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Patrick Lemaire
Universite de Provence and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
Abstract
The last two decades of research in cognitive aging have seen a shift from simply describing age-related changes in cognitive
performance to determining the mechanisms underlying these changes. Recent findings on variations in the use of cognitive
strategies during aging further our understanding of how these changes in performance occur during adulthood. Data show
age-related differences in strategy repertoire, strategy distribution, strategy execution, and strategy selection. I illustrate these
findings in cognitive domains as varied as episodic memory, working memory, reasoning, decision making, problem solving, and
language. I discuss how strategic variations are best studied both conceptually and methodologically and how investigating
strategic variations helps us make significant progress in the study of cognitive aging. As I also show in this article, whichever the
cognitive domain being studied, there are no restrictions that would prevent us from adopting a strategy perspective.
Keywords
cognitive aging, strategies, problem solving
364
Lemaire
Table 1. Strategies Used (or Not) by Young and Older People to (a) Solve Two-Digit Addition Problems (Lemaire & Arnaud, 2008), (b) Verify
Arithmetic Inequalities (Duverne & Lemaire, 2004), (c) Encode Pairs of Words in Episodic Memory (Dunlsoky & Hertzog, 2001), and (d) Search
Information in Decision-Making Tasks (Johnson, 1990).
Two-digit addition
problem-solving task
(e.g., 12 46)
Rounding the first operand down
(10 46) 2
Rounding the second operand down
(12 40) 6
Rounding both operands down
(10 40) (2 6)
Columnar retrieval
(2 6) (10 40)
Rounding the first operand up
(20 46) 8
Rounding the second operand up
(12 50) 4
Rounding both operands up
(20 50) 8 4
Borrowing units
18 40
Retrieving
58
Arithmetic problem
verification task
Episodic memory:
Paired-associate recall task
Exhaustive-verification strategy
Encoding the problem,
searching for correct solution
in memory, comparing this
solution with the proposed
solution, making a true/false
decision, and responding
(e.g., 8 5 < 41. True? False?)
Approximate verification strategy
Encoding the problem, judging
the plausibility of the proposed
answer, making a true/false
decision, and responding
(e.g., 8 5 < 47. True? False?)
365
Number of Participants
6
5
Young
Older
4
3
2
1
0
Number of Participants
Rule
Rotation
Percent Use
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Flip
25
Young
Older
20
15
10
5
0
Optimal
Body Reference
Suboptimal
Nonoptimal
Decomposition/
Recomposition
Approximate Counting
Young
Older
Anchoring
Estimation
Exact Counting
Fig. 1. Age-related differences in strategy distributions used by young and older participants. Panel a shows the number of participants using
rule, rotation, body reference, and flip strategies in a rotated-figure task (data from Cohen & Faulkner, 1983); panel b shows the mean number of
participants using optimal, suboptimal, and nonoptimal strategies in an inductive reasoning task (data from Hartley & Anderson, 1983); and panel
c shows participants mean percent use of five numerosity estimation strategies (anchoring, perceptual estimation, decomposition/recomposition, approximate counting, and exact counting; data from Gandini, Lemaire, & Dufau, 2008).
366
Lemaire
Young
Older
Short Travel
Time Environment
Accuracy Rates
Young
Older
70
65
60
55
Interactive Imagery
5000
IndividualInteractive
Imagery
Young
Older
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Perceptual Estimation
80
75
6000
Long Travel
Time Environment
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Anchoring
2500
Young
Older
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Linguistic
Pictorial
Fig. 2. Age-related differences in strategy execution for young and older participants. Panel a shows mean number of fish caught in two environments in which participants were instructed to use one of two incremental strategies to accomplish a foraging task (data from Mata, Schooler,
& Rieskamp, 2007); panel b shows mean solution times to accomplish numerosity estimation tasks using perceptual estimation or anchoring
strategies (data from Gandini, Lemaire, Anton, & Nazarian, 2008); panel c shows mean number of correctly recognized pairs of words in an
associative recognition test, using interactive imagery versus individual interactive imagery (data from Patterson & Hertzog, 2010); panel d
shows mean verification times to determine whether sentences are consistent with patterns in a sentence verification task, using linguistic versus
pictorial strategies (data from Cohen & Faulkner, 1983).
In some tasks, some strategies yield equal levels of performance in young and older adults, whereas other strategies yield
different levels of performance between age groups. For example, Gandini, Lemaire, Anton, & Nazarian (2008) asked participants to find the approximate number of dots in dot
collections briefly displayed on a computer screen. Older
adults were slower than young adults while executing the
anchoring strategy (i.e., counting groups of dots and adding the
number of groups before estimating the remaining dots), but
both age groups were equally fast when executing the perceptual strategy (i.e., scanning the whole pattern or a subset of
dots, searching a corresponding numerosity in memory, and
adding or subtracting small amounts to this retrieved numerosity before stating a response). Gandini, Lemaire, Anton, &
Nazarian (2008) have found different brain networks underlying execution of each strategy in young and older adults.
Similarly, Patterson and Hertzog (2010) found that young
adults obtained better performance than older adults did in an
associative recognition test while using an interactive imagery
strategy (i.e., forming an interactive image for the two words in
Young
1.6
Older
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Hard Items
Easy Items
1.8
367
80
Young
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
SmallUnit Problems
Young
70
Older
LargeUnit Problems
Older
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
No Emphasis
Emphasis
Fig. 3. Age-related differences in strategy selection. Panel a shows mean number of retrieves on easy and hard problems in a synthetic arithmetic problem-solving task (data from Onyper, Hoyer, & Cerella, 2008); panel b shows mean percent use of the best strategy on small-unit (e.g.,
31 82) and large-unit (e.g., 27 69) problems in a computational estimation task (data from Lemaire, Arnaud, & Lecacheur, 2004); panel c
shows mean percent use of the best strategy in a computational estimation task when participants were instructed to try to be most accurate
versus no accuracy emphasis (data from Lemaire et al., 2004)
368
of age-related differences in arithmetic problem-solving strategies. Taconnat et al. (2009) found that executive functions were
the main mediator of age-related differences in memory strategies. Whether strategic changes with age are the result of
changes in all processing resources or just some (and in that
case, which ones) may depend on several parameters, such as
cognitive domain or how (and which) processing resources are
tested. Future research will determine this.
How can declines in processing resources with age lead to
strategic changes? Regarding changes in strategy repertoire,
there are two possibilities. First, it could be that older adults use
fewer strategies than young adults do because they know fewer
strategies and have never used strategies that young adults know.
Second, it could be that the same strategies are available in both
age groups but that older individuals restrict the set of strategies
they use in a given task. Lemaire and Arnauds (2008) data are
consistent with the second hypothesis. At the group level, the
same set of nine addition problem-solving strategies was found
in both older and younger adults. However, older individuals
used fewer strategies than young adults did. Decreased processing resources with age might lead older adults to restrict the set
of strategies. Indeed, fewer resources makes it harder to maintain
all strategies in working memory and harder to select a given
strategy among more (compared to fewer) strategies.
Regarding strategy selection, decreased processing
resources may lead older adults to select the best strategy on
each problem less often than do young adults. This could happen via different processes. Fewer resources makes it more difficult to encode problem features efficiently in order to choose
the most appropriate strategy for each problem. Moreover,
decreased efficiency of executive control processes reduces
cognitive flexibility for switching from one strategy to another
on each problem. Such decreased flexibility prevents older
adults from inhibiting a just-executed strategy on a given problem and to activate the most appropriate strategy on the next
problem. Lemaire et al. (2004) found that older adults were
as good as young adults at selecting the best strategy on each
item when they were instructed to only select the best strategy
for each item and not to execute it. However, when asked to
both select and execute strategies on the same items in the same
tasks, older adults strategy choices were much poorer.
Decreased processing resources might lead to less efficient
strategy execution because executing strategies, especially
those involving more numerous and more complex processes,
require cognitive resources to be successfully executed. In all
cognitive domains, older adults obtain poorer performance than
young adults when they are asked to execute harder strategies.
However, if participants are asked to execute easier strategies,
age-related differences are much smaller and even sometimes
nonexistent. Finally, changes in strategy distribution may also
be influenced by changes in cognitive resources with age. With
fewer resources, older adults tend to use the easiest strategies
more often, even if those strategies do not yield the best performance. For example, Bouazzaoui et al. (2010) and many others
have found that, in contrast to young adults, older adults use
less consuming external memory strategies (e.g., making notes
Lemaire
on paper) more often than more consuming internal (i.e., mental)
strategies.
Funding
Research reported in this article was supported by grants from Agence
Nationale de la Recherche (Grants #: ANR-06-BLAN-0241-01; ANRBLAN07-1_196867).
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