Reported Speech As An Element of Argumentative Newspaper Discourse

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& Communication
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Reported speech as an element of argumentative newspaper discourse

Alla Vitaljevna Smirnova
DISCOURSE & COMMUNICATION 2009 3: 79
DOI: 10.1177/1750481308098765
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A R T I C L Smirnova:
E
Reported speech as an element of argumentative newspaper discourse 79
Reported speech as an element of

argumentative newspaper discourse
ALLA VITALJEVNA SMIRNOVA
Discourse & Communication

Copyright 2009
SAGE Publications.
(Los Angeles, London, New Delhi,
Singapore and Washington DC)
www.sagepublications.com
Vol 3(1): 79103
10.1177/1750481308098765
INDEPENDENT SCHOLAR, RUSSIA
The present article deals with reported speech as an element

of argumentation in the newspaper discourse of Great Britain viewed in
the unity of its syntactic and semantic characteristics and argumentative
functions. Theoretically, the research is based on the dialogic understanding
of quotations, the dialogue theory by Bakhtin and contemporary
argumentation theory. The proposed integral approach to reported speech
combining linguistics with logic and argumentation theory revealed the
relations between purely linguistic (syntactic and semantic) characteristics
of reported speech with its functioning in argumentative discourse of
contemporary British press.
ABSTRACT
KEY WORDS:
argumentation, discourse (argumentative/newspaper discourse),

quotations, reported speech, semantic characteristics, syntactic structures
1. Introduction
Nowadays a strong impact of mass media on every human being is an indisputable issue, the language being the main tool of this influence (especially for the
printed media). Mass media discourse in general and newspaper discourse as one
of its varieties have two main functions: to inform and to persuade the reader.
Newspaper discourses with prevailing persuasion function are aimed at regulation of the addressees behaviour and thinking and are thus argumentative
by their nature. Another characteristic feature of such newspaper discourses
is their multi-dimensional dialogic nature. Alongside the dialogue between the
text of the article and the reader, the former is also a reflection of dialogues
existing in another real communicative space. This reflection is formally expressed by inserting into the text the utterances of other people in the form of
reported speech.
By reported speech we understand incorporation of another persons words
into the authors discourse. The result of this incorporation is a (syntactic)
structure with reported speech.
80
Discourse & Communication 3(1)
The aim of the present research is to reveal semantic and functional potential
of reported speech as an element of argumentation in British newspaper
discourse. This aim can be achieved only by means of interdisciplinary research.
We propose an integrative approach to reported speech based on the assumption
that all functional aspects of reported speech are determined by the overall
task of persuasion.
Theoretically the research is based on the dialogue theory by Bakhtin (1981,
1984, 1986), on the dialogic (non-autonymous) approach to quotations (Buttny,
1998; Ducrot, 1984; Goffman, 1981; Perrin, 1994; Thompson, 1996) and on
contemporary argumentation theory (Anscombre and Ducrot, 1983; Blair and
Johnson, 1997; Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, 1969; Toulmin, 1958; Van
Eemeren and Grootendorst, 1984, 1992).
To accomplish the aim, we have followed the following procedure:
1. We have determined the linguistic characteristics of reported speech that
enable it to function in newspaper argumentation:
Syntactic structures used to introduce reported speech;

Semantic characteristics of these structures;
2. We have revealed the possible positions of reported speech in the argumentative

structure of newspaper discourse (position of thesis and/or argument);
3. For each of these positions we have analysed peculiarities and functions of
reported speech.
The empirical basis of the present research is contemporary press of Great
Britain.
For the sampling purposes we used only newspapers focusing on political
reporting (i.e. what is generally known as quality newspapers or broadsheets).
Popular newspapers or tabloids were not included as such newspapers preferably use means of persuasion different from argumentation. We selected
three nationwide daily newspapers with the highest market share (The Times, The
Financial Times, The Guardian) and one regional (Scottish) newspaper (The Herald).
The print editions of four daily newspapers were analysed during a six-year period
(20016), 12 non-consecutive issues of each newspaper every year.
Data for analysis, however, did not include all items of the newspapers. From
the variety of newspaper discourses of different genres we selected those with
argumentative structure (opinion articles, editorials and letters to the editor).
Typically each newspaper issue contained around 20 items of argumentative
nature, one of them being normally a large-size article (more than half a page),
about two-thirds small-size (less than one eighth of a page) and one-third
medium-size articles (between one-eighth and one half of a page).
2. Theoretical framework
Mental opposition I the others is one of the earliest and most important oppositions for human beings. In the 20th century it gained special acuteness in
the existentialism philosophy that shifted the focus from the social approach to
man to the personal one, to interpersonal interaction. The philosophic concept
of the other developed in existential philosophy influenced linguistic ideas and
Smirnova: Reported speech as an element of argumentative newspaper discourse 81
caused a surge of interest to reported discourse. The problem of what belongs to

oneself and what belongs to others in literary discourse was raised by Bakhtin in
the mid-1930s, but was not generally acknowledged until 196070s when his
works appeared in print. According to Bakhtins theories of dialogism and polyglossia (1981, 1984, 1986), reported speech is one of the means of intertextuality
creation. The study of reported speech in the framework of intertextuality
theory further continued both in literary criticism (Derrida, 1978; Kristeva,
1969; , 1994; , 1981) and linguistics (Bolden, 2004; Calsamiglia
and Ferrero, 2003; Gordon, 2006; Guenthner, 1999; Waugh, 1995; ,
1999; , 2001; , 1986; , 1996).
However, there is no unanimity in understanding the nature of this linguistic
phenomenon. In European linguistics, reported speech was traditionally viewed
as an autonymous sign, a kind of meta-representation informing about itself,
but not about the world. It was a principle to ignore the contents of the quoted
words as well as the relations between the reported and the reporting utterances
(Authier-Revuz, 1997; Rey-Debove, 1978; Rosier, 1997).
This approach did not appear fruitful and was disproved by discursive practice. Theoretically the autonymy theory was refuted by such linguists as Buttny
(1998), Clark and Gerrig (1990), Ducrot (1984), Goffman (1981), Holt (2000),
Perrin (1994), Roberts (2004), Thompson (1996), and others.
We fully share this second non-autonymous approach, and our research is
based on the assumption that relations between the quotation and its context are
that of dialogue and evaluation. By the mere act of quotation the author shows
his/her attitude to other texts and authors and tries to evoke a similar attitude in
the reader. What the author thinks necessary and important to tell the audience
of this initial situation predetermines the perception and further interpretation
of the quotation by the reader. Even if this evaluation is not shown explicitly, it
may be deduced from the linguistic properties of the structures with reported
speech. Thus, the following aspects play an important role in the argumentative
use of reported speech:
1. Choice of syntactic structure of reported speech;
2. Semantic characteristics of structures with reported speech:
Data about the initial context of the reported utterance;
Choice of the quoted segment of reported utterance.
In the next section of this article we shall analyse syntactic and semantic
characteristics of reported speech in our corpus of argumentative British
newspaper discourses.
3. Syntax and semantics of reported speech in British

argumentative newspaper discourses
3.1. SYNTACTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF REPORTED SPEECH IN ARGUMENTATIVE
NEWSPAPER DISCOURSE
There have been numerous attempts in linguistics to provide a universal

classification of syntactic structures used to introduce reported speech, but no
universal approach has so far been achieved and accepted.
82 Discourse & Communication 3(1)
On the basis of the previous typologies on the one hand and the results of our
corpus analysis on the other we made our own attempt at creating a structural
classification of reported speech types for argumentative newspaper discourse
of Modern British English.
The proposed classification is based on the criterion of literalness defined as
exact rendering of lexicon and syntax of the reported utterance as opposed to
accuracy that deals with the retention of information contained therein.
Our structural classification consists of two levels.
On the first level the structures used for reported speech are divided into
literal and liberal ones. Literal structures incorporate the quoted utterance as
an utterance belonging to someone else and aim at a verbatim reproduction of
the initial message:
(1) Salby Whittingham, a Turner scholar, said: Serota naturally wants to buy
modern art and contemporary pictures. Its rather doubtful how their reputation
will last. (The Times, Wednesday 12 November 2003, p. 9)
Liberal structures are characterized by greater freedom of reproduction of

reported words:
(2) The Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) says that
annual losses from ring rot have been as high as 50% in America. (The Herald,
Friday 14 November 2003, p. 12)
The differentiation between these types of structures may be of some difficulty, as newspaper discourse contains mainly fragments of oral discourses, and
it may be problematic to determine literalness and accuracy of their rendering.
We propose differentiation according to the formal criterion (presence/absence
of quotation marks).
There are also combined structures uniting literal and liberal ones:
(3) John Jackson of the Scottish Development Center for Mental Health insisted the
unit would not pose significant risk to the community: There hasnt been one
single case across the UK of a patient escaping from a medium-care unit and they
function very safely. (The Herald, Friday 14 November 2003, p. 10)
At the next level of structural classification we introduce the syntactic criterion. All grammatical forms of literal and liberal structures will be described
in more detail further on in this section.
The proposed classification of structural types of reported speech is shown
in Figure 1. It is based on the analysis of argumentative newspaper discourse
of modern English and thus does not include such structural types of reported
speech as references, characteristic mainly for the scientific discourse, and
independent quotations (like epigraphs) used in fiction.
As can be seen in Figure 1, literal structures are represented in our corpus by such
grammatical forms as direct speech, indirect speech and segmented quotations.
The most widely used form among the abovementioned is direct speech:
(4) John Brennan, director of further education development at the Association of
Colleges, said last night: Its a national imperative to improve the supply of skills
at this level. (The Guardian, Wednesday 9 July 2003, p. 5)

Reported speech
Literal structures
Liberal structures
Combined structures
Indirect speech
Direct speech
Direct speech
Indirect speech
Topical reported speech
Segmented quotation
Complex structures
1 . Classification of structures with reported speech in argumentative newspaper

discourse of Modern British English
FIGURE
Frequent use of this structure can be explained by several reasons. First,

the use of direct speech is the evidence of authenticity of the quoted utterance.
Second, it indirectly shows respect and trust of the author to the quoted source
and his/her words. Besides, it is a convenient structure for introducing lengthy
quotations.
In literal indirect speech and segmented quotations words belonging to another
person are embedded in the authors speech as its constituent units. Literal
indirect speech follows the pattern of indirect speech:
(5) Peter Wood, pioneer of the telephone insurance and founder of Direct Line,
believes basic education is better and the workforce happier. (The Herald,
Monday 27 May 2002, p. 17)
In segmented quotations extracts from other peoples discourses are included

into the structures generally not used for reported speech. The quoted segments
are fully integrated into the authors syntax:
(6) The government is to press ahead with the launch of an official index of house
prices this September. (The Guardian, Wednesday 9 July 2003, p. 17)
Analysis showed that in our corpus authors as a rule quote separate words
or phrases, often of evaluative character, or, on the contrary, neutral words that
gain evaluative semantics by being placed in the quotation marks. The general
vocabulary words, constantly used in newspaper discourse, formally do not need
to be put into the quotation marks. By emphasizing with the use of the quotation marks the foreignness of the quoted words the journalist can express a
whole range of attitudes from admiration for successful wording to (much more
frequent) irony. And the less the volume of the quoted segment, the more the
function of the quotation shifts from reliability function to attitude function
(Weizman, 1984; see words official, happier in the examples cited above).
84
Liberal structures are represented in our corpus by such grammatical forms

as indirect speech, liberal direct speech, topical reported speech and complex
liberal structures.
Liberal indirect speech, unlike direct speech, renders the quoted utterance from
the viewpoint of the author of the discourse rather than provides a word-forword repetition of the initial utterance. This leads to numerous transformations of
the initial discourse (deictic changes, neutralization of expressive means, etc.):
(7) But trading standards officers revealed yesterday that complaints about holiday
companies had trebled compared to the year before. (The Herald, Monday 27 May
2002, p. 3)
Indirect speech renders the quoted words with the degree of exactness required for argumentative goals of the author.
Liberal direct speech is built according to the pattern of direct speech, but differs
from the latter formally by the absence of quotation marks. In our corpus it was
represented by a small number of examples characteristic almost exclusively for
leads or headlines:
(8) The Western Kingdom of Bunyoro was devastated during a five-year guerrilla
uprising against the British, said Ernest Kizza, speaker of the small Bunyoro
Parliament. (The Herald, Saturday 6 March 2004, p. 9)
Topical reported speech renders only the general content or macrostructure

(Van Dijk, 1980) of the quoted utterance:
(9) We talked about human fallibility and human courage. (The Herald, Friday 14
November 2003, p. 18)
Complex liberal structures combine several liberal structures in one sentence

(topical reported speech and indirect speech in the following example):
(10) Mr. Clement described the fall as an encouraging sign, but said it was too soon
to suggest the economy has turned the corner. (The Guardian, Wednesday 9 July
2003, p. 10)
Sometimes literal and liberal structures can be united in various combinations forming a separate group of combined structures:
(11) Professor Andrew Calder, professor of obstetrics and gynaecology at Edinburgh
University, says women should not worry about safety: The operation itself is
very safe. (The Herald, Monday 27 May 2002, p. 10)
Inconvenience of these large-volume structures prevents their wide use in

newspaper discourse in spite of the fact that they combine advantages of literal
and liberal structures.
Syntactic structures with reported speech in British argumentative newspaper discourse and their frequency of use obtained as a result of corpus analysis
are summarized in Figure 2.
As we can see, for introducing reported speech journalists of British papers
somewhat prefer literal structures to liberal and combined ones. Selection of
a specific structure depends on the authors argumentative intentions. Literal

Topical reported
Complex liberal
speech
structures
Combined
1.6%
0.2%
structures
5.6%
Literal direct
speech
36.1%
Liberal direct
speech
12.8%
Liberal indirect
speech
26.8%
Segmented
quotations
9.0%
Literal indirect
speech
7.8%
Literal structures (52.8%)
Combined structures (5.8%)

Liberal structures (41.4%)
FIGURE
2 . Syntactic structures with reported speech in British argumentative newspaper
discourse
structures create the effect of maximum accuracy of rendering information. By

using liberal structures journalists get an opportunity to highlight key points
and to emphasize what they consider important in the reported utterance. But at
the same time the measure of their personal responsibility increases. Combined
structures are used rarely.
3.2. SEMANTICS OF REPORTED SPEECH IN ARGUMENTATIVE NEWSPAPER DISCOURSE
In contemporary press we deal not with reported speech as such, but with
specially prepared reported speech. The quoted words are presented in such a
way that they would most effectively influence the audience according to the
authors intentions. The context of the initial quoted utterance through which
and in which this utterance gets its meaning becomes known to the reader only
through the authors description. This description is inevitably incomplete and
subjective, but it determines further interpretation of the quotation by the reader.
Semantics of structures with reported speech determines how the quoted words
are perceived by the readers and how they influence them.
In order to determine semantic characteristics of reported speech in newspaper discourse we turned to semantic syntax, a theoretical framework founded
by Fillmore (1968).
In semantic syntax the critical element of any semantic structure is the predicate that determines the relations between all other elements. The predicate
plays an equally important role in persuasion of the reader. It transmits information about the authors attitude to the quoted utterance and tries to generate
an identical attitude in the readers. As it has been remarked earlier (KerbratOrecchioni, 1979; Perrin, 1994), it is impossible to solve the problem of the source
of subjective information contained in the predicate introducing reported speech.
86
We cannot unambiguously determine if the journalist has adequately chosen the

predicate and correctly interpreted the illocutional force of the utterance. Thus
the predicate simultaneously describes the relation to the reported speech of the
speaker and of the author of the article.
For example, mental predicates combined with the actually pronounced words
provide the reader with implicit information that the quoted person speaks his/her
mind (emphasis is laid on the speakers sincerity), render his/her thoughts and
feelings on the question discussed:
(12) Religious groups fear that the plans would lend status and credibility to same-sex
partnerships. (The Times, Wednesday 12 November 2003, p. 18)
However, such predicates are not very often used in our corpus. In the majority
of cases the journalist does not undertake responsibility for the sincerity of the
quoted source and prefers to use predicates of speaking that present the utterance
as a fact of reality:
(13) Farming leaders have warned that ring rot, which has never previously occurred
in Britain, could have a catastrophic impact on the countrys 3.2 bn potato
crop. (The Herald, Friday 14 November 2003, p. 12)
At the same time the careful selection of the predicate of speaking gives the
journalist vast opportunities in the range from total abstraction from the reported
utterance (predicates say, write, add, respond, etc.), to the enforcement on the
reader of personal unequivocal evaluation thereof (predicates intone, bleat, pant,
hint, etc.). More details on the semantic types of predicates used in structures
with reported speech in the British newspaper discourse, their semantics and
frequency of occurrence can be found in (2004).
Semantics of the predicate defines the possibility of other elements, but their
actual presence in discourse is determined by their importance for argumentative purposes.
Characteristics of the quoted source play a very important role for functioning of reported speech in argumentation. The quoted person should be proved to
possess sufficient competence to give his/her judgement as an authority. Agent
and the appositive component related to it are the semantic elements responsible
for presenting the speaker to the readers. The former may be described in detail
or stay almost anonymous according to the journalists intent.
Analysis of our corpus showed that in order to relevantly characterize the
person quoted in the newspaper discourse, journalists in Great Britain use professional and personal characteristics. Professional characteristics (position,
place of work, academic degree, profession, membership of a political party) are
based on power as authority and prestige and portray the speaker as a person
competent in the questions discussed. Professional characteristics possess a
much bigger argumentative value than personal ones, and are used much more
frequently. Personal characteristics (title, nationality, place of origin, age, marital
status, family relations) are based on power as charisma and promote emotional
perception of the speaker as a distinct personality. They are viewed as less relevant for a sound argumentation. In Great Britain the greatest emphasis is laid
on such professional characteristics as position (Vincenti Todoli, director of Tate

Modern . . ., The Guardian, Wednesday 9 July 2003, p. 9), place of work (The
Fourth Estuary Transport Authority . . ., The Guardian, Thursday 9 December
2004, p. 17) and academic degree (Tom Baldwin, professor of philosophy at the
university of York . . ., The Times, Wednesday 12 November 2003, p. 6). Such
personal characteristic as title is also often used, but more as a tribute to tradition
(Gordon, Lord of Strathblane, . . ., The Times, Friday 20 October 2006, p. 10).
More details about characteristics of the quoted source in the British press are
given in (2007).
The selection of the quoted segment of the other persons utterance is even
more important for the readers persuasion than the information provided in the
introductory syntagm. The semantic element of the Content contains the main
information that is supposed to influence the addressee.
Depending on the argumentative intentions of the author the quoted words
may form an utterance of one of the three existing logical types: descriptive,
evaluative and normative. The main task of descriptive utterances is to describe
the past, present or future status of objective reality.
(14) However, Lambert states that this was more than countered by the rise in the price
of store cattle last spring. (The Herald, Saturday 6 March 2004, p. 17)
Evaluative utterances ascribe absolute or comparative value to some phenomenon, event or object.
(15) The barrister Noel Whelan insists: The basis for this ban is neither rational, nor
objective. (The Herald, Tuesday 10 July 2001, p. 14)
Normative utterances set the rules of behaviour.

(16) We need to guarantee people employability for life, said a Whitehall official last
night. (The Guardian, Wednesday 9 July 2003, p. 5)
The choice of this or that type of the quoted utterance depends on further
functions of reported speech in argumentative discourse.
Other elements are not semantically obligatory, but contain the authors implicit
comment on the quoted utterance and are used for argumentative purposes.
Information about the Beneficiant adds credibility to the quoted words: the
reader tends to give more trust to the words uttered before a competent respected
audience:
(17) In March 1995, Lord Gil told the Law society: Our system of civil procedure is a
contemporary relic of a vanished age which ill-serves the litigant. (The Herald,
Friday 14 November 2003, p. 19)
Additional information about the initial context of the quoted utterance (time,
place and other consequences) emphasizes the topicality of the problem discussed and creates the effect of accuracy of rendering the quoted words:
(18) Elizabeth Stone, head of archaeology department at Stony Brook University in
New York, said in London yesterday: I think you have got to kill some people to
stop this. (The Guardian, Wednesday 9 July 2003, p. 6)
88
Thus, every semantic component of a quotation in contemporary newspaper

discourse plays its important role in persuasion of the target audience.
To sum up, we can say that both form (syntactic structure) and contents
(semantic characteristics) of reported speech are important for the readers persuasion and determine the role of reported speech in argumentative discourse.
Having determined the linguistic parameters of structures with reported
speech, we can now turn to the question of how reported speech functions in
newspaper argumentation.
4. Reported speech in argumentative discourse

Argumentative discourses follow certain patterns, or structures, consisting of
the following elements:
1. Thesis, or claim the statement, validity/acceptability of which is being
proved; standpoint advanced by the writer.
2. Arguments, or reasons, statements by means of which validity of the thesis
is proved.
In the present article the types of theses and arguments are determined
according to the definitions generally accepted in rhetoric (van Eemeren and
Grootendorst, 1992; , 2000). However, success of argumentation in
discourse depends not only on the type of thesis and arguments, but also on their
interrelations. That is why one of the central problems in research concerning
the analysis of argumentative discourse is determination of the structure of
argumentation, the way in which the arguments that are advanced are related
to each other and jointly support the thesis.
Argumentation supporting a standpoint may have a more or less complex
structure. In the simplest case one argument can suffice. But in most cases thesis
is supported by a number of arguments characterized by complex interrelations.
In our research we used the classification of structural relations between elements of argumentation proposed by Van Eemeren and Grootendorst (1992).
Apart from simple argumentative structures containing one thesis and one
argument, they distinguish several types of complex structures: coordinative
argumentation (with a combined line of defence), multiple argumentation (with
separate lines of defence) and subordinative argumentation (with a continued
line of defence).1
Analysing argumentative newspaper discourse we modelled the relations
between elements for each argumentative unit. By argumentative unit we
understand a structure containing one thesis and arguments supporting or
refuting it. As to the main subject of interest of the present article reported
speech research revealed that in newspaper discourse it can occupy both of
the possible argumentative positions position of the thesis and that of an argument. Approximately in one third of the reviewed argumentative units reported
speech was in the position of the thesis. More characteristic, however, is the use
of reported speech in the position of an argument. Reported speech in each of

these positions will be reviewed further on in this section of the article.
4.1. REPORTED SPEECH AS THE THESIS OF NEWSPAPER ARGUMENTATION
4.1.1. Logic types of theses represented by reported speech in newspaper discourse
When reported speech is used as the thesis of newspaper argumentation, the
statement that is to be proved is contained in the quoted words, which, as it has
been mentioned in section 3.2., can be utterances of three logic types: normative,
evaluative and descriptive. Semantics of the quoted words determines further
argumentation.
Analysis showed that the majority of the quoted utterances used as the theses
of newspaper argumentation set the norms of behaviour (normative type).
This fact looks quite natural as human reasoning is generally motivated by the
necessity to decide what to do (May, 1991; Mullen and Roth, 1991; Weddle,
1991). That is why the majority of newspaper argumentations deal with acceptability, expediency and necessity of this or that action, for example:
(19) There should be no radical overhaul of global trade rules that would let countries
impose trade restrictions based on their social or environmental values, European
Union trade commission decided in Brussels yesterday.
Pascal Lamy, European Union trade commissioner,

told a conference in Brussels that giving countries an
untrammeled right to adopt any measure they
pleased, however unfair, unreasonable or unrelated to
any agreed international framework would lead to
blinkered, selfish protectionism.
He pointed out that the present rules

of the World Trade Organization
already gave countries much
flexibility to defend their values.
(The Financial Times, 6 March/7 March 2004, p. 7)
In example (19) the thesis of argumentation is a normative utterance proclaiming undesirability of introducing new global trade rules. It is important to
note here that the passage cited above may at first sight look like an informative,
rather than an argumentative, one. However, the main goal of the writer is
not to keep the reader informed of the decision of the European Committee and
of the arguments justifying it, but to make the audience share a certain attitude.
The whole article published in the Comment/Opinion sections of a newspaper
is aimed at persuading/convincing the reader, and the passages that at first sight
appear informative, really are argumentative, as they serve the overall argumentative goal of the author. In contemporary British newspapers explicit
argumentation is rare. The thesis (standpoint) and arguments may not be marked
as such and even be disguised as informative. Thus, in example (19) the author
may deliberately want the passage to look informative. Though the standpoint
and the arguments are put into the mouths of other persons, still we consider
that the act of argumentation takes place there and the author of the article
may still be held committed to it. Maybe in this and similar cases it is possible to
speak of the complex act, combining arguing and informing.
90
A sufficiently large group of the quoted utterances used as the thesis of newspaper argumentation are of evaluative type. Absolute or comparative value is
attributed to this or that phenomenon, event or object:
(20) Senior coalition officials accuse the Iraqi body of being an ineffective government.
In this example the thesis is an absolute evaluative utterance ascribing to

the Iraqi government the evaluation ineffective. The use of predicate accuse
revealing authors understanding of the nature of the quoted speech act may
shift the readers attention to the speech act itself rather than the contents of
the quoted words. However, in line with dialogic understanding of quotations,
the main argumentative focus in the thesis lies in the quoted utterance proper,
but not in the fact that it was said by somebody. Thus, in example (20) what is
being further proved is that the Iraqi government is ineffective (it has failed to
prevent attacks on US troops, to convene a constitutional conference to prepare
for elections, to develop as an effective administration and to sell itself to the
Iraqi people via media), but not that the coalition officials accuse it. The use of
predicate presenting the words of the quoted sources as the speech act of accusation is indeed an indicator of the authors attitude and can serve as a marker
that the journalist himself/herself fully shares the viewpoint and is going to
argue for it.
It is important to note that both of the above described types of theses
(normative and evaluative) require dialectic rather than formally logic type of
reasoning and thus determine the further type of argumentation.
Propositions describing past, present or future status of reality (descriptive
type) are seldom used as the thesis of newspaper argumentation:
(21) Now, he says there is a realistic chance Mr. Howard could oust Tony Blair.
As the example cited above, the majority of descriptive theses in the form of
reported speech speak about the future and thus go beyond formal logic.
Thus, in contemporary British press journalists use reported speech as the
thesis of argumentation to introduce normative and evaluative utterances as
well as judgements about the future. Prescription of certain actions as well as

making evaluations and especially forecasts are ungrateful and risky things to
do, and the use of reported speech allows imposing responsibility for them on
another person.
4.1.2. Functions of reported speech as the thesis of newspaper argumentation
As the thesis of argumentation, reported speech performs the following functions:
function of additional support of the thesis at the very stage of its proclamation,
function of the shift of responsibility, aesthetic function and indication of the
authorship of the article.
Function of additional support of the thesis at the very stage of its proclamation is the most important one. Here thesis partially gains characteristics of an
argument. As soon as the thesis is proclaimed it is immediately supported by the
authority of a person who said it.
(22) In Liverpool last week, Tony Blair himself said: We need to renew ourselves for
times to come. (The Guardian, Wednesday 9 July 2003, p. 22)
As soon as we see such a thesis, even before any support is given, we already
tend to believe it or at least take it less critically, especially if the quoted person is
an authority to us (as Tony Blair is, or at least was at the time the article was published, to the majority of British citizens). At the same time the use of himself ,
obviously redundant for informative purposes, serves as a linguistic indicator
showing that the author is himself/herself committed to a viewpoint.
We called the next important function of reported speech the thesis of argumentation function of the shift of responsibility. By this we mean that the author
of the article uses reported speech to introduce antithesis that will be refuted
further on in his/her article.
(23) History will forgive us, bleats Mr. Blair. (The Herald, Monday 21 July 2003, p. 13)
The same person as in (22) is quoted, but the attitude to his words is quite different. The selection of the word bleats clearly indicates the authors intentions
and serves as an argumentative marker of a standpoint. This function of reported
speech is characteristic of the articles full of sharp criticism and denunciation.
The two functions discussed above can be figured out in newspaper argumentation using reported speech as its thesis most often. There are, however,
two minor functions: aesthetic function and indication of the authorship of the
article.
Sometimes an attractive utterance of some person helps to capture the
readers attention, makes them read the article, influences them:
(24) Britain should protect its citizens against injustice and wrong. (The Guardian,
Wednesday 9 July 2003, p. 22)
The quotation in this example clearly belongs to the bookish elevated style
and in this respect stands apart from the argumentation that follows. At the same
time the use of segmented quotation shows that the journalist is ready to be held
personally responsible for the advanced standpoint.
Sometimes reported speech as the thesis of argumentation simply introduces

the author of the article.
(25) The former teacher has taken a vital role in the presidents re-election campaign,
writes James Harding. (The Financial Times, 6 March/7 March 2004, p. 11)
It looks as if the thesis is introduced by the newspaper editorial board, and

the task to prove it is delegated to a certain journalist.
Thus reported speech as the thesis of argumentation can both add weight
to the proposed claim and withdraw responsibility for the claim from the author
of the article, and is a convenient means of argumentative persuasion.
4.2. REPORTED SPEECH AS AN ARGUMENT OF NEWSPAPER ARGUMENTATION
4.2.1. Logic types of arguments represented by reported speech
Any structure with reported speech consists of two parts: the authors words
and the quoted words of another person. We have set up a hypothesis that in the
position of an argument reported speech functions as a two-faced unit, a unity
of two types of arguments. The first is represented by the authors words and inevitably is an argument to authority. The second argument is represented by the
quoted words of the authority and is an argument of another type.
Corpus analysis confirmed this hypothesis and showed that reported speech
as an argument in argumentative discourse of contemporary British press can
be either a pure argument to authority or a combination of an argument to authority with an argument of another type.
In general, appeal to authority in press is not devoid of reason and can be
justified by the fact that the possibilities of every individual person are limited,
and in many complex issues we can only rely on the experts opinion. When
reported speech is a pure argument to authority it is a reference to the opinion
of a person known as an expert in the questions discussed. In this case, the
words of the authority are a semantic repetition of the thesis:
(26) Rules aimed at preventing money laundering are not enough. Blezzard, at
National Criminal Intelligence Service, stressed that regulation was not enough.
(The Herald, Monday 28 January 2002, p. 19)
Cases of pure appeal to authority are not numerous in argumentative

newspaper discourse of Great Britain. Western European culture is based on the
concept of multiple paradigms (Morawski, 1970). People rely on authority not
because something is said by an expert, but because it is well grounded. That is
why in the dominating majority of cases reported speech functions as a combination of an argument to authority and an argument of another type.
Most widely used is the combination of argument to authority and logic proof
(arguments of formal or informal logic). Of all the argumentative patterns of
formal logic, newspaper discourse as represented by the reviewed material uses
only four: induction, analogy, Modus ponens and Modus tollens.
In the following example appeal to authority is combined with proof by
analogy:

(27) A 20-storey tower block should be built 50 meters from the entrance of the Tate
Modern.
Vincenti Todoli, director of Tate Modern: It is like putting a sky-scraper next to the
Eiffel Tower, or the Coliseum in Rome.
(The Guardian, Wednesday 9 July 2003, p. 9)
The example cited above is taken from an opinion article devoted to the discussion of the proposed plan to build a multistoried building near Tate Modern.
The issue is rather controversial, and the journalist cannot ignore the existence of
two opposite viewpoints. So this is an example of an article with extended argumentation containing arguments both for and against the proclaimed thesis (see
also example (29)). The journalist seemingly refrains from enforcing his viewpoint upon the reader and lets him/her take the final decision independently
having considered argumentation presented in the article. However, as in all
argumentative articles, his actual goal is to shift the public opinion in a certain
direction, to form a certain attitude to the discussed issue. The persuasion is
not straightforward and is supposed to influence the reader indirectly (see also
comment to (29)). In (27) the quoted argument refutes the thesis of the writer.
On the basis of implicit premises that it is not allowable to built multistoried
buildings near the objects or art and history (it is supposed that the readers of
the newspaper share these initial premises) the director of Tate Modern makes
a classic proof by analogy. Direct speech of the authority is used in the position
of an argument, the predicate is omitted to focus the readers attention on the
argument contained in the quoted words.
In general, arguments of formal logic are used in newspaper discourse much
more rarely than arguments of informal logic. This confirms the need to go beyond
formal logic when dealing with argumentation in real discourse (Perelman
and Olbrechts-Tyteca, 1969; Toulmin, 1958; Van Eemeren and Grootendorst,
1984, 1992). Arguing on everyday issues in real life we use arguments based
on relations existing in reality between the phenomena that are often ruled out
by formal logic as incorrect. Thus, formal logic prescribes strict differentiation of
facts and evaluations. But it is natural for us to evaluate phenomena or events
based on facts, because we know from experience that certain facts deserve certain evaluations. Informal argumentation deducing values from facts is often
used in newspaper discourse:
(28) Jackson, despite all, is still to be regarded as one of the most extraordinary
performers of all times.
94
In this example, evaluation of Michael Jackson is proved by the facts of his

contribution into pop culture. All facts are given on behalf of a person competent
in the sphere discussed (Simon Frith, professor of pop at Stirling University) in
the form of direct speech.
Combination of argument to authority with teleological proof takes
the second place in the frequency of use among the cases when reported speech
includes two types of arguments. Teleological proof justifies certain actions
by the positive value of the aims achieved by these actions (the end justifies
the means). This argumentative pattern is used mainly for normative
theses.
For example, this type of proof is used in the article cited above devoted to
the problem of construction of a new multistoried building near Tate Modern.
In spite of his attempts to look unbiased the journalist actually sees himself as a
protagonist of the proposed plan. In order to form a positive attitude to the construction the writer recurs to teleological proof:
(29) A 20-storey tower block should be built 50 meters from the entrance of the Tate
Modern.
Here the proposed action is justified by its ends, and these ends are important
to the readers as they potentially affect them personally (affordable homes,
development of the area, environmental improvements). All these benefits are
promised by important people whose words are quoted in the article, and their
authority serves as a guarantee that these ends will be actually achieved. If we
compare examples (27) and (29) we shall clearly see the authors preferences. Only
one argument is given against, and two arguments for the advanced standpoint.
Moreover, the arguments for the construction are supported by authority of the
quoted sources holding higher positions in the social hierarchy than the source
presenting the argument against. The arguments contained in the quoted words
of the sources are also supposed to have different respective impact on the readers.
While the teleological proof of the expediency of construction refers to the goals
within the sphere of personal interests of the readers, the argument against
is based on abstract analogy.
The next group of combined arguments in the form of reported speech
includes as its second component arguments appealing to different emotions
of the readers. The following example contains arguments combining appeal
to authority with appeal to financial interests of the readers:

(30) The SNP yesterday unveiled plans to replace the council tax with a new system
of local income tax . . . The implementation of this system will have the most
unpleasant consequences for the majority of population.
The aim of the author of this article is to form the negative attitude of the
readership to the proposed introduction of a new tax system. To achieve his/her
argumentative goal the journalist cites the words of prominent politicians clearly
stating that if the new tax system is introduced people will have to pay more.
The next group of arguments is built according to the pattern argument
to authority and appeal to public opinion. In this case, there is a multistage
sequence of appeals: the journalist appeals to some authority that in his/her turn
also appeals to the authority of law, to traditions and morals, to the opinion of
the majority, to fashion, taste or common sense:
(31) We have a parliamentary system that is unfair.
Challenged in front of the liaison committee yesterday, Tony Blair dismissed the
complaint on the grounds that we have a constitutional settlement and part
of that settlement is we dont have two classes of members. (The Guardian,
Wednesday 9 July 2003, p. 23)
In this case, the journalist puts forward a certain thesis, and then refutes it presenting arguments against it and thus proving his real viewpoint that is opposite
to the one initially proclaimed. Thus, to support his/her standpoint concerning
the quality of the existing parliamentary system the journalist appeals to the
authority of Tony Blair (apparently well known as an authority on political issues
to all the readers), and Tony Blair in his turn appeals to the authority of Constitution. Such a method of proof by contradiction is recommended by the rules
of rhetoric in cases when it is supposed that the audience strongly adheres to a
viewpoint, and if the opposite viewpoint is proclaimed from the very beginning
would reject any further argumentation, however sound the latter may be.
Appeal to public opinion is based on the sentiment of belonging to a specific
group, on conformism. As identification of oneself with a group is not a priority
in individualistic Western European society, such arguments are not often used
in newspaper discourse.
The last group of arguments includes as the second component empirical
proof (reference to statistical data). According to Kara-Murza, this argument is
96
efficient because numbers tend to stick in human mind (-, 2001:

98). However, this type of proof can be used only in such cases (not numerous
in British newspaper discourse) when thesis is a descriptive utterance:
(32) David Wood, Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland deputy director, said:
There is a heightened awareness of money laundering among members and an
increase in the skepticism with which they view clients business.
According to the Law Society of Scotland, its members made 64 disclosures of suspected money laundering in 2000. (The Herald, Monday 28 January 2002, p. 19)
As early as at the stage of proclaiming the thesis the writer supports his
optimistic standpoint on the existing status of struggle with money-laundering
by the authority of the quoted source (David Wood, Institute of Chartered
Accountants of Scotland depute director . . .). Further on, at the stage of
advancing arguments, another reference to authority is made (According to the
Law Society of Scotland), as well as reference to statistical data on disclosures
of money-laundering. Taken together, that constitutes a sound proof of the
advanced thesis.
Detailed information about types and subtypes of arguments introduced by
reported speech can be found in and (2005).
Patterns of combination of arguments within structures with reported speech
are summarized in Table 1.
So, in British newspaper discourse reported speech in the position of an
argument can represent two types of patterns: a pure argument to authority or
a combination of an argument to authority with an argument of another type.
Due to European mentality, the first pattern is not very convincing to the reader
and is not often used. The second pattern allows the journalist to effectively influence the readers and is characteristic of newspaper discourse.
4.2.2 Functions of reported speech in the position of an argument in newspaper
discourse
Reported speech in the position of an argument fulfils first of all the function of
conviction and persuasion. At the same time convincing and persuading as appealing to reason and emotions of the audience, respectively, seem in this case
TA B L E
1 . Patterns of combination of arguments within structures with reported speech
Patterns of combinations of arguments
% of structures with reported speech

in the position of an argument
Argument to authority
Argument to authority & logic proof
Argument to authority & teleological proof
Argument to authority & appeal to emotions
Argument to authority & appeal to public opinion
Argument to authority & empirical proof
13.5%
39.5%
28.7%
12.8%
4.5%
1.0%
inseparable: a good argument convinces and persuades at the same time. Beside
these main functions, analysis of our corpus revealed additional functions of
reported speech in the position of an argument: function of concealing logical
fallacies and function of refutation. These two functions are auxiliary and are
not present in all cases.
As any structure with reported speech consists of the authors words and
the quoted words of another person, a question naturally arises as to what is the
relative contribution of each of these parts in the overall impact on the reader. We
have set up a hypothesis that the reader is primarily influenced by the contents
of the quoted utterance. Reference to authority can only increase the overall
effect. To confirm this hypothesis we have conducted an experiment with the
aim to determine the convictive force of each component of these two-faced
units.2 By convictive force we understand the capacity of an argument to execute
the perlocutionary effect of the argumentation act to change the conscious
attitude of the addressee to the problem in question by means of persuasion
(Stern, 1991).
Our experiment showed that though the readers mainly become convinced
by an argument contained in the quoted words, a reference to authority adds the
convincing power to these arguments (on average 1.25 times).
As an example let us look at an argument that in the course of the experiment showed the greatest difference between its convincing power with and
without reference to authority:
(33) Tom Baldwin, deputy HFEA Chairman and professor of philosophy at the University of York, said that they were worried about the potential psychological damage
to a child born by such techniques. What if the child is born of the wrong sex
because no technique is 100% reliable? he asked There is anxiety about what
kind of future that child would have, given that those parents have invested money
and time in trying to have the child of the other sex. (The Times, Wednesday, 12
November 2003, p. 6)
Making reference to authority the author of the article first of all proves the
right of the quoted source to express his opinion as an expert. For this purpose,
the journalist mentions the high position Mr Baldwin holds in a relevant organization (deputy HFEA (Human Fertilization and Embryology Authority)
Chairman). Besides, the right of the quoted person to make his judgements on
moral and ethical issues is substantiated by his academic degree and another position he holds in a reputable institution (professor of philosophy at the University
of York). The use of neutral predicates say and ask also allows the journalist to
focus the readers attention on characteristics of the authority. Reported speech
is represented in the form of literal direct speech that is supposed to render the
initial utterance word for word. The use of this structure not only creates
authenticity effect, but allows the author to use for argumentative purposes the
rhetorically effective wording of the reported utterance (rhetorical question that
activates the readers attention). All this taken together doubled the convictive
force of the quoted utterance.
Another function of reported speech in the position of an argument is to
permit the journalist to conceal his/her deliberate fallacies in argumentation from
98
the reader. Impressed by the authority of the person whose words are quoted the
reader takes the argumentation less critically. By a logical fallacy we understand
violation of rules, laws and patterns of logic (Freeman, 1991; Van Eemeren and
Grootendorst, 1984, 1992). Violation of communication maxims, moral codes
and journalistic ethics are not included herein.
In the reviewed material reported speech was not infrequently used to
introduce fallacious arguments. For example, journalists proclaim one thesis and
actually prove another such fallacy in logics got the name ignoratio elenchi:
(34) Commercial cultivation of genetically modified maize is to be approved.
The initially proclaimed discussion of pros and cons of commercial cultivation of genetically modified maize turns into the argument about reliability of
the results of farm-scale evaluations of the effects of GM crops. The reader becomes involved in the emotionally coloured exchange of arguments between
reputable organizations (the environmental audit committee, The Department for
Environment, The Royal Society, the National Academy of Science). Using reported
speech in the position of the argument the journalist prevents the reader from
noticing the fact that the thesis has been changed.
More details about the use of reported speech with the aim to conceal different types of fallacies can be found in (2005).
Besides, reported speech in the position of an argument can be used for the
purpose of refutation: the words of the opponent are quoted to reveal weak points
in his/her argumentation and to put forward counter-arguments:
(35) In his spirited rejoinder, Michael Palmer makes the absurd statement that as a
general rule, those who are clever, innovative and hard-working become more
wealthy than those who are not.
A massive amount of wealth is simply inherited, and so it has nothing at all to do

with being clever, innovative and hard-working.
Take figures for the US: the richest 1% inherit about one-third of the inherited
wealth, the next 9% inherit another third, whereas the remaining 90% inherit
wealth averaging $40,000. (The Herald, Saturday 6 March 2004, p. 12)
In this argumentation the author first quotes the words of his antagonist when
introducing the thesis (or, actually, antithesis) of his argumentation. Then in his
argument, which is further supported by quoting exact figures, he uses again the
section of the initial quotation that seems to him most unacceptable. He turns the
antagonists proper words containing his evaluation of the rich against him.
5. Conclusion
The conducted research yielded the following results:
1. Reported speech is an important element of contemporary argumentative
newspaper discourse of Great Britain.
2. The integral approach to linguistic phenomena proposed in this article combines linguistics with logic and argumentation theory. This approach allowed
us to see the relations between purely linguistic (syntactic and semantic)
characteristics of reported speech with its functioning in argumentative
discourse of British press.
3. Reported speech in argumentative newspaper discourse is presented to the
reader in such a way that it would influence the addressee most efficiently
according to argumentative intentions of the author. Linguistic characteristics of reported speech (syntax and semantics) are subordinated to this
general aim.
4. The choice of syntactic structure of reported speech depends on the argumentative position of the author. A classification of syntactic structures used
for reported speech in newspaper discourse of Modern British English based
on literalness criterion has been proposed. Literal structures are less risky in
the way of responsibility of the author for the content of the quoted words.
Liberal structures are more obedient to the author and let him/her enforce
upon the reader the required attitude to the reported utterance. Combined
structures uniting literal and liberal ones are used more rarely due to their
large volume.
5. In the way of semantics, all elements of structures with reported speech play
their role in the overall impact on the reader. Thus, the predicates replace
direct authors comment and serve as a clue for further interpretation of the
quotation. The agent and the appositive element provide characteristics of
the quoted person and justify his/her right to make judgements on the issues
discussed as an authority. The selection of the quoted segment of utterance
and its logic type are also important for influencing the readers.
6. Reported speech can be both a thesis and an argument of newspaper argumentation. The use of reported speech as an argument is more common.
7. As a thesis of argumentation reported speech introduces mainly normative
and evaluative utterances or descriptive utterances about future events. All
these types of utterances in the position of thesis call for dialectic rather than
formally logic reasoning. As the thesis of argumentation, reported speech
performs the following functions: function of additional support of the thesis
100
at the very stage of its proclamation, function of the shift of responsibility,

aesthetic function and indication of the authorship of the article.
8. Reported speech in the position of an argument in British newspaper discourse
can be either a pure argument to authority or a combination of an argument to authority with an argument of another type. Worship of authority
is not characteristic of European culture, and pure appeal to authority is not
very convincing to the reader and is not often used. Reference to authority
is usually combined with other arguments: logic proof, teleological proof,
appeal to emotions, appeal to public opinion and empirical proof. The conducted experiment showed that the reader is primarily influenced by the
contents of the quoted utterance. However, reference to authority is an effective argumentative strategy that can considerably increase the overall effect.
Reported speech in the position of an argument fulfils first of all the function of conviction and persuasion and two additional functions: function of
concealing logical fallacies and function of refutation.
N OTE S
1. Notation conventions:
relations of support between the thesis and an argument or between two

arguments.
relations of refutation between thesis and argument or between two
arguments.
reconstructed implicit elements of argumentation.
coordinative relations between arguments.
2. For the experiment native-speakers were divided into two groups. Each group was
given a text of the article Ban on Parents Using Science to Select Childs Sex taken
from The Times (Wednesday 12 November 2003, p. 6) devoted to the question of how
ethical it is to select the sex of your future baby by means of modern medical techniques. To support the claim that this is unacceptable the author puts forward eight
arguments in the form of reported speech. In the texts presented to the first group,
structures with reported speech were left as they were in the newspaper, and in the
text presented to the second group the appeal to authority was withdrawn the text
contained only the quoted words themselves. Respondents were asked to react to these
arguments and characterize their reaction using a scale from strongly agree (5) to
strongly disagree (1). It is already common knowledge that reaction to argumentation
largely depends on the initial opinion of the recipients on the question discussed, their
demands, experience, knowledge, background, philosophy, etc. They tend to accept
more readily the arguments that coincide with their initial opinion and vice versa.
Taking this into consideration before presenting the arguments we asked the participants of our experiment to express their initial opinion on the problem in question
(in favour/more in favour/indifferent/more against/against). At the stage of results
analysis we introduced coefficients that were supposed to minimize the effect of the
readers prejudice on his/her evaluation of arguments. If opinions of the reader and
the journalist coincide, the latter tends to give higher evaluation to the arguments.
That is why for these cases we used coefficients <1. In the reverse case arguments are
not so readily accepted by the reader, and we used coefficients >1. Finally, average
convictive force of each argument for both groups of respondents was calculated.

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A L L A V I TA L J E V N A S M I R N O V A ,
born in Samara, Russia, was educated at gymnasium

No. 11 and Samara State University, Philological Faculty, English Department. In 2002
she graduated with honours and the same year entered St Petersburg State University,
Philological Faculty, Chair of English Philology and Translation for postgraduate studies
in linguistics. In 2006 she obtained the degree of the candidate of philological sciences
(equivalent to PhD in linguistics). Since then she has worked as an independent scholar
and translator for Rosneft Oil Company. A D D R E S S : ul. Novo-Sadovaya, 42721, Samara
443110, Russia. [email: smalla87@excite.com]

Reported Speech As An Element of Argumentative Newspaper Discourse

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Discourse

Reported speech as an element of argumentative newspaper discourse

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Reported speech as an element of

ALLA VITALJEVNA SMIRNOVA

Discourse & Communication

INDEPENDENT SCHOLAR, RUSSIA

The present article deals with reported speech as an element

argumentation, discourse (argumentative/newspaper discourse),

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Discourse & Communication 3(1)

Syntactic structures used to introduce reported speech;

2. We have revealed the possible positions of reported speech in the argumentative

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Smirnova: Reported speech as an element of argumentative newspaper discourse 81

caused a surge of interest to reported discourse. The problem of what belongs to

3. Syntax and semantics of reported speech in British

There have been numerous attempts in linguistics to provide a universal

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82 Discourse & Communication 3(1)

Liberal structures are characterized by greater freedom of reproduction of

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Smirnova: Reported speech as an element of argumentative newspaper discourse 83

1 . Classification of structures with reported speech in argumentative newspaper

Frequent use of this structure can be explained by several reasons. First,

In segmented quotations extracts from other peoples discourses are included

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Discourse & Communication 3(1)

Liberal structures are represented in our corpus by such grammatical forms

Topical reported speech renders only the general content or macrostructure

Complex liberal structures combine several liberal structures in one sentence

Inconvenience of these large-volume structures prevents their wide use in

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Smirnova: Reported speech as an element of argumentative newspaper discourse 85

Literal structures (52.8%)

Combined structures (5.8%)

2 . Syntactic structures with reported speech in British argumentative newspaper

structures create the effect of maximum accuracy of rendering information. By

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Discourse & Communication 3(1)

We cannot unambiguously determine if the journalist has adequately chosen the

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Smirnova: Reported speech as an element of argumentative newspaper discourse 87

on such professional characteristics as position (Vincenti Todoli, director of Tate

Normative utterances set the rules of behaviour.

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Discourse & Communication 3(1)

Thus, every semantic component of a quotation in contemporary newspaper

4. Reported speech in argumentative discourse

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Smirnova: Reported speech as an element of argumentative newspaper discourse 89

of reported speech in the position of an argument. Reported speech in each of

Pascal Lamy, European Union trade commissioner,

He pointed out that the present rules

(The Financial Times, 6 March/7 March 2004, p. 7)

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Discourse & Communication 3(1)

In this example the thesis is an absolute evaluative utterance ascribing to

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Smirnova: Reported speech as an element of argumentative newspaper discourse 91

well as judgements about the future. Prescription of certain actions as well as

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92 Discourse & Communication 3(1)