Key words: mathematics, physical science, chemistry, math, arithmetic, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,

fractions, decimals, algebra, square root, relationships, subscript, superscript, calculus, differential equations,
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Using Mathematics in Physical

Science
by Ron Kurtus (revised 29 November 2013)
Mathematics is used in Physical Science to calculate the measurements of objects and
their characteristics, as well as to show the relationship between different functions and
properties. Arithmetic, algebra and advanced mathematics may be used.
Arithmetic and algebra are used to establish values and solve simple equations or
formulae.
In classical or everyday Physics and Chemistry, normal values are used to solve
equations. In Astronomy, distances, sizes and masses are very large. Special
nomeclature is required to represent these values. In Atomic Physics and some areas of
Chemistry, sizes and masses are small, although quantities may be large.
Arithmetic consists of simple operations with numbers and values. Algebra is used to
show relationships before the measured numbers are used for calculations. Higher math
is used for complex relationships between properties.
Questions you may have include:

How is Arithmetic used in Physical Science?

How is Algebra used?

How is higher math used?

This lesson will answer those questions. Useful tool: Units Conversion

Arithmetic conventions
In using Arithmetic, we can add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers. We also use
fractions and decimals.

Addition and subtraction

We use the "+" symbol to signify adding two numbers and the "" symbol for
subtractions. The "=" symbol means equals and is the result. Thus, 5 + 2 =
7 is 5 plus 2 equals 7, and 6 4 = 2 is 6 minus 4 equals 2.
You perform the operations in the order they are listed: 5 + 2 3 is done as 5 + 2 = 7
and then 7 3 = 4.

Multiplication and division

We commonly use the "x" symbol to signify multiplication in arithmetic: 2 x 3 = 6. But
note that "x" can also be a variable in Algebra and mean something else, so caution
must be used. Often people are using * to denote multiplication: 2 * 3 = 6.
In web pages, it is difficult to write the division symbol seen in your textbooks, so "/" is
used to denote division: 8 / 4 = 2.
Order listed
Multiplication and division operations are done in the order listed. Thus: 6 * 2 / 3 = 4 is
performed as 6 * 2 = 12 and 12 / 3 = 4.
Use of parentheses
When you combine addition and subtraction with multiplication and division, it can get
complex. You still go in the order listed, but parentheses must be used to clump together
addition and subtraction terms that go together. Operations within parentheses are done
first.
5 * 3 + 7 is different than 5 * (3 + 7). With 5 * 3 + 7, the operations are in order, thus
we have 5 * 3 = 15 and then 15 + 7 = 22. With 5 * (3 + 7), you combine those within
the parentheses first. (3 + 7) = 10 and then 5 * 10 = 50.

Fractions and decimals

3 / 5 is 3 divided by 5, but since that does not conveniently work out, we can designate
that as a fraction and write it 3/5.
If you do divide it out, you can write the result as the decimal 0.6. Note that it is a good
idea to put the 0 in front of the decimal point to avoid confusion. Writing .6 may easily
confused with the number 6, if the person doesn't notice the tiny "." symbol.

Algebra
Algebra uses letters to denote a relationship between characteristics. Usually, they are
just abbreviations for the characteristic. For example, energy is denoted by E and
velocity by v.
Note that we typically will make the variable in boldface, so that it is easier to
distinguish from other items, especially in web pages. Many physics textbooks reserve
boldface for vectors.

Multiplication
Although you can multiply numbers using either x or *, such as 2 x 3 or 5*7, letters are
often used to designate something that does not yet have a value assigned. A big
problem is in algebra, the letter x is often assign to a variable or unknown value. But
also using x for multiplication, you might get 2 x x, which is confusing. Even using 2*x,
is cumbersome. So, the algebraic standard is just putting the letters together.2x is 2
times x. xyz is x times y times z. But this way of writing does not follow with
numbers. 23x is not 2 times 3 times x. It is 23 times x.

Relationships
Newton came up with the relationship between force, mass and acceleration. His
equation says that force equals the mass of an object times its acceleration. To avoid

writing out this sentence, we use the symbolsF for force, m for mass and a for
acceleration. Thus, the equation can be written: F = ma.
This allows us to substitute values for two items and get a value for the third. If m = 3
kilograms and a = 2 meters per second per second, F = 3 * 2 = 6 newtons.
Note that you will often see the equation written as F = ma in textbooks. They try to
abbreviate using a multiplication symbol by just putting the variables next to each other,
assuming you know they are multiplied. In some books, they use a "." between the
symbols. To avoid confusion, we will continue to use "*" as multiplication.

Subscripts
Sometimes you are comparing two or more items with the same characteristic. In such
cases, a subscript number or letter can be added to keep things separate. A subscript is
a small number or letter after and below the variable.
If you are comparing several forces, you can name one F1, another F2 and so on. Also,
we call the force of friction Fr to separate it from another force.

Squares
A square of a number or variable is it multiplied by itself. For example, 3 squared is 3
times 3 and x squared isx times x.
x^2
One way of designating a squared variable is by using ^2. Thus, 3^2 =
9 and x^2 is x squared.
x
A more common way of writing the square of a number is with the superscript 2: 3 = 3
* 3 = 9 and x = x*x.
Raised to a power
You can raise a number to a higher power, but not many common physics equations use
that: x4 = x*x*x*x. The number 10 raised to a higher power is a handy way to denote
large numbers: 106 is 1 followed by 6 zeros = 1,000,000.

Square roots
A square root is just the inverse of squaring a number. If 3 = 9, then the square root of
9 is the number that when multiplied by itself equals 9. In other words, 3 is the square
root of 9.
Most numbers do not have a simple square root, so most must be determined with a
calculator. For example, the square root of 25 is 5 but the square root of 24 is
4.898979...
The symbol for square root used in textbooks does not work well in web pages, so
instead we use SQRT to indicate the operation. Thus SQRT(25) is the square root of 25
and SQRT(v/g) is the square root of the result of v divided by g.

Advanced mathematics
Calculus, differential equations and other advanced mathematics are used in advanced
Physical Science calculations and equations. They are beyond the scope of our lessons.
One example of where and why advanced mathematics must be used can be seen in the
simple gravity equations. F = m*g is the equation for the force of gravity. But that
equation is only an approximation for items falling close to Earth. The actual equation
varies inversely as the square of the distance apart and is related to the masses of the
bodies.

Summary
Mathematics is used in Physical Science for measurements and to show relationships.
Arithmetic consists of simple operations with numbers, and algebra shows relationships-often without numbers. Higher math is used for complex relationships between
properties.

Learning helps you grow

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1949-8594.1966.tb13617.x/abstract

Outline of physical science

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Part of a series on

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Physical science is the study of physics and chemistry of nature.[citation needed] From the materialist
and functionalist viewpoints it overlaps the life sciences where ecology studies the evidences of
historical facts or evolution. Natural sciences bridge thephenomena in the physical sciences to
the noumenon in the life sciences. The following is presented as an overview and topical guide of
these physical sciences.

Contents
[hide]

1 General principles of the physical sciences

o

1.1 Basic principles of physics

1.2 Basic principles of astronomy

1.3 Basic principles of chemistry

1.4 Basic principles of earth science

1.5 Basic principles of atmospheric science

2 Notable physical scientists

3 External links

General principles of the physical sciences[edit]

The foundations of the physical sciences rest upon key concepts and theories, each of which
explains and/or models a particular aspect of the behavior of nature.

Basic principles of physics[edit]

Physics, along with mathematics and chemistry,[citation needed] classes as one of the "fundamental
sciences" because the other natural sciences (like biology, geology etc.) deal with systems that
seem to obey the laws of physics. According to physics, the physical laws of matter, energy and
the fundamental forces of nature govern the interactions between particles and physical entities
(such as planets, molecules, atoms or the subatomic particles). Some of the basic pursuits of
physics, which include some of the most prominent developments in modern science in the last
millennium, include:

Describing the nature, measuring and quantifying of bodies and their motion, dynamics
etc.

Newton's laws of motion

Mass, force and weight

Momentum and conservation of energy

Gravity, theories of gravity

Energy, work, and their relationship

Motion, position, and energy

Different forms of Energy, their interconversion and the inevitable loss of energy
in the form of heat (Thermodynamics)

Energy conservation, conversion, and transfer.

Energy source the transfer of energy from one source to work in another.

Kinetic molecular theory

Phases of matter and phase transitions

Temperature and thermometers

Energy and heat

Heat flow: conduction, convection, and radiation

The three laws of thermodynamics

The principles of waves and sound

The principles of electricity, magnetism, and electromagnetism

The principles, sources, and properties of light

Basic principles of astronomy[edit]

Astronomy is the science of celestial bodies and their interactions in space. Its studies includes
the following:

The life and characteristics of stars and galaxies

Origins of the universe. Physical science uses the Big Bang theory as the commonly
accepted scientific theory of the origin of the universe.

A heliocentric Solar System. Ancient cultures saw the Earth as the centre of the Solar
System or universe (geocentrism). In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus advanced the
ideas of heliocentrism, recognizing the Sun as the centre of the Solar System.

The structure of solar systems, planets, comets, asteroids, and meteors

The shape and structure of Earth (roughly spherical, see also Spherical Earth)

Earth in the Solar System

Time measurement

The composition and features of the Moon

Interactions of the Earth and Moon

(Note: Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, which assumes[citation needed] that people's
destiny and human affairs in general correlate to the apparent positions of astronomical objects

in the sky - although the two fields share a common origin, they are quite different; astronomers
embrace the scientific method, while astrologers do not.)

Basic principles of chemistry[edit]

Chemistry, built upon concepts from physics, addresses phenomena associated with the
structure, composition and energetics of matter as well as the changes it undergoes. Often
known as the central science, chemistry connects the fundamental laws
of physics to engineering and other natural sciences such as biology, earth
science, astronomy andmaterial science

Chemistry, the central science, partial ordering of the sciences proposed by Balaban and Klein.

Physical chemistry

Chemical thermodynamics

Reaction kinetics

Molecular structure

Quantum chemistry

Spectroscopy

Theoretical chemistry

Electron configuration

Molecular modelling

Molecular dynamics

Statistical mechanics

Computational chemistry

Mathematical chemistry

Cheminformatics

Nuclear chemistry

The nature of the atomic nucleus

Characterization of radioactive decay

Nuclear reactions

Organic chemistry

Organic compounds

Organic reaction

Functional groups

Organic synthesis
Inorganic chemistry

Inorganic compounds

Crystal structure

Coordination chemistry

Solid-state chemistry

Biochemistry

Analytical chemistry

Instrumental analysis

Electroanalytical method

Wet chemistry

Electrochemistry

Redox reaction
Materials chemistry

Basic principles of earth science[edit]

Earth science is the science of the planet Earth, as of 2014 the only identified life-bearing planet.
Its studies include the following:

The water cycle and the process of transpiration

Freshwater

Oceanography

Weathering and erosion

Rocks

Agrophysics

Soil science

Pedogenesis

Soil fertility

Earth's tectonic structure

Geomorphology and geophysics

Physical geography

Seismology: stress, strain, and earthquakes

Characteristics of mountains and volcanoes

Characteristics and formation of fossils

Atmosphere of Earth

Atmospheric pressure and winds

Evaporation, condensation, and humidity

Fog and clouds

Meteorology, weather, climatology, and climate

Hydrology, clouds and precipitation

Air masses and weather fronts

Major storms: thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes

Major climate groups

Speleology

Cave

Basic principles of atmospheric science[edit]

See Atmospheric sciences

Notable physical scientists[edit]

List of physicists

List of chemists

External links[edit]

Biological and physical sciences

Biological sciences have long been a cornerstone of teaching at Lincoln.
Our graduates find work as scientists in research institutes here and overseas. Many are
also on the academic staff in universities. Others work for regional councils and
government departments in management, technical and policy positions.

Specific areas of staff and postgraduate research are:

Biochemistry and Cell Biology, e.g., proteases and their

inhibitors, the relationship between enzyme activity, pH,
temperature and tenderness, The effect of stress on the enzymes
and meat quality, how and why changes in processing conditions
alter meat quality. Contact Department(s): Wine, Food and
Molecular Biosciences.
Biotechnology, e.g., micropropagation, pathogen elimination,
germplasm storage, production of haploid plants, somatic cell
genetics and genetic engineering; molecular plant breeding,
selection of traits for improved plant cultivars. Contact
Department(s): Wine, Food and Molecular Biosciences.

Ecology and Wildlife Management, e.g., plant and animal conservation; native
ecosystems ecology; tree rings and climate change; biology and ecology of rare and
endangered species; off-shore island ecology; species endemism and
biodiversity. Contact Department(s): Ecology.
Entomology, e.g., taxonomy and systematics; insect pest
management; biological control; invasive species; insect diversity
and conservation; ecotoxicology. Contact
Department(s): Ecology.
Evolution, e.g., co-evolution of hosts and parasites; speciation
rates of mainland and off-shore island flora and fauna;
phylogenetic relationships in various taxa. Contact
Department(s):Ecology.

Human Movement and Sports Science, e.g., human movement

& sports science- simulated altitude training, exercise and health
relationships, physical activity and fitness levels of New
Zealanders, and sports performance research. Contact
Department(s): Social Science, Parks, Recreation and Tourism .
Microbiology, e.g., movement of bacteria through soil and in
groundwater, diffuse microbial pollution, biological control of
nematodes in animals; plant pathology, microbial biocontrol
agents, soil microbial community structure and function;
environmental tracking of microbes. Contact
Department(s): Wine, Food and Molecular Biosciences; Soil and Physical
Sciences.
Molecular Biology, e.g., molecular systematics/taxonomy,
molecular plant pathology; DNA diagnostic tools, gene isolation,
characterisation and expression. Contact Department(s): Wine,
Food and Molecular Biosciences; Ecology.
Plant Physiology, e.g., environmental impact on fruit crop
development and yield; uv-b radiation effects on plant cell
function; the physiological basis of mineral nutrition. Contact
Department(s):Agriculture; Wine, Food and Molecular Biosciences.
Soil Science, e.g., nutrient cycling, transformations and
bioavailability, heavy metal availability and toxicity, soil patterns
and variability, landscape history and soil resource evaluation,
forest soil processes, soil water relationships, soil quality and
sustainability, leaching losses from soils, gaseous emissions from
soils, climate change, plants and crops, organic waste application
to soils; structure and function of soil microbial
communities. Contact Department(s): Soil and Physical Sciences.
Toxicology, e.g., biochemical toxicology (p450 enzymes,
xenobiotic metabolism, biomarkers); veterinary toxicology (mineral
toxicities, chelation therapy, sporidesmin toxicity); environmental
toxicology (heavy metal and stormwater pollution, endocrine
disruptor chemicals); toxicopathology, toxicokinetics and risk

assessment (earthworm neurotoxicology, 1080 toxicity). Contact

Department(s): Wine, Food and Molecular Biosciences.
Water Quantity and Quality, e.g., groundwater quality and
quantity, irrigation engineering, sustainable water management,
waste disposal and pollution. Contact Department(s): Soil and
Physical Sciences; Natural Resources Engineering.

