
t r a i n i n g o r o r g a n i z a t i o n were r e q u i r e d from a conmander, rem ained
s t e a d f a s t th ro u g h o u t t h e i r m ajo r b a t t l e s a g a i n s t t h e B y z a n tin e s and
th e P ersian s.
T his i n d i v i d u a l
An e s p r i t -
and P e r s i a n f o r c e s la c k e d .
I t was one o f
t h e p r i n c i p a l d u t i e s o f t h e C a lip h as commander o f t h e f a i t h f u l t o
keep p u s h in g back t h e g e o g r a p h ic a l w a ll s e p a r a t i n g t h e " d a r a l - I s l a m "
( t h e lan d o f Islam ) from t h e " d a r a l- H a rb " (th e war t e r r i t o r y ) .
In
A c c o r d in g ly , t h e Arab w a r r i o r s , i n u t t e r i n d i f f e r e n c e
T h e o re
69
The s h e e r f o r c e o f n e c e s s i t y
As a lr e a d y p o in te d o u t th e Arabs u n t i l t h i s
The
70
r e s p o n s i b le f o r p r o v is i o n i n g t h e t r o o p s , and m i l i t a r y ju d ges d e a l t
w ith b re a c h e s o f d i s c i p l i n e . 37
In a l l f a i r n e s s t o t h e B y z a n tin e s , i t must be p o in te d out
t h a t alth o u g h th e y were d e f e a te d i n most o f t h e i r m ajor e n c o u n te rs
w ith th e A rabs, y e t t h e i r m i l i t a r y machine became th e model f o r th e
la tte r.
By th e b e g in n in g o f t h e e i g h th c e n tu r y A.D. the p r o c e s s o f
u n l i k e th o s e o f th e B y z a n t i n e s ." 38
B yzantine s ie g e a r t i l l e r y , such
In
71
e n
t s .
Would t h e I n d i a n m i l i t a r y m achine b e a b l e t o s u c c e s s
f u l l y m eet t h i s c h a l l e n g e ?
I n d ia n A rt o f War
In t h e i r z e s t f o r o r g a n i z e d s o c i e t y t h e a n c i e n t I n d ia n s
i n c o r p o r a t e d w a r f a r e i n t o t h e i r body p o l i t i c and had e l e v a t e d i t t o
th e p o s itio n o f fin e a r t .
A cco rd in g t o t h e A r t h a s a t r a o r T r e a t i s e
r i g h t e o u s c o n q u e s t , c o n q u e s t f o r g re e d and
The f i r s t i s t h e c o n q u e s t i n w hich t h e d e f e a t e d
In t h e s e c o n d t y p e o f c o n q u e s t enormous
b o o ty i s demanded and l a r g e p o r t i o n s o f t e r r i t o r y a r e a n n ex ed .
The
t h i r d i n v o l v e s t h e p o l i t i c a l a n n i h i l a t i o n o f t h e co n q u ered kingdom
and i t s i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t h a t o f t h e v i c t o r .
Inasmuch as a g r e a t
However, t h e s t a t e s o ccu p y in g t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n s e c t i o n o f
72
h o rd e s r e f e r r e d t o by t h e contem po rary I n d ia n s o u r c e s as m le c c h a s ,
t a j i k a s o r yavanas which meant sim p ly " t h e b a r b a r i a n s . " 1*1
Hence
No ground was t o
The c o n c e p t o f t h e demoniac c o n q u e st
a w a r r i o r i n a c h a r i o t m ight n o t s t r i k e one on
L a te r t e x t s
i n t r o d u c e d t h e co n cep t o f m i l i t a r y h o n o u r, n o t found i n t h e r e a l i s t i c
A rth a sa stra .
F l i g h t from an e n c o u n te r i s t h e d e e p e s t o f shame.
The
73
"Such
h e r e d i t a r y tro o p s forming th e
I t i s h i g h l y p ro b a b le t h a t in th e
^ B ash am ,
0_.
c i t . , p. 126.
t*5I b i d . , p . 128.
74
Chandra
The
The
While th e s e f i g u r e s a re p ro b ab ly e x a g g e ra te d , th ey are
armies p u t a se v e re d r a in on th e r o y a l t r e a s u r y .
In f a c t i t was not
75
Three more c a t e g o r i e s
Of t h e com batant r a n k s o f t h e
army, t h e K s h t r i y a c a s t e p ro v id e d t h e c a v a l r y and w a r r i o r s in c h a r i o t s
and on e l e p h a n t s . 52
made up t h e i n f a n t r y .
" g u lm a," " g a n a ," " v a h i n i , " " p r t a n a , " "camu" and " a n k i n i " were r e s
p e c t i v e l y t h r e e tim e s as l a r g e as t h e c o rp s p r e c e d i n g them and th e
n i n t h f o r m a t i o n , c a l l e d " a k s a u h i n i , " was t e n tim e s as numerous as
t h e p r e c e d i n g " a n i k i n i " and was c o n s id e r e d t o r e p r e s e n t a co m plete
f i e l d army.
76
a s i m i l a r number o f c h a r i o t s . 54
A ll ra n k s o f t h e s t a n d i n g army
r e c e i v e d r e g u l a r m onthly p a y . 55
The le n g th y l i s t o f a n c i e n t In d ia n arms as enum erated in
v a r io u s Hindu t e x t s in c lu d e d no l e s s th a n one hundred and t h i r t y seven item s c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e b a s i c groups a c c o rd in g t o t h e i r
use:
Among i t s many v a r i e t i e s
77
An
by any cumbersome m e t a l l i c p a r a p h e r n a l i a .
In t a c t i c a l m a tte rs th e g r e a t r e l i a n c e p la c e d on e le p h a n ts was
from th e p r a c t i c a l p o i n t o f view u n f o r t u n a t e .
Once th e war e le p h a n ts
In c o n v e n tio n a l b a t t l e f o rm a tio n s , th e
e le p h a n ts were p la c e d i n t h e f r o n t w ith i n f a n t r y in t h e c e n t e r .
Lancers were s t a t i o n e d b eh in d t h e e le p h a n ts and in f r o n t o f th e
arch ers.
C avalry u n i t s took up p o s i t i o n s on t h e f l a n k s .
E lephant
78
c a v a lr y c h a rg e s.
The In d ia n bow
As i t was th e
79
i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e f i g h t i n g f o r c e o f a l a r g e kingdom numbered
w e l l o v e r a m i l l i o n . 60
By f a r t h e g r e a t e s t o b s t a c l e t o t h e p r o g r e s s o f Arab arms
i n S in d was t h e m a ssiv e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s a l l a lo n g t h e low er In d u s.
The s c i e n c e o f m i l i t a r y a r c h i t e c t u r e was f a m i l i a r t o t h e I n d ia n s even
b e f o r e t h e coming o f t h e Aryans some two m ilennium s b e f o r e C h r i s t .
R ig v e d a , r e c o r d i n g t h e m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s o f t h e A ry an s, sp e a k s o f
towns and f o r t s b u i l t by t h e Dasas o r p re -A ry a n D r a v i d i a n s .
(m a jo r Aryan d i v i n i t y ) i s P u r a n d a r a , t h e f o r t d e s t r o y e r .
f o r t s as age consumes a g a r m e n t ." 61
"In d ra
He r e n d s
By t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s e v e n th
by l o c a l r u l e r s in c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e ty p e s o f d e f e n s e sy stem s most
e f f e c t i v e i n h o l d i n g th e enemy arm ies a t b ay .
U n f o r t u n a t e ly o v e r t h e
p a s t tw e lv e c e n t u r i e s most o f t h e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s have e i t h e r f a l l e n
i n co m p lete decay o r have been so m o d ifie d by s u c c e s s i v e g e n e r a t i o n s
th a t very l i t t l e
a r c h i t e c t u r e on t h e eve o f t h e Arab i n v a s io n o f S i n d . 62
In a s tu d y
o f I n d ia n f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , o u t o f t w e n t y - f o u r s i t e s s e l e c t e d , n o t a
s i n g l e one c o u ld be d a te d p r i o r t o t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y A .D ., w it h o u t
e x t e n s i v e m o d i f i c a t i o n s . 63
T h ree o f t h e s e s i t e s , D a u la ta b a d , C h i t o r
60Basham, o p . c i t . , p . 132.
61Quoted i n J . N. K amalapur, The Deccan F o r t s (Bombay:
Book D epot, 1 9 6 1 ), p . 5.
62S id ney Toy, The S tro n g h o ld s o f I n d i a (M elbourne:
1 9 5 7 ), p . 10.
P o p u la r
W. Heinemann,
63T h is p a r t i c u l a r l y h o ld s t r u e i n t h e c a s e o f p re -A ra b S in d .
The s i t e s o f a l l m a jo r s t r o n g h o l d s t h e r e , w ith t h e e x c e p t io n o f
80
A ll t h r e e s i t e s , though s e p a r a t e d by
A stro n g
Between t h i s o u t e r w a ll
and th e c i t a d e l a r e t h r e e o t h e r e n c i r c l i n g w a l l s .
Beyond t h e f o u r t h
From t h i s p o i n t
t h e summit.
P a r t o f t h e d e fe n s e s a r e a c t u a l l y c u t i n t o t h e r o c k , and
o th e r w is e huge g r a n i t e b o u ld e r s a r e u se d .
The e n t r a n c e to t h e c i t y
i s th ro u g h t h e o u te rm o st w a ll by way o f a s t r o n g hornwork c o n s i s t i n g
o f a s u c c e s s i o n o f gateways and c o u r t s .
The hornwork i s v e ry t h i c k
81
The d o o r s , e le v e n f e e t
w ide, a r e fo rm id a b le b a r r i e r s , s i x in ch es t h i c k s tr e n g th e n e d b ehin d
by leavy b a to n s spaced a t s h o r t i n t e r v a l s and s e c u re d when c lo s e d by
a tim b e r b a r about te n in c h e s s q u a r e .
in ch long i r o n s p ik e s a g a i n s t e le p h a n t a t t a c k .
The second c o u r t i s
This p a t t e r n c o n tin u e s u n t i l th e f o u r t h
Beyond t h e moat r i s e s th e
h i l l , s c ra p e d a l l around up to a h e i g h t o f 150 f e e t .
The b r id g e from
t h e f o u r t h w a ll t o t h e b a s e o f t h e c i t a d e l d escend s r a p i d l y by a
f l i g h t o f s te p s and r i s e s a g a in to th e l e v e l o f t h e g a l l e r y on t h e
o th e r sid e .
The g a l l e r y p a s s e s round t h r e e s i d e s o f a t a l l b a s t i o n
82
From t h i s l e v e l a f u r t h e r f l i g h t o f a
The
b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s most commonly u se d i n c l u d e g r a n i t e , b a s a l t ,
h o r n b le n d e , c a l e r i t e and t r a p - s t o n e .
In Sind most o f t h e c u l t i v a t e d lan d la y a lo n g t h e Indus r i v e r .
C o n seq u en tly t h e e n t i r e l i n e o f d e f e n s e ra n p a r a l l e l t o t h i s s tr e a m
and from Daybul i n t h e s o u th t o M ultan i n t h e n o r t h co v e re d a d i s t a n c e
o f a p p ro x im a te ly f i v e h u n d red m i l e s .
An enemy ad v an cin g a lo n g t h i s
l i n e would e n c o u n te r f o r t r e s s e s o f v a r i o u s s i z e s , t h e c a p t u r e o f which
must r e q u i r e a s t e a d i n e s s o f p u rp o s e as w e ll as s i e g e equipm ent o f
an advanced t y p e .
We may e x te n d t h i s
ad v an tag e t o i n c l u d e f o r t i f i c a t i o n s o f an advance t y p e .
M o b ility ,
65Water was o b t a i n e d by d i g g i n g w e l l s o u t s i d e t h e c i t a d e l as
w e ll as by c o n s t r u c t i n g huge ta n k s o r c i s t e r n s t o h o ld w a t e r d u r in g
th e ra in y season.
CHAPTER V
had a l r e a d y launched n av al o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t I n d ia n c o a s t a l c i t i e s .
Phase I :
Naval O p e ra tio n s A g a in st t h e C o a s ta l C i t i e s o f
I n d ia
These
Uthman's b r o t h e r s
84
# 4 7 pi
IF
/^ -
-S
khdhi
ARKii.
*b
RUDBM*
Ku z p /
f v W A '^ .B U R
*
2 a
aV b<
I N D J A l
JJACACW
-> - A T ^ A B S
>4?
Soi
o - o - > - IN D IAH S
*y
g h A X k i A \/ IDS
sr. SAFfrAT? IU S
T n A N A ^ r... .7.334iif
85
and Broach r e s p e c t i v e l y .
w ith c e r t a i n t y .
F i r s t t h a t i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e to speak o f an Arab
To be su re sm all f i s h i n g
Second,
3B a la d h u ri,
o jj.
However, i t i s n ot in c o n c e iv a b le
c i t . , p. 209.
I heChachnamah, p . 58.
5Umar seemed to have had a dread f o r th e s e a . In r e p l y to
Muawiya1s r e q u e s t to c o n s tr u c t a navy (Muawiya was ap p oin ted th e
governor o f S y r ia by Umar in 639 A .D .), t h e Caliph was q u i t e e x p l i c i t ,
"Nay! By Him who s e n t Muhammad w ith th e t r u t h , I w i l l nev er l e t any
Muslim v e n tu re upon i t . . . . H o w can I p erm it my s o l d i e r s to s a i l upon
t h i s u n f i t h f u l and c r u e l s e a . " Quoted in Ali Muhammad Fahmy, "The
Muslim Navy During th e Days o f th e E a rly C a l i p h a t e ," The I s la m ic
Review, Vol. 40 (1952), 24.
6George H ourani, Arab S e a f a rin g In th e Ind ian Ocean (P rin c e to n :
P rin c e to n U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1951), p. 77.
7Fahmy, o p . c i t . , p. 25.
86
The I n d ia n s i n t h a t c a s e co u ld have
i s s u e d o u t o f t h e i r s t r o n g h o l d s , g iv e n b a t t l e to t h e enemy and r e
t u r n e d w i t h i n t h e s a f e t y o f t h e w a l l s . R e a li z i n g t h e h o p e l e s s n e s s o f
t h e s i t u a t i o n t h e Arabs th e n r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r h o m e s.8
In view o f
c i t i e s were su sp en d ed f o r
t h e tim e b e in g .
Phase I I :
The p e r s o n chosen
"The w a t e r su p p ly i s s c a n t y ; t h e d a t e s
87
a r e i n f e r i o r ; and t h e r o b b e rs a r e b o ld I
On t h e b a s i s o f t h i s r e p o r t
At a p l a c e c a l l e d Shakk a s h - S h i r a j a n in
He s p e n t t h e n e x t s i x months co n d u ctin g
S i j i s t a n had many f o r t i f i e d
C onsequently
These t r e a t i e s
r e s u l t e d in th e e s ta b li s h m e n t o f lo o s e Arab hegemony o v er t h e a r e a ,
a l b e i t a p r e c a r i o u s one.
a t Z arang, th e c h i e f c i t y o f w e s te rn S i j i s t a n . 12
88
Undaunted, ib n Amir n ex t
The d i s t r i c t
A f t e r b r u s h in g a s id e enemy r e s i s t a n c e
The
Taking advantage o f th e d i s t u r b e d
0 .
c i t . , p. 143.
16I b i d . , p. 144.
17"The h ig h la n d s o f t h e Kandahar c o u n tr y , alo n g th e upper
w a te rs o f t h e Helmund were known as Z a b u l i s t a n ." L e -S tra n g e , The
Lands o f th e E a s te rn C a l i p h a t e , p . 334.
89
o p e ra tio n s in S i j i s t a n .
The s i e g e l a s t e d f o r
t h e Arabs i n b a t t l e .
th u s p r e v e n t i n g t h e I n d ia n s from c l o s i n g i t .
The Arabs f o rc e d t h e i r
way i n t o t h e c i t y and t h e i n h a b i t a n t s s u r r e n d e r e d .
W ith in a s h o r t
0 .
c i t . , p . 146.
90
T h is i s t h e f i r s t tim e t h a t t h e r u l e r s o f t h e s e two
p l a c e s a r e m entioned by t h e i r t i t l e s .
F o r t h e n e x t two c e n t u r i e s we
Muawiya was
a b l e t o r e - e s t a b l i s h Arab a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e r e g i o n b u t h i s son
Y azid (681-683 A.D.) was l e s s s u c c e s s f u l .
He was,
For t h i s p u rp o se an army o f
91
o f Kinda in C e n tr a l A r a b i a .25
On r e a c h in g S i j i s t a n Abd-ar-Rahman
w ith R a tb il v a l i d f o r n in e y e a r s . 26
Before t h e term s o f t h i s t r e a t y
92
D irectly e a st of
o f Ira q in 670 A.D., Ziyad ibn Abi ap p o in ted Sinan ibn Salamah in
command o f o p e r a tio n on th e Kirman f r o n t i e r .
f r o n t i e r and conquered Makran by f o r c e . " 2*3
"He proceeded t o th e
From b ases i n S i j i s t a n ,
As e a r iy
as 660 A.D. an e x p e d itio n was und ertak en a g a in s t t h i s reg io n by a l H a rith ibn Murrah o p e r a tin g from S i j i s t a n .
He p e r is h e d t h e r e with
K a b u l." 32
0.
93
A b d u lla h , h ow ever, l o s t h i s l i f e a g a i n s t t h e
a b o u t 670 A.D.
c o n d u c te d a r a i d a g a i n s t a l- K ik a n b u t l o s t h i s l i f e d u r in g t h e
c a m p a ig n .34
B a la d h u r i q u o t e s a l - A s h a , an Arab p o e t , as s a y in g :
And th o u a r t g o in g t o M akran-How f a r t h e d e s t i n a t i o n from t h e s t a r t i n g p l a c e t
I have no u s e f o r Makran,
E ith e r to fig h t th ere o r to tra d e .
I was t o l d a b o u t i t ; I d i d n o t go t h e r e ;
And I alw ays d i s l i k e t o h e a r a b o u t i t .
Most p e o p le t h e r e a r e h u n g ry ,
And t h e r e s t o f them a r e d e p r a v e d . 35
Arab a t t e m p t s t o occupy a l- K ik a n p e r m a n e n tly , h ow ev er,
r e s u l t e d i n a f i a s c o . 36
94
ib n al-Q asim were m arching a c r o s s Makran on t h e i r way t o S ind a l Kikan was s t i l l u n s u b d u e d .37
The Conquest o f S in d
711-715 A.D.
95
G u lf from C e y lo n .1+0
C eylonese o r I n d ia n .
He wanted t o c o u r t
A p p a re n tly t h e f a t h e r s
B alad h u ri and
o f D a h ir,
Inasmuch
96
D a h ir 's
m i l i t a r y o p e r a tio n s t h e r e would be to o c o s t l y .
H a j j a j , however, was
k i l l e d and h i s fo rc e s r o u t e d . 1*6
Arab h i s t o r i a n s a r e c u r io u s ly s i l e n t
Two a s p e c ts o f t h i s f i a s c o must be c o n s id e re d .
F irst i t
97
The e p is o d e i s r e m i n i s c e n t
t h e s e p r e v i o u s a t t a c k s on D ay b u l,
a p p a r e n t l y had f a i l e d t o a p p r e c i a t e
t h e m a s s iv e d e f e n s i v e s y ste m o f t h e c i t y .
U n d e t e r r e d , H a j j a j p lu n g e d i n t o t h e t a s k o f o r g a n i z i n g a n o t h e r
e x p e d i t i o n a g a i n s t D aybul.
s a i l t o D aybul.
j o i n B u d a il a t o r n e a r D aybul.
The
D a h ir, th e S in d ian
A p i t c h e d b a t t l e to o k p l a c e o u t s i d e t h e w a l l s
The a p p e a r a n c e o f w ar e l e p h a n t s f r i g h t e n e d t h e h o r s e s .
98
w hich s u rro u n d e d t h e c i t i e s o f S in d .
m o b i l i z i n g Arab f o r c e s .
No e f f o r t s were s p a r e d in
a t Makran w ith e x t r a c o n t i n g e n t s .
by s e a . The command
o f t h i s d l i t e f o r c e was e n t r u s t e d t o Muhammad
campaigns a g a i n s t some r e b e l l i o u s t r i b e s .
t i o n s were made f o r t h e d e p a r t u r e .
At S h i r a z f i n a l p r e p a r a
H a j j a j was n o t t a k i n g any c h a n c e s .
His i n s t r u c t i o n s were e x p l i c i t :
When you a r r i v e i n t h e c o u n tr y o f t h e enemy,
encamp i n p l a i n s and open f i e l d s t h a t yo u r move
ments may be f r e e and e x t e n s i v e . At t h e tim e o f
b a t t l e , d i v i d e y o u r s e l v e s i n t o d e ta c h e d colum ns,
and t h e n r u s h i n from d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s , as you
s h a l l have t o f i g h t w ith v e t e r a n h e r o e s . And when
t h e y make an a s s a u l t , you make a f ir m s t a n d and
0 .
c i t . , p . 74.
99
A ll p r e c i s e in f o r m a tio n about t h e d e p a r t u r e d a t e
Harun, however,
Soon t h e army c ro s s e d o v e r t h e f r o n t i e r i n t o S in d .
100
The
As a co in c id e n c e th e s h ip s b e a r in g
One p i e c e c a l l e d
The In d ia n s s a l l i e d
On
101
a r t i l l e r y was i n e f f e c t i v e .
confused.
n o rth .
N o th in g
A d d i t i o n a l I n d ia n t r o o p s c o u ld a r r i v e any m in u te from t h e
The sudden
T h is was h a r d l y c a l c u l a t e d t o e n c o u ra g e t h e b e s i e g e r s .
What
In t h e h e a r t o f
A m a ssiv e g re e n
s i l k e n f l a g b e a r i n g some r e l i g i o u s i n s i g n i a c o n s t a n t l y flew o v e r t h a t
t e m p l e . 6 That f l a g , a c c o r d in g t o t h e Brahmin, was t h e c l u e t o
D a y b u l's d e f e n s e even more so t h a n i t s w a l l s .
"As lo n g as t h a t
s t a n d a r d o f t h e te m p le s t a n d s i n i t s p l a c e i t i s im p o s s i b le f o r t h e
f o r t t o be t a k e n by y o u . " 61
H a j j a j was in fo rm ed o f t h e s i t u a t i o n .
Jaubat
The
102
Four th o u sa n d s o l d i e r s were
D a h i r 's s o n ,
The
The B u dd hist g o v e rn o r so u g h t
103
c i t y . 67
The r e s u l t i n g s e t t l e m e n t p r e v e n te d a Daybul-
ty p e m a ss a c re , b u t o th e r w is e Arab c o n t r o l o v e r t h e a r e a was re c o g n iz e d
as a b s o l u t e .
The a s s a u l t on S iw is ta n
S p ies were s e n t
C onsequently "when th e
104
th e n o r th e r n g a te and, c r o s s in g th e r i v e r , f le d aw ay."70
were now opened and t h e Arabs poured i n t o th e town.
The g a te s
Muhammad " c o l l e c t e d
s i l v e r and gold wherever he could fin d them, and a l s o secu red ornaments
and cash from th e p e o p le , e x c e p tin g th o se o f t h e Samani (Buddhist)
p a r t y w ith whom he had made a solumn co m p act."71
While Muhammad was busy p a c i f y i n g t h e neighborhood o f S iw is
t a n , 72 f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t i o n s were r e c e iv e d from H a j j a j , "Now g iv e up
o t h e r towns, and come back t o Nirun and a rra n g e t o c ro ss th e Mehran
(Indus) and march a g a in s t D a h a r." 73
made to c ro ss th e Indus.
At Nirun f i n a l p r e p a r a t i o n s were
H a j j a j ' s n ex t i n s t r u c t i o n s were
c a l c u l a t e d to overcome t h i s danger.
Spend as much money as you can. Give them
( In d ia n s ) la r g e rewards and p r e s e n t s . Do n o t d i s
ap po int th o s e who want e s t a t e s and la n d s , b u t comply
w ith t h e i r r e q u e s t s . Encourage them by g iv in g them
w r i t t e n prom ises o f p r o t e c t i o n and s a f e t y . /lt
The m istake made by th e Arab commander a t th e B a tt l e o f th e
Bridge a g a in s t th e P e rs ia n s was n o t t o be r e p e a t e d .
(th e enemy) t o cro ss th e Mehran a t t h e i r w i l l .
"Do n o t allow
T e ll them t h a t i f th e y
70I b i d . , p. 94.
71I b i d . , p. 95.
72Far geographical d e t a i l s concerning S iw is ta n and l o c a l i t y see
H. T. Lambrick, Sind: A General I n t r o d u c t i o n , C hapter 9 , "Sind in 7th
and 8th C e n tu r i e s ," pp. 156-58.
7 3The Chachnamah, p . 98.
71*Ibid.
105
I f D ah ir r e f u s e d t o c r o s s t h e
r i v e r , t h e Arabs
c o u ld t h e n t a k e th e d r a s t i c s t e p f i r s t , b u t o n ly
a fte r
a solem n p ro m ise
h in d ra n c e .
D ah ir was now in fo rm ed t h a t he h ad t h e f i r s t c h o ic e i n
c ro ss in g th e Indus.
I n d ia n m i l i t a r y a d v i s o r s were i n f a v o r o f l e t t i n g
Some ren e g a d e
7 5I b i d . , p . 102.
76I b i d . , pp. 109-10.
770n becoming t h e v i c e r o y o f I r a q , H a j j a j h ad a p p o i n t e d S aid
ib n-A slam g o v e r n o r o f Makran. A l o c a l r e b e l l i o n le d by t h e Arab
c l a n o f I l a f i c o s t S a id h i s l i f e .
F e a r in g t e r r i b l e r e t r i b u t i o n from
H a j j a j , t h e c l a n f l e d t o S in d and e n t e r e d t h e s e r v i c e s o f D a h ir .
78The Chachnamah, p p . 110-11.
106
The In d ia n m i l i t a r y view p r e v a i l e d .
H a j j a j , n o t i f i e d o f D a h i r 's d e c i s i o n , w asted no
S ecure such p l a c e s on
L et t h o s e o f t h e n a t i v e s o f t h e p l a c e
In r e t u r n t h e e n t i r e d i s t r i c t o f Bet
D ahir who was c o n s t a n t l y inform ed
79I b i d . , p . 113.
eoI b i d . , p . 124.
81I b i d . , p . 116.
10 7
th e Arabs.
Four thousand w a r - l i k e J a t t r i b e s
in d e s p e r a tio n u rg e n t
8 I I b i d . , p. 116.
82T b i d . , pp. 116-17.
B a la d h u r i, p. 219 r e f e r s to th e second
conquest o f S iw is ta n as t h a t o f Sadusan.
83The Chachnamah, p . 120.
8**Ibid.
108
" I t i s s t r a n g e , " w ro te th e
I t was
d e c id e d t o t a k e ad v an tag e o f t h e i s l a n d o f Bet t o c r o s s by a b r i d g e
o f b o a t s w here th e y would have two narrow s tre a m s i n s t e a d o f a s i n g l e
wide one.
On h e a r i n g o f Arab t r o o p movements on t h e e a s t b an k , he
s e n t h i s so n , J a i s i a h , a g a i n s t t h e enemy.
In t h e e n s u in g b a t t l e
s i t u a t e d by a l a k e .
The S in d f o r c e s c o n s i s t e d o f f i v e th o u sa n d
109
Arab
Two t h o u
b e f o r e th e f a t e f u l b a t t l e .
f i v e th o u sa n d .
" A ll t h e horsemen
Each s e c t i o n was a l s o a s s ig n e d t h r e e
h undred n a p h t h a - s h o o tin g a r c h e r s .
p o s te d in
e l e p h a n t and c a r r i e d "a c i r c u l a r d i s c
in th e form o f a m i r r o r w ith
110
sh arp k n iv e s .
a horse,
from
I n f a n t r y u n i t s , in c lu d in g
A few c a v a lr y u n i t s
A f te r a b r i e f
A v ig o ro u s
On th e fo llo w in g day t h e
Ill
One o f th e In dian
were n o t a b le t o ta k e th e i n i t i a t i v e a l l day.
By now i t was becoming ap p aren t to Muhammad t h a t t h i s type
o f war o f a t t r i t i o n could be d i s a s t r o u s t o th e Arab arms.
With th e
The absence
J a i s i h a , D a h ir 's son, r e t r e a t e d
112
b a ttle fie ld .
Muhammad o r d e r e d a l l c a p t i v e p r i s o n e r s t o be p u t to
d e a th and t h e i r f a m i l i e s s o ld i n t o s l a v e r y .
h e r s e l f up i n t h e f o r t o f Raor and p u t up
D ah ir* s q u e e n , B a i , s h u t
a brave r e s is ta n c e .
When
The f o r t was ta k e n
The
B efore r e a c h i n g t h i s s t r o n g h o l d a p r o c la m a t io n
D a h i r 's p rim e m i n i s t e r S iy a k a r
c e p te d t h i s
t o t h e Arab c a u s e . 95
th o u sa n d had been l e f t by J a i s i a h t o d e fe n d t h e s i t e .
J a i s i a h him
The c i t y was
W ithin
Whereas t h e g a r r i s o n was c o n f i
d e n t t h a t i t co u ld h o ld t h e Arabs a t bay i n d e f i n i t e l y , t h e
great
113
t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e c i t y ' s economy co u ld n o t w i t h s t a n d th e s i e g e
much lo n g e r .
cussed.
A ccord ing ly s e c r e t
l i v e s , l i b e r t i e s and p r o p e r t i e s .
As th e
The c i t y was i n v e s t e d ; s i x
114
A lo r, th e c a p i t a l o f
The
s ie g e d Sikkah f o r t h r e e weeks.
Two hundred
115
In a n g er
E v e n tu a lly a
t r a i t o r " p o i n t e d o u t a s p o t on t h e n o r t h e r n s i d e o f t h e f o r t , b o r d e r
in g on t h e bank o f t h e r i v e r .
From t h a t s p o t t h e s o l d i e r s burrow ed
In a l e t t e r t o Muhammad,
T h is was H a j j a j ' s l a s t l e t t e r
101I b i d . , p . 189.
~102I b i d . A ccording t o B a la d h u ri t h e t r a i t o r , "g u id e d them t o
t h e p l a c e where t h e w a te r o f which t h e p e o p le drank e n t e r e d .
I t was
w a t e r f lo w in g from t h e Basmad r i v e r , and was c o l l e c t e d i n r e s e r v o i r
l i k e th e Pool i n a l-M a d in a h . They c a l l i t a l - B a l a h . He s h u t i t o f f ,
and when th e y became t h i r s t y th e y s u r r e n d e r e d a t d i s c r e t i o n . " Op. c i t . ,
p . 222.
103Quoted in B a l a d h u r i , o p . c i t . , p . 223.
11 6
c u l t to fo llo w , u n c e r t a i n as th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e l o c a l i t i e s
m e n tio n e d .104
o jd .
c i t . , p . 223.
CHAPTER VI
d ev elo ping over th e p a s t cen tu ry and which th , Arabs had now b rought
w ith them, and what f a c t o r s i n S in d, a land dominated by HinduBuddhist c u l t u r e , would in flu e n c e th e new r u l e r s in t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a
t i v e c a p a c ity ?
I s la m ic I n s t i t u t i o n s
A f te r th e r i s e o f Islam i t i s no lo n g er p o s s i b l e t o speak
s e p a r a t e l y o f Arabic and Is la m ic i n s t i t u t i o n s , f o r Islam i s a t once
a r e l i g i o n and a whole way o f l i f e .
I t proclaim ed th e a b s o lu te u n i ty
118
9
The
U nlik e
th e
The m is s io n o f t h e P ro p h e t was t o be p r o c la im e d t o a l l ,
i t s a d h e r e n ts a s p i r i t so dynamic t h a t i t e n a b le d t h e s im p le d e s e r t
d w e lle r s t o o v erth ro w t h e m ighty em p ires o f t h e P e r s i a n s and t h e
B y z a n tin e s .
The r i c h lan d s
l y i n g n o r t h o f A ra b ia were a p e r p e t u a l t e m p t a t i o n t o a p e o p le con
s t a n t l y s t r u g g l i n g f o r t h e i r s u r v i v a l a g a i n s t an i n h o s p i t a b l e and
cruel te r r a in .
As t h e p r o c e s s o f em pire b u i l d i n g g a in e d momentum, i n s t i t u
t i o n a l developm ents w ere f o r c e d t o keep up w ith i t .
At t h e head
119
as t h e d i v i n e l y o r d a in e d r u l e r o f t h e "Umma."
He was s e l e c t e d by a l l
b e l i e v e r s t o e n f o r c e t h e Holy Law b u t n o t t o f i n e i t h i m s e l f . 3
F a il
u r e t o p erfo rm h i s d u t i e s co uld r e s u l t in h i s d e p o s i t i o n by t h e
e le c to ra te at la rg e .4
u t i l i z e d r e l i g i o u s s a n c t io n s t o o b t a i n p o l i t i c a l ends f o r th e
agg rand izem en t o f th e o f f i c e o f t h e C a lip h so t h a t "The C a li p h a t e th u s
re c o g n iz e d was a d e s p o tis m which p l a c e d u n r e s t r i c t i v e power in th e
hands o f th e r u l e r and demanded u n h e s i t a t i n g obed ience from h i s s u b
je c ts ." 5
The few g u i d e l i n e s p ro v id e d i n th e Quran were w h olly i n a d e
q u a te t o govern conquered t e r r i t o r i e s o f v a s t s i z e and s u b s t a n t i a l
p o p u la tio n s.
p e n i n s u l a were e i t h e r e x p e lle d o r e x t e r m i n a t e d . 6
3Thomas A rno ld, The C a l i p h a t e , c h a p t e r i i , " O r i g i n s , " pp. 1941 . There were two o t h e r t i t l e s used by t h e C a lip h , "Amir u l M u'minin" o r commander o f t h e f a i t h f u l , and "Imam" meaning l e a d e r o f
th e f a i th f u l in p ray er.
4E. I . T. R o s e n th a l, P o l i t i c a l Thought in Medieval Islam : An
I n t r o d u c t o r y O u t li n e (Cambridge: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958), pp. 121-126.
5A rnold, The C a l i p h a t e , pp. 47-48.
6P h i l l i p H i t t i , A H is to r y o f t h e
M uir, Annals o f t h e E a rly C a l i p h a t e , pp.
A ra b s , p . 169; S i r W illiam
215-20.
120
reg u lar m i l i t i a .
To f a c i l i t a t e t h i s enormous ta s k a g e n e r a l census
b a n n e r and i t s own c h i e f . 8
e s t a b l i s h e d th ro u g h o u t th e occupied t e r r i t o r i e s , r e m in is c e n t o f th e
B r i t i s h cantonem ents i n I n d ia .
From t h e s e c e n te r s s u b je c t ra ces
were k ep t u n d er s u r v e i l l a n c e . 9
In s h o r t i t was a complete
7H i t t i ,
0.
Formal im p e ria l c u r r e n c ie s
c i t . , p. 169.
0.
c i t . , p. 61.
121
Byzantine and
t r e a t e d a c c o rd in g ly .
where c a p i t u l a t e d w ith o u t o f f e r i n g r e s i s t a n c e .
In such a reas th e
i n h a b i t a n t s r e t a i n e d l i f e and p r o p e r t y , b u t p a id t r i b u t e , th e terms
o f which were agreed upon a t t h e tim e o f s u r r e n d e r .
" k h a r a j" was le v ie d upon a l l such e s t a t e s . 13
A land t a x or
I f th e t e r r i t o r y was
A f i f t h o f th e movable
f o r th e s t a t e , th e r e s t d iv id e d up
T h e o r e t i c a l l y i t was a l s o to be d iv id e d up.
In p r a c t i c e , however,
12Brockelmann,
o jd .
c i t . , p.
170-72;
122
Arab w a r r i o r s and t h e i r
h e i r s . 15
o f " d a r - a l - S u l h " were exempt from " k h a r i r j . 11 The same, how ever, d id
n o t a p p ly t o t h e c u l t i v a t o r s o f " fa y y " e s t a t e s who c o n tin u e d t o pay
th is tax .
C h ristia n s,
T his p r o t e c t i o n was
15I b i d . , p .
S h areef al-M u jah id ,
c i t .,
p . 57
16S h a r e e f a l- M u ja h id , o p . c i t . , pp . 9 -1 0 .
17For d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s o f "Umma" s e e M aurice G audefroyDemombynes, Muslim I n s t i t u t i o n s , T r a n s l a t e d from French by John
MacGregor (London: A lle n and Unwin, 1 9 50 ), c h a p t e r i i , "The Muslim
Community;" Thomas A rnold and A lf r e d G u illaum e ( e d i t o r s ) , The Legacy
o f I s l a m , pp. 284-310; David S. M a rg o lio u th , The E a rly Development o f
Muhammadanism (London: W illiam s & N o rg a te , 1 9 1 4 ), pp . 5 -3 0 .
18David S. M a rg o lio u th , The E a rly Development o f Muhammedanism
(London: W illiam s and N o rg a te , 1 9 14 ), c h a p t e r i v , "The S t a t u s o f t h e
T o lerated C u lts ."
19The g r e a t e r a o f I s l a m i c j u r i s p r u d e n c e was y e t t o come.
Under t h e A bbasids f o u r main s c h o o ls were d e v e lo p e d . These were t h e
123
i n r e a l i t y , however, t h i s p r i v i l e g e was r a r e l y g r a n t e d . 22
0 .
c i t . , p. 228.
21Lewis, o p . c i t . , p. 70.
22I b id .
124
The r a p i d l y s w e l l i n g r a n k s o f t h e Mawali r e s u l t e d i n a p r o
p o r tio n a l in c re a s e o f t h e i r g rie v a n c e s.
F o llo w in g t h e d e a th o f
In d e s p e r a t i o n a l - H a j j a j , v i c e r o y
d isco u rag ed .
The "Mawali" r e a c t i o n t o t h i s new te n d e n c y was n o t slow t o
come.
The r e b l l i o n was m e r c i l e s s l y c r u s h e d ,
By a d e c r e e o f th e y e a r
719 A.D. Muslim landow ners were exempted from p a y in g t h e " k h a r a j . "
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t was f o r b id d e n t o t r a n s f e r t r i b u t e - p a y i n g lan d s
t o t h e Muslims i n an e f f o r t t o p r o t e c t t h e s t a t e re v e n u e from d e p l e
125
tio n .
The
The p r o v in c e o f I r a q w ith h e a d q u a r t e r s a t a l- K u fa
i n c lu d e d a l l t h e p a r t s o f t h e c a l i p h a t e l y i n g e a s t o f t h e E u p h rates
R iv e r.
An
A rab ic c o in a g e were
126
Isla m , a s t r u g g l i n g embryo in
A rabia a t th e b eg in n in g o f th e
The opening y e a r s o f t h e n e x t c e n tu ry w i t
T e rrito ria l
le n d in g su p p o rt
To be s u re th e t a s k o f whipping th e i n f i n i t e v a r i e t i e s o f
Yet t h e Umayyads, g r e a t
Hindu I n s t i t u t i o n s
For alm ost two thousand y e a r s p r i o r t o t h e Arab in v a s i o n , Sind
had formed a p a r t o f th e In d ia n c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n .
This t r a d i t i o n
127
o r t h e g eo g rap h ical l i m i t a t i o n s t h e r e o f .
Yet through a l l th e e t h n i c ,
I n d ia from th e r e s t o f th e w o r l d ." 30
One o f th e f u n c tio n s o f r e l i g i o n was t o pave the way f o r a
w e ll- o rg a n iz e d s o c i e t y which i n tu r n would a s su re t h e pre-em inence o f
th e r e l i g i o u s 6 1 i t e - - t h 2 Brahmins.
E la b o ra te r e l i g i o u s s a n c tio n s
An enormous body o f l i t e r a t u r e
128
As e a r l y as t h e f i f t h
So e n tr e n c h e d was
129
"Although t h e e a r l y
Where
th e r e g u l a t i o n and p r o s p e r i t y o f an o rd e re d s o c i e t y was c o n s id e re d to
be t h e prim e f u n c t io n o f t h e monarch, th e r i g h t t o o u s t an u n r ig h te o u s
k in g was em phasized, though seldom e x e r c i s e d i n p r a c t i c e . 37
130
P r o v in c ia l g o v e r n o rs , f r e q u e n t members
P ro v in ces were d iv id e d i n t o d i s t r i c t s ,
He
was g e n e r a l l y a s s i s t e d by a c o u n c i l , p u r e ly a d v is o ry in n a tu r e and
composed o f le a d i n g r e s i d e n t s o f th e a r e a in c lu d in g th e c h i e f b a n k e r,
th e c h i e f cra ftsm a n and th e c h i e f s c r i b e . 1*0
His c h i e f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s were
The v i l l a g e
He was r e s p o n s i b le f o r th e d e fe n se o f t h e v i l l a g e ,
131
T o g e th e r w ith t h e v i l l a g e c o u n c i l , h e r e p r e s e n t e d t h e l a s t
l i n k i n t h e c h a i n o f governm ent c o n t r o l .
The c o u n c i l , composed o f
f i v e o r s i x p r o p e r t y h o l d e r s , was n o t s u b j e c t t o r o y a l c o n t r o l and
o f t e n n e g o t i a t e d a s s e s s m e n t o f la n d w ith r o y a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o n l y .
I t a l s o a r b i t r a t e d d i s p u t e s , c o l l e c t e d t a x e s and u n d e r to o k v a r i o u s
p u b l i c w o r k s . 1*2
A ll I n d ia n la w g i v e r s s t r e s s t h e im p o rta n c e o f a f u l l t r e a s u r y
f o r s u c c e s s f u l g o v e rn m e n t, and I n d i a had e v o lv e d a r e g u l a r s y ste m o f
t a x a t i o n even b e f o r e t h e Greek i n v a s i o n o f 330 B.C.
The b a s i c t a x
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e b a s i c l a n d
t a x , s e v e r a l o t h e r t a x e s f e l l upon t h e c u l t i v a t o r , i n c l u d i n g f i x e d
1*2F o r v i l l a g e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s e e A l t e k a r , o p . c i t . , c h a p t e r
x i , " V i l l a g e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , " p p . 171-8 8.
43G ovinda L. Adhya, E a r l y I n d ia n Economics (Bombay:
P u b l i s h i n g H ouse, 1 9 6 6 ), p . 32.
A s ia
132
Mines
and f o r e s t s were d i r e c t l y u n d e r t h e s t a t e c o n t r o l . 46
A ll c ra fts m e n were e x p e c te d t o dev ote one o r two d a y s ' work
p e r month t o t h e k in g b u t t h i s t a x was o f t e n commuted t o a t a x on
av erage d a i l y e a r n i n g s . 47
a t th e c i t y g a te s .
p r o f i t and n o t on c a p i t a l o u t l a y . 48
t o p e r i o d i c a l fo rc e d l a b o r .
As a r u l e women, c h i l d r e n , s t u d e n t s ,
133
o f j u s t i c e . 50
In e f f e c t i t s tre n g th e n e d t h e c a s te b a r r i e r s w hile
d isc o u ra g in g any te n d e n c ie s e g a l i t a r i a n in n a t u r e .
Courts were s e t up f o r p r o v in c e s ,
In th e c o u n try s id e th e d e c is io n s o f
a p erso n o f h i g h e r c a s t e .
exempt from t o r t u r e t o e l i c i t c o n f e s s io n s .
The e q u a l i t y o f a l l
0 .
0 .
c i t . , p. 110.
c i t . , C hapter v , " J u d i c i a l P ro ced u re," pp. 286-319.
134
b e f o r e t h e law was n e v e r a d m i tt e d i n I n d i a
Thus a Brahmin s l a n d e r i n g
The co m p o site p a t t e r n o f t h e I n d ia n c i v i l i z a t i o n , as i t
ap p e a re d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y , h a d much t o commend
itse lf.
I t i s t o b e r e g r e t f u l l y n o t e d , how ever, t h a t c u l t u r a l a c h i e v e
Arab A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
With t h e coming o f t h e A ra b s , I n d ia n h i s t o r y to o k an e n t i r e l y
new d i r e c t i o n .
t o t h e I n d i a n s , n e v e r was an a t t e m p t made by o u t s i d e r s t o c r e a t e a
m i l i t a r y t h e o c r a c y so u n b en d in g i n i t s b e l i e f s y e t com prom ising i n
i ts p o lic ie s.
To t h e Arabs as t o t h e I n d i a n s , t h e e x p e r i e n c e and
t h e c h a l l e n g e was e n t i r e l y new.
E v e n tu a ll y a c l i m a t e o f o p i n i o n was
c r e a t e d w hich was a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e t o b o t h .
In itia l
55Basham, o p . c i t . , p . 111.
13 5
s u f f i c i e n t l y s t r o n g t o o v e r r i d e p r e - c o n c e iv e d p r e j u d i c e s and to
p r e p a r e th e way f o r a u n iq u e Indo-Arab c u l t u r e .
The g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n which t h e Arab p o l i c i e s assumed in
S in d was a p ro d u c t o f th e im a g in a tio n o f a l - H a j j a j , and b e a r w itn e s s
t o h i s u n d e r s ta n d in g and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e g e n iu s .
Where t h e d i s t a n c e
The g r e a t
As
136
Before engaging th e
Commenting
1 37
There was,
Repeated r e f e r e n c e s to
They were
p o i n t s i s a t t e s t e d by such s i t e s as Qairawan in T u n i s i a , , F u s ta t in
Egypt* Basra in Ira q and Mansurah in Sind.
A c tu a lly by t h e end o f
138
The s t a t i o n i n g o f f o u r th o u s a n d t r o o p s a t Daybul t e s t i f i e s t o
some d e g r e e t h e n o t e o f c a u t i o n a g a i n s t a p o s s i b l e g e n e r a l u p r i s i n g . 64
I t i s t o be n o te d t h a t such c a u t i o n was n o t w ith c e r t a i n j u s t i f i c a t i o n ;
a t S i w i s t a n t h e Arab g a r r i s o n was e x p e l l e d w h ile t h e m ain army was
p r e p a r i n g t o c r o s s t h e I n d u s . 65
When t h e n e c e s s i t y o f
m ain tain in g
s u b s t a n t i a l t r o o p s i n S in d was f o r c e d upon t h e A r a b s , t h e r e c r u i t m e n t
o f n a tiv e a u x i l i a r i e s in c re a s e d c o rre sp o n d in g ly .
At M ultan we a re
t o l d t h a t no l e s s th a n 5 0,0 0 0 c a v a l r y was s t a t i o n e d . 66
The number
; B a l a d h u r i , o p . c i t . , p . 218.
6 5The Chachnamah, p .
66I b i d . As p o i n t e d o u t p r e v i o u s l y , 4 ,0 0 0 J a t s had b e e n
r e c r u i t e d f o l l o w i n g t h e s eco n d c o n q u e s t o f S i w i s t a n .
139
The c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y , as i t g r a d u a l l y
ev olv ed betw een 712 and 715 A .D ., was l a r g e l y dependent upon t h e onth e-sp o t r e a l i t i e s .
The
s e n s e l e s s m assacre a t D aybul, i n s p i r e d by t h e c o l l e c t i v e f o r c e s o f
re v e n g e , g r e e d , r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c i s m and l u s t , co u ld l e a d to a
h id e o u s r e a c t i o n by th e S in d ia n p o p u l a t i o n a t l a r g e o r co uld f r i g h t e n
them i n t o u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u b m is s io n .
l e a d i n g t o whose s u r r e n d e r a r e u n c l e a r a t b e s t , nowhere do we f in d
th e l a t t e r phenomena t a k i n g p l a c e . 67
C Q
and t h e main S in d ia n
Arab l i n e s o f communi
v a s t l y f a c i l i t a t e d i f t h e i n i t i a l p o l i c y o f r u t h l e s s m assa c re s was
r e p l a c e d by one b e n e v o le n t and c o n c i l i a t o r y i n d e s ig n .
The f i r s t
s t e p s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n were ta k e n by a l - H a j j a j , soon a f t e r t h e
s u r r e n d e r o f Daybul:
When you have conquered th e c o u n try and s tr e n g t h e n e d
t h e f o r t s , endeavour t o c o n s o le t h e s u b j e c t s and t o
s o o th e th e r e s i d e n t s so t h a t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c l a s s e s
and a r t i s a n s and m erchants may, i f God so w i l l s , become
c o m fo rta b le and h ap p y , and t h e c o u n try may become f e r t i l e
and p o p u l o u s . 69
140
P r is o n e r s
In an e f f o r t to win o v e r t h e
Among th e
141
a s s i s t e d th e newcomers a g a i n s t th e r o y a l f o r c e s , a t one p o in t a c t u a l l y
sav in g Muhammad's l i f e in th e m idst o f th e b a t t l e a g a in s t D a h i r .75
That by f a r a g r e a t e r number o f nobles remained lo y a l t o t h e i r r o y a l
m aster can be seen by t h e s te a d y r e s i s t a n c e t o Arab arms from Daybul
t o Multan.
N e ith e r
142
c u rre n ts.
The h i g h e s t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t y , fo rm e rly i n v e s t e d i n
A c o n t r o l l e r - g e n e r a l o r " s a h ib a l - K h a r a j , " in d ep en d en t o f th e
I n h e r i t i n g a compe
Large s e c t i o n s
From t h e i r s tr o n g h o ld s a t o r n e a r t h e urban c e n t e r s , t h e
143
He no doubt was a s s i s t e d by a c o u n c il
s t a t i o n i n g o f s i z e a b l e b o d ies o f tro o p s a t s t r a t e g i c p o i n t s .
This
From th e
S im u ltan eo u sly th e p o l i c y
a l s o r e f l e c t s t h e p r e c a r io u s h o ld e x e r c i s e d by t h e Arabs on a
c o u n tr y s id e rem ain in g l a r g e l y in t h e hands o f pow erful Hindu feu d al
l o r d s o f th e p re v io u s d y n asty .
Given t h e s e c o n d itio n s th e m i l i t a r y -
144
The monied i n t e r
h igher le v e ls .
In r e a l i t y i t was t h e f i r s t s ig n o f an emerging a l l i a n c e
145
a r e a s , a t a s k f o rm e r ly p erfo rm ed by t h e B ra h m in s.81
T h is d e v i a t i o n
from an e s t a b l i s h e d p r a c t i c e was n o t e n t i r e l y s u c c e s s f u l .
The
So e n tr e n c h e d was t h e p r a c t i c e o f Brahmin
d o m in a tio n in f i s c a l m a t t e r s t h a t t h e i r c la im s were a c t u a l l y s u b
s t a n t i a t e d by h ig h -p o w ered d e l e g a t i o n s o f Brahminabad c i t i z e n r y . 83
R e a li z i n g t h a t
An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h i s p o i n t
c a l l s f o r fo u r b a s i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .
The f i r s t o f t h e s e r e l a t e s t o
In term s o f
I t was p r o g r e s s i v e i n d e s i g n ; t h e w e a l t h i e s t p a y in g f o r t y -
e i g h t dirham s a n n u a l l y w h il e t h e p o o r e s t o n ly t w e l v e . 85
In t h e
81 I b i d .
82I b i d . , p p. 165-66.
8 3I b i d .
814I b i d . , p . 166.
85I b i d . , p . 165.
146
e s t a t e s , th u s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e t r e a s u r y sums f a r g r e a t e r th a n
would have been p o s s i b l e had t h e r e v e r s e been t r u e .
s im p le .
The r e a s o n was
w i t h i n t h e c a l i p h a t e were p e r m i t t e d t o r e
la n d s on t h e pavment o f k h a r a j , a la n d a s s e s s m e n t con
h i g h e r i.,u;n z a k a t which was p a i d by t h e Muslim lan d ed
While t h e l a t t e r
i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y seldom
exceeded t e n
p e r c e n t o f th e c ro p s o r i t s e q u i v a l e n t i n c a s h , t h e fo rm e r f l u c t u a t e d
p e r p e t u a l l y , v a r y i n g anywhere from o n e - f i f t h t o t w o - f i f t h s o f th e
c ro p :
The l a n d - t a x was u s u a l l y r a t e d a t t w o - f i f t h s
o f t h e p ro du ce o f w heat and b a r l e y , i f t h e f i e l d s
were w a te r e d by p u b l i c c a n a l s ; t h r e e - t e n t h s , i f
i r r i g a t e d by w heels o r o t h e r a r t i f i c i a l means;
and o n e - f o u r t h , i f a l t o g e t h e r u n i r r i g a t e d .
I f a rab le
la n d were l e f t u n c u l t i v a t e d , i t seems t o have p a id
one dirh am p e r j a r i b , and o n e - t e n t h o f t h e o r o b a b le
p r o d u c e . . . .Of d a t e s , g r a p e s , and g ard en p r o d u c e , onet h i r d was t a k e n ,
e i t h e r i n k in d o r money; and onefifth
(khums) o f
t h e y i e l d o f w in e s , f i s h i n g ,
p e a r l s and g e n e r a l l y o f any p r o d u c t n o t d e r i v e d from
86See a b o v e, pp.
87Zakah was l e v i e d a t t h e r a t e o f t e n p e r c e n t i f t h e la n d was
w a te r e d by r a i n o r s tr e a m and a t f i v e p e r c e n t i f w a te r e d by a b u c k e t.
S h a r e e f a l - M u j a h i d , "Muslim F i n a n c e ," I s la m ic C u l t u r e , Vol. 40 (1952) ,
9.
147
c u l t i v a t i o n , was t o be d e l i v e r e d i n k i n d , o r
p a id in v a l u e , even b e f o r e t h e expenses had
b een d e f r a y e d . 88
The t h i r d c o n s i d e r a t i o n is t h e r a t h e r im p re s s iv e number o f
urban c e n t e r s th ro u g h o u t t h e low er Indus V a lle y .
The p o r t s
o f Sind
Arab h a n d s , p r o v i d i n g n o t m erely e x c e l l e n t b a s e s o f m i l i t a r y
o p e r a t i o n s and s u r v e i l l a n c e b u t c o r p o r a t e w e a lth o f g r e a t m agnitude
as w e ll .
F i n a l l y we must m ention ev ery c o n c e iv a b le means d e v is e d by
t h e In d ia n la w g iv e rs t o squ eeze money o u t o f t h e p u b l i c p u r s e which
were now r e t a i n e d by t h e A rabs.
As m entioned e a r l i e r in t h i s
esp ec ia lly
148
Ibn Khaldun, l a t e
For he contends
He f a i l s to e l a b o r a t e on
N in e te e n th c e n tu ry B r i t i s h I n d i o l o g i s t ,
149
o r about 2 7 0 ,0 0 0 --m u st be c o n s id e r e d m o d e ra te ,
i f i t i s in te n d e d to com p rise t h e l a n d - t a x , t h e
p o l l - t a x , t h e customs d u t i e s and a l l m is c e l l a n e o u s
item s i n t o t h e b a r g a i n ; b u t i t i s n o t an im p ro b ab le
a m o u n t.. . .Under t h e T a lp u r s ( e i g h t e e n t h centuryl o c a l d y n a s ty ) n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h a t many l a r g e
and p r o d u c t i v e t r a c t s were a f f o r e s t e d by them ,
S ind i s s a i d t o have o c c a s i o n a l l y y i e l d e d
4 0 0 ,0 0 0 , and u n d er t h e K olhoras (e a i'ly n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y d y n a s t y ) , t r a d i t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e re v e n u e
a t t h e e x a g g e r a te d amount o f 800,000. At p r e s e n t
( 1 8 7 0 's ) w ith s e c u r i t y on a l l i t s b o r d e r s , and
t r a n q u i l l i t y w i t h i n them , i t does n o t pay t o t h e
B r i t i s h Government more t h a n 30 0 ,0 0 0 , and th e
expenses have been h i t h e r t o more th a n do uble
t h a t sum. T h is d e f i c i e n c y , how ever, can n o t l a s t
lo n g , f o r i t s c u l t i v a t i o n and commerce a r e
r a p i d l y on t h e i n c r e a s e . 93
A ccording t o B a l a d h u r i , t h e S in d campaign had c o s t t h e
c a l i p h a t e s i x t y m i l l i o n d i r h a m s . 9** Twice t h a t amount was r e m i t t e d
t o th e c e n t r a l governm ent a t Damascus.
T h is sum i s most c e r t a i n l y
The
o f s i x t y th o u sa n d dirham s as t h e c o s t
93I b id .
9l4A l - B a l a d h u r i , K itab Futuh u l - B u l d a n , p . 223.
95E l l i o t , o p . c i t . , V o l .V ., 70.
150
dilemma.
The overwhelming m a j o r i t y o f
On t h e o t h e r h and , w h o le s a le
fo rc e d c o n v e rs io n s o r e x te m in a tio n o f so l a r g e a p o p u la t io n was w e ll
beyond t h e g ra sp o f r e a l i t y .
in e v ita b le .
The p o l i c y s ta t e m e n t on r e l i g i o u s a f f a i r s i s s u e d a t
B uddhism
The
f a c i l i t a t e d by a la c k o f any r i g i d s c h o o ls o f ju r i s p r u d e n c e in Islam
a t th is d a te .
For t h e Ghaznavid
151
This
152
by Muhammad t o t h e g r e a t s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e B ra h m in s .100
As a f u r t h e r
n o t t o b e m o le ste d
Damaged te m p le s
W ith in t h i s p o l i c y p e r i
m e te r t h e n , t h e S i n d i a n s e n jo y e d a m easure o f r e l i g i o u s freedom , t h e
e x i s t e n c e o f w hich i s co n ced ed , th ough somewhat g r u d g in g l y , even by
S i r Henry E l l i o t , o t h e r w i s e g e n e r a l l y h o s t i l e t o t h e Arab c a u s e :
The t o l e r a t i o n which t h e n a t i v e S i n d i a n s en jo y e d i n
t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e i r r e l i g i o n , was g r e a t e r t h a n what was
u s u a l l y conceded i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s ; b u t i t was d i c t a t e d
l e s s by any p r i n c i p l e o f j u s t i c e o r h u m a n ity , t h a n t h e
i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f s u p p r e s s i n g t h e n a t i v e r e l i g i o n by t h e
s m a ll number o f Arab i n v a d e r s . When tim e had f u l l y shown
t h e n e c e s s i t y o f some r e l a x a t i o n i n t h e s t e m code o f
Moslim ( s i c ) c o n q u e s t , i t was d i r e c t e d t h a t t h e n a t i v e s
m ight r e b u i l d t h e i r te m p le s and p e rfo rm t h e i r w o rsh ip and
t h a t t h e t h r e e p e r c e n t which had been allo w ed t o t h e
p r i e s t s u n d er t h e fo rm er g ov ernm ent, s h o u ld n o t b e w i t h
h e l d by t h e l a i t y f o r whom t h e y o f f i c i a t e d . 102
The r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i r s t a t u s as "dhim m is" e n t i t l e d t h e
S in d i a n s t o t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e i r own p e r s o n a l la w s.
A ctu ally
By
100I b i d .
101I b i d .
102E l l i o t ,
0 .
c i t . , Vol. V, 69.
153
i n r e t u r n f o r t h e g u a r a n te e o f p r o t e c t i o n and t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e i r
own p e r s o n a l law a d m i n is t e r e d by t h e i r r a b b i n i c a l and e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
t r i b u n a l . 103
P u b l i c and p o l i t i
In e f f e c t th e n t h e non-Muslims
0 .
c i t . , p. 132.
At
15 4
E xperienced
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s l i k e H a j j a j , and p o l i t i c a l r e a l i s t s l i k e Muhammad ib n
al-Q asim , w is e ly re c o g n iz e d th e need t o in c lu d e t h e H indu-Buddhist
p o p u la tio n in t h e c a te g o r y o f dhimmis. Yet i t was no g r e a t in d u lg e n c e ;
r e l i g i o u s t o l e r a t i o n , one o f the c i v i l i z i n g f o r c e s cf th e Hindu s o c i e t y ,
had been enjoyed by th e In d ia n s for hundreds cf y e a rs p r i o r to th e Muslim
co n q u est. A s i m i l a r aroma of r e l i g i o u s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n also perm eated th e
b ureaucracy , th e u pp er l e v e l s o f which were m ainly s t a f f e d by t h e Arabs
who o th e rw is e do n o t seem to have c o n t r ib u t e d any redeeming f e a t u r e s to
an a l r e a d y competent a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m achinery.
I n i t i a l l y th e Arab
As th e
s e v e r e ly handicapped
155
CHAPTER V I I
Of t h e s e , t h e
The b r i e f S a f f a r i d in te rre g n u m
The S a f f a r i d s in
As m entioned e a r l i e r ,
157
i n t a l e n t nor i n wisdom.
S a l i h ib n Abd ar-Rahman, th e v ic e r o y o f
In
A cco rd in g ly , some
members o f S in d ia n n o b i l i t y in c lu d in g J a is im a h a a c c e p te d Islam .
move might have been prompted by r a i s o n d ' e t a t , f o r J a is im a h a was
ojk
c i t . , p. 225.
I t s R is e , D ecline and F a l l
The
158
c o n firm e d i n h i s p o s s e s s i o n s o f n o r t h e r n S in d by t h e C a l i p h . 7
The
lead er k i l l e d . 9
The i n s u r r e c
However, p r i o r t o h i s d e a th
J u n a i d p r o c e e d e d t o S in d b u t was c h a l l e n g e d by
The e n s u in g b a t t l e o f l a k e A sh -S h a rk i
7I b i d .
8C a lip h Y a z i d 's w if e was t h e n i e c e o f a l - H a j j a j and so a sworn
enemy o f t h e M u h a l l a b i t e s .
9C a r l B rockelm an, A H i s t o r y o f t h e I s l a m i c P e o p le , T r a n s l a t e d
from German by J o e l C arm ich ael and Moshe P erlm an (New York: C a p r i c o r n
Books, 1 9 60 ), p . 93.
10B a l a d h u r i , o p . c i t . , p . 226.
159
r e s u l t e d in J a i s i m h a 's d e f e a t and d e a t h . T h e
s la in r u l e r 's b ro th e r
p ro ceed ed t o I r a q t o p r e s e n t t h e c a s e b e f o r e t h e C a lip h .
He was, how
e v e r , t r e a c h e r o u s l y murdered by J u n a i d ' s a g e n ts n o t w it h s t a n d in g t h e
prom ise o f s a f e c o n d u c t . 12
Under J u n a id and h i s s u c c e s s o r Tamim ib n Z a id , t h e g r e a t e s t
e x p an sio n o f Arab arm ies i n I n d i a was e f f e c t e d . 13
F ollow in g th e
c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e i r r u l e i n S in d t h e Arabs s t r u c k i n a s o u th
e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n . The Arab " b l i t z k r i e g " around 726 A.D. swung
th ro u g h R a jp u ta n a , overwhelming numerous p e t t y s t a t e s in th e p r o c e s s . 14
At C h i t o r , in s o u t h e a s t e r n R a jp u ta n a , t h e Arab arm ies were t u r n e d
back by Bappa, a v a s s a l t o th e Mori Raja Man, r u l e r o f Mewar.15
The
A ll R ajpu t r e s i s t a n c e was re n d e re d
160
b o rd e rs o f p r e s e n t day Bombay s t a t e .
A c a v a lr y column had p r e v i o u s l y
At N a v a s i r i , in t h e s o u th e rn e x tr e m ity o f
At t h e B a t t l e o f N a v a s i r i , th e Arabs were
This c e l e b r a t e d v i c t o r y
1V
I t i s o f some s i g n i f i c a n c e to n o te t h a t t h e b a t t l e o f
N a v a s iri was fought m erely a few months a f t e r t h a t o f Tours in 732
A.D. Both engagements ended t h e Arab t h r e a t s to I n d ia and Western
Europe r e s p e c t i v e l y . The comparison i s even more s t r i k i n g when i t
i s r e c a l l e d t h a t th e conquest o f Sind in 712 A.D. follow ed t h a t o f
Spain by l e s s th a n a y e a r .
18A v a s t h y ,
op. c i t .,
pp.
162-63.
161
The f l y i n g column a g a i n s t U j j a i n s h a r e d a s i m i l a r f a t e .
Here t h e
The I n d ia n v i c t o r y h a s b e e n r e c o r d e d i n t h e G w a lia r
i n s c r i p t i o n o f Bhoja:
He shone w i t h f o u r arms b r i l l i a n t w ith g l i t t e r i n g
and t e r r i b l e weapons as he c ru s h e d t h e army o f th e
V a la c a (B alo ch ) M leccha l o r d , t h e d e s t r o y e r o f
v i r t u e . 19
The march o f t h e Arab a rm ie s a c r o s s R a jp u ta n a and G u ja r a t cau sed
c o n s i d e r a b l e o p p r e s s io n among t h e two m a jo r powers o f N orth I n d i a ,
Kashmir and K a n a u j.
As n o te d ab o ve, b o t h t h e s e s t a t e s w ere p r e v i o u s l y
engaged i n h o s t i l i t i e s a g a i n s t each o t h e r . 20
embassy a p p e a re d a t t h e Tang c o u r t t o s o l i c i t a i d a g a i n s t t h e A r a b s . 2 *
The K ashm irian monarch L a l i t a d i t y a - M u k t a p i d a (725-756 A .D .) , i n
s e n d in g t h e embassy t o C h in a , " p r o b a b ly r e f e r r e d t o Yasovarman ( o f
Kanauj) as an a l l y . " 22 The p r a c t i c e o f s o l i c i t i n g Tang a i d a g a i n s t
t h e Arabs was n o t a l t o g e t h e r new, f o r t h e r e i s some e v id e n c e t o
show t h a t Yasovarman o f Kanauj h ad d i s p a t c h e d a s i m i l a r embassy t o
19I b i d . , p . 163.
20See a b o v e, C h a p te r I I I .
21K alh an a, Raj a t a r a n g i n i , T r a n s l a t e d from S a n s k r i t , e d i t e d
by M. A. S t e i n , V ol. I , 67.
22R. C. Majumdar ( e d . ) , The C l a s s i c a l Age, V ol. I l l i n t h e
s e r i e s The H i s t o r y and C u l t u r e o f t h e I n d ia n P e o p le (Bombay: B h a r a ti y a
V idya Bhavan, 1 9 5 5 ), p . 130 .
162
China as e a r l y as 7 3 1 .23
With th e
e x c e p tio n o f an a b o r t iv e e x p e d i t i o n i n t o R a jp u ta n a i n 836 A .D .,
which was h u r le d back by t h e P r a t h i h a r a r u l e r N agabhata I I , t h e
g r e a t e s t momentum o f Arab t h r u s t i n I n d i a was c l e a r l y o v e r by 760
A.D .25
The d a te a l s o marks t h e f i n a l c o n c lu s io n o f h o s t i l i t i e s
S ijista n
A p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n had
163
mained e s s e n t i a l l y u n a l t e r e d f o r more th a n a c e n tu r y .
When i t d id
The m i l i t a r y
Sind r o s e i n arms so t h a t
T o g e th e r th e y im m ediately c o n s tr u c te d th e M isr o f
Hakim was k i l l e d i n a c ti o n a g a i n s t
164
A c o n t e s t now d e v e lo p e d
The g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l o f I r a q , Y usuf
ib n Umar, d e c id e d i n f a v o r o f A m r.35
The newly
a p p o i n te e o v e r I r a q , e s c a p e d t o S in d , k i l l i n g
h i s r e l a t i v e ib n A ra r and e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e a r e a . 1*0
Thus i t was t h a t by 750 A .D ., t h e d a t e m ark in g t h e f a l l o f t h e Umayyad
d y n a s ty , S in d was c o n t r o l l e d by a r u l e r owing no a l l e g i a n c e t o
Damas c u s .
3l* B a la d h u r i, o p . c i t . , p . 229.
35B a l a d h u r i , o . c i t . , p . 229.
36I b i d .
37Y a q u b i, ojs. c i t . , V ol. I I , 390.
38I b i d . , Vol. I I , 399-400.
39W illiam M u ir, The C a l i p h a t e R is e :
I t s R i s e , D e c lin e and
F a l l , p . 406. Y azid I I I and Marwan I I w ere m o r t a l e n e m ie s . Y azid
was t h e so n o f C a lip h Walid I , d u r i n g whose r e i g n t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f
S in d was e f f e c t e d . Marwan I I was th'e g r a n d s o n o f C a lip h Marwan I
(6 8 4 -6 8 5 ) .
* Y a q u b i ,
op.
c i t .,
V ol.
II,
407,
under th e y e a r
131 A.H .
165
A b b a ssid A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
750-871 A.D.
d i r e c t i o n w e re , how ever, u n s u c c e s s f u l .
The f i r s t en d eav o u rs in t h i s
The A b bassid f o r c e s , d i s p a t c h e d
g o v e r n o r o v e r S in d .
He lau n ch ed a v ig o ro u s e x p a n s i o n i s t p o l i c y so
166
We
a r e now c o n f ro n te d w ith a b la n k o f a p p ro x im a te ly t e n y e a r s in th e
l i s t o f s u c c e s s i v e Abbassid go v ern o rs o f S in d .
c u r i o u s l y s i l e n t about t h i s p e r i o d .
Arab h i s t o r i a n s a re
However, a h i n t o f dubious v a lu e
i s p ro v id e d by an e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y In d ia n h i s t o r i a n who s t a t e s t h a t
a c e r t a i n Abu T u ra b , p r e f e c t o f S in d , d ie d i n 787 A.D.48
The d a t e
o f h i s d e a th i s n o t a l t o g e t h e r r e l i a b l e u n le s s one i s t o b e l i e v e t h a t
he d ie d o u t o f o f f i c e , f o r a c c o rd in g t o a l - T a b a r i , Ruh ib n Hatim took
o v e r t h e o f f i c e as g o v ern o r o f Sind in 787 A.D.49
The n e x t e ig h te e n
op. c i t .,
T hird S e r i e s ,
V ol.
I,
482.
167
I t was o n ly a f t e r th e d i s p a t c h o f Ghassan ib n
lo s s o f S indan, a n av al o u tp o s t i n th e p r e s e n t- d a y Cutch a r e a o f
G u j a r a t . 51* M i l i t a r y campaigns were waged a g a i n s t th e J a t s o f a l Kikan though t h e i r outcome i s unknown.
S in d ia n navy a l s o engaged th e
50Yaqubi,
o p . c i t . , Vol. I I , 409; B a la d h u r i, o p .c i t . ,
51Yaqubi,
o p . c i t . , Vol. I I , 458.
0 .
p . 231.
th e
168
For in th e absence o f a
The
In t h i s r e s p e c t , Sind s u f f e r e d
In
th e e a s t e r n p ro v in c e s o f th e C a li
T a h ir promptly
0 .
56I b i d . ; Yaqubi,
c i t . , p. 233.
o jk
c i t . , I I , 489.
------
169
as 862, b u t t h e r e a f t e r t h e i r power d e c l i n e d . 58
Beyond t h i s d a t e t h e r e i s no
We do n o t know w ith c e r t a i n t y .
What we do know i s t h e
i n a b i l i t y o f t h e T a h ir i d s t o subdue n e ig h b o r in g S i j i s t a n , an a r e a
c o n t i n g e n t on S i n d . 60
On t h e b a s i s o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , i t i s
S i j i s t a n was one o f t h e s t r o n g h o ld s o f t h e
o f t e n l i t t l e more th a n a p o l i t e name f o r b a n d i t .
We th u s u n d e r s ta n d
how i t was t h a t i n t h e m id s t o f t h i s v ig o r o u s p o p u l a t i o n , as t h e
58I b i d . , p . 216.
59See ab ov e, p. 167.
60Theodore N oldeke, S k e tc h e s From E a s t e r n H i s t o r y , T r a n s l a t e d
from German by C.K. Black (London: Adam and C h a rle s B lack , 1892), p . 177.
170
Yakub ib n a l- L a y th a l - S a f f a r , a P e r s ia n
By 867 A.D.
The z e n ith
In 900 A.D. th e
0 .
c i t . , pp. 202-04.
171
We must t h e r e f o r e r e l y upon th e b r i e f b u t h ig h ly
172
a l - Q a s i m . 68
Both t h e s e
e s t i m a t e s a r e p r e p o s t e r o u s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when we c o n s i d e r t h a t d u r in g
t h e B r i t i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w ith one o f t h e most e x t e n s i v e i r r i g a t i o n
sy stem s i n t h e w o r ld , t h e t o t a l number o f towns and v i l l a g e s i n Sind
d i d n o t exceed f o u r th o u san d and f i v e h u n d r e d . 71
o jd .
c i t . , pp . 3 8 4, 386.
7 1Shahpurshah H o d iv a la , S t u d i e s i n Indo-Muslim H i s t o r y : A
C r i t i c a l Commentary on E l l i o t and Dowson's H i s to r y o f I n d i a : As Told
by I t s Own H i s t o r i a n s (Bombay; H o d iv a la , 1 9 3 9 ), Vol. I , 26.
173
e s t a t e s o r h o ld in g s g iv en on m i l i t a r y t e n u r e t o Musalman s o l d i e r s
and v i l l a g e s o ccu p ied and c u l t i v a t e d by th e i n d i g n e s . " 72
M a s 'u d i 's
I t c o n ta in e d a m a g n ifi
op. c i t .,
I,
384.
1 74
On th e o th e r
o f p o lic y
c u l t i v a t e d f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w ith t h e Arabs.
I t was the
Thus,
As e a r l y as 851 A.D. th e A ra b -P r a th ih a ra -R a s h tr a k u ta
An unknown
175
He i s an enemy t o
th e A ra b s, n e i t h e r i s t h e r e a -y p r i n c e in I n d i a who has a g r e a t e r
a v e r s i o n t o t h e Mahomedans ( s i c ) . " 77
More t h a n f i f t y y e a r s l a t e r , M as'u di co n firm s t h e same s t a t u s
quo, " o f a l l t h e k in g s o f S in d and I n d i a ; t h e r e i s no one who pays
g r e a t e r r e s p e c t t o t h e Musulmans th a n t h e B a lh a r a .
Isla m i s honoured and p r o t e c t e d . "
In h i s kingdom
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e P r a t h i h a r a
The army o f t h e n o r th
He found t h e i d o l o f M ultan
o jj.
c i t . , V ol. I , 5 6 -5 7 .
176
His account a l s o r e v e a l s th e f r i e n d l y i n t e r
Multan
On th e former
During h i s v i s i t , th e
The f r i e n d l y i n t e r
II,
231-35.
177
a u t h o r i t y o f t h e C a lip h .
p h y s i c a l l y cu t o f f from A ra b ic -s p e a k in g land s by th e i n t e r v e n i n g
I r a n i a n elem ent and were b e s e t by c o n s ta n t t h r e a t s o f l o c a l Hindu
c h ie fs.
s i n c e th e days o f th e c o n q u e s t.
There i s no evidence to i n d i c a t e
E ighty y e a rs
His s ta te m e n t on th e p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s o f
Multan p ro v id e s a s t r i k i n g theme f o r th e h i s t o r i a n .
" I n Multan th e
P r e s e n ts a r e always s e n t
According t o r e l i a b l e
Moreover,
th is
p o l i t i c a l ta k e o v e r was l a r g e l y f a c i l i t a t e d by winning ov er th e r u l i n g
fam ily t o t h e I s m a i li a n c a u s e . 83
178
The
menacing p r o p o r t i o n s .
By 970 A.D. t h e P r a t h i h a r a e m p ire , once t h e dom inant power o f
n o r t h I n d i a , had c o l l a p s e d .
i n e x t e n t o f t e r r i t o r y n o r in m i l i t a r y p o w e r .84
The R a s h t r a k u ta s o f
in t h e n o r th w e s t w ere now h a r d p r e s s e d by th e
Of t h e s e , t h e S h a h is had t o b e a r t h e f i r s t im pact o f
T u rk is h h o r d e s .
L e s s e r s t a t e s , a t t h i s j u n c t u r e , r e a l i z e d t h e immi
Thus
The f o rm a tio n
179
o f t h i s a l l i a n c e f o r c e d t h e Ghaznavids t o r e l i n q u i s h a l l th o u g h ts o f
s u b ju g a t i n g n o r th w e s te r n I n d i a f o r t h e tim e b e in g .
In 977 A .D ., w ith t h e a c c e s s i o n o f S u b u k tag in as t h e r u l e r o f
G hazni, t h e e v e n ts to o k a d r a m a tic t u r n .
S ub u ktag in *s f i r s t concern
T his he was a b le
By 978 A.D. a l l t h e s t a t e s ly in g
By 990
The t e r r i t o r i a l
C o n se q u e n tly , a second d e f e n s i v e a l l i a n c e
o p . c i t . , V ol.
I,
23.
180
A p r e t e x t was e a s i l y found.
Such an a c t co u ld n o t go u n pu nished .
A p u n a tiv e
The r o u te
P esh aw ar.91
Ghaznavid f o r c e s now marched a g a i n s t Multan and c a r r i e d th e
c i t y f o llo w in g a w eek 's s i e g e .
f o llo w e d .92
S u lta n t o r e t u r n t o C e n tr a l A sia.
In 1010 A .D ., Mahmud d e c id e d to
complete t h e s u b ju g a t io n o f M ultan.
out f o r C e n tr a l P unjab.
In O ctober o f t h a t y e a r he s e t
0 .
c i t . , Vol. I , 29;
181
one o f t h e S u l t a n 's c o u r t - p o e ts .
I t was K h a f i f . 95
To be s u r e , Muslim dominion o v er
See above, p.
(Tehran:
Through long
179.
182
F u rth e rm o re ,
I t i s t o t h e s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t h a t we s h o u ld d ev o te
o u r d i s c u s s i o n s i n t h e fo llo w in g c h a p te r s in c e th e y h e lp e d i n th e
c r e a t i o n o f a p e c u l i a r c i v i l i z a t i o n , n e i t h e r a l t o g e t h e r Arab n o r
c o m p le te ly I n d ia n .
CHAPTER V I I I
Commerce
Arab commercial a c t i v i t i e s in t h e In d ia n Ocean d a t e back t o
t h e f i r s t milenium B.C.
Through-
184
o u t t h e n e x t s e v e n c e n t u r i e s t h e r i c h e s o f t h o s e s t a t e s were r a p i d l y
i n c r e a s i n g though by t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y b e f o r e C h r i s t t h e M inaeans had
b e e n re d u c e d t o v a s s a l a g e by t h e S a b a e a n s .
South A ra b ia n p r o s p e r i t y
In o r d e r t o s e c u r e a f o o th o l d i n t h i s l u c r a t i v e t r a d e ,
The e x p e d i t i o n was a c o m p le te f a i l u r e . 3
Rome, h o w ev er,
was d e t e r m in e d , by means f a i r o r f o u l , t o s h a r e i n t h e w e a l t h o f
South A r a b ia .
E ig h ty
y e a r s a f t e r t h e a b o r t i v e a t t e m p t t o subdue t h e
a r e a by f o r c e , we f i n d Rome
i n a l l i a n c e w ith t h e H im y a r ite p r i n c e
185
The i s l a n d o f S o c o tr a l y i n g
14The P e r i p l u s o f t h e E r y th r a e a n S e a , t r a n s l a t e d and e d i t e d
by W i l l f r e d S c h o f f (New York: Longmans, Green and C o ., 1 912),
C h a p te r 23. In 115 B.C. t h e Sabaeans had b een su cceed ed by th e
H im y a r it e s , a h ig h la n d t r i b e from t h e s o u th w e s t, who e s t a b l i s h e d a
kingdom t h a t was t o l a s t s i x h u n d red y e a r s .
50 'L e a r y ,
0 .
c i t . , p . 79.
6The P e r i p l u s , C h a p te rs 20-34.
7Ib id .
186
In th e
P e r s i a n G u lf , l o c a t e d c l o s e t o t h e p r e s e n t - d a y S h a t t a l-A rab r e g i o n ,
were two f l o u r i s h i n g commercial c e n t e r s , Charax and A pologus, b o th
m ain ly Arab i n c h a r a c t e r and engaged in l u c r a t i v e o v e r s e a s t r a d e
w ith I n d i a on t h e one hand and w ith South A rab ia and th e Red Sea
r e g i o n s on th e o t h e r . 9
The n a v i g a t i o n a l c o m p le x itie s in v o lv e d in t h e g r e a t E ast-W est
t r a d e were g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e d i s c o v e r y t h a t t h e Monsoons
fo llo w e d a s e t p a t t e r n .
V e s s e ls c o u ld now s a i l d i r e c t l y t o th e Indus
8I b i d .
^Hourani, o p . c i t . , p . 16,
^ ^The P e r i p l u s , C hapter 57; P l i n y , N a tu r a l H i s t o r y , T r a n s l a t e d
by H. Rackham, No. 352 in Loeb C l a s s i c a l L ib r a r y (Cam bridge: Harvard
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 9), Vol. I I , Book V I, 415.
^ O 'L e a r y p l a c e s i t i n 45 A .D ., p . 79, w h ile Hourani d a t e s i t
around 90 B .C ., p. 27.
187
Chinese
It
P lin y
Ju d g in g from th e l e v e l o f g e n e r a l p r o s p e r i t y
op . c i t . , V ol. XII,
34.
188
The p r o s p e r i t y w hich t h i s t r a d e h a d c r e a t e d f o r t h e c o a s t a l
Arab kingdoms was i t s e l f d e p e n d e n t upon c e r t a i n ite m s f lo w in g m a in ly
from t h e E a s t t o t h e W est.
p la c e s.
O f t h e s e , p e p p e r commanded t h e h i g h e s t
T h is p r o d u c t was m a in ly c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e S outh I n d ia n
c o a s t a l a r e a o f M a la b a r.
Cinnamon, a n o t h e r I n d i a n p r o d u c t , was
c a r r i e d i n t h e I n d ia n v e s s e l s up t o S o c o t r a o r G u a rd a fu i whence i t
was s u p p l i e d t o Rome t h ro u g h t h e N ile r o u t e by t h e A rab ian t r a d e r s . 17
The P e r i p l u s in fo rm s us t h a t c o s t s was e x p o r t e d from B arbaricum on
t h e Indus and from B ary g aza on t h e G u lf o f Cambay.18
I t was t h e
I t was
Wheat was m a in ly t h e p r o d u c t o f n o r t h w e s t e r n
In h i s t r a v e l s t h ro u g h t h e Ind us V a l le y i n t h e m id d le o f t h e
s e v e n t h c e n t u r y , H iuen T s ia n g r e f e r s t o t h e abundance o f w h e a t . 21
B ary g aza was t h e m ain o u t l e t f o r i t s e x p o r t . 22
16See a l s o H a rip a d a C h a k r a b o r t i , T ra d e and Commerce o f A n c ie n t
I n d i a (C. 200 B .C .-C . 650 A.D. ) ( C a l c u t t a : Academic P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 6 6 ),
p . 227.
17I b i d . , p . 228.
18The P e r i p l u s , C h a p te r s 3 9, 49.
19I b i d . J C h a p te r 39.
20P l i n y , o. c i t . , V ol. XXXV, 2 5 -27 .
21S i-Y u -K i, B u d d h is t Records o f t h e W estern W orld, T r a n s l a t e d
by Samuel Beal (London: T r u e b n e r s and C o ., 1 9 0 0 ), V ol. I I , 272.
22The P e r i p l u s , C h a p te r 14. C h in ese B u d d h is t p i l g r i m Hiuen
T s ia n g r e f e r s t o abundance o f w heat i n lo w er Indus d e l t a i n t h e m id d le
o f th e se v en th c e n tu ry .
B e a l, o j d . c i t . , V ol. I I , 272.
189
O th e r a r t i c l e s o f e x p o r t t o t h e West i n c l u d e d h i g h l y p r i z e d
I n d ia n m u slin f o r which B arygaza was one o f t h e main o u t l e t s . 23
V ariou s k in d s o f wood was i n g r e a t demand, such as ebony, teakw ood,
blackw ood and sandalw ood.
The P e r i p l u s r e c o r d s t h a t l a r g e n a v a l
In f a c t , t h e e n t i r e
Diamonds
I v o ry c o n s t i
The main o u t l e t s f o r t h i s
T h e ir
t r a f f i c c re a te d a fa v o ra b le b alan ce o f tr a d e in fa v o r o f In d ia .
In
To be
23The P e r i p l u s , p p . 48 , 51.
24I b i d . , p . 36.
8, 9 .
25Teakwood i s t h e most im p o rta n t b u i l d i n g t im b e r o f I n d ia
s i n c e i t r e s i s t s a c t i o n o f w a t e r . I t i s found i n t h e f o r e s t s o f
M a la b a r, T ra v a n c o re and G u j a r a t . Sandalwood i s a n a t i v e o f South
I n d i a . Eminent t r a v e l e r s such as Cosmos I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , s i x t h c e n t u r y C h r i s t i a n monk, and Hiuen T s ia n g , s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y C h inese
B u d d h ist monk, t a k e n o te o f t h e p r o d u c t io n and e x p o r t o f I n d ia n t im
b e r . See Cosmos I n d i c o p l e u s t e s , The C h r i s t i a n Topology o f Cosmas,
an E g y p tia n Monk, T r a n s l a t e d from t h e Greek and e d i t e d by J . W.
M cCrindle (London: The H ak lu yt S o c i e t y , 1 8 9 7 ), p . 366; B e a l, o p .
c i t . , Vol. I I , 232; The P e r i p l u s , p . 36.
26The P e r i p l u s , p . 56; B e a l, op. c i t . , V ol. I , 178 and
Vol. I I , 229, 265 and 277.
27I b i d . , p . 218.
V I I I , p . 4.
Also s e e P l i n y , N a tu r a l H is to ry ^ Book
190
The P e r i p l u s
A ccording to one a u t h o r i t y ,
In Ceylon th e h o r s e s were
O ther item s
T h e r e a f t e r follo w ed a p e r i o d o f r e -
0 .
c i t . , p.
31The P e r i p l u s , p . 27.
pp. 1-3.
32The P e r i p l u s , p . 29.
33P l i n y ,
0 .
3t*The P e r i p l u s , p . 49.
35I b i d . , p . 49.
36The P e r i p l u s , p . 49 and C h a k r a b o r t i , o p . c i t . , p . 280.
1 91
t r a c t i o n by th e Arab commercial e n t e r p r i s e l a s t i n g f o r f o u r c e n t u r i e s .
George Hourani has summed i t up adm irab ly :
The commercial s i t u a t i o n a t t h i s p e r io d was as
f o llo w s . Ceylon was t h e e n t r e p o t f o r s e a t r a d e
between China, and t h e Near E a s t. Ships o f th e
Chinese and o t h e r Far E a s te r n n a tio n s used t o s a i l
as f a r w est as Ceylon, and from h e re w est-w ard.
The t r a d e was i n t h e hands o f th e P e r s ia n s and
Axumites. Greek merchant s h ip s used t o s a i l as
f a r as A d ulis o r o c c a s i o n a l l y a l i t t l e beyond Bab
al-Mandab. Of Arab n a v i g a t i o n we h e a r n o th in g
a t a l l . 37
The main agency which e f f e c t e d t h i s change was th e r i s e o f th e
S a s sa n id s i n I r a n who were determ ined to g a in c o n t r o l o f t h e m aritim e
commerce between I n d ia and th e West.
In so d o in g , th e y red uced th e
192
e m p i r e . 40
t h e economic r i v a l r i e s p r e v a l e n t i n t h e I n d ia n Ocean.
The Axumite
B y z a n tin e i n t e r e s t s
Emperor J u s t i n i a n (483-565
o.
c i t . , V ol.
I,
C h a p t e r XX,
S ection s
9-13.
193
f a i r l y u n c h a l l e n g e d . 43
S a s s a n id s h ad s u c c e s s f u l l y s u b o r d in a te d Arab commercial i n t e r e s t s to
t h e i r own.
e s t a b l i s h e d s e a r o u te s and m a r ts .
m a in ta in t h e i r n o r t h e r n t e r r i t o r y i n t a c t and were th u s a b l e t o p r e
s e n t a fo rm id a b le b a r r i e r t o th e Arab n av al a c t i v i t y on t h e M e d ite r
ra n e a n .
B y za n tin e n a v a l t a s k f o r c e succeeded in w r e s ti n g A le x a n d r ia o u t o f
Arab hands f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d . 1*5
1*3For a d e t a i l e d acco u n t o f S a s s a n id paramountcy i n t h e In d ia n
Ocean, s e e Hadi H assan , A H i s to r y o f t h e P e r s i a n N a v i g a t i o n , pp. 59-62.
^ H o u r a n i , o p . c i t . , Appendix t o C h ap ter I . " D i r e c t s a i l i n g
between t h e P e r s i a n G u lf and China i n P r e - I s la m i c T im es," pp. 4 6 -47 .
T h is e v id e n c e i s b ased upon th e r e c o r d o f a C hinese t r a v e l l e r I-C h in g
who s a i l e d on a P e r s ia n v e s s e l from Canton to Sumatra in 671 A.D.
See I -C h in g , A Record o f t h e Buddhi s t R e l i g i o n , t r a n s l a t e d by J .
Takakusu (Oxford: The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 896), pp. x x v i i i - x x x . Though
t h e voyage to o k p l a c e alm o st f o u r decades a f t e r t h e o v erth ro w o f t h e
P e r s ia n empire by t h e A ra b s, H ourani b e l i e v e s t h a t " i t does n o t seem
l i k e l y t h a t t h e P e r s i a n s began t h e s e e n t e r p r i s i n g voyages im m ed iately
a f t e r t h e i r d e f e a t by th e A rabs; i t i s f a r more c r e d i b l e t h a t th e y
d a te back t o t h e S a s s a n id p e r i o d . " See H o u ran i, op. c i t . , p . 47.
45Aly Muhammad Fahmy, "The Muslim Navy During t h e Days o f th e
E a rly C a l i p h a t e , " I s l a m i c Review (March 1952), p . 25; P h i l i p K. H i t t i ,
H i s to r y o f t h e Arabs: From t h e E a r l i e s t Times t o th e P r e s e n t , t e n t h
e d i t i o n (New York: M acmillan and C o ., L t d . , 1970), p. 166; A. J .
B u t l e r , The Arab Conquest o f Egypt (Oxford: At t h e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1902), pp. 121-12S.
194
In f a c t , " in t h e fo llo w in g c e n t u r i e s th e
For
T h e ir i n t e r e s t s in th e
The f a l l o f th e S a s sa n id s re n d e re d
to be c a r r i e d
o u t . I n i t i a l a tte m p ts
in th e e x e c u tio n o f t h i s p o l i c y were d is c o u r a g in g .
46H i t t i ,
0 .
c i t . , p . 167.
A n av al t a s k
195
The e n t i r e
The p r o c e s s was r e m a rk a b ly s w i f t .
By 660
I n i t i a l a t t e m p t s t o g a in
Hence t h e
" A l - A l a a ib n a l- H a d ra m i, t h e g o v e r n o r o f B a h ra in c r o s s e d
t h e P e r s i a n G u lf and la n d e d on t h e c o a s t o f S o u th e rn I r a n , p r o
c e e d in g t h e n c e t o P e r s e p o l i s . He was c u t o f f from t h e s e a by t h e
P e r s i a n s and h i s f o r c e s t r a p p e d . A r e l i e f column s e n t o v e r la n d
r e s c u e d t h e t r a p p e d g o v e rn o r. See T a b a r i , oj>. c i t . , Prim a S e r i e s ,
V ol. V, 2545; Fahmy, o p . c i t . , p . 24; H a s sa n , o p . c i t . , p . 95 .
50Fahmy, o p . c i t . , p . 24.
51See a b o v e , C h a p te r V, pp< 84_g5.
196
A s i m i l a r a tte m p t met
On b o th o c c a s i o n s , t h e n a v a l
power o f t h e S a in d h a v a s , f e u d a t o r i e s o f t h e P r a t h i h a r a s , a c t e d as
t h e main d e t e r r e n t t o t h e e x p a n s i o n i s t schemes o f t h e A r a b s . 51*
The y e a r 776 A.D. i s s i g n i f i c a n t .
f u r t h e r Arab m i l i t a r y e x p l o i t s on t h e I n d ia n C o a s t.
H e n c e fo rth
Such a c o n s i d e r a t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t p e r
The p o i n t can be
f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e e x i s t e n c e o f p r e - I s l a m i c P e r s i a n s e t t l e
ments on I n d i a ' s w e st c o a s t , f o r " t h e P e r s i a n s e s t a b l i s h e d c h u rc h e s
in t h e p o r t s o f Male i n M alabar and C a l l i a n a n e a r B o m b a y ..." 56
52K. S r i d h a r a n , A M aritim e H i s to r y o f I n d i a (New D e lh i:
M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a t i o n and B r o a d c a s t i n g , 1 9 6 5 ), p . 24.
53I b i d .
5I*According t o R. C. Majumdar, " t h e c r e d i t o f s a v in g I n d i a
from Arab i n v a s i o n by s e a j u s t l y b e lo n g s t o th e S a in d h a v a s , who a r e
c h i e f l y re m a rk a b le as b e i n g one o f t h e few powers i n a n c i e n t I n d i a
w ith a d i s t i n g u i s h e d r e c o r d o f n a v a l e x p l o i t s . " See R. C. Majumdar,
A n cien t I n d ia (D e lh i: M o ti l a l B a n a r s i d a s s , 1960), p . 360.
55As p r e v i o u s l y p o i n t e d o u t , t h e c a p t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i v e s o f
d e c e a se d Arab m e rc h a n ts i n Ceylon by t h e p i r a t e s o f f Daybul had p r o
v id e d t h e p r e t e x t t o e x ten d Arab c o n t r o l o v e r S in d . See ab o ve,
C h a p te r I I I , p p . 11-12.
56H o u r a n i , o p . c i t . ,
p.
41.
197
In t h a t y e a r , f o r some re a s o n
unknown t o u s , th e s e d i s s a t i s f i e d t r a d e r s p i l l a g e d th e c i t y , s e t t i n g
i t on f i r e and t h e n f l e d to t h e i r v e s s e l s . 58
Canton was reopened i n 792 t o f o r e i g n t r a d e . 59
In te rn a l
Beyond t h i s d a t e ,
198
th e t r a d e w ith th e F ar East r a p i d l y d e c li n e d .
These c o n ta c ts l a s t e d a t l e a s t throu gh th e
f i r s t q u a r t e r o f t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y . 62
The w estern emporia o f t h i s f a r - f l u n g e a s t e r n t r a d e were th e
P e r s ia n G u lf p o r t s o f a l - B a s r a h , a l-U b u lla h and S i r a f .
The former
0 .
c i t . , p . 328.
199
In
Cargo was lo ad ed a t S i r a f
C u t t i n g a c r o s s t h e I n d ia n Ocean, t h e y c a l l e d a t Kulam-Mali
The
n e x t main c a l l i n g s t a t i o n s were K a la h - b a r on t h e w e s te r n c o a s t o f t h e
Malaya p e n i n s u l a , Tiyuma, an i s l a n d o f f t h e e a s t c o a s t o f t h a t p e n i n
s u l a , Kundranj and S a n f , b o t h on t h e e a s t e r n c o a s t o f V ie t Nam, t h e
la n d o f S u n d u r - f u l a t and f i n a l l y Canton,
The r o u t e from t h e P e r s i a n
The a l t e r n a t e r o u t e r e q u i r e d t h e
op.
c i t .,
p.
61.
200
c o a s t i n g o f t h e e n t i r e w e s te r n and e a s t e r n s e a b o a rd o f I n d ia o r j u s t
th e w e ste rn s e c t i o n and t h e n c u t t i n g a c r o s s th e Bay o f B engal.
The
Of t h e s e , t h e more im p o rta n t
By f a r t h e g r e a t e r number o f s h ip s
At
T h is l i s t i s n o t e x h a u s t iv e by any means.
We must b e a r i n mind
0 .
c i t . , p . 70.
71I b i d . , p . 73.
72For an e x h a u s t iv e t r e a t m e n t o f a r t i c l e s o f t r a d e betw een
China and t h e I s la m ic l a n d s , s e e Chau J u -K u a , General In d e x , pp . 243267. A lso, c o n s u lt S c h a f e r , Golden Peaches o f Samarkand: A Study o f
T 'a n g E x o t i c s , pp. 13-26, 169-174, 185-189, 198-199.
2 01
At t h e l a t t e r p l a c e ,
d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith e x i s t i n g r e g u l a t i o n s had le d to th e p i l l a g i n g
and b u r n in g o f t h e c i t y by t h e f o r e i g n e r s , t h e m a j o r i t y o f whom were
Arabs and P e r s i a n s . 73
On F r id a y , t h e
"In f a c t,
73See above, p.
714Akhbar a s - S i n Wal-Hind, S e c tio n 11; A ls o , K e rr,
0 .
c i t .,
p . 52.
75T h is q u o t a t i o n i s ta k e n from E l l i o t , H is to r y o f I n d ia as
T old by i t s Own H i s t o r i a n s , Vol. I , 5 ; in K e rr, i t re a d s s l i g h t l y
d i f f e r e n t , " f o r t h e r e a r e no p r in c e s more h e a r t i l y a f f e c t i o n a t e t o
t h e A rab s, and t h e i r s u b j e c t s p r o f e s s t h e same k in d n e ss f o r u s . "
p . 56.
202
The
203
h an d , and p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e m a r itim e c o a s t a l t r a d e on t h e o t h e r .
As p a r t o f t h e C a l i p h a t e , S in d en jo y ed t h e s e c u r i t y and p r e s t i g e
which i s d e r i v e d from a s s o c i a t i o n w ith a v a s t and w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d
e m p ire .
t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a n s a c t i o n s . 79
Daybul was a b u s t l i n g s e a p o r t .
The i n h a b i t a n t s g e n e r a l l y m a in t a in th e m se lv e s by t h e i r
com m erce."80
f u l l y aware o f t h e s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n en jo y e d by S ind i n c o n t r o l l i n g
t h e o u t l e t f o r C e n tr a l A sian goods bound f o r s e a .
T h is e x p l a i n s
At a l a t e r
d a t e , t h e F a t i m i d i s , im p la c a b le enem ies o f t h e A b b a s s id s , e x e c u te d
a s e r i e s o f maneuvers i n S in d , aimed a t d i v e r t i n g t h e commercial
c h a n n e ls to Egypt.
113-114.
204
Arab m a ritim e a c t i v i t i e s in t h e In d ia n
I s la m , we may f a i r l y i n f e r t h a t o f a l l t h e
01*On t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e F atim id p o l i t i c o - e c o n o m i c s t r a t e g y
in S in d , s e e B ernard Lewis, "The F atim id s and t h e Route t o I n d i a , "
E x t r a c t de l a Revue de l a F acu ete Des S c ie n c e s Economiques Des
LU n i v e r s i t e D ' I s t a n b u l , l i e an n ee, No; 1-4 (1953).
85I b i d . , p . 5. E g y p tian commercial t i e s w ith w e s te rn I n d ia
i n g e n e r a l and w ith G u ja r a t in p a r t i c u l a r c o n tin u e d t o rem ain s t r o n g .
As t h e P o rtu g e s e n a v a l m ight t h r e a t e n e d t h i s t r a d e a t t h e b e g in n in g
o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , schemes f o r j o i n t n a v a l a c t i o n s f o r t h i s
European i n t r u d e r were worked o u t . Thus a combined E g y p tia n - G u jr a ti
f l e e t d e s tr o y e d t h e P o rtu g e s e war v e s s e l s a t t h e b a t t l e o f C haul,
n e a r p r e s e n t - d a y Bombay, i n 1508 A.D. A y e a r l a t e r , however, th e
P o rtu g e s e avenged t h i s d e f e a t by e l i m i n a t i n g t h e a l l i e d f l e e t , th u s
f i n a l l y end ing t h e E gy ptian commercial c o n t a c t s w ith I n d ia f o r cen
t u r i e s t o come. See Donald F. Lach, I n d ia in t h e Eyes o f Europe:
The S i x t e e n t h C entury (Chicago: The U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago, 1968),
p. 393.
205
China.
As t h e Arab h o ld o v e r t h e e a s t e r n p o r ti o n s o f th e C a lip h a te
I t was n o t u n t i l th e l a t t e r h a l f o f th e
C u l t u r a l Achievements
The c lo s e p o l i t i c a l c o n t a c t s w ith t h e C a lip h a te e s t a b l i s h e d
a f t e r 715 A.D. en ab led Sind t o e x p e rie n c e a h e a l th y c u l t u r a l exchange
w ith th e a r e a s o u t s i d e I n d ia .
206
Two
p e r i o d s s t a n d o u t d u r in g which t h e im pact from I n d i a was most p r o f o u n d - t h e r e i g n s o f C a lip h s al-M a n su r (753-774 A.D.) and Harun a l - R a s h id
(786-809 A .D .).
We l e a r n from a l - B i r u n i t h a t no few er th a n f o u r
"The a s tr o n o m ic a l d a t a so d e r i v e d were
A lso s e e M a s 'u d i,
ojj .
c i t . , pp . 153-55.
op. c i t .,
p.
185.
207
and n i n t h c e n t u r i e s t h e In d ia n s became t e a c h e r s
i n a r i t h m e t i c and a lg e b r a o f t h e A rabs, and
th ro u g h them o f t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e W e s t.52
During t h e C a li p h a t e o f Harun a l - R a s h id (786-809 A.D.) t h e Barmakides
had a c q u ir e d m i n i s t r i a l i n f l u e n c e o v er t h e c o u r t a t Baghdad.
T h is
I t was th ro u g h t h e i r i n t e r e s t and in f l u e n c e t h a t In d ia n
The
208
We
Arab v i s i t o r s t o t h e a r e a convey
In
209
and t h e t u n i c . " 98
M as'u d i to o k s p e c i a l n o t e o f t h i s .
r e n d e r e d h e l p l e s s a g a i n s t f a s t c a v a l r y m aneuvers o f t h e S a f f a r i d and
t h e Ghaznavid arm ies and u l t i m a t e l y t h e Arabs f e l l v i c t i m s t o th e
i m p e r i a l e x p a n s io n s o f C e n t r a l A sian m onarchs.
U n like t h e T u rk s , t h e Afghans and t h e M ughuls, who e r e c t e d
s p le n d i d a r c h i t e c t u r a l monuments as p a r t o f t h e i r l e g a c i e s , we look
i n v a in f o r s i m i l a r Arab a c h ie v e m e n ts .
I t i s not to suggest th a t th e
Whole
210
b e l i e f s ap p reciab ly :
U nlike th e S u n n ite C alip h t h e S h i ' i t e imam ( le a d e r )
had i n h e r i t e d from Muhammad n o t o n ly h i s tem perol
s o v e r e ig n ty b u t t h e p r e r o g a t i v e o f i n t e r p r e t i n g th e
law.
In t h a t c a p a c i t y he was an i n f a l l i b l e t e a c h e r
and t o h i s i n f a l l a b i l i t y he added th e d i v i n e g i f t
o f i m p e c c a b i l i t y . C o n tra ry t o th e S u n n ite and S u fi
d o c t r in e th e S h i ' i t e s m a in ta in e d t h a t r e l i g i o u s
c e r t a i n t y co uld be g ain ed on ly from t h e i n s t r u c t i o n
o f such an imam d i v i n e l y p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t e r r o r
and s i n . 102
A l i , t h e i r f i r s t Imam and t h e f o u r t h Orthodox C alip h (6S6-661 A.D.)
was t h e o r e t i c a l l y succeeded by h i s son al-H asan and th e n in 669 A.D.
by h i s second son al-H usayn .
b o m on t h e t e n t h o f Muharram.
S h i 'i s m was
191.
211
He i s p r e s e n t l y in a tem porary s t a t e
o f o c c u l t a t i o n , whence he w i l l
He i s v a r i o u s l y r e f e r r e d to
as
imam. A branch o f th e S h i i t e s
That s e l e c t i o n o f th e
To t h i s group
212
d o c t r i n e o f t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f th e d i v i n e s p i r i t
i n t h e Imam p a s s e d on by t r a n s m i g r a t i o n from
A li t o h i s d e s c e n d a n t s . And ( i i i ) t h e p u r e l y
p o l i t i c a l elem en t which c a r e d n o t h i n g about
p h ilo so p h ic a l s p e c u la tio n or S h i 'i d o c trin e , but
saw i n t h e s e c t p r o m is in g e le m e n ts o f a c o n s p ir a c y
a g a i n s t t h e A bbasid K h a l i f a t e . 105
The I s m a ' i l i a n s " o r g a n iz e d one o f t h e most s u b t l e and
e f f e c t i v e means o f p o l i t i c o - r e l i g i o u s p ropoganda t h a t t h e w orld o f
Isla m e v e r e x p e r i e n c e d . " 106
The c h i e f in s t r u m e n t i n t h i s p ro p o
(London:
257-58.
p l o t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r many f a i l u r e s and
which t h e c o r r u p t and i n c a p a b l e Abbasid
t r a t i o n ahd t o s u f f e r . 108
d e fe a ts
a d m in is
By t h e t h i r d q u a r t e r o f t h e n i n t h c e n tu r y th e I s l a m i c w orld
was f e e l i n g t h e f u l l im pact o f I s m a ' i l i a n " d a ' i s . "
From t h e i r
a c e r t a i n A b d u llah , a n a t i v e o f Ahwaz i n p r e s e n t - d a y I r a n .
f e l l to
e ffo rts
Yemen
th e t i r e l e s s
S i x t y y e a r s l a t e r , Egypt
p a s se d i n t o t h e i r hands as w e l l . 110
T his phenomenal s u c c e s s was n o t a c h ie v e d w ith o u t s e r i o u s
c h a lle n g e s from w i t h i n .
Of t h e s e , th e most f o rm id a b le was th e
The o r i g i n s and b e l i e f s o f t h i s s e c t
108I b i d . , p . I .
109W. Ivanow, B r i e f Survey o f t h e E v o lu tio n o f Is m a ilis m
(L eiden:
I s m a i l i S o c i e t y , Najm A d -d in , 1952), pp. 12-13. Also
s ee Omarah al-H ak am i, Yaman: I t s E a r l y Medieval H i s to r y : Also
th e A bridged H is to r y o f i t s D y n a s tie s by Ibn Khaldun and an Account
o f t h e Karam athians o f Yaman by'Abu~ *Abd A lla h ad-D in A l - J a n a d i ,
T r a n s l a t e d and e d i t e d by Henry C. Kay (London: Edward A rn o ld ,
1892), pp. 191-211.
110O 'L e a ry , H i s to r y o f th e F a tim id C a l i p h a t e , p p . 93-114.
214
I t i s g e n e ra lly b eliev ed th a t i t s
d i l i g e n t in sen d in g o u t m i s s i o n a r i e s th ro u g h o u t
easy
Non-Arab p e a s a n tr y as w e ll as s e v e r a l d i s s a t i s f i e d Arab
215
H i s t o r i c a l r e f e r e n c e s a re s i l e n t about th e e x is te n c e o f imams
among th e K arm atians.
This i s e a s i l y e x p la in a b le :
I t has been
"As a r e s u l t o f t h i s s t r u g g l e o f
was h o s t i l e to th e N.
216
f a c t t h a t m is s io n a r y a c t i v i t i e s i n Sind were c a r r i e d o u t by t h e
" d a ' i " d i s p a t c h e d from Yemen.
For t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n we a r e in d e b t e d
A ccording t o t h i s s o u r c e ,
i n h a b i t a n t s and h i s d a 'w a
a n o t h e r work o f h i s , K itab
In
118I b i d . , p . 89.
119Quoted i n S. M. S t e m , " I s m a ' i l i Propoganda and F atim id
Rule in S i n d ," I s la m ic C u l t u r e , Vol. XXIII (1 9 4 9 ), 299.
217
c o u r t to r e p l a c e t h e
He was succeeded
We a r e now i n a p o s i t i o n
218
The
C le a rly , then,
In t h i s i n s t a n c e , i t i s p u z z lin g as t o why
He owes no a l l e g i a n c e t o th e c h i e f o f Mansura.
He, how
Thus t h e change in
E. J . B r i l l .
219
I t i s e n t i r e l y p o s s i b l e t h a t f o llo w i n g
I t i s e q u a l l y p o s s i b l e t h a t i n t e n s i v e m is s io n a r y work was
By t h e v e ry n a t u r e o f
p o p u la tio n than
t h e i r Sunni r i v a l s :
In th o s e days t h e I s m a i l i s h ad a t r a d i t i o n o f p o s in g
a s a d h e r e n ts o f th e f a i t h w i t h i n which t h e y w o r k e d ...
There a r e s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s on r e c o r d where an
I s m a i l i m is s i o n a r y posed as a Brahmin o r a Hindu
p r i e s t and i n s t e a d o f f l a t l y c o n t r a d i c t i n g t h e d o c
t r i n e s o f t h e f a i t h he so u g h t t o s u b v e r t , he a c c e p te d
i t s b a s i c assu m p tio n s and i n t r o d u c e d some o f I s m a i l i
b e l i e f s i n a d i s g u is h e d form and th u s slo w ly and
g r a d u a l l y paved t h e way f o r t o t a l c o n v e r s i o n . . .Very
o f t e n A li was d e p i c t e d as an i n c a r n a t i o n o f Vishnu
among t h e V i s h n a v i t e s . In s h o r t , a f t e r some p e r s o n a l
l o y a l t y had b e e n c r e a t e d , t h e d i s c i p l e was ta k e n
th ro u g h v a r i o u s s t a g e s i n t o f u l l - f l e d g e d b e l i e f in
t h e t e a c h i n g s o f I s m a i l i I s la m . The I s m a i l i s were
h e r e a t an a d v a n ta g e compared t o t h e S unnis b e c a u s e
t h e l a t t e r i n s i s t upon t o t a l c o n v e r s io n r i g h t from
t h e b e g i n n i n g and a r e n o t w i l l i n g t o make t h e l e a s t
compromise i n t h e m a t t e r o f d o c t r i n e . 125
125I s h t i a q H usain Q u r e s h i , The Muslim Community o f t h e In d o P a k i s t a n S u b c o n tin e n t (610-1947) (The Hague: Mouton and C o ., 1 9 62 ),
p . 45.
220
In an e f f o r t t o meet
I t i s t o be
The I s m a ' i l i a n - S u f i r i v a l r y c o lo r e d t h e e n t i r e
s u b se q u e n t m ed iev al p e r i o d o f S in d h i s t o r y which i s p r o p e r l y s p e a k in g ,
w e ll beyond t h e c h r o n o lo g ic a l l i m i t s o f t h i s p a p e r .
In th e fo u rte e n th
As i t was b o th s id e s
2 21
c a u s e . 129
On th e b r o a d e r h o riz o n
we n o te t h a t th e Arab p e r i o d i s t o be commended f o r i t s s i n g u l a r
t o l e r a n c e tow ards indig en ou s r e l i g i o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n s .
As p o in te d
The
1 2 2 -1 2 3 .
222
c a n t r o l e i n t h e S i n d i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o v e r t h e p a s t tw e lv e c e n t u r i e s ,
owes i t s o r i g i n s t o t h e Arab p e r i o d .
The s u c c e s s o r s o f t h e A ra b s, th o u g h Muslims t h e m s e l v e s , w i s e l y
m a in t a in e d a t o l e r a n t a t t i t u d e to w ard t h e i r non-M uslim s u b j e c t s . 132
In t h i s t h e y d i f f e r e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h e f a n a t i c T u r k s , t h e Afghans
and t h e Mughuls whose narrow p o l i c i e s i n t h e s p i r i t u a l r e a lm d i d so
much t o w iden t h e Hindu-Muslim a n ta g o n is m .
T h is l a r g e n e s s o f com pre
CHAPTER IX
CONCLUSION
The a n n e x a tio n o f S ind was n e i t h e r i n s p i r e d by f a n a t i c r e l i
g io u s z e a l n o r was i t p u r e l y p u n i t i v e in n a t u r e .
Any c o n s p ir a c y between
A s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e a r e a ' s com
To r e t a r d t h i s a c t i v i t y i n any manner
The c e n t r a l
P r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n o rs , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e o f m aritim e
224
In d ia n c o a s t a l s i t e s h av in g b o rn e t h i s o u t w ith c l a r i t y .
With t h e
c a l i p h a t e had a tte m p te d t o p e n e t r a t e t h e d e fe n se s o f I n d i a a c r o s s th e
mighty Hindu-Kush w ith v a r y in g i n t e n s i t y , b u t had f a i l e d .
The v a s t
On r e a c h in g Sind
Of t h e s e t h e
t o th e c r e d i t o f t h e A rabs.
To be s u r e , t h e newcomers were a id e d i n
h ig h - r a n k in g S in d ia n commanders, r e p e a te d w i l l i n g n e s s o f c o r p o r a te
i n t e r e s t s t o e n t e r i n t o s e c r e t n e g o t i a t i o n s w ith th e enemy and i n d i v i
dual In d ia n t r a i t o r s d i s c l o s i n g w ell guarded m i l i t a r y s e c r e t s .
v i t a l elem ent o f m o b i l i ty d e c i s i v e l y fav o red t h e Arabs w h ile th e
The
225
o c c a s io n a lly in
n u m b ers.
The " I n d i a p o l i c y , " p r o d u c t o f t h e i m a g i n a t i v e minds o f a l H a j j a j and Muhammad ib n a l- Q a s im , Arab commander i n S in d , e n v i s i o n e d
an a r e a p a c i f i e d n o t so much on t h e b a s i s o f m i l i t a r y a c t i o n as on t h e
common i d e n t i t y o f i n t e r e s t s .
The I n d i a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e w i th
i t s s t a b l e f o u n d a t io n s and d e e p ly imbedded i n t h e s o c i a l o r d e r c h a r a c
t e r i z e d b y t h e c a s t e s y ste m w as, on t h e w h o le , m a i n ta in e d i n f a c t .
The
i n t e r e s t s o f t h e s t a t e w ere i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h o s e o f t h e m e r c a n t i l e
co m m u n itie s, a s w e l l as w ith t h o s e o f t h e r e l i g i o u s and r u r a l e l i t e .
The H in d u -B u d d h ist p o p u l a t i o n was l e g a l l y p l a c e d on a p a r w i t h t h e
C h r i s t i a n s and t h e Jews w i t h i n t h e I s l a m i c commonwealth, t h e e x e c u t i o n
o f which became p o s s i b l e o n l y i n t h e a b s e n c e o f any r i g i d s c h o o ls o f
j u r i s p r u d e n c e u n d e r t h e Umayyads.
The p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n o f th e
The v i l l a g e commu
The p h y s i
c a l b a r r i e r w hich s e p a r a t e d S in d from t h e o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e c a l i p h a t e
e x e r t e d i t s im p act upon t h e a r e a .
W ith t h e r i s e o f
226
t h e l o c a l d y n a s t i e s i n e a s t e r n and n o r t h e r n P e r s i a , t h e c a l i p h a t e ' s
c o n n e c tio n s w ith t h e low er In du s v a l l e y were weakened.
In S in d i t s e l f
t h e r u l i n g e l i t e , c u t o f f from t h e A ra b ic s p e a k in g la n d s by t h e i n t e r
v e n in g P e r s i a n t e r r i t o r i e s , d e g e n e r a te d i n t o w a r r in g f a c t i o n s and
p ro m p tly f e l l v i c t i m , th ou gh b r i e f l y , t o t h e e x p a n s i o n i s t d e s ig n s o f
t h e S a f f a r i d s i n - 871 A.D.
But n e i t h e r t h e S a f f a r i d s n o r t h e Samanids
a lo n g t h e Indus and n o t a c r o s s t h e B a l u c h i s t a n p l a t e a u .
Throughout t h e
t e n t h c e n t u r y t h e c h a l l e n g e t o l o c a l Arab d y n a s t i e s , now e s t a b l i s h e d
a t M ultan and Mansurah, a r o s e from t h e n e i g h b o r in g Hindu p r i n c e s and
n o t from t h e w e s t.
D uring t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y a s e n s i t i v e m i l i t a r y b a l a n c e began t o
p r e v a i l betw een t h e t h r e e g r e a t powers o f t h e s u b - c o n t i n e n t , t h e
P r a t h i h a r a s o f n o r t h e r n I n d i a , t h e P a la s o f Bengal and t h e R a s h t r a k u ta s
o f t h e Deccan.
o b s e s s e d w i th t h e d e s i r e t o in v ad e t h e r i c h lan d s o f t h e G a n g e tic
v a l l e y , c o n s id e r e d t h i s a l l i a n c e as t h e m a jo r o b s t a c l e t o t h e i r
e x p a n s io n is t d e sig n s.
D uring t h e f i r s t t h r e e d ecades o f t h e e l e v e n t h
c e n t u r y , a l l n o r th w e s te r n I n d i a was o v e rru n by th e T u r k is h f o r c e s ,
227
I t was t h e f i r s t s u c c e s s f u l in v a s io n o f t h e s u b - c o n t i
n e n t launched a c r o s s t h e v a s t s t r e t c h e s o f B a l u c h i s t a n - - a f e a t n ev er
b e f o r e o r s in c e matched.
I t was t h i s
C u l t u r a l i n t e r a c t i o n fo llo w e d com
Commercial and
c u l t u r a l c o n t a c t s promoted and n u r tu r e d t h e d e s i r e f o r p e a c e f u l co
e x i s t e n c e between I n d i a 's two main r e l i g i o u s com m unities.
U n fo rtu
228
n a t e l y , t h e coming o f t h e T u rk s c o n c lu d e d t h i s p e r i o d o f f r i e n d l y i n t e r
c o u r s e and r e p l a c e d i t w i t h one o f e x trem e h o s t i l i t y and a n ta g o n is m .
APPENDIX I
HIUEN TSIANG'S ACCOUNT OF SIND AND MULTAN1
S in-T u (Sindh)
T h is c o u n tr y i s ab o u t 7000 l i i n c i r c u i t ; t h e c a p i t a l c i t y , c a l l e d
P i - s h e n - p 'o - p u - l o , i s abo ut 30 l i ro un d.
The s o i l i s f a v o u r a b l e f o r
It
I t is s u ita b le fo r
They f i n d h e r e a
g r e a t q u a n t i t y o f s a l t , which i s r e d l i k e c i n n a b a r ; a l s o w h ite s a l t ,
b la c k s a l t and ro c k s a l t .
In d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s , b o th f a r and n e a r , t h i s
s a l t i s u sed f o r m e d ic in e .
im p u ls iv e ; b u t th e y a r e h o n e s t and u p r i g h t .
g iv e n t o c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
f a i t h i n t h e law o f Buddha.
o c c u p ie d by ab o u t 10,000 p r i e s t s .
t o t h e Sammatiya s c h o o l.
in d u lg e n c e and d eb au ch ery .
As a r u l e , th e y a r e i n d o l e n t and g iv e n t o
Those who a r e v e r y e a r n e s t as f o ll o w e r s o f
t h e v i r t u e o f t h e sag es l i v e a lo n e i n d e s e r t p l a c e s , d w e llin g f a r o f f i n
230
t h e m ountains and t h e f o r e s t s .
ship).
v a r io u s k in d s c o n g r e g a te .
The k in g i s o f t h e S ud ra C S h u - t'o - lo ) c a s t e .
He i s by n a t u r e
Upagup-
t a , t h e g r e a t A r h a t, s o jo u rn e d v e r y f r e q u e n t l y i n t h i s kingdom, ex
p l a i n i n g t h e law and co n v in c in g and g u id in g men.
The p la c e s where he
sangharamas o r t h e e r e c t i o n o f stupas.
T hese b u i l d i n g s a r e seen e v e r y
great many) o f f a m i l i e s s e t t l e d .
They a r e o f an u n f e e l i n g and h a s ty
They g iv e th e m se lv e s e x c l u
s i v e l y t o te n d i n g c a t t l e , and from t h i s d e r i v e t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d .
They
231
At t h i s
He e x h i b i t e d
Thus
he le d t h e p eo p le t o b e l i e v e and a c c e p t t h e d o c t r i n e , and g r a d u a l ly he
ta u g h t them i n w ords; a l l o f them j o y f u l l y ac c e p te d h i s t e a c h i n g and
r e s p e c t f u l l y pray ed him t o d i r e c t them i n t h e i r r e l i g i o u s l i f e .
The
I t i s t h i c k l y p o p u la te d .
Buddhist m is s io n a ry .
232
w e a lth y .
k ia ) .
The s o i l i s r i c h and f e r t i l e .
The c l i m a t e i s s o f t and a g r e e
a b l e ; t h e manners o f t h e p e o p le a r e s im p le and h o n e s t ; t h e y lo v e
l e a r n i n g and honour t h e v i r t u o u s .
The g r e a t e r p a r t s a c r i f i c e t o t h e
T here a r e ab ou t t e n sang-
s e c t a r i e s o f v a r i o u s c l a s s e s d w e ll.
T h e re i s a tem p le d e d i c a t e d t o
t h e s u n , v e r y m a g n i f i c e n t and p r o f u s e l y d e c o r a t e d .
The image o f t h e
Its
Women p l a y t h e i r m u sic, l i g h t t h e i r t o r c h e s , o f f e r
t h e i r f lo w e rs and perfum es t o h o n ou r i t .
nued from t h e v e r y f i r s t .
T h is custom h as been c o n t i
The k in g s and h ig h f a m i l i e s o f t h e f i v e
(to th is Deva] .
On t h e f o u r s i d e s o f t h e tem p le a r e ta n k s w ith f lo w e r in g g ro v es
APPENDIX I I
From H a j j a j son o f Y u s if .
IN SIND1
You w i l l be s u c c e s s f u l
Do n o t ,
p r a y , e n t e r t a i n th e e v i l th o u g h t t h a t a l l t h o s e e l e p h a n ts
and w e a lth and o t h e r p r o p e r t y o f y o u r enemies w i l l be your l o t .
Live h a p p ily w ith your f r i e n d s , and t r e a t e v e ry one k in d l y .
Encourage them a l l t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e whole c o u n tr y w i l l be y o u rs .
Whenever you ta k e any f o r t i f i e d p l a c e , l e t y o u r s o l d i e r s spend
a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r w a n ts.
Let t h e b o o ty be u t i l i s e d f o r t h e
E x e rt
y o u r s e l f t o t h e u tm o st t o su p p ly p r o v i s i o n s i n abundance, and f i x
th e r a t e s , so t h a t c o m may be had cheap in yo u r camp.
Whatever
^ S e e T h e C h a ch n a m a h , p p .
91 and 1 6 9 .
234
endeavour t o co n s o le t h e s u b j e c ts and t o so o th e th e r e s i d e n t s ,
so t h a t t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l c l a s s e s and a r t i s a n s and m erchants
may, i f God so w i l l s , become co m fo rtab le and happy, and th e
c o u n try may become f e r t i l e and p op u lo u s.
W r itte n t h i s 20th
II.
With r e g a r d to t h e r e q u e s t
Because a f t e r t h e y have
Do, t h e r e f o r e ,
No
(undated)
APPENDIX I I I
AL-ISTAKHRI'S ACCOUNT
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T ra n sla tio n
The c o u n try o f S ind and t h e b o r d e r i n g lands a r e i n s e r t e d in
one map, which th u s c o n ta i n s t h e c o u n try o f S in d and p o r t i o n s o f Hind,
Kirman, T u ran, and Budha.
C i t i e s o f S in d Mansura, Debal N iru r ( N ir u n ) , Kalwi ( K a l l a r i l
A n n ari, Balwi ( B a l l a r i ) , Maswahi, B aniya, Manhanari ( M a n ja b a ri),
S adusan, and A1 Ruz (A lor) .
C i t i e s o f Hind - - Amhal, Kambaya, S u b ara, S in d an , Saim ur,
M ultan, J a n d ru d , and Basmand.
From Karabaya t o Saimur i s t h e lan d o f t h e B a lh a r a , and in i t
t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l In d ia n k in g s .
I t i s a lan d o f i n f i d e l s , b u t t h e r e
The c i t y
The i n h a b i t a n t s a r e Musalmans.
The
The la n d o f Mansura a l s o p r o
which i s l i k e th e p each.
tifu l.
The d r e s s o f t h e p eo p le i s l i k e t h a t o f t h e p eo p le o f ' I r a k ,
b u t t h e d r e s s o f t h e i r k in g s resem bles t h a t o f th e k in g s o f I n d ia i n
r e s p e c t o f t h e h a i r and t h e t u n i c .
Multan i s a c i t y about h a l f th e s i z e o f Mansura.
T here i s an
242
a s tr o n g e d i f i c e , s i t u a t e d i n t h e most populous p a r t o f th e c i t y , in
th e market o f Multan, between t h e b a z a r o f th e iv o ry d e a le r s and th e
shops o f th e co p p ersm ith s.
In Multan t h e r e a r e no men
l e a t h e r , and n o th in g b u t i t s eyes a re v i s i b l e .
Some b e l i e v e t h a t th e
th e eyes o f th e id o l a r e p r e c io u s
I t s i t s in a
When th e
243
The w a te r i s o b t a i n e d from w e l l s .
I t h a s two w a l l s ,
b elo n g
Budha i s t h e r e a d e s e r t .
The p e o p le o f M ultan wear t r o u s e r s , and most o f them speak
P e r s i a n and S i n d i , as i n Mansura.
Makran i s a l a r g e t e r r i t o r y , f o r t h e m ost p a r t d e s e r t and
barren .
I t i s i n th e d e s e r t , and w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f Budha.
f i e l d s a r e m o stly i r r i g a t e d .
tu re d .
The c u l t i v a t e d
The v i c i n i t y i s f r u i t f u l .
From Kiz
days.
From
d a y s.
d a y s.
From th e n c e
From th e n c e t o Debal f o u r
From Mansura t o Multan tw e lv e
From Mansura t o t h e n e a r -
244
e s t f r o n t i e r o f Budha f i v e d a y s .
From Budha t o T iz ab o u t f i f t e e n d a y s .
From
t a n , by t h e d e s e r t , about t e n d a y s.
days.
i s abo ut h a l f a p a r a s a n g from t h e s e a .
abo ut f i v e d ay s.
S a ra n d ib f i f t e e n d ay s.
K a l l a r i two days.
Debal t o T iz f o u r d a y s.
Basmad t o A1 Ruz t h r e e d a y s.
Annari t o
two p a r a s a n g s .
g e t i n t o t h e la n d
From
From
From
From
Barband l i e s
I t i s sa id th a t
I t s w a te r i s
I t i s s a i d t h a t t h e r e a r e c r o c o d i l e s i n i t as l a r g e as
t h o s e o f th e M ile.
I t r i s e s l i k e as t h e N ile r i s e s , and in u n d a te s
245
s ta g e s from M ultan.
Mihran.
I t s w a te r i s v e ry sw eet, even b e f o re i t j o i n s t h e
T h e ir
APPENDIX IV
MAP
OF SIND
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APPENDIX V
is t h a t from God!
Whenever th e y a r e
u n f u r l e d o v e r t h e heads o f t h e b e l i e v e r s , God i n c r e a s e s t h e i r g l o r y by
t h e b a n n e rs and r a i l s them w ith His a s s i t a n c e ; on t h e o t h e r hand when
th e y a r e u n f u r l e d o v e r t h e heads o f t h e u n b e l i e v e r s , b a n n e rs h u m il i a t e d
t h e i r p r i d e and overwhelm them by t h e power o f God Who i s o u r B e n e f a c to r .
W r itte n on Sunday, t h e 1 9 th o f Ramadan, o f t h e y e a r 354.
APPENDIX VI
P vCHF R
T - '3 1 $ : - . <!I f f c i
m S H T - rT
rT T
T W
l P
^ w
9W E T M V .
^ W
4 ," ^ ^
s t
5 ^ re rte rf3 T g iL -w iW
fcjfcf^r f n t e r ^ ,
T ^ f t u , ,
'The i l l u s t r i o u s k in g A v a n ija n a s ra y a P u la k e s in S a r a jh a , th e
g r e a t l o r d and t h e g r e a t d ev o tee o f M ahesvara, whom t h e i l l u s t r i o u s
k in g V a lla b h a , a p p r e c i a t i n g h i s v a l o u r , favoured w ith t h e f o u r
f o llo w in g t i t l e s , " th e s o l i d p i l a r o f th e D e c c a n (? )," " t h e o rn a
ment o f th e C halukika (Chalukya) d y n a s ty , " " t h e l o r d o f th e e a r t h , "
and " t h e r e p e l l e r o f t h e u n r e p e l l e d ( A ra b s )," when t h e T a jik a
army, which v o m itte d f o r t h arrow s and maces, which d e s tr o y e d by
i t s b r i g h t l y g l i t t e r i n g s h arp swords th e p ro sp e ro u s Saindhava
( S in d ) , Kacchela (C u tc h ), S a u r a s t r a ( G u j r a t ) , C havotaka, Maurya
and G u rja ra k in g s and o t h e r s , and which w ish in g t o e n t e r th e
Deccan w ith a view t o conq uering a l l th e s o u th e rn k i n g s , came
i n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e t o redu ce t h e N av asarik a c o u n t r y . '
249
2.
P ro b a b le d a t e 733 A.D.
^ 2 T rf
-W
3.
The G w aliar I n s c r i p t i o n .
835 A.D.
& \M tf-
I n i4 - V arik* H -
(i
cjr y -
APPENDIX V I I
1.
Muhammad i b n a l- Q a s im ,
2.
3.
Habib ib n a l - M u h a l l a b ,
4.
720 A.D.
5.
730 A.D.
6.
Tamim ib n Z a id a l - ' U t b i
8.
)
)
Al-Hakim ib n Awanah
)
)
Amr ib n Muhammad i b n a l-Q a sim )
9.
7.
10.
A.D.
G ov ern o rs o f t h e A bbasids
1.
2.
3.
4.
M a'bad ib n a l - K h a l i l
5.
Bustam ib n
6.
Abu Turab
)
)
)
7.
Ruh ib n H atim ,
Amr
771 A.D.
251
8.
9.
10.
B is h r ib n D a'ud
)
_
_ _
_ )
Musa ib n Yahya al-Barm ak )
11.
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VITA
A f t e r b r i e f l y a tt e n d in g Edwards
In
C oncurrent w ith h i s d o c to r a l s t u d i e s , he h e ld a te a c h in g
a s s i s t a n t s h i p in t h e H i s to r y Department o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Utah.
th e p r e s e n t tim e , he i s A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f H is to r y a t Lone
Mountain C o lleg e i n San F r a n c is c o , C a l i f o r n i a .
Mr. Bede i s m arried to Lynne Hansen o f Monroe, Utah.
have two c h i l d r e n :
They
At