Chapter 2

Cell structure and cell organisation

2.1 Cell structure and function
living organisms are made of basic units called __________________.
a cell consists of structure such as _____________, _____________, (_______________), which is surrounded by a
thin layer of ___________________. The cytoplasm contains structures called ___________________ which perform
specific functions. The plant cells have an additional outer boundary called the ________________.
Cellular components of animal and plant cells
Figurs below show the organelles of an animal and a plant cell that can be seen under the electron microscope.

Celll membrane
- The membrane at the surface which encloses the content of a cell is called the ____________________. The plasma
membrane is made of __________________and _______________________. I t f o r m s a b o u n d a r y w h i c h separates
the content of a cell from the outer environment.
- The plasma membrane is ________________________ and acts as a ___________________barrier. It r e g u l a t e s
t h e m o v e m e n t o f ____________________ into and out of the cytoplasm.
Cell wall
- The cell wall is a ________________ outer layer that surrounds the plasma membrane of _____________ cells.
- It is composed of _____________________, a tough a n d f i b r o u s _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
- T h e c e l l w a l l i s ________________ to all fluids. It has tiny pores that allow substances to move
_________ into and out of the cell.
- A cell wall gives _____________ to a plant cell and provides _______________________ for the plant cell.
- It also protects the plant cell from ______________ due to the excessive intake of water.
Cytoplasm
- It consists of a jelly-like _________________ in which the ________________ of the cell are suspended.
- Cytoplasm acts as a medium for _________________ reactions in the cell.
- It also provides substances obtained from the external environment to the ___________________.
Nucleus
- The nucleus appears as a large, dense, spherical organelle enclosed by a ______________________.
- It contains ____________________.
- It also contains a dark spherical structure called the ____________________ and the _________________, the form that
______________________ take when the cell is not dividing.
- Chromosomes carry ________________ information.
- The nucleus controls all the _________________ which take place in the cell
Vacuole
- A vacuole is a ______________-filled sac which is surrounded by ___________________, a _________________
membrane.
- The fluid contained in a vacuole is called ____________________.
- A typical plant cell has a ___________ central vacuole while a young plant cell has numerous __________ vacuoles.
- The vacuole acts as a _______________ place which contains ______________, _____________, _____________,
_________________, _________________, ____________________, _________________ and
_____________________.
- The cell sap in a vacuole gives __________________ supports to herbaceous plants so that they do not ______.
- Freshwater microorganisms such as Paramecium sp. have _______________ vacuoles and ___________ vacuoles. The
contractile vacuoles help to regulate ___________________________ in these organisms.
Mitochondria
- Mitochondria are involved in ____________________. This process releases _________________ when food
substances such as ______________ are broken down in the mitochondria.
- The energy released is stored in the form of _________ (_______________________) that can be readily used
by cells.
Ribosomes
- Ribosomes are compact ______________ organelles found attached to the surface of __________________________
(________) or __________________ freely in the cytoplasm.
- Ribosomes are the site for the synthesis of ________________ such as _____________ and
_____________.
Endoplasmic reticulum
- Endoplasmic reticulum consists of a network of _______________ membranes forming interconnected _____________
or ____________.
- The endoplasmic reticulum membrane is physically continuous with the ____________membrane.
- There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum, the ____________ endoplasmic reticulum and the __________
endoplasmic reticulum.
- The rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) has ___________ attached to its surface while smooth endoplasmic

reticulum (smooth ER) does not has ___________ attached to its surface .
The rough endoplasmic reticulum transports ____________ made by the ____________. Proteins that depart
from the rough endoplasmic reticulum are enclosed in ____________. These ______________ then can be
transported from one part of the cell to another.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the site of important metabolic reactions, including synthesis of ___________ and
____________________ of drugs and poisons.

Golgi apparatus
- The Golgi apparatus functions as a ________________, _________________ and _________________centre for
________________, _______________,_____________________ and ______________________.
- Transport vesicles carrying products from the _______________________ fuse with the membrane of the Golgi
apparatus and empty their contents into the membranous space.
- These proteins are ______________ as they pass through the Golgi apparatus.
- The Golgi apparatus will then _________ these products and _____________ them into _______________.
- The modified ________________ will be packed in vesicles.
- The _______________ then bud off from the Golgi membrane and travel to other __________of the cell or to the
_______________.
Lysosomes
- Lysosomes contain _____________ enzymes called _________________.
- These enzymes _____________ or ______________ complex organic molecules such as proteins, lipids,
polysaccharides and nucleic acids. They also eliminate ______________ or _____________ organelles.
- In the cells of certain organisms, lysosomes fuse with ____________ vacuoles and dispense
____________ into these vacuoles to digest the food.
- Lysosomes also digest _______________ by breaking down the bacterial cell wall.
- Centrioles
- Centrioles form ____________________ during _______________cell division in ____________ cells.
- They are ___________ present in plant cells.
Chloroplasts
- Chloroplasts are typically ___________-shaped.
- The membranous structures in the chloroplasts contain the green pigment __________________.
- Chlorophyll traps ______________ and converts ___________ energy into _____________ energy during
___________________.

Comparing the structure of animal and plant cells

Similarities
Differences
Animal cell

Structure

Plant cell

Shape
Cell wall
Vacuoles
Chloroplasts
Food storage

The density of organelles in specific cells

- Animals and plants are made of different types of cells which perform different __________.
- The density or abundance of certain organelles is related to the ____________ of specific cells.
- For example, pancreatic cells which synthesise and secrete _____________ and ___________ contain a high density of
_____________________________ compared to other types of cells.
- Other examples are as in the table below:
Organelles found abundantly
Function
Types of cells
in the specific cells
Require large amounts of energy to propel
Sperm cells
towards the uterus and Fallopian tube during
fertilisation.
Flight muscle cells in Contract and relax to enable movements and
insects and birds
flight.
Cells in the meristems
Mesophyll palisade
cells
1. Why is the use of the electron microscope important in the study of cell biology?
2. Why is it important to study cellular components and their functions?
3. Which organelle is found abundantly in a cell that secretes protein products?
4. Match the following cellular components to their functions.

Cellular component
Vacuole
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
Lysosome
Chloroplast

Function
An organelle that contains digestive enzymes.
An organelle that traps light energy during
photosynthesis.
A fluid-filled sac which contains a complex mixture
of sugars, mineral salts, pigments and waste products.
An organelle which is involved in the synthesis of lipids.

2.2 Cell organization

all living organisms perform living processes such as _________________, ____________________,
_________________, _________________, ____________________, ____________________ and
__________________.
- organisms that can perform all the living processes in a single cell is known as ________________ organisms.
- The survival of a unicellular organism depends largely on its _______________ _____________ which include
the ________________, as it does not have any organs or systems. Each unicellular organism is a complete organism
equivalent to an entire plant or animal.
- one such unicellular organism is the ____________________.
-

Most species of Amoeba are _______________ in freshwater and soil water environments.

Amoeba sp. is enclosed by the __________________. The cytoplasm of Amoeba sp. is divided into two layers,
the outer layer is called ______________while the inner layer is called ________________. The flow of _____________
allows Amoeba sp. to change ____________ constantly.
Amoeba sp. has a structure called _________________ which can be used for ____________ and _______________.
It moves by extending the ___________________ or _______________ and anchoring the tips on the ground. This is
followed by the flow of _____________ into the projected ___________________.
It feeds by engulf food such as _______________ through a process called ____________________________.

The presence of ____________ causes Amoeba sp. to advance by extending its ___________________. The pseudopodia
enclose the food which is then packaged in a ___________________. The food vacuole fuses with a _____________ and
the food is digested by the ________________ enzyme called _____________. The nutrients are then absorbed into
the cytoplasm.
The exchange of respiratory ___________, ____________ and _______________ occur through the plasma membrane
by simple _________________. As Amoeba sp. lives in freshwater, water molecules diffuses into the cell by _________
and fill the _____________ vacuole . Contractile vacuoles are involved in ________________. When the
vacuole is filled to a maximum size, it _____________ to ____________ its contents from time to time.
When the environment is favourable, Amoeba sp. reproduces asexually by _______________________. When the
environment is not conducive to reproduction, Amoeba sp. forms ____________.

Cell specialisation in multicellular organisms

- A multicellular organism is an organism which consists of more than _______ cell. For example, human life begins as a
single cell known as a ___________, the result of fertilisation between a _______________ (________) and a
______________ (_________).
- The zygote divides into more cells and forms _______________.
- The cells in the embryo __________________ into different types of cells to carry out ____________ functions.
- The cells that carry out _______________ functions are said to undergo ___________________.
- Examples are white blood cells for body _____________, red blood cells for transportation of _____________________,
nerve cells that transmit _____________ and ______________ cells that contain the __________________ (genetic
materials) that comes from the ________ parent.
Cell organisation in multicellular organisms
- Cells of the same type which carry out a common function are organised into _____________. A tissue is a group of
___________ cells performing a ______________ function.
- Different ________________ group together to form an _______________. An organ is a group of tissues that performs a
________________ function.
- Several _____________ work together to form a _______________.
- All systems work together to make up an _________________.
- Cell organisation in multicellular organisms can be summarised as follows:

Cell organisation in animals

Tissues
- In animals, tissues can be classified into four main types, which are
a. ___________________ - consists of one or more layers of cells. The cells of an _____________ are tightly
interconnected and forma continuous layer over body surfaces (_________ and ___________ area) and inner linings
of cavities (____________ and ____________). Some epithelial tissues undergo changes to form __________
(_____________ and _____________ glands). The structure of an epithelial tissue is adapted to its function. Epithelial
tissue on the skin forms a protective barrier against _____________, mechanical ____________ and _____________.
Epithelial cells in the lining of the human intestines form mucus-secreting _____________ which secrete ________

b.

c.
d.

into the digestive tract. The epithelial tissue that lines the trachea consists of elongated cells with _______-like
projections called __________.
___________________ - There are _______________ types of muscle tissues: ___________ muscle (can be found in
intestines, blood vessels, urinary and reproductive tracts), ____________ muscle (can be found attached to our
skeleton) and _____________ muscle (can be found in the walls of the heart). Contraction and relaxation of smooth
muscles are responsible for _______________ body activities such as the ______________ movement along the
digestive tract. Skeletal muscles are involved in _____________ movements. They contract and relax to move the
_____________. Cardiac muscles contract to pump __________ to all parts of the body.
___________________ - composed of nerve cells or ________________. Neurones are specialised to detect
_____________, converts it into _____________ signals called nerve ____________ and transmit the impulses to
muscles or gands.
___________________ - examples are ___________, _______________, ____________, ______________,
____________________ and _____________________.

Organs
- An organ is formed by two or more types of __________ working together to perform a ____________function. Examples
of organs include the ____________, ___________, ____________, _____________, ___________ and __________.
- The skin covers the body and acts as a barrier against __________ , physical _________ and water ________. The skin is
an organ because it consists of various types of tissues joined together to perform specific functions. The skin is composed
of two main layers, the ___________ and ____________. The epidermis, which is the outer layer of the skin, is made up
of _____________ tissue. The dermis is composed of ______________tissue, _________ tissue, __________ tissue and
_____________ tissue.
- Blood is supplied to the skin through a network of _________________. Various sensory nerve endings are scattered
throughout the dermis and epidermis. These nerve endings act as _______________ which transmit nerve impulses for
_______________, ________________, ____________ and ____________ to other parts of the nervous system.
Specialised epithelial cells in the skin form structures such as ___________________ which produce hair,
______________ which secrete sweat and ________________ which secret sebum.

System
- The next of cell organisation is the ___________.
- Each system consists of several ___________ that work together to perform a _____________ function.
- There are 11 major systems which carry out major body functions in humans;
1. ________________ system
2. ________________ system
3. ________________ system
4. ________________ system
5. ________________ system
6. ________________ system
7. ________________ system
8. ________________ system
9. ________________ system
10. ________________ system
11. ________________ system

Sugar level
increases

Normal sugar
level

Sugar level
decreases

the _________________________, that is the balance of water and dissolved substances in body fluids, is regulated
by the _____________, _____________, _________________ and _______________ systems.
the _______________ contents in the body, such as the ___________________ of metabolism, are regulated by the
_______________, ___________________, _________________ and _______________ system. Toxic
substances such as _______________ are transported by the circulatory system to the kidneys to be excreted.
The ___________ is regulated by the _________________ system, _______________ system and ______________
system. The pH of the blood and interstitial fluid is maintained by controlling the concentrations of ______________
(H+), _________________ (OH- ) and ___________________________ (HCO 3 -).

1. What is the function of contractile vacuoles in Amoeba sp.?

2. Explain the process of phagocytosis in Amoeba sp.

3. What is the difference between a tissue and an organ?
4. Name the systems that are involved in regulating the concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the bloodstream.

Appreciate the uniqueness of cell

- A cell is the ____________ unit of all living organisms that is capable of functioning on its own.
- In order for the __________ to function at an optimum level, the _______________ must work together in
harmonious fashion. In order for the __________ to function at an optimum level, the _______________
must work together in a harmonious fashion.
- In order for the __________ to function at an optimum level, the _______________ must work together in
harmonious fashion.
- In order for the __________ to function at an optimum level, the _______________ must work together in
harmonious fashion.
- In order for the __________ to function at an optimum level, the _______________ must work together in
harmonious fashion.
- In order for the __________ to function at an optimum level, the _______________ must work together in
harmonious fashion.

a
a
a
a
a

Describe the process taking place in the figure below.