The "Physical" and

"Biological" in the Process
of Organic Evolution
Written: 1931;
Source: Science at the Crossroads: Papers

Presented to the International Congress of the

History of Science and technology Held in
London from June 29th to July 3rd, 1931 by the
delegates of the U.S.S.R, Frank Cass and Co.,
1931;
Online Version: For marxists.org May, 2002.

Summary
The question of the relationship of the physical and
biological sciences, included in the programme of the
present Congress, is part of the general problem of the
relationship of different systems of world outlook in the
solution of the present tasks of natural science. The
solution of this problem has repeatedly changed its
forms, according to the particular conditions of the
working experience of mankind, the condition of its
material forces of production, and its socioeconomic
productive relations, which have been constantly
changing In the course of human history. For this
reason the extent of my subject does not permit me to
reply to the question propounded in all its quantitative
volume, and suggests the decision to deal with a few
points of principle which' lead to the solution of the
problem as a whole, examining the question of the
relationship of the physical and biological sciences in

the solution of some single theoretical problem of

biology. As such a problem, I will take the theory of
organic evolution--the more because in analysing this
problem it will be possible to make some observations
on other questions in the Congress programme: the
relationship of theory and practice in scientific work,
and the role of the historical method in the solution of
problems of natural science.
With all the variety of existing opinion in bourgeois
science on the question of the relationship of the
physical and biological sciences, it is possible to
distinguish among them two basic and mutually
exclusive tendencies: either (1) attempts to identify the
two, reducing biological phenomena to laws of a
physical character, or (2) a sharp contrasting of the
biological to the physical, as two opposite entities. In
the latter case, by "physical" is understood the material
forces of inorganic nature, or "mechano-physiological"
factors at work inside the organism and reducible in
the final analysis to the same mechanical laws of
molecular motion while by "biological" is understood
some vital forces of a non-material and non-spatial
character, which "are neither the result nor the
combination of physical and chemical--i.e., in the final
analysis of mechanical phenomena."
In spite of the multiformity and variety of
contradictory forces and interests functioning in
capitalist conditions of production, it is nevertheless
not difficult to establish the predominance of the views
of mechanical materialism in the period when
capitalism was in its prime as an economic system, and
when material culture was rapidly growing as a result
of the successes of science and technique--at the end of
the xviii. and during the xix. century: and the rebirth of
idealistic, vitalistic and even mystical moods, in the
measure of the growth of economic contradictions and

the sharpening of the class struggle in bourgeois

society.
These tendencies acquire special force in the present
period of general decline and decay of capitalism,
which find their expression also in those contradictions
which are delaying the further successful development
of natural science and technique under bourgeoisie
methods of production: and when, on the other hand,
the growth of scientific knowledge reveals the
impossibility of reducing all the complex phenomena of
nature to a single formula of physical or mechanical
laws. These tendencies characterise the general
disillusionment of bourgeois society in the possibilities
of material culture, and the recognition of the
hopelessness of solving the scientific problems which
have matured while remaining within the framework of
the capitalist system (cf. the report of the Prussian
Minister, Dr. Becker, "Educational questions in the
period of the crisis of material culture").
This struggle of two systems of world-outlook finds
its natural reflection in the existing currents of
evolutionist doctrine, which strive to solve the same
problem of the relationship of the "physical" and
"biological" as factors of organic evolution. In this case
the "physical" is frequently identified with the
surrounding "external" conditions, and the biological
with the "internal" autonomous vital forces,
"entelechies" or "dominants," immanent and inherent
in life as such, in contrast to the material, "physical"
laws of nature.
The principal characteristic of this struggle, and of
the ensuing fluctuation in the relationship of the
physical and biological sciences throughout the whole
history of natural science, is the uncritical use of the
conceptions of "physical" and "biological," of "external"
and "internal," and the absence of any form of

principles of philosophic method, which distinguish the

overwhelming majority of the representatives of
empirical science.
Thus, within the framework of the conception
"biological" itself, there is not always a sufficiently
sharp distinction drawn between the idea of
"biophysiological," as a factor which determines chiefly
the processes of individual development, of metabolism
and the regulation of the activity of organisms
(although this "biophysiological" also inevitably
includes the historical element also), and the idea of
"biohistorical," as a factor in the formation of species
and phylogenesis.
There are also not infrequent tendencies to include in
the "biological" also phenomena in the social history of
mankind, since human society is regarded as a simple
mechanical sum of human biological species.
On the other hand, there are frequent identifications
of the "external" in the process of organic evolution
with the physical, and of the internal with the
"biological"--forgetting that the biological includes
physical, chemical and physicochemical factors as the
moment and necessary condition for its realisation,
while the "external" in regard to a particular organism
in its turn is composed not only of the physical
conditions of inorganic nature, but also of the
biological surroundings of other organisms, in the
midst of and in interaction with which the life of the
species proceeds. As for man, the "external" consists
first of all of socio-economic productive relations and
the condition of material productive forces, by which
the socio-historical process is determined.
It is extremely characteristic of the endless
contradiction in which modern empirical natural
science has become involved that none of the theories

of evolution existing in bourgeois science is able to

maintain itself in the positions it selects for itself, but
slides into the very positions which it was called upon
to refute.
Thus neo-Lamarckianism, originally basing its
objections to Darwinism on the alleged "unscientific"
character of the idea of chance upon which Darwin
based his theory of selection, and his attempts to
provide a materialist justification for the facts of
variability of organisms and their adaptations (and
consequently for the whole process of formation of
species) in the "direct equilibration" of the organism in
relation to the influences of the outside physical
surroundings, transfers the problem of adaptation,
from the sphere of the rational study of the complex
relationships arising between the organism and Qhe
external milieu of its existence, into the organism itself.
Thus it arrives at the vitalistic and teleological
conceptions of immanent vital forces which determine
the course and direction of the process of evolution.
Thus, again, the "mechanico-physiological" theory of
Nageli, or Berg's theory of Nomogenesis, in spite of all
the of the efforts of the authors to prove the strictly
scientific and materialist content of their constructions,
arrive at essentially vitalistic ideas of the "principle of
perfection," or to the idea of adaptation as the "primary
physico-chemical quality of the living matter"--ideas
which cannot deceive anyone by their outwardly
materialist phraseology.
Thus, again, frankly vitalistic theories, which raised
the banner of struggle against the vulgar materialist
conceptions of mechanism, strive to find a road to the
knowledge of the nature of biological phenomena
through non-cognisable and non-material forces,
contrasted to the physical world. On the other hand,
they are obliged to advocate "practical vitalism"--i.e.,

the advantage of those same mechanistic methods of

research in the practical activity of the research worker.
Thereby they pass to the positions of vulgar mechanism
in all spheres of direct cognitive action, condemning
thereby their vital forces and entelechies to the barren
r61e of a bashful screen for our ignorance.
And thus the geneticist, uncritically developing neoDarwinist ideas of the independence of the germ-plasm
of all the "physical" influences of the external
surroundings, objectively arrives at the position of the
autonomy of the "biological" from the "physical." Thus
he descends to those very ideas of autogenesis
maintained by his Lamarckian opponents, or to the
conception of evolution as the result of the
combinations of eternally existing genes--i.e., in fact to
the negation of the very idea of evolution, as a process
of the continuous unfolding of new formations in
nature.
Finally, the Lamarckian, considering evolution as the
result of hereditarily accumulated somatic changes,
enters the past of the same mechanistic identification
of the "biophysiological" and the "biohistorical,"
forgetting
the
qualitative
peculiarity
which
distinguishes the ovum, only containing within itself
the potential possibilities of further development into a
complex organism, and the developing organism in its
realisation. In the last analysis this point of view is once
again the negation of the very fact of development as an
independent historical process of new formations,
representing as it does the ovum as the miniature
model, so to speak, of the future form, and reducing the
process of development in reality to the functions of
growth.
The same insoluble internal contradictions mar the
numerous attempts to solve the problem of organic
evolution by means of an eclectic reconciliation of the

Darwinist position with Lamarckian ideas (Haeckel,

Plate, Darwin himself, who accepted--albeit with a
grimace--the Lamarckian idea of inheritance of
acquired characteristics, and many others), since the
logical conclusion from the Lamarckian idea of the
direct adaptive group variation of the organism, in
reply to one and the same influence of external
surroundings, is the uselessness and impotence of
selection, as a factor in the formation of species--i.e.,
the negation of Darwinism.
A striking example of the helplessness with which the
most outstanding representatives of bourgeois science
hesitate between the mechanistic "reduction" of
biological processes to physical, on the one hand, and
recognition of the absolute autonomy of the biological,
on the other, is the position of Professor Muller ("The
Method of Evolution"). Having first proved with
irreproachable lucidity the fact of dependence of germ
plasm on the action of the Rontgen ray--i.e., on
physical influences of the external surroundings--so
strongly denied until recently by the majority of
geneticists --and taking his stand in general upon
correct Darwinist positions, Muller nevertheless
returns, albeit with many reservations, to the at bottom
mechanistic proposition to consider the process of
variation as the direct result of the influence: of
Rontgen rays upon the germ plasm. Thus he reduces
the problem of the modification of the gene, as a
biological factor of heredity, to the physical moment of
the expulsion of an electron from the biological
molecule, forgetting thereby the profound qualitative
peculiarity of the biological process compared with
physical phenomena.
The final outcome of this crisis through which the
theory of evolution is passing in the countries of
capitalism is the attempt completely to deny the very
fact of evolution, or to consider the theory as one of the

possible "hypotheses," circulating side by side with the

Biblical legend of the creation of the world in six days'
labour, or finally the position of frank agnosticism and
disillusionment as to the possibility of solving the
problem of evolution at the present level of scientific
knowledge (Johansen, Batson, and, in the U.S.S.R.,
Filipchenko).
From the socio-historical standpoint, these schools
of thought are the result and reflection in the
consciousness of the bourgeois scientist of the internal
social-economic contradictions which have gripped the
countries of capitalism, and express the impossibility of
the further normal development of natural science, as
of all sciences, in the framework of the capitalist
system.
From the methodological standpoint, these positions
are the result of the contempt displayed up to the
present by naturalists, carried away by the empirical
successes of their sciences and the growth of their
technical application, for the tasks of the philosophic
methodological review and mastery of the facts and
conclusions studied in their branch of science. To the
extent that individual scientists make attempts at such
philosophical generalisations, the positions set forth
above reflect their inability, in virtue of the class
limitations upon their general train of thought, to
adopt the only correct philosophic positions of
dialectical materialism.
"Naturalists imagine that they are emancipating
themselves from philosophy when they ignore or abuse
it. But as they cannot stir a step without thought, while
for thought logical definitions are necessary; and these
definitions they incautiously borrow either from the
current theoretical property of so-called educated
people, who are dominated by the remnants of longpassed-away philosophic systems, or else from their

uncritical and unsystematic reading of all kinds of

philosophical works: in the long run they prove after all
to be prisoners to philosophy, but, unfortunately, for
the most part philosophy of the very worst quality. And
so people who are particularly vehement in abusing
philosophy become the slaves of the worst vulgarised
relies of the worst philosophical systems." (F. Engels:
"Dialectics of Nature," p. 25.)
There exists also the firm but incorrect impression
that the task of science in general is at all costs to
reduce the more complex phenomena to the more
simple, and that consequently the successes of the
biological sciences are possible only in the shape of the
reduction of the phenomena of life to more simple
physical rules, while the social sciences can build their
laws only by relying upon the achievements of biology.
In reality we see that, for example, the facts of heredity,
which seemed relatively simple in the days of Darwin-when they were treated of in the Lamarckian, man-inthe-street sense of the transmission by heredity of
acquired characteristics, an interpretation very
attractive by its apparent simplicity--have received
their true explanation today only in the very
complicated formulae of Mendelism and Morganism.
Many remarkable physical phenomena were first
discovered by biologists, and many laws of their effect
upon the living organism were established before their
physical nature became known (X-rays, phenomena of
animal electricity, etc.). The fundamental laws of
development of human society, which make it possible
in our time for the population of one-sixth of the globe
successfully to surmount difficulties of what would
seem an unequal struggle, were discovered by Marx
and Engels 20 years before Darwin formulated the
fundamental laws of organic evolution.
All this shows that the true task of scientific research
is not the violent identification of the biological and the

physical, but the ability to discover the qualitatively

specific controlling principles which characterise the
principal features of every given phenomenon, and to
find methods of research appropriate to the
phenomenon studied. This is why if, within the
framework of the same physical sciences, we learned to
understand that water by no means represents a simple
mechanical mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, but
constitutes a new quality in the physical and chemical
properties of water, all the more do the phenomena of
life represent a complex material system, requiring for
its study special methods of bio-physiological and biohistorical research. These laws, as for example, the law
of natural selection, or the physiological laws operating
within an organism, are in some sense no more and no
less simple or complex than the physical laws
conditioning the movement of the planetary system, or
the movement of electrons around the atomic nucleus.
The fundamental consideration to be borne in mind
in this problem is the impossibility of a simple, crude
identification of these two categories of phenomena,
and the futility of attempts to reduce biological laws tb
physical, just like the attempts of the vitalists to
comprehend the phenomena of the world from the
standpoint of the universal animation of matter.
Asserting the reality of the world existing objectively
outside ourselves, dialectical materialism starts from
the conviction, justified by all the practice of human
activity, that our consciousness reflects not only the
objective reality of the facts directly perceived by our
organs of sensation, but also the constant order of the
relations connecting these facts one with another: the
fact and its ordered relations with the other
surrounding facts are considered by dialectics in their
indissoluble unity and entirety. This obliges us to
accept not only the facts of similarity and unity of
structure of organisms, but also that sole possible and

rational explanation of these facts which lies in the

recognition of the unity of their origin and in the
historical law of development, which interconnects all
phenomena in nature with one another. Hence for us
evolution is just as unquestionable a fact as the facts
directly perceived by us, of the existence of the ape and
man separately from each other.
Establishing the fact of development, variation,
motion as the basic qualities of matter, and the unity of
the fundamental laws of dialectics, binding on all forms
of motion of matter (the law of the unity of opposites,
the law of negation of the negation, and the law of the
passing of quantity into quality and vice versa),
materialist dialectics at the same time emphasizes with
all its force the extreme multiformity and the specific
qualitative distinctions of the various forms of motion
of matter, and the laws characteristic of the different
stages of development of matter: and consequently the
necessity of the existence of special independent
sciences studying these different forms of motion.
In this respect the dialectical conception of universal
development--proved by Hegel and materialistically
refashioned by Marx, Engels, and Lenin--covers the
Darwinian theory of organic evolution, which is the
concrete expression of the dialectical process applied to
the biological form of motion of matter, and at the
same time makes it possible to overcome a number of
methodological errors and contradictions on these
questions accumulated within the limits of bourgeois
natural science.
Precisely from this point of view, biological
phenomena, historically connected with physical
phenomena in inorganic nature, are none the less not
only not reducible to physico-chemical or mechanical
laws, but within their own limits as biological processes
display varied and qualitatively distinct laws. Thereby

biological laws do not in the least lose their material

quality and cognisability, requiring only in each case
methods of research appropriate to the phenomena
studied.
The necessary consequence of the above is a
conclusion as to the dialectical development of matter
by leaps, bound up with qualitative revolutionary
changes as a result of the accumulation of quantitative
changes, and the idea of the relative autonomy of the
biological process, advancing not only in circumstances
of interaction with the physical conditions of its
surroundings, but also as a result of the development of
the internal contradictions latent in the biological
system itself. By this means are overcome the oversimplified mechanistic attempts to conceive of the
biological process of development as the result of only
the physical influences of external surroundings, or of
similar physical and physico-chemical processes inside
the organism itself or its genes, by which means, it is
alleged, it is possible to explain the most complex and
qualitatively peculiar phenomena of mutatory
variation, and thereby the whole process of formation
of species. At the same time this standpoint also
overcomes the metaphysical opposition of the
biological to the physical, as an absolutely autonomous
and independent principle, to the extent that this
biological is considered in its indissoluble historical
connection with physical phenomena (as a higher form
of motion, originating out of lower inorganic forms of
motion of matter), and also its dynamic connection
(metabolism).
At the same time dialectical methodology by no
means eliminates the role of the external and physical
in the process of organic evolution, requiring only a
sharp definition of these conceptions in each case, and
the recognition of the multiformity of all those forms of
connection which exist between organisms and their

external surroundings, between the "biological" and the

"physical." Thus the physical constitutes the necessary
condition in the framework of which the biological
process takes place, but at the same time it enters as a
necessary aspect into the biological process as such.
Furthermore, it may be the direct stimulus of mutatory
variations in the germ plasm, thus simultaneously
being both external and internal in relation to the
"biological." Finally, it may serve as the controlling
factor which, in the process of natural selection,
determines the very course of the evolutionary process,
and therefore acts as the creator of biological forms. In
this way the "external" is composed not only of the
physical conditions of the external surroundings, but
also of the biological encirclement by a milieu of other
organisms, and also--in the case of the evolution of
man--the social-economic relations prevailing within
human society.
Differentiating the conception of the biological as an
expression of ontogenetic development, on the one
hand, and phylogenetic development on the other,
materialist dialectics considers as a particular, most
complex form of considers phylogenesis as a
interaction of the "biological" and "physical" (the
organism and its surroundings) and of the biological
with itself (the biological relationship of organisms). In
this conception there are "eliminated," as it were, or
retire into the background, both the purely physical
laws of the external surroundings, and the
"biophysiological" laws of individual development,
qualitatively submitting to the new specific laws of
historical biology.
Only in virtue of these new relations, regulated by the
Darwinian law of the struggle for life and natural
selection, do individual inherited variations acquire the
force of a factor in the formation of species, and can the
most complex phenomena of biological. adaptation

(such as protective colouring, mimicry, care for the

progeny and the other instincts, parasitism, symbiosis,
etc.), receive their rational materialist explanation.
At the same time there finally collapse the equally
barren attempts to embrace all the complexity and
multiformity of the world through a single
mathematical formula of the mechanical movement of
molecules, or through the vitalistic idea of a single
"principle of perfection," in effect representing an
attempt to know and explain the world through the
inexplicable and the unknowable.
One of the forms of consciously or unconsciously
accepted mechanistic views on the nature of things is
the attempts mechanistically to transfer biological laws
to the sphere of social and historical relations, in which
once again is forgotten the fundamental dialectical law
of the qualitative peculiarity of the laws appropriate to
every form of motion of matter. These attempts, in the
shape of so-called "social Darwinism," strive to find in
the biological law of the struggle for existence a
justification for capitalist competition, racial and class
inequality, and war as a factor of "selection." While
they reveal with peculiar vividness the class limitations
of scientific theory, and the role of the bourgeois
scientist as the ideologue reflecting the interests of his
class, at the same time these theories suffer from the
basic methodological defect of failing to understand all
the specific conditions, in the shape of social-economic
productive relations, which condition the laws of the
social-historic process, allotting to biological factors a
remotely subordinate importance.
At the same time, even remaining within the
framework of biological factors and laws, we cannot but
remark the patently arbitrary interpretation of
biological facts on the part of bourgeois eugenists, who
attempt to consider the social inequality of men as the

direct result of biological inequality in their inherited

characters. Since, apart from the relativity and class
content of the very conception of a "better" and "worse"
genetic fund, it is precisely the biologically established
facts of the persistence and resisting capacity of
hereditary characteristics, in relation to the influences
of external surroundings, and not the Lamarckian point
of view, which necessarily explain the fact, confirmed
by
the
objective
course
of
history,
that, notwithstanding unfavourable
external
conditions--agelong underfeeding, unemployment and
other privations connected with poverty--in the ranks
of the working class there grow up ever new fighters for
a better future for humanity, while the country building
Socialism has at once found its own military leaders, its
builders of national economy, science and technique,
who have been able to provide the best examples of
planned work and organisation of national life.
It is quite normal that the industrial bourgeois class,
progressive in its day, saw in the consciously
formulated positions of materialist radicalism a
theoretical support for its struggle against the influence
of the Church and the religious-idealistic ideology
which served as a support for the conservative forces of
feudalism. That is why the materialist nucleus of the
Darwinian theory was at first received with approval by
the ideologues of the bourgeoisie, as a scientific proof
and justification of the principles of free capitalist
competition. And it is just as normal that, in the
measure of the growth of economic contradictions, we
observe in present-day scientific literature of the
bourgeois West more and more frequent attempts to
revise Darwinism, and to return to patently idealistic
and mystical conceptions--up to and including the
open persecution of evolution (the monkey trial in
America), and the quest in the embraces of the Church
and the Bible for the reply to problems of the universe

and for the revival of waning faith m the stability of the

capitalist system.
All these facts prove the socio-historical and class
determinateness of scientific theories.
Reflecting the state of the material forces of
production and the socio-economic relations of the
particular historical epoch, scientific theories express
not only the actual state and level of knowledge
attained by science, but also the ideological justification
of the economic interests of warring groups and
classes. At the same time they represent a guide to
action in the hands of the social groups sharing the
theory concerned. That is why the proletariat, fighting
for the social reconstruction of the whole world and
laying the foundations of a new society and a new
culture, is faced with the task of critically reviewing the
whole of the heritage received by us from bourgeois
science, and of overcoming the theoretical structures
which, while not following from the true correlation of
things, at the same time expose the class features and
purposefulness of the social formations which created
that science in the past. The necessity of this is dictated
not only by the common interest in cognition of the
truth of the world surrounding us, but also by the
immediate interests of the struggle of the working class
for its emancipation from the economic yoke and
ideological influence of hostile classes, in the countries
of capitalism, and by the practical problems of Socialist
construction in all spheres of national economy in the
U.S.S.R., organised by the proletariat on the
foundations of the scientific study of the laws of
development of nature and human society. Herein lies
the cause of the profound interest in and attention to
scientific theory, to scientific theoretical research, and
to history of sciences, which are displayed in the Soviet
Union.

The correct definition of the relationship of the

biological and physical sciences, and in particular the
relationship of the "physical" and "biological" in the
biological process--on the one hand of individual
development, and on the other of the formation of
species and production of new breeds of domestic
animals and cultivated plants--becomes of vast
significance in the planned solution of the problems of
large-scale Socialist agriculture and cattle breeding.
These necessitate the overcoming both of the
mechanistic and Lamarckian conceptions, widely held
among the majority of practical cattle breeders, which
seek a solution of the whole problem in artificial
physical influence on the organism: and of the
autogenetic enthusiasm of the geneticists, who think
that the tasks of the Socialist Five Year Plan are
covered by the application of the methods of modern
genetics and selection, ignoring the role and
importance of the rest of man's system of social
measures based on the influence of the external
physical surroundings on the development of the
phenotype and the possible emergence of new inherited
variations.
Finally, these theoretical conclusions are of no less
importance in solving the practical problems arising
out of the reorganisation of the whole system of
pedagogy, and of the scientific reconstruction of
physical culture, sanitation and hygiene of the human
body, which also require for their adequate solution on
each occasion theory tested by fact and methodically
thought out, and relying inter alia also upon a correct
definition of the relationship of the physical, biological
and socio-historical sciences.
Affirming the unity of the universe and the
qualitative multiformity of its expression in different
forms of motion of matter, it is necessary to renounce
both simplified identification and reduction of some

sciences to others, as the supporters of the mechanistic

and positivist currents in the sphere of natural science
strive to do, and sharp demarcation and drawing of
absolute watersheds between the physical, biological
and socio-historical sciences--which frequently take the
form of admitting the existence of the causal
determinateness of phenomena only in the sphere of
physical science, while proposing to seek in biological
science for teleological solutions, and in the sphere of
socio-historical phenomena completely abandoning the
search for any order and explanation of the course of
historical processes at all.
Since the concrete reality of the phenomena we study
is in unity and complex interaction with the whole
totality of surrounding phenomena, every exhaustive
and worth-while piece of research requires the
consideration and drawing in of all contiguous
branches of science and the particular methods of
research which they represent, and at the same time
the subordination of all the sciences to the single
gnoseology and methodology of dialectical materialism.
The numerous attempts to revise the conceptions of
mechanical materialism--unsatisfactory to the modern
naturalist, but the sole conceptions with which he was
familiar--without falling into the embraces of vitalism,
are condemned beforehand to failure so long as the
naturalist remains within the bounds of a methodology
based on formal logic and of metaphysical searches for
the essence of things, as isolated absolutes, irrespective
of their connection and interaction with surrounding
phenomena, and without taking into account those
variations, that motion, which characterises the
dialectical development of the whole world.
At the same time these searches bear witness to the
fact that modern natural science is undergoing a
profound crisis, hindering its further normal

development, and that the general level of knowledge

attained is ripe for the conscious application of the
dialectical method.
All the more is it a matter for regret that the modern
naturalist, when studying problems of philosophy and
the history of natural science, remains unaware that
these problems of overcoming, on the one hand, the
most reactionary idealistic and vitalistic currents of
thoughts, and on the other the oversimplified
mechanistic positions of vulgar materialism, were not
only formulated but solved in their basic and
characteristic principles more than seventy years ago,
in the classic works of the founders of the philosophy of
dialectical materialism, Marx and Engels, and in our
own times in the profound works of Lenin.

Outline of science
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Science systematic effort of acquiring knowledgethrough observation and experimentation

coupled with logic and reasoning to find out what can be proved or not provedand the
knowledge thus acquired. The word "science" comes from the Latin word "scientia"
meaning knowledge. A practitioner of science is called a "scientist". Modern science
respects objective logical reasoning, and follows a set of core procedures or rules in order to
determine the nature and underlying natural laws of the universe and everything in it. Some
scientists do not know of the rules themselves, but follow them through research policies. These
procedures are known as scientific method.
Contents
[hide]

1 Essence of science

2 Scientific method

3 Branches of science
o

3.1 Natural sciences

3.2 Formal sciences

3.3 Social sciences

3.4 Applied sciences

4 How scientific fields differ

5 Politics of science

6 History of science
o

6.1 By period

6.2 By field

6.3 By region

7 Philosophy of science

8 Scientific community
o

8.1 Scientific organizations

8.2 Scientists

9 Science education

10 See also

11 References

Essence of science[edit]
Main article: Science

Research systematic investigation into existing or new knowledge.

Scientific discovery observation of new phenomena, new actions, or new events and
providing new reasoning to explain the knowledge gathered through such observations
with previously acquired knowledge from abstract thought and everyday experiences.

Laboratory facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific research,

experiments, and measurement may be performed.

Objectivity the idea that scientists, in attempting to uncover truths about the natural
world, must aspire to eliminate personal or cognitive biases, a priori commitments,
emotional involvement, etc.

Inquiry any process that has the aim of augmenting knowledge, resolving doubt, or
solving a problem.

Scientific method[edit]
Scientific method body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new
knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based on
observable, empirical, measurable evidence, and subject to laws of reasoning, both
deductive and inductive.

Empirical method

Experimental method The steps involved in order to produce a reliable and logical
conclusion include:
1. Asking a question about a natural phenomenon
2. Making observations of the phenomenon
3. Forming a hypothesis proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a
hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one
can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous
observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific
theories.
4. Predicting a logical consequence of the hypothesis
5. Testing the hypothesis through an experiment methodical procedure carried out
with the goal of verifying, falsifying, or establishing the validity of a hypothesis.
The 3 types of scientific experiments are:

Controlled experiment experiment that compares the results obtained

from an experimental sample against a control sample, which is practically
identical to the experimental sample except for the one aspect the effect of
which is being tested (the independent variable).

Natural experiment empirical study in which the experimental conditions

(i.e., which units receive which treatment) are determined by nature or by
other factors out of the control of the experimenters and yet the treatment
assignment process is arguably exogenous. Thus, natural experiments are
observational studies and are not controlled in the traditional sense of a
randomized experiment.

Observational study draws inferences about the possible effect

of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects into a
treated group versus a control group is outside the control of the
investigator.

Field experiment applies the scientific method to experimentally

examine an intervention in the real world (or as many experimentalists like
to say, naturally occurring environments) rather than in the laboratory. See
also field research.

6. Gather and analyze data from experiments or observations, including indicators

of uncertainty.
7. Draw conclusions by comparing data with predictions. Possible outcomes:

Conclusive:

The hypothesis is falsified by the data.

Data are consistent with the hypothesis.

Data are consistent with alternative hypotheses.

Inconclusive:

Data are not relevant to the hypothesis, or data and predictions

are incommensurate.

There is too much uncertainty in the data to draw any conclusion.

Deductive-nomological model

Scientific modelling

Models of scientific method

1.

Hypothetico-deductive model proposed description of scientific method.

According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating a hypothesis in a form that
could conceivably be falsified by a test on observable data. A test that could and
does run contrary to predictions of the hypothesis is taken as a falsification of the
hypothesis. A test that could but does not run contrary to the hypothesis
corroborates the theory.

Branches of science[edit]
Branches of science divisions within science with respect to the entity or system
concerned, which typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature.

Natural sciences[edit]
See also: Outline of science Social sciences

Natural science

Physical sciences[edit]

Physical science

Physics[edit]
Physics study of matter and its motion through space-time, along with related concepts
such as energy and force

Acoustics study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration
and sound)

Agrophysics study of physics applied to agroecosystems

Soil physics study of soil physical properties and processes.

Astrophysics study of the physical aspects of celestial objects

Astronomy studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development,
and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such
as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of
Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation).

Astrodynamics application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical

problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft.

Astrometry branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the

positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies.

Cosmology discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole.

Extragalactic astronomy branch of astronomy concerned with objects outside

our own Milky Way Galaxy

Galactic astronomy study of our own Milky Way galaxy and all its contents.

Physical cosmology study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the

universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and
evolution.

Planetary science scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and

planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that
form them.

Stellar astronomy natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects
(such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and
phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic
background radiation)

Atmospheric physics study of the application of physics to the atmosphere

Atomic, molecular, and optical physics study of how matter and light interact

Biophysics study of physical processes relating to biology

Medical physics application of physics concepts, theories and methods to

medicine.
Neurophysics branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system.

Chemical physics branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of
view of physics.

Computational physics study and implementation of numerical algorithms to solve

problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists.

Condensed matter physics study of the physical properties of condensed phases of

matter.

Cryogenics cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below
150 C, 238 F or 123K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures.

Dynamics study of the causes of motion and changes in motion

Econophysics interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally

developed by physicists in order to solve problems in economics

Electromagnetism branch of science concerned with the forces that occur between
electrically charged particles.

Geophysics the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the
Earth using quantitative physical methods

Materials physics use of physics to describe materials in many different ways such as
force, heat, light and mechanics.

Mathematical physics application of mathematics to problems in physics and the

development of mathematical methods for such applications and for the formulation of
physical theories.

Mechanics branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when
subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their
environment.

Biomechanics study of the structure and function of biological systems such as

humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells by means of the methods of mechanics.

Classical mechanics one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is

concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the
action of a system of forces.

Continuum mechanics branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the
kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass
rather than as discrete particles.

Fluid mechanics study of fluids and the forces on them.

Quantum mechanics branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where

the action is on the order of the Planck constant.

Thermodynamics branch of physical science concerned with heat and its

relation to other forms of energy and work.

Nuclear physics field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of
atomic nuclei.

Optics branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including
its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.

Particle physics branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of
particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation.

Psychophysics quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and

the sensations and perceptions they affect.

Plasma physics state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles
are ionized.

Polymer physics field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical
properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerisation
of polymers and monomers respectively.

Quantum physics branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action
is on the order of the Planck constant.

Relativity

Statics branch of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force,

torque/moment) on physical systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the
relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and
structures are at a constant velocity.

Solid state physics study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum
mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy.

Vehicle dynamics dynamics of vehicles, here assumed to be ground vehicles.

Chemistry[edit]
Chemistry science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements),
especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition,
behavior, and changes as they relate the chemical reactions

Analytical chemistry study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the

chemical components of natural and artificial materials.

Astrochemistry study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and

molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation.

Cosmochemistry study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe

and the processes that led to those compositions

Atmospheric chemistry branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the

Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of
research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer
modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines

Biochemistry study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited
to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes.

Agrochemistry study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in

agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages,
and in environmental monitoring and remediation.
Bioinorganic chemistry examines the role of metals in biology.

Bioorganic chemistry rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic

chemistry and biochemistry.

Biophysical chemistry new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of

research activities involving biological systems.

Environmental chemistry scientific study of the chemical and biochemical

phenomena that occur in natural places.

Immunochemistry branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions

and components on the immune system.

Medicinal chemistry discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially

synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological
specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis and
development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs).

Pharmacology branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug
action.

Natural product chemistry chemical compound or substance produced by a

living organism - found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological
activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design.

Neurochemistry specific study of neurochemicals, which include

neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence
neuron function.

Computational chemistry branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science

to assist in solving chemical problems.

Chemo-informatics use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a

range of problems in the field of chemistry.

Molecular mechanics uses Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems.

Flavor chemistry someone who uses chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors.

Flow chemistry chemical reaction is run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in
batch production.

Geochemistry study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using

chemistry

Aqueous geochemistry study of the role of various elements in watersheds,

including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through
atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions

Isotope geochemistry study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the

elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology

Ocean chemistry studies the chemistry of marine environments including the

influences of different variables.

Organic geochemistry study of the impacts and processes that organisms have
had on Earth

Regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry study of the spatial

variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth

Inorganic chemistry branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of
inorganic compounds.

Nuclear chemistry subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes

and nuclear properties.

Radiochemistry chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes

of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of nonradioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to
a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable).

Organic chemistry study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and

preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds,
hydrocarbons, and their derivatives.

Petrochemistry branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil

(petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials.

Organometallic chemistry study of chemical compounds containing bonds between

carbon and a metal.

Photochemistry study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by
atoms or molecules..

Physical chemistry study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate

phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts.

Chemical kinetics the study of rates of chemical processes.

Chemical thermodynamics study of the interrelation of heat and work with

chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws
of thermodynamics.

Electrochemistry branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which

take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a
semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron
transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution.

Femtochemistry Femtochemistry is the science that studies chemical reactions

on extremely short timescales, approximately 1015 seconds (one femtosecond,
hence the name).

Mathematical chemistry area of research engaged in novel applications of

mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical
modeling of chemical phenomena.

Mechanochemistry coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena

on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behaviour of
mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer
degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and
sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning
field of molecular machines.

Physical organic chemistry study of the interrelationships between structure

and reactivity in organic molecules.

Quantum chemistry branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application

of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems.

Sonochemistry study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on

chemical systems.

Stereochemistry study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within

molecules.

Supramolecular chemistry area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses

on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular
subunits or components.

Thermochemistry study of the energy and heat associated with chemical

reactions and/or physical transformations.

Phytochemistry strict sense of the word the study of phytochemicals.

Polymer chemistry multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and
chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules.

Solid-state chemistry study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase
materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids

Multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry

Chemical biology scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and

biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often
compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of
biological systems.

Chemical engineering branch of engineering that deals with physical science

(e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and
biochemistry) with mathematics and economics, to the process of converting raw
materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms.

Chemical oceanography study of the behavior of the chemical elements within

the Earth's oceans.

Chemical physics branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the
point of view of physics.

Materials science interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to

various areas of science and engineering.

Nanotechnology study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale

Oenology science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except
vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture.

Spectroscopy study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy

Surface science Surface science is the study of physical and chemical

phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solidliquid
interfaces, solidgas interfaces, solidvacuum interfaces, and liquid-gas interfaces.

Earth sciences[edit]
Earth science all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth

Atmospheric sciences umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes, the
effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on
these other systems.

Biogeography study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems

in geographic space and through geological time.

Cartography study and practice of making maps or globes.

Climatology study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over

a period of time

Coastal geography study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land,
incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and
oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast.

Geodesy scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the
Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space

Geography science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of
Earth

Geoinformatics science and the technology which develops and uses information
science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences and related
branches of engineering.

Geology study of the Earth, with the general exclusion of present-day life, flow within
the ocean, and the atmosphere.

Planetary geology planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of

the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and
meteorites.

Geomorphology scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them

Geostatistics branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets

Geophysics physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the
Earth using quantitative physical methods.

Glaciology study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve
ice.

Hydrology study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other
planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed
sustainability.

Hydrogeology area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of
groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers).

Mineralogy study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical)

properties of minerals.

Meteorology interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere which explains and

forecasts weather events.

Oceanography branch of Earth science that studies the ocean

Paleoclimatology study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of
Earth

Paleontology study of prehistoric life

Petrology branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and
structure of rocks.

Limnology study of inland waters

Seismology scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves

through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies

Soil science study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including soil
formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility
properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils.

Topography study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable
astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids.

Volcanology study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and
geochemical phenomena.

Environmental sciences[edit]
Main article: Environmental sciences

Ecology scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how
the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and
their environment.

Freshwater biology scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a

branch of Limnology

Marine biology scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or

brackish bodies of water

Parasitology Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the

relationship between them.

Population dynamics Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that

studies short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of
populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those
changes.

Environmental chemistry Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical

and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places.

Environmental soil science Environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of
humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere,
the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere.

Environmental geology Environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science

concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in the solving of
environmental problems.

Toxicology branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the
adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms.

Life sciences[edit]
Biology study of living organisms.

Aerobiology study of airborne organic particles

Agriculture study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical
applications

Anatomy study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or
specifically in humans

Human anatomy scientific study of the morphology of the adult human.

Astrobiology study of evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universealso

known as exobiology, exopaleontology, and bioastronomy

Biochemistry study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function,
usually a focus on the cellular level

Bioengineering study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on

applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology

Biogeography study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally

Bioinformatics use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of
genomic and other biological data

Biomathematics or Mathematical Biology quantitative or mathematical study of

biological processes, with an emphasis on modeling

Biomechanics often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the mechanics of

living beings, with an emphasis on applied use through prosthetics or orthotics

Biomedical research study of the human body in health and disease

Biophysics study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and
methods traditionally used in the physical sciences

Biotechnology new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the
manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology

Building biology study of the indoor living environment

Botany study of plants

Cell biology study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical
interactions that occur within a living cell

Conservation Biology study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural

environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife

Chronobiology field of biology that examines periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living

organisms and their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms.

Cryobiology study of the effects of lower than normally preferred temperatures on living
beings.

Developmental biology study of the processes through which an organism forms, from
zygote to full structure

Embryology study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth).

See also topobiology.

Gerontology study of aging processes.

Ecology study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the nonliving elements of their environment

Environmental Biology study of the natural world, as a whole or in a particular area,

especially as affected by human activity

Epidemiology major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the
health of populations

Evolution any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of

biological populations.

Evolutionary Biology study of the origin and descent of species over time

Paleobiology discipline which combines the methods and findings of the natural
science biology with the methods and findings of the earth science paleontology.

Evolutionary developmental biology field of biology that compares the

developmental processes of different organisms to determine the ancestral
relationship between them, and to discover how developmental processes
evolved.

Paleontology study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of

prehistoric life

Genetics study of genes and heredity

Genomics discipline in genetics concerned with the study of the genomes of

organisms.

Proteomics large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and

functions

Population genetics study of changes in gene frequencies in

Histology study of cells and tissues, a microscopic branch of anatomy

Integrative biology study of whole organisms

Limnology study of inland waters

Marine Biology study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings

Microbiology study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions

with other living things

Bacteriology study of bacteria.

Virology study of viruses and some other virus-like agents

Molecular Biology study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some
cross over with biochemistry

Structural biology branch of molecular biology, biochemistry,

and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules

Morphology In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of

the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features.

Mycology study of fungi

Oceanography study of the ocean, including ocean life, environment, geography,

weather, and other aspects influencing the ocean

Oncology study of cancer processes, including virus

or mutation oncogenesis, angiogenesis and tissues remoldings

Population biology study of groups of conspecific organisms, including

Population ecology study of how population dynamics and extinction

Population genetics study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of
organisms

Pathobiology or pathology study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and
development of disease

Parasitology study of parasites and parasitism

Pharmacology study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs
and synthetic medicines

Physiology study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of
living organisms

Immunology following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to

immunology:

Kinesiology Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, is the scientific study of

human movement

Neurobiology study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and

pathology

Neuroscience interdisciplinary science that studies the nervous system

Histology

Phytopathology study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology)

Psychobiology study of the biological bases of psychology

Sociobiology study of the biological bases of sociology

Systematics study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the
relationships among living things through time

Cladistics method of classifying species of organisms into groups called clades,

which consist of an ancestor organism and all its descendants (and nothing else)

Phylogeny study of evolutionary relation among groups of organisms (e.g.

species, populations), which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and
morphological data matrices

Taxonomy science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a
classification.

Zoology study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and

behavior

Arachnology scientific study of spiders and related animals such as scorpions,

pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, collectively called arachnids.

Acarology study of the taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks
Entomology study of insects

Myrmecology scientific study of ants, a branch of entomology

Coleopterology study of beetles

Lepidopterology study of a large order of insects that includes moths

and butterflies (called lepidopterans)

Ethology study of animal behavior

Helminthology study of worms, especially parasitic worms

Herpetology study of reptiles and amphibians

Ichthyology study of fish

Malacology branch of invertebrate zoology which deals with the study of the
Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of
described species after the arthropods.

Mammalogy study of mammals

Cetology branch of marine mammal science that studies the

approximately eighty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoise in the scientific
order Cetacea.

Physical anthropology studies the physical development of the human

species.

Nematology scientific discipline concerned with the study of nematodes, or

roundworms

Ornithology study of birds

Formal sciences[edit]
Formal science branches of knowledge that are concerned with formal systems, such as:
logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, Game theory, systems
theory, decision theory, statistics, and some aspects of linguistics. Unlike other sciences, the
formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the
real world, but instead with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules.
Computer sciences[edit]
Computer science study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and
their implementation and application in computer systems.

Theory of computation branch that deals with whether and how efficiently problems can
be solved on a model of computation, using an algorithm

Automata theory study of mathematical objects called abstract machines or

automata and the computational problems that can be solved using them.

Formal languages set of strings of symbols.

Computability theory branch of mathematical logic and computer science that

originated in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing degrees.

Computational complexity theory branch of the theory of computation in

theoretical computer science and mathematics that focuses on classifying
computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating those
classes to each other

Concurrency theory In computer science, concurrency is a property of systems

in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially
interacting with each other

Algorithms step-by-step procedure for calculations

Randomized algorithms algorithm which employs a degree of randomness as

part of its logic.

Distributed algorithms algorithm designed to run on computer hardware

constructed from interconnected processors

Parallel algorithms algorithm which can be executed a piece at a time on many

different processing devices, and then put back together again at the end to get the
correct result.

Data structures particular way of storing and organizing data in a computer so that it
can be used efficiently.

Computer architecture In computer science and engineering, computer architecture is

the practical art of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create
computers that meet functional, performance and cost goals and the formal modeling of
those systems.

VLSI design process of creating integrated circuits by combining thousands of

transistors into a single chip

Operating systems set of software that manages computer hardware resources and
provides common services for computer programs

Computer communications (networks) collection of hardware components and

computers interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources
and information

Information theory branch of applied mathematics and electrical engineering

involving the quantification of information

Internet global system of interconnected computer networks that use the

standard Internet protocol suite (often called TCP/IP, although not all applications
use TCP) to serve billions of users worldwide.

World wide web part of the Internet; system of interlinked hypertext

documents accessed via the Internet.

Wireless computing any type of computer network that is not connected by

cables of any kind.

Computer security branch of computer technology known as information security as

applied to computers and networks.

reliability system design approach and associated service implementation that

ensures a prearranged level of operational performance will be met during a
contractual measurement period.
Cryptography practice and study of hiding information.
Fault-tolerant computing property that enables a system (often computerbased) to continue operating properly in the event of the failure of (or one or more
faults within) some of its components

Distributed computing field of computer science that studies distributed systems

Mobile computing form of humancomputer interaction by which a

computer is expected to be transported during normal usage.

Grid computing federation of computer resources from multiple administrative

domains to reach a common goal

Parallel computing form of computation in which many calculations are carried out
simultaneously, operating on the principle that large problems can often be divided into
smaller ones, which are then solved concurrently ("in parallel").

High-performance computing computer at the frontline of current processing

capacity, particularly speed of calculation

Quantum computing device for computation that makes direct use of quantum
mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations
on data

Computer graphics graphics created using computers and, more generally, the
representation and manipulation of image data by a computer with help from specialized
software and hardware.

Image processing any form of signal processing for which the input is an image,
such as a photograph or video frame; the output of image processing may be either
an image or a set of characteristics or parameters related to the image

Scientific visualization interdisciplinary branch of science according to Friendly

(2008) "primarily concerned with the visualization of three-dimensional phenomena
(architectural, meteorological, medical, biological, etc.), where the emphasis is on
realistic renderings of volumes, surfaces, illumination sources, and so forth, perhaps
with a dynamic (time) component".

Computational geometry branch of computer science devoted to the study of

algorithms which can be stated in terms of geometry

Software engineering application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to

the development, operation, and maintenance of software; that is the application of
engineering to software

Formal methods particular kind of mathematically based techniques for the

specification, development and verification of software and hardware systems

Programming languages artificial language designed to communicate instructions to a

machine, particularly a computer

Formal verification act of proving or disproving the correctness of

intended algorithms underlying a system with respect to a certain formal
specification or property, using formal methods of mathematics

Programming paradigms fundamental style of computer programming

Object-oriented programming programming paradigm using "objects"

data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their
interactions to design applications and computer programs

Functional programming programming paradigm that treats

computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and
mutable data

Program semantics field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the
meaning of programming languages

Type theory any of several formal systems that can serve as alternatives to
naive set theory, or the study of such formalisms in general

Compilers computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source code
written in a programming language (the source language) into another computer
language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code)

Concurrent programming languages form of computing in which programs are

designed as collections of interacting computational processes that may be
executed in parallel

Information science interdisciplinary field primarily concerned with the analysis,

collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information

Database organized collection of data, today typically in digital form

Relational database collection of data items organized as a set of

formally described tables from which data can be accessed easily

Distributed database database in which storage devices are not all

attached to a common CPU.

Object database database management system in which information is

represented in the form of objects as used in object-oriented programming

Multimedia media and content that uses a combination of different content

forms.

hypermedia computer-based information retrieval system that enables a user to

gain or provide access to texts, audio and video recordings, photographs and
computer graphics related to a particular subject.

Data mining process that results in the discovery of new patterns in large data
sets

Information retrieval area of study concerned with searching for documents, for
information within documents, and for metadata about documents, as well as that of
searching structured storage, relational databases, and the World Wide Web.

Artificial intelligence branch of computer science that deals with intelligent behavior,
learning, and adaptation in machines.

Automated reasoning area of computer science and mathematical logic

dedicated to understand different aspects of reasoning.

Computer vision field that includes methods for acquiring, processing,

analysing, and understanding images and, in general, high-dimensional data from
the real world in order to produce numerical or symbolic information, e.g., in the
forms of decisions.

Machine learning scientific discipline concerned with the design and

development of algorithms that allow computers to evolve behaviors based on
empirical data, such as from sensor data or databases

Natural language processing field of computer science, artificial intelligence

(also called machine learning), and linguistics concerned with the interactions
between computers and human (natural) languages.

Artificial neural network mathematical model or computational model

that is inspired by the structure and/or functional aspects of biological neural
networks

Computational linguistics interdisciplinary field dealing with the

statistical or rule-based modeling of natural language from a computational
perspective.

Expert systems computer system that emulates the decision-making ability of a

human expert

Robotics branch of technology that deals with the design, construction,

operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robots

Human-computer interaction study, planning, and design of the interaction between

people (users) and computers.

Numerical analysis study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as

opposed to general symbolic manipulations) for the problems of mathematical
analysis (as distinguished from discrete mathematics).

Algebraic (symbolic) computation relates to algorithms and software for

manipulating mathematical expressions and equations in symbolic form, as opposed

to manipulating the approximations of specific numerical quantities represented by

those symbols. Software applications that perform symbolic calculations are called
computer algebra systems.

Computational number theory study of algorithms for performing number

theoretic computations

Computational mathematics involves mathematical research in areas of

science where computing plays a central and essential role, emphasizing algorithms,
numerical methods, and symbolic methods

Scientific computing (Computational science)

Computational biology (bioinformatics) involves the development and

application of data-analytical and theoretical methods, mathematical modeling and
computational simulation techniques to the study of biological, behavioral, and social
systems.

Computational science subfield of computer science concerned with

constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and using
computers to analyze and solve scientific problems

Computational chemistry branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer

science to assist in solving chemical problems

Computational neuroscience study of brain function in terms of the information

processing properties of the structures that make up the nervous system.

Computer-aided engineering broad usage of computer software to aid in

engineering tasks.

Finite element analysis numerical technique for finding approximate

solutions of partial differential equations (PDE) as well as integral equations.

Computational fluid dynamics branch of fluid mechanics that uses

numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve
fluid flows.

Computational economics research discipline at the interface between

computer science and economic and management science

Computational sociology branch of sociology that uses computationally

intensive methods to analyze and model social phenomena.

Computational finance cross-disciplinary field which relies on computational

intelligence, mathematical finance, numerical methods and computer simulations to
make trading, hedging and investment decisions, as well as facilitating the risk
management of those decisions

Humanities computing (Digital Humanities) area of research, teaching, and

creation concerned with the intersection of computing and the disciplines of the
humanities

Information systems study of complementary networks of hardware and software that

people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute data

Business informatics discipline combining information technology (IT),

informatics and management concepts.

Information technology

Management information systems provides information that is needed to

manage organizations efficiently and effectively

Health informatics discipline at the intersection of information science,

computer science, and health care.

See also Branches of Computer Science and ACM Computing Classification System
Mathematics[edit]
Mathematics search for fundamental truths in pattern, quantity, and change.

Algebra one of the main branches of mathematics, it concerns the study of structure,
relation and quantity.

Group theory studies the algebraic structures known as groups.

Group representation describe abstract groups in terms of linear

transformations of vector spaces

Ring theory study of ringalgebraic structures in which addition and

multiplication are defined and have similar properties to those familiar from the
integers

Field theory branch of mathematics which studies the properties of fields

Linear algebra branch of mathematics concerning finite or countably infinite

dimensional vector spaces, as well as linear mappings between such spaces.

Vector space mathematical structure formed by a collection of vectors:

objects that may be added together and multiplied ("scaled") by numbers, called
scalars in this context.
Multilinear algebra extends the methods of linear algebra

Lie algebra algebraic structure whose main use is in studying geometric objects
such as Lie groups and differentiable manifolds

Associative algebra associative ring that has a compatible structure of a vector

space over a certain field K or, more generally, of a module over a commutative ring
R.

Non-associative algebra K-vector space (or more generally a module) A

equipped with a K-bilinear map

Universal algebra field of mathematics that studies algebraic structures

themselves, not examples ("models") of algebraic structures

Homological algebra branch of mathematics which studies homology in a

general algebraic setting

Category theory area of study in mathematics that examines in an abstract way

the properties of particular mathematical concepts, by formalising them as
collections of objects and arrows (also called morphisms, although this term also has
a specific, non category-theoretical sense), where these collections satisfy some
basic conditions

Lattice theory partially ordered set in which any two elements have a unique
supremum (also called a least upper bound or join) and a unique infimum (also
called a greatest lower bound or meet).

Order theory branch of mathematics which investigates our intuitive

notion of order using binary relations.

Differential algebra algebras equipped with a derivation, which is a unary

function that is linear and satisfies the Leibniz product rule.

Analysis branch of pure mathematics that includes the theories of differentiation,

integration and measure, limits, infinite series, and analytic functions

Real analysis branch of mathematical analysis dealing with the set of real
numbers and functions of a real variable.

Calculus branch of mathematics focused on limits, functions,

derivatives, integrals, and infinite series.

Complex analysis branch of mathematical analysis that investigates functions

of complex numbers

Functional analysis branch of mathematical analysis, the core of which is

formed by the study of vector spaces endowed with some kind of limit-related
structure (e.g. inner product, norm, topology, etc.) and the linear operators acting
upon these spaces and respecting these structures in a suitable sense

Operator theory branch of functional analysis that focuses on bounded

linear operators, but which includes closed operators and nonlinear operators.

Non-standard analysis branch of classical mathematics that formulates analysis

using a rigorous notion of an infinitesimal number.

Harmonic analysis branch of mathematics concerned with the representation of

functions or signals as the superposition of basic waves, and the study of and
generalization of the notions of Fourier series and Fourier transforms.

p-adic analysis branch of number theory that deals with the mathematical
analysis of functions of p-adic numbers.

Ordinary differential equations ordinary differential equation (ODE) is an

equation in which there is only one independent variable and one or more
derivatives of a dependent variable with respect to the independent variable, so that
all the derivatives occurring in the equation are ordinary derivatives.

Partial differential equations differential equation that contains unknown

multivariable functions and their partial derivatives.

Probability theory branch of mathematics concerned with probability, the analysis of

random phenomena.

Measure theory systematic way to assign a number to each suitable subset of

that set, intuitively interpreted as its size.

Ergodic theory branch of mathematics that studies dynamical systems with an

invariant measure and related problems.

Stochastic process collection of random variables; this is often used to

represent the evolution of some random value, or system, over time.

Geometry branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative

position of figures, and the properties of space. Geometry is one of the oldest
mathematical sciences.

Topology major area of mathematics concerned with properties that are

preserved under continuous deformations of objects, such as deformations that
involve stretching, but no tearing or gluing.

General topology branch of topology which studies properties of topological

spaces and structures defined on them.

Algebraic topology branch of mathematics which uses tools from abstract

algebra to study topological spaces

Geometric topology study of manifolds and maps between them, particularly

embeddings of one manifold into another.

Differential topology field dealing with differentiable functions on differentiable

manifolds

Algebraic geometry branch of mathematics which combines techniques of

abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the
problems of geometry

Differential geometry mathematical discipline that uses the techniques of

differential calculus and integral calculus, as well as linear algebra and multilinear
algebra, to study problems in geometry

Projective geometry study of geometric properties that are invariant under

projective transformations

Affine geometry study of geometric properties which remain unchanged by

affine transformations

Non-Euclidean geometry either of two specific geometries that are, loosely

speaking, obtained by negating the Euclidean parallel postulate, namely hyperbolic
and elliptic geometry.

Convex geometry branch of geometry studying convex sets, mainly in

Euclidean space.

Discrete geometry branch of geometry that studies combinatorial properties

and constructive methods of discrete geometric objects.

Trigonometry

Number theory branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the
integers

Analytic number theory branch of number theory that uses methods from
mathematical analysis to solve problems about the integers

Algebraic number theory major branch of number theory which studies

algebraic structures related to algebraic integers

Geometric number theory studies convex bodies and integer vectors in ndimensional space

Logic and Foundations of mathematics subfield of mathematics with close connections

to the foundations of mathematics, theoretical computer science and philosophical logic.

Set theory branch of mathematics that studies sets, which are collections of
objects

Proof theory branch of mathematical logic that represents proofs as formal

mathematical objects, facilitating their analysis by mathematical techniques

Model theory study of (classes of) mathematical structures (e.g. groups, fields,
graphs, universes of set theory) using tools from mathematical logic

Recursion theory branch of mathematical logic and computer science that

originated in the 1930s with the study of computable functions and Turing degrees

Modal logic type of formal logic primarily developed in the 1960s that extends
classical propositional and predicate logic to include operators expressing modality

Intuitionistic logic symbolic logic system differing from classical logic in its
definition of the meaning of a statement being true

Applied mathematics branch of mathematics that concerns itself with mathematical

methods that are typically used in science, engineering, business, and industry.

Mathematical statistics study of statistics from a mathematical standpoint, using

probability theory as well as other branches of mathematics such as linear algebra
and analysis

Probability likelihood or chance that something is the case or will

happen

Econometrics application of mathematics and statistical methods to

economic data

Actuarial science discipline that applies mathematical and statistical

methods to assess risk in the insurance and finance industries.

Demography statistical study of human populations and subpopulations.

Approximation theory study of how functions can best be approximated with

simpler functions, and with quantitatively characterizing the errors introduced
thereby.

Numerical analysis study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as

opposed to general symbolic manipulations) for the problems of mathematical
analysis (as distinguished from discrete mathematics).

Optimization (Mathematical programming) selection of a best element from

some set of available alternatives.

Operations research study of the application of advanced analytical

methods to help make better decisions

Linear programming mathematical method for determining a way to

achieve the best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a given
mathematical model for some list of requirements represented as linear
relationships

Dynamical systems concept in mathematics where a fixed rule describes the

time dependence of a point in a geometrical space

Chaos theory study of the behavior of dynamical systems that are

highly sensitive to initial conditions, an effect which is popularly referred to as
the butterfly effect.

Fractal geometry mathematical set that has a fractal dimension that

usually exceeds its topological dimension and may fall between the integers.

Mathematical physics development of mathematical methods for application to

problems in physics

Quantum field theory theoretical framework for constructing quantum

mechanical models of systems classically parametrized (represented) by an
infinite number of degrees of freedom, that is, fields and (in a condensed matter
context) many-body systems.

Statistical mechanics branch of physics that applies probability theory,

which contains mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the
study of the thermodynamic behavior of systems composed of a large number of
particles.

Information theory branch of applied mathematics and electrical engineering

involving the quantification of information.

Cryptography study of means of obscuring information, such as codes and

ciphers

Combinatorics branch of mathematics concerning the study of finite or

countable discrete structures

Coding theory study of the properties of codes and their fitness for a
specific application

Graph theory study of graphs, mathematical structures used to model pairwise

relations between objects from a certain collection

Game theory study of strategic decision making. More formally, it is "the study
of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational
decision-makers."

See also Branches of Mathematics and AMS Mathematics Subject Classification

Statistics[edit]
Statistics collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data.

Computational statistics interface between statistics and computer science.

Data mining process that results in the discovery of new patterns in large data
sets

Regression estimates the conditional expectation of the dependent variable

given the independent variables that is, the average value of the dependent
variable when the independent variables are held fixed.

Simulation Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or

system over time. The act of simulating something first requires that a model be
developed; this model represents the key characteristics or behaviors of the selected
physical or abstract system or process. The model represents the system itself,
whereas the simulation represents the operation of the system over time.

Bootstrap (statistics) method for assigning measures of accuracy to

sample estimates (Efron and Tibshirani 1993).

Design of experiments design of any information-gathering exercises where variation is

present, whether under the full control of the experimenter or not

Block design set together with a family of subsets (repeated subsets are
allowed at times) whose members are chosen to satisfy some set of properties that
are deemed useful for a particular application.

Analysis of variance collection of statistical models, and their associated

procedures, in which the observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into
components attributable to different sources of variation.

Response surface methodology explores the relationships between several

explanatory variables and one or more response variables.

Engineering statistics Engineering statistics combines engineering and statistics

Spatial statistics any of the formal techniques which study entities using their
topological, geometric, or geographic properties.

Social statistics use of statistical measurement systems to study human behavior in a

social environment

Statistical modelling formalization of relationships between variables in the form of

mathematical equations

Biostatistics application of statistics to a wide range of topics in biology.

Multivariate analysis observation and analysis of more than one statistical

variable at a time.

Structural equation model statistical technique for testing and estimating

causal relations using a combination of statistical data and qualitative causal
assumptions.

Time series sequence of data points, measured typically at successive

time instants spaced at uniform time intervals.

Reliability theory describes the probability of a system completing its expected

function during an interval of time.

Quality control process by which entities review the quality of all factors
involved in production.

Statistical theory provides a basis for the whole range of techniques, in both study
design and data analysis, that are used within applications of statistics.

Decision theory identifies the values, uncertainties and other issues relevant in
a given decision, its rationality, and the resulting optimal decision.

Mathematical statistics study of statistics from a mathematical standpoint, using

probability theory as well as other branches of mathematics such as linear algebra
and analysis.

Epidemiology study of the distribution and patterns of health-events,

health-characteristics and their causes or influences in well-defined populations.

Probability likelihood or chance that something is the case or will

happen.

Sample Survey process of selecting a sample of elements from a target population in

order to conduct a survey.

Sampling theory study of the collection, organization, analysis, and

interpretation of data.

Survey methodology field that studies the sampling of individuals from a

population with a view towards making statistical inferences about the population
using the sample.

Systems science[edit]
Systems science interdisciplinary field of science that studies the nature of complex
systems in nature, society, and science.

Chaos theory field of study in mathematics, with applications in several disciplines

including physics, engineering, economics, biology, and philosophy; studies the behavior
of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions.

Complex systems and Complexity Theory studies how relationships between parts give
rise to the collective behaviors of a system and how the system interacts and forms
relationships with its environment.

Cybernetics interdisciplinary study of the structure of regulatory systems.

Biocybernetics application of cybernetics to biological science, composed of

biological disciplines that benefit from the application of cybernetics: neurology,
multicellular systems and others.

Engineering cybernetics field of cybernetics, which deals with the question of

control engineering of mechatronic systems as well as chemical or biological
systems.

Management cybernetics field of cybernetics concerned with management and

organizations.

Medical cybernetics branch of cybernetics which has been heavily affected by

the development of the computer, which applies the concepts of cybernetics to
medical research and practice.

New Cybernetics study of self-organizing systems according to Peter HarriesJones (1988), "looking beyond the issues of the "first", "old" or "original" cybernetics
and their politics and sciences of control, to the autonomy and self-organization
capabilities of complex systems".

Second-order cybernetics investigates the construction of models of cybernetic

systems.

Control theory Control theory is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering and

mathematics that deals with the behavior of dynamical systems. The external input of a
system is called the reference. When one or more output variables of a system need to
follow a certain reference over time, a controller manipulates the inputs to a system to
obtain the desired effect on the output of the system.

Control engineering engineering discipline that applies control theory to design

systems with desired behaviors.

Control systems device, or set of devices to manage, command, direct or

regulate the behavior of other devices or system.

Dynamical systems concept in mathematics where a fixed rule describes the

time dependence of a point in a geometrical space.

Operations research study of the use of advanced analytical methods to help make
better decisions.

Systems dynamics approach to understanding the behaviour of complex systems over

time.

Systems analysis study of sets of interacting entities, including computer

systems analysis.

Systems theory interdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the goal of

elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems at all nesting levels in all
fields of research.

Developmental systems theory overarching theoretical perspective on

biological development, heredity, and evolution

General systems theory interdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the

goal of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems at all nesting
levels in all fields of research.

Linear time-invariant systems investigates the response of a linear and timeinvariant system to an arbitrary input signal.

Mathematical system theory area of mathematics used to describe the behavior

of complex dynamical systems, usually by employing differential equations or
difference equations.

Systems biology several related trends in bioscience research, and a

movement that draws on those trends.

Systems ecology interdisciplinary field of ecology, taking a holistic approach to

the study of ecological systems, especially ecosystems.

Systems engineering interdisciplinary field of engineering focusing on how

complex engineering projects should be designed and managed over their life
cycles.

Systems neuroscience subdiscipline of neuroscience and systems biology that

studies the function of neural circuits and systems.

Systems psychology branch of applied psychology that studies human

behaviour and experience in complex systems.

Social sciences[edit]
See also: Outline of science Natural sciences

Social sciences is the study of the social world constructed between humans. The Social
sciences usually limits itself to an anthropomorphic centric view of these interactions with
minimal emphasis on the inadvertent impact of social human behavior on the external
environment (physical, biological, ecological, etc.). 'Social' is the concept of
exchange/influence of ideas, thoughts, and relationship interactions (resulting in harmony,
peace, self enrichment, favoritism, maliciousness, justice seeking, etc.) between humans.
The scientific method is utilized in many social sciences, albeit adapted to the needs of the
social construct being studied.

Business studies academic subject combining elements of accountancy, finance,

marketing, organizational studies and economics

Civics study of the theoretical and practical aspects of citizenship, its rights and duties;
the duties of citizens to each other as members of a political body and to the
government.

Criminology study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both
the individual and in society.

Cultural studies academic field grounded in critical theory and literary criticism.

Demography statistical study of human populations and sub-populations.

Development studies multidisciplinary branch of social science which addresses issues

of concern to developing countries.

Economics analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and

services. It aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact.

Education in the general sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on
the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education
is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills,
and values from one generation to another.

Environmental studies interdisciplinary academic field which systematically studies

human interaction with the environment.

Gender and sexuality studies field of interdisciplinary study and academic field devoted
to gender identity and gendered representation as central categories of analysis.

Gerontology study of the social, psychological and biological aspects of aging.

History discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past

events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented.

Geography science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of
Earth.

Human geography branch of the social sciences that studies the world, its
people, communities, and cultures with an emphasis on relations of and across
space and place.

Industrial relations multidisciplinary field that studies the employment relationship.

Information science interdisciplinary field primarily concerned with the analysis,

collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of
information.

International studies study of the major political, economic, social, cultural and sacral
issues that dominate the international agenda

Law set of rules and principles (laws) by which a society is governed, through
enforcement by governmental authorities.

Legal management social sciences discipline that is designed for students interested in
the study of State and its elements, Law, Law Practice, Legal Research and
Jurisprudence, legal Philosophy, Criminal Justice, Governance, Government structure,
Political history and theories, Business Organization and Management,
Entrepreneurship, Public Administration and Human Resource Development.

Paralegal studies social sciences discipline that is designed for students

interested in the study of State and its elements, Law, Law Practice, Legal Research
and Jurisprudence, legal Philosophy, Criminal Justice, Governance, Government
structure, Political history and theories, Business Organization and Management,
Entrepreneurship, Public Administration and Human Resource Development.

Library science study of issues related to libraries and the information fields.

Management act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives
using available resources efficiently and effectively.

Media studies academic discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history
and effects of various media; in particular, the 'mass media'.

Communication studies academic field that deals with processes of human

communication, commonly defined as the sharing of symbols to create meaning.

Public administration houses the implementation of government policy and an

academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for
this work.

Social work professional and academic discipline that seeks to improve the quality of
life and wellbeing of an individual, group, or community by intervening through research,
policy, community organizing, direct practice, and teaching on behalf of those afflicted
with poverty or any real or perceived social injustices and violations of their human
rights.

Cognitive science[edit]
Cognitive Science interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes. It
examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works.
Anthropology[edit]
Main articles: Anthropology and Outline of anthropology

Anthropology of religion study of religious institutions in relation to other social

institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures

Applied anthropology application of the method and theory of anthropology to the

analysis and solution of practical problems.

Archaeology overview of and topical guide to archaeology

Cultural anthropology branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation

among humans, collecting data about the impact of global economic and political
processes on local cultural realities.

Ethnobiology scientific study of dynamic relationships between peoples, biota, and

environments, from the distant past to the immediate present.

Ethnography Archaeology Biological anthropology Cultural anthropology Linguistic

anthropology Social anthropology

Ethnology branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the origins, distribution,
technology, religion, language, and social structure of the ethnic, racial, and/or national
divisions of humanity.

Ethnopoetics method of recording text versions of oral poetry or narrative performances

(i.e., verbal lore) that uses poetic lines, verses, and stanzas (instead of prose
paragraphs) to capture the formal, poetic performance elements which would otherwise
be lost in the written texts.

Evolutionary anthropology interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology

and human behaviour and the relation between hominids and non-hominid primates.

Experimental archaeology Experimental archaeology employs a number of different

methods, techniques, analyses, and approaches in order to generate and test
hypotheses, based upon archaeological source material, like ancient structures or
artifacts.

Historical archaeology form of archaeology dealing with topics that are already attested
in written records.

Linguistic anthropology

Medical anthropology interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease,
health care systems, and biocultural adaptation".

Physical anthropology study of the physical development of the human species.

Psychological anthropology interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the

interaction of cultural and mental processes.

Zooarchaeology study of faunal remains.

Anthrozoology study of human-animal interaction.

Economics[edit]
Not considered a science by some thinkers [1]

Economics analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and

services. It aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact.

Macroeconomics branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure,

behavior, and decision-making of the whole economy

Microeconomics branch of economics that studies the behavior of individual

households and firms in making decisions on the allocation of limited resources

Behavioural economics Behavioral economics and the related field, behavioral finance,
study the effects of social, cognitive and emotional factors on the economic decisions of
individuals and institutions and the consequences for market prices, returns and the
resource allocation.

Bioeconomics applies the laws of thermodynamics to economic theory

Comparative economics comparative study of different systems of economic

organization, such as capitalism, socialism, feudalism and the mixed economy.

Socialist economics economic theories and practices of hypothetical and

existing socialist economic systems.

Development economics branch of economics which deals with economic aspects of

the development process in low-income countries.

Economic geography study of the location, distribution and spatial organization of

economic activities across the world.

Economic history study of economies or economic phenomena in the past.

Economic sociology studies both the social effects and the social causes of various
economic phenomena.

Energy economics broad scientific subject area which includes topics related to supply
and use of energy in societies

Entrepreneurial Economics study of the entrepreneur and entrepreneurship within the

economy.

Environmental economics subfield of economics concerned with environmental issues.

Evolutionary economics part of mainstream economics as well as heterodox school of

economic thought that is inspired by evolutionary biology.

Financial economics branch of economics concerned with "the allocation and

deployment of economic resources, both spatially and across time, in an uncertain
environment".

Heterodox economics approaches or to schools of economic thought that are

considered outside of "mainstream economics" and sometimes contrasted by expositors
with neoclassical economics.

Green economics one that results in improved human well-being and social
equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks

Feminist economics diverse area of economic inquiry that highlights the

androcentric biases of traditional economics through critical examinations of
economic methodology, epistemology, history and empirical study.

Islamic economics body of Islamic studies literature that "identifies and

promotes an economic order that conforms to Islamic scripture and traditions," and
in the economic world an interest-free Islamic banking system, grounded in Sharia's
condemnation of interest (riba).

Industrial organization field of economics that builds on the theory of the firm in
examining the structure of, and boundaries between, firms and markets.

International economics study of the effects upon economic activity of international

differences in productive resources and consumer preferences and the institutions that
affect them.

Institutional economics study of the role of the evolutionary process and the role of
institutions in shaping economic behaviour.

Labor economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for
labour.

Law and Economics application of economic methods to analysis of law.

Managerial economics "application of economic concepts and economic analysis to the

problems of formulating rational managerial decisions"

Monetary economics branch of economics that historically prefigured and remains

integrally linked to macroeconomics.

Neuroeconomics interdisciplinary field that seeks to explain human decision making,

the ability to process multiple alternatives and to choose an optimal course of action.

Public finance study of the role of the government in the economy.

Public economics study of government policy through the lens of economic efficiency
and equity.

Real estate economics application of economic techniques to real estate markets.

Resource economics study of supply, demand, and allocation of the Earth's natural
resources.

Welfare economics branch of economics that uses microeconomic techniques to

evaluate economic well-being, especially relative to competitive general equilibrium

within an economy as to economic efficiency and the resulting income distribution

associated with it.

Political economy study of the production, buying, and selling, and their relations with
law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and
wealth, including through the budget process.

Socioeconomics considers behavioral interactions of individuals and groups through

social capital and social "markets" (not excluding for example, sorting by marriage) and
the formation of social norms.

Transport economics branch of economics that deals with the allocation of resources
within the transport sector and has strong linkages with civil engineering.

Economic methodology study of methods, especially the scientific method, in relation to

economics, including principles underlying economic reasoning.

Computational economics research discipline at the interface between

computer science and economic and management science.

Econometrics application of mathematics and statistical methods to economic

data

Mathematical economics application of mathematical methods to

represent economic theories and analyze problems posed in economics.

Economic statistics topic in applied statistics that concerns the

collection, processing, compilation, dissemination, and analysis of economic
data.

Time series sequence of data points, measured typically at

successive time instants spaced at uniform time intervals.

Experimental economics application of experimental methods to study

economic questions.

Linguistics[edit]

Linguistics scientific study of natural language.

Anthropological linguistics study of the relations between language and culture and the
relations between human biology, cognition and language.

Applied linguistics interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers
solutions to language-related real-life problems.

Biolinguistics study of the biology and evolution of language.

Clinical linguistics and speech and language pathology sub-discipline of linguistics

which involves the application of linguistic theory to the field of Speech-Language
Pathology.

Cognitive linguistics branch of linguistics that interprets language in terms of the

concepts, sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a particular tongue, which underlie
its forms.

Comparative linguistics branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing

languages to establish their historical relatedness.

Computational linguistics interdisciplinary field dealing with the statistical or rule-based

modeling of natural language from a computational perspective.

Developmental linguistics study of the development of linguistic ability in an individual,

particularly the acquisition of language in childhood.

language acquisition the process by which humans acquire the capacity

to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words to
communicate.

Dialectology scientific study of linguistic dialect, a sub-field of sociolinguistics.

dialectometry the study of high levels of structure in geographical dialect

networks.

Discourse analysis general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written,

spoken, signed language use or any significant semiotic event.

Etymology study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning
have changed over time.

Evolutionary linguistics the scientific study of both the origins and development of
language as well as the cultural evolution of languages.

Forensic linguistics application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the

forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure.

Geolinguistics branch of human geography that studies the geographic distribution of

language or its constituent elements.

Historical linguistics study of language change.

Lexis total vocabulary or lexicon having items of lexical, rather than grammatical,
meaning.

Linguistic typology subfield of linguistics that studies and classifies languages

according to their structural features.

Morphology identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given

language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of
speech, intonation/stress, or implied context (words in a lexicon are the subject matter of
lexicology).

Neurolinguistics study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the
comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.

Philology study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary

studies, history and linguistics.

Phonetics branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human
speech, orthe equivalent aspects of sign.

Phonology branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds

in languages.

Phraseology study of set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other
types of multi-word lexical units (often collectively referred to as phrasemes), in which
the component parts of the expression take on a meaning more specific than or
otherwise not predictable from the sum of their meanings when used independently.

Pragmatics subfield of linguistics which studies the ways in which context contributes to
meaning.

Psycholinguistics study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable

humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language.

Sociolinguistics descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,
including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and
the effects of language use on society.

Speech science Speech science refers to the study of production, transmission and
perception of speech. Speech science involves anatomy, in particular the anatomy of the
oro-facial region and neuroanatomy, physiology, and acoustics.

Stylistics study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective.

Syntax "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed
in particular languages."

Semantics study of meaning.

Writing systems and orthography representation of language in a textual medium

through the use of a set of signs or symbols (known as a writing system).

Psychology[edit]
See also: Subfields of psychology
Psychology science of behavior and mental processes

Behavior analysis philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that
organisms do can and should be regarded as behaviors, and that psychological
disorders are best treated by altering behavior patterns or modifying the environment.

Biopsychology application of the principles of biology (in particular neurobiology), to the

study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in human
and non-human animals.

Cognitive psychology subdiscipline of psychology exploring internal mental processes.

Clinical psychology integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the
purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or
dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.

Cultural psychology field of psychology which assumes the idea that culture and mind
are inseparable, and that psychological theories grounded in one culture are likely to be
limited in applicability when applied to a different culture.

Developmental psychology scientific study of systematic psychological changes,

emotional changes, and perception changes that occur in human beings over the course
of their life span.

Educational psychology study of how humans learn in educational settings, the

effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social
psychology of schools as organizations.

Evolutionary psychology approach in the social and natural sciences that examines
psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern
evolutionary perspective.

Experimental psychology application of experimental methods to the study of behavior

and the processes that underlie it.

Forensic psychology intersection between psychology and the courtroomcriminal,

civil, family and Federal.

Health psychology concerned with understanding how biological, psychological,

environmental, and cultural factors are involved in physical health and illness.

Humanistic psychology psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid20th century in the context of the tertiary sector beginning to produce in the most
developed countries in the world more than the secondary sector was producing, for the
first time in human history demanding creativity and new understanding of human
capital.

Industrial and organizational psychology scientific study of employees, workplaces, and

organizations.

Music therapy allied health profession and one of the expressive therapies, consisting
of an interpersonal process in which a trained music therapist uses music to help clients
to improve or maintain their health.

Neuropsychology studies the structure and function of the brain as they relate to
specific psychological processes and behaviors.

Personality psychology branch of psychology that studies personality and individual

differences.

Psychometrics field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological
measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes,
personality traits, and educational measurement.

Psychology of religion application of psychological methods and interpretive

frameworks to religious traditions, as well as to both religious and irreligious individuals.

Psychophysics quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and

the sensations and perceptions they affect.

Sensation and perception psychology

Applied psychology[edit]
Applied psychology use of psychological principles and theories to overcome problems in
other areas, such as mental health, business management, education, health, product
design, ergonomics, and law.

Psychological testing field characterized by the use of samples of behavior in order to

assess psychological construct(s), such as cognitive and emotional functioning, about a
given individual.

Clinical psychology integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the
purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress or
dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.

Community psychology Sense of community Social capital

Consumer behaviour study of when, why, how, and where people do or do not buy a
product.

Counseling psychology psychological specialty that encompasses research and

applied work in several broad domains: counseling process and outcome; supervision
and training; career development and counseling; and prevention and health.

Educational psychology study of how humans learn in educational settings, the

effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social
psychology of schools as organizations.

Forensic psychology intersection between psychology and the courtroomcriminal,

civil, family and Federal.

Health psychology concerned with understanding how biological, psychological,

environmental, and cultural factors are involved in physical health and illness.

Industrial and organizational psychology scientific study of employees, workplaces, and

organizations.

Legal psychology involves empirical, psychological research of the law, legal

institutions, and people who come into contact with the law.

Media psychology seeks an understanding of how people perceive, interpret, use, and
respond to a media-rich world.

Military psychology research, design and application of psychological theories and

experimentation data towards understanding, predicting and countering behaviours

either in friendly or enemy forces or civilian population that may be undesirable,

threatening or potentially dangerous to the conduct of military operations.

Occupational health psychology concerned with the psychosocial characteristics of

workplaces that contribute to the development of health-related problems in people who
work.

Pastoral psychology application of psychological methods and interpretive frameworks

to religious traditions, as well as to both religious and irreligious individuals.

Political psychology interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to understanding political

science, politicians and political behavior through the use of psychological theories.

Psychometrics field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological
measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes,
personality traits, and educational measurement.

School psychology field that applies principles of clinical psychology and educational
psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of children's and adolescents' behavioral and
learning problems.

Sport psychology interdisciplinary science that draws on knowledge from the fields of
Kinesiology and Psychology.

Systems psychology branch of applied psychology that studies human behaviour and
experience in complex systems.

Traffic psychology study of the behavior of road users and the psychological processes
underlying that behavior (Rothengatter, 1997, 223) as well as to the relationship between
behavior and accidents

Geography[edit]
Geography study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth.

Cartography study and practice of making maps or globes.

Human geography branch of the social sciences that studies the world, its people,
communities, and cultures with an emphasis on relations of and across space and place.

Critical geography takes a critical theory (Frankfurt School) approach to the

study and analysis of geography.

Cultural geography study of cultural products and norms and their variations
across and relations to spaces and places.

Feminist geography approach in human geography which applies the theories,

methods and critiques of feminism to the study of the human environment, society
and geographical space.

Economic geography study of the location, distribution and spatial organization

of economic activities across the world.

Development geography branch of geography with reference to the standard of

living and quality of life of its human inhabitants.

Historical geography study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and

"real" geographies of the past.

Time geography

Political geography & geopolitics field of human geography that is concerned

with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the
ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures.

Marxist geography strand of critical geography that uses the theories and
philosophy of Marxism to examine the spatial relations of human geography.

Military geography sub-field of geography that is used by, not only the military,
but also academics and politicians to understand the geopolitical sphere through the
militaristic lens.

Strategic geography concerned with the control of, or access to, spatial areas
that have an impact on the security and prosperity of nations.

Population geography study of the ways in which spatial variations in the

distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to the
nature of places.

Social geography branch of human geography that is most closely related to

social theory in general and sociology in particular, dealing with the relation of social
phenomena and its spatial components.

Behavioral geography approach to human geography that examines human

behavior using a disaggregate approach.

Children's geographies area of study within human geography and Childhood

Studies which involves researching the places and spaces of children's lives.

Health geography application of geographical information, perspectives, and

methods to the study of health, disease, and health care.

Tourism geography study of travel and tourism, as an industry and as a social

and cultural activity.

Urban geography study of areas which have a high concentration of buildings

and infrastructure.

Environmental geography branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of

interactions between humans and the natural world.

Physical geography branch of natural science which deals with the study of processes
and patterns in the natural environment like the atmosphere, biosphere and geosphere,
as opposed to the cultural or built environment, the domain of human geography.

Climatology Atmospheric physics Atmospheric dynamics (category)

Palaeoclimatology study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire

history of Earth.

Coastal geography study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the
land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology,
geology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the
coast.

Geomorphology scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape

them.

Geodesy scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and

representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional
time-varying space.

Hydrology study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth

and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental
watershed sustainability.

Hydrography mapping (charting) of water topographic features through the

measurement of the depths, the tides and currents of a body of water and
establishment of the sea, river or lake bed topography and morphology.

Glaciology study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that
involve ice.

Limnology study of inland waters.

Oceanography branch of Earth science that studies the ocean.

Pedology study of soils in their natural environment.

Biogeography study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and

ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.

Landscape ecology science of studying and improving relationships between

ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems.
Palaeogeography study of what the geography was in times past.

Regional geography study of world regions.

Philosophy[edit]
See also: Outline of philosophy
Philosophy study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as
existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language.
Academic philosophy is considered a science by some.[2] Others say that philosophy is not a
science but it is instead a precursor of it. [3]

The role of philosophy is also a philosophical question. [4]

Philosophy of language is concerned with four central problems: the nature of meaning,
language use, language cognition, and the relationship between language and reality.

Philosophy of information (PI) is the area of research that studies conceptual issues
arising at the intersection of computer science, information science, information
technology, and philosophy.

Political philosophy is the study of topics such as politics, liberty, justice, property,
rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority.

Epistemology study of how we know what we know; study of the nature and scope of
knowledge.

Ethics major branch of philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life. It is
significantly broader than the common conception of analyzing right and wrong.

Logic formal science of using reason

Philosophy of mind branch of philosophy that studies the nature of the mind, mental
events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness and their relationship to the
physical body, particularly the brain.

Philosophy of science questions the assumptions, foundations, methods and

implications of science; questions the use and merit of science; sometimes overlaps
metaphysics and epistemology by questioning whether scientific results are actually a
study of truth.

Social philosophy is the study of questions about social behavior and interpretations of
society and social institutions in terms of ethical values rather than empirical relations.

Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty, and taste,
with the creation and appreciation of beauty.

Philosophy of mathematics is the branch of philosophy that studies the philosophical

assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics. The aim of the philosophy of
mathematics is to provide an account of the nature and methodology of mathematics
and to understand the place of mathematics in people's lives.

Philosophy of education Philosophy of education can refer to either the academic field
of applied philosophy or to one of any educational philosophies that promote a specific
type or vision of education, and/or which examine the definition, goals and meaning of
education.

Several fields of philosophy are more directly relevant to the natural and social sciences than
others.
Political science[edit]
See also: Outline of politics
Political science social science discipline concerned with the study of the state,
government, and politics.

Comparative politics field and a method used in political science, characterized by an

empirical approach based on the comparative method.

Game theory study of strategic decision making.

Geopolitics theory that describes the relation between politics and territory whether on
local or international scale.

political geography field of human geography that is concerned with the study
of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which
political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures.

Ideology set of ideas that constitute one's goals, expectations, and actions.

Political economy Political economy originally was the term for studying production,
buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with
the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process.
Political economy originated in moral philosophy. It developed in the 18th century as the
study of the economies of states, polities, hence political economy.

Political psychology, bureaucratic, administrative and judicial behaviour

Psephology branch of political science which deals with the study and scientific
analysis of elections.

Voting systems methods by which voters make a choice between options, often in an
election or on a policy referendum.

Public administration houses the implementation of government policy and an

academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for
this work.

Public policy generally the principled guide to action taken by the administrative
or executive branches of the state with regard to a class of issues in a manner
consistent with law and institutional customs.

Local government studies form of public administration which in a majority of

contexts, exists as the lowest tier of administration within the a given state.

International politics study of relationships between countries, including the

roles of states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), international
nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
and multinational corporations (MNCs).

International relations theory study of international relations from a theoretical

perspective; it attempts to provide a conceptual framework upon which international
relations can be analyzed.

Sociology[edit]
See also: Subfields of sociology

Sociology studies society using various methods of empirical investigation and critical
analysis to understand human social activity, from the micro level of individual agency and
interaction to the macro level of systems and social structure.

Criminology study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both
the individual and in society.

Demography statistical study of human populations and sub-populations.

Applied sciences[edit]
Applied sciences application of scientific knowledge transferred into a physical
environment.
Agronomy[edit]
Agronomy science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, feed, fiber,
and reclamation.

Animal husbandry agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock.

Aquaculture also known as aquafarming, is the farming of aquatic organisms such

as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants.[5][6]

Algaculture form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.

Mariculture cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the
open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or raceways which
are filled with seawater.

Agriculture science of farming

Cuniculture also known as rabbit farming, is the breeding and raising domestic
rabbits, usually for their meat or fur.

Fungiculture process of producing food, medicine, and other products by the

cultivation of mushrooms and other fungi.

Heliciculture also called snail farming, is the process of farming or raising land
snails specifically for human consumption, and more recently, to obtain snail slime
for cosmetics use.

Olericulture science of vegetable growing, dealing with the culture of nonwoody (herbaceous) plants for food.

Sericulture also called silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the
production of silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms,
Bombyx mori is the most widely used and intensively studied.

Food science study concerned with all technical aspects of foods, beginning with
harvesting or slaughtering, and ending with its cooking and consumption, an ideology
commonly referred to as "from field to fork".

Forestry art and science of managing forests, tree plantations, and related natural
resources.

Arboriculture cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs,

vines, and other perennial woody plants.

Silviculture practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition,

health, and quality of forests to meet diverse needs and values. It includes
regenerating, tending and harvesting techniques.

Horticulture art, science, technology and business of intensive plant cultivation for
human use

Floriculture discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering

and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry.

Hydroculture growing of plants in a soilless medium, or an aquatic based

environment. Plant nutrients are distributed via water. Hydroculture is aquatic
horticulture.

Hydroponics subset of hydroculture and is a method of growing plants

using mineral nutrient solutions, in water, without soil.

Permaculture branch of ecological design and ecological engineering, which develop

sustainable human settlements and self-maintained agricultural systems modeled from
natural ecosystems.

Architecture[edit]
Architecture process and product of planning, designing and construction. Architectural
works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works
of art.

Architectural engineering application of engineering principles and technology to

building design and construction.

Building science collection of scientific knowledge that focuses on the analysis and
control of the physical phenomena affecting buildings.

Education[edit]
Education any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or
physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which
society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, and values from one
generation to another.
Engineering[edit]
Engineering discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific,
mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build
structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize
improvements to the lives of people.

Aeronautical engineering Aerospace engineering is the primary branch of engineering

concerned with the design, construction, and science of aircraft and spacecraft. It is
divided into two major and overlapping branches: aeronautical engineering and
astronautical engineering. The former deals with craft that stay within Earth's
atmosphere, and the latter with craft that operate outside it.

Aerospace engineering Aerospace engineering is the primary branch of engineering

concerned with the design, construction, and science of aircraft and spacecraft. It is
divided into two major and overlapping branches: aeronautical engineering and
astronautical engineering. The former deals with craft that stay within Earth's
atmosphere, and the latter with craft that operate outside it.

Agricultural engineering engineering discipline that applies engineering science and

technology to agricultural production and processing.

Agricultural science broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact,
natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of
agriculture.

Biomedical engineering application of engineering principles and design concepts to

medicine and biology.

Bioengineering application of concepts and methods of biology (and secondarily of

physics, chemistry, mathematics, and computer science) to solve real-world problems
related to the life sciences and/or the application thereof, using engineering's own
analytical and synthetic methodologies and also its traditional sensitivity to the cost and
practicality of the solution(s) arrived at.

Chemical engineering application of physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and
life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and
economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or
valuable forms.

Civil engineering professional engineering discipline that deals with the design,
construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including
works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings.

Computer engineering design and development of computer systems

Control engineering engineering discipline that applies control theory to design systems
with desired behaviors.

Electrical engineering field of engineering that generally deals with the study and
application of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism.

Industrial engineering branch of engineering dealing with the optimization of complex

processes or systems

Language engineering deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or

acquisition of languages or language variety within a speech community.

Marine engineering engineering of boats, ships, oil rigs and any other marine vessel

Materials engineering interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various

areas of science and engineering.

Mechanical engineering discipline of engineering that applies the principles of physics

and materials science for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of
mechanical systems.

Mining engineering engineering discipline that involves the practice, the theory, the
science, the technology, and application of extracting and processing minerals from a
naturally occurring environment.

Nuclear engineering branch of engineering concerned with the application of the

breakdown (fission) as well as the fusion of atomic nuclei and/or the application of other
sub-atomic physics, based on the principles of nuclear physics.

Polymer engineering subfield of materials science concerned with polymers, primarily

synthetic polymers such as plastics.

Software engineering application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to

the development, operation, and maintenance of software; that is the application of
engineering to software.

Systems engineering interdisciplinary field of engineering focusing on how complex

engineering projects should be designed and managed over their life cycles.

Health sciences[edit]
Health science application of science, technology, engineering or mathematics to the
delivery of healthcare

Conservation medicine emerging, interdisciplinary field that studies the relationship

between human and animal health, and environmental conditions.

Dentistry branch of medicine that is involved in the study, diagnosis, prevention, and
treatment of diseases, disorders and conditions of the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and
the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body.

Optometry health care profession concerned with the health of the eyes and related
structures, as well as vision, visual systems, and vision information processing in
humans.

Medicine science of healing.

Anatomy branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the

structure of living things.

Human anatomy scientific study of the morphology of the adult human.

Dermatology branch of medicine dealing with the skin and its diseases, a
unique specialty with both medical and surgical aspects.

Cardiology medical specialty dealing with disorders of the heart (specifically the
human heart).

Gastroenterology branch of medicine whereby the digestive system and its

disorders are studied.

Gynecology medical practice dealing with the health of the female reproductive
system (uterus, vagina, and ovaries).

Immunology study of the immune system.

Internal medicine medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and
treatment of adult diseases.

Neurology medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system.

Ophthalmology branch of medicine that deals with the anatomy, physiology and
diseases of the eye.
Pathology precise study and diagnosis of disease.

Pathophysiology study of the changes of normal mechanical, physiological, and

biochemical functions, either caused by a disease, or resulting from an abnormal
syndrome.

Pediatrics branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants,
children, and adolescents.

Pharmacy health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical
sciences and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of
pharmaceutical drugs.

Physiology science of the function of living systems.

Psychiatry medical specialty devoted to the study and treatment of mental

disorders.

Radiology medical specialty that employs the use of imaging to both diagnose
and treat disease visualised within the human body.

Toxicology branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study
of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms.

Urology medical and surgical specialty that focuses on the urinary tracts of
males and females, and on the reproductive system of males.

Nutrition studies the relationship between diet and states of health and disease.

Nursing Nursing is a healthcare profession focused on the care of individuals, families,

and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of
life.

Pharmacology branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action

Physical therapy Military Physical Therapists working with patients on balance

problems, orthopedic/musculoskeletal injuries, amputee, compression wrapping to
control edema, and during evaluation/assessment of strength, flexibility, and joint range
of motion, massages, etc. .

Veterinary medicine branch of science that deals with the prevention, diagnosis and
treatment of disease, disorder and injury in non-human animals.

Management[edit]
Management getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using
available resources efficiently and effectively.

Accounting process of communicating financial information about a business entity to

users such as shareholders and managers.

Outline of management getting people together to accomplish desired goals and

objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively.

Business Strategy field that deals with the major intended and emergent initiatives
taken by general managers on behalf of owners, involving utilization of resources, to
enhance the performance of firms in their external environments.

Finance addresses the ways in which individuals, businesses and organizations raise,
allocate and use monetary resources over time, taking into account the risks entailed in
their projects.

Marketing social and managerial processes by which products, services and value are
exchanged in order to fulfil individuals' or group's needs and wants. These processes
include, but are not limited to, advertising, promotion, distribution, and sales.

Organizational Behavior field of study that investigates the impact that individuals,
groups and structures have on behavior within an organization.

Operations those ongoing recurring (cyclic) activities involved in the running of a

business for the purpose of producing value for the stakeholders.

Military sciences[edit]
Military science study of the technique, psychology, practice and other phenomena which
constitute war and armed conflict.

Military Organization structuring of the armed forces of a state so as to offer military

capability required by the national defence policy.

Military Education and Training Recruit training, more commonly known as Basic
Training and colloquially called Boot Camp, is the initial indoctrination and instruction
given to new military personnel, enlisted and officer.

Military History humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of
armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, their cultures,
economies and changing intra and international relationships.

Military Engineering collection of equipment, vehicles, structures and communication

systems that are designed for use in warfare.

Military Strategy and Tactics set of ideas implemented by military organizations to

pursue desired strategic goals

Spatial science[edit]
Main article: Spatial science

GIS geographic information system is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate,

analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical data.

Remote sensing acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon, without

making physical contact with the object.

Photogrammetry practice of determining the geometric properties of objects from

photographic images.

How scientific fields differ[edit]

Exact science any field of science capable of accurate quantitative expression or

precise predictions and rigorous methods of testing hypotheses, especially reproducible
experiments involving quantifiable predictions and measurements.

Fundamental science science that describes the most basic objects, forces, relations
between them and laws governing them, such that all other phenomena may be in
principle derived from them following the logic of scientific reductionism.

Hard and soft science colloquial terms often used when comparing scientific fields of
academic research or scholarship, with hard meaning perceived as being more scientific,
rigorous, or accurate.

Politics of science[edit]

Disruptive technology innovation that helps create a new market and value network,
and eventually goes on to disrupt an existing market and value network (over a few
years or decades), displacing an earlier technology.

Kansas evolution hearings series of hearings held in Topeka, Kansas, United States
May 5 to May 12, 2005 by the Kansas State Board of Education and its State Board
Science Hearing Committee to change how evolution and the origin of life would be
taught in the state's public high school science classes.

List of books about the politics of science list of books about the politics of science.

Politicization of science politicization of science is the manipulation of science for

political gain.

Science by press release refers to scientists who put an unusual focus on publicizing
results of research in the media.

History of science[edit]
Main article: History of science

History of science in general Mathematics Mathematical logic Mathematical

statistics Computer science
History of scientific method history of scientific method is a history of the
methodology of scientific inquiry, as differentiated from a history of science in
general.
Theories/sociology of science sociology and philosophy of science, as well as
the entire field of science studies, have in the 20th century been occupied with
the question of large-scale patterns and trends in the development of science,
and asking questions about how science "works" both in a philosophical and
practical sense.
Historiography study of the history and methodology of the sub-discipline of
history, known as the history of science, including its disciplinary aspects and
practices (methods, theories, schools) and to the study of its own historical
development ("History of History of Science", i.e., the history of the discipline
called History of Science).
History of pseudoscience history of pseudoscience is the study of
pseudoscientific theories over time. A pseudoscience is a set of ideas that
presents itself as science, while it does not meet the criteria to properly be called
such.
Timeline of scientific discoveries shows the date of publication of major
scientific theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. In many cases, the
discoveries spanned several years.
Timeline of scientific thought lists the major landmarks across all scientific
philosophy and methodological sciences.

By period[edit]

History of science in early cultures history of science in early cultures refers to the
study of protoscience in ancient history, prior to the development of science in the
Middle Ages.

History of science in Classical Antiquity history of science in classical antiquity

encompasses both those inquiries into the workings of the universe aimed at such
practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a
variety of illnesses and those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy.

History of science in the Middle Ages Science in the Middle Ages comprised the
study of nature, including practical disciplines, the mathematics and natural
philosophy in medieval Europe.

History of science in the Renaissance During the Renaissance, great advances

occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, mathematics, manufacturing,
and engineering.

 Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci Italian polymath, regarded as the

epitome of the "Renaissance Man", displaying skills in numerous diverse areas
of study.

Scientific revolution scientific revolution is an era associated primarily with the 16th
and 17th centuries during which new ideas and knowledge in physics, astronomy,
biology, medicine and chemistry transformed medieval and ancient views of nature
and laid the foundations for modern science.

Governmental impact on science during WWII Governmental impact on science

during World War II represents the effect of public administration on technological
development that provided many advantages to the armed forces, economies and
societies in their strategies during the war.

By date[edit]

List of years in science events related to science or technology which occurred in

the listed year.

Timeline of scientific discoveries shows the date of publication of major scientific

theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. In many cases, the discoveries
spanned several years.

Timeline of scientific experiments shows the date of publication of major scientific

experiments.

Timeline of the history of scientific method shows an overview of the cultural

inventions that have contributed to the development of the scientific method.

By field[edit]

History of natural science study of nature and the physical universe that was
dominant before the development of modern science.
Natural philosophy the study of nature and the physical universe that was
dominant before the development of modern science.
History of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern
times.

Natural history scientific research of plants or animals, leaning more

towards observational rather than experimental methods of study, and
encompasses more research published in magazines than in academic
journals.
History of ecology history of the science of ecology.
History of molecular biology begins in the 1930s with the convergence
of various, previously distinct biological disciplines: biochemistry, genetics,
microbiology, and virology.

History of physical science

History of astronomy, Timeline

History of chemistry By 1000 BC, ancient civilizations used technologies
that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry.

History of geography

History of geology, Timeline

History of meteorology, Timeline

History of nature describes the most important events and fundamental

stages in the development of the planet Earth from its formation to the
present day.

History of physics As forms of science historically developed out of

philosophy, physics was originally referred to as natural philosophy, a field of
study concerned with "the workings of nature."

History of the social sciences has origin in the common stock of Western
philosophy and shares various precursors, but began most intentionally in the early
19th century with the positivist philosophy of science.
History of science and technology
History of scientific method history of the methodology of scientific inquiry, as
differentiated from a history of science in general.
History of archaeology, Timeline
History of cognitive science
History of criminal justice Throughout the history of criminal justice, evolving
forms of punishment, added rights for offenders and victims, and policing
reforms have reflected changing customs, political ideals, and economic
conditions.
History of economics study of different thinkers and theories in the subject that
became political economy and economics from the ancient world to the present
day.
History of education development of systematic methods of teaching and
learning.
History of law study of how law has evolved and why it changed.
History of linguistics endeavors to describe and explain the human faculty of
language.
History of marketing as a recognized discipline, along with concomitant
changes in marketing theory and practice.

 History of parapsychology
History of political science social science discipline concerned with the study of
the state, government, and politics.
History of psychology, Timeline
History of sociology, Timeline
See also: Outline of technology:: History of technology

By region[edit]
History of science in present states, by continent[edit]
See - Category:Science and technology by continent
History of science in historic states[edit]

Science and technology of the Han Dynasty

Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire

Science and technology of the Song Dynasty

Science and technology in the Soviet Union

Science and technology of the Tang Dynasty

Philosophy of science[edit]

Philosophy of science questions the assumptions, foundations, methods and

implications of science.

Scientific community[edit]

Scientific community group of all interacting scientists.

Big Science a series of changes in science that occurred in industrial nations

during and after World War II.

Scientific organizations[edit]

Academy of Sciences national academy or another learned society dedicated to

sciences.

Scientists[edit]

Scientist practitioner of science; an individual who uses scientific method to

objectively inquire into the nature of realitybe it the fundamental laws of physics or
how people behave. There are many names for scientists, often named in relation to
the job that they do. One example of this is a biologist, a scientist who studies
biology (the study of living organisms and their environments).

Types of scientist[edit]
By field[edit]
The scientific fields mentioned below are generally described by the science they study.

Agricultural scientist broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of

exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and
understanding of agriculture.

Archaeologist study of human activity, primarily through the recovery and analysis
of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which
includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes (the archaeological
record).

Astronomer astronomer is a scientist who studies celestial bodies such as planets,

stars and galaxies.
Astrophysicist branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe,
including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions
and behavior.

Biologist scientist devoted to the study of living organisms and their relationship to
their environment.
Astrobiologist study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of
extraterrestrial life.
Biophysicist interdisciplinary science that uses the methods of physical science
to study biological systems.
Biotechnologist field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms
and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring
bioproducts.
Botanist discipline of biology, is the science of plant life.
Cognitive scientists scientific study of the mind and its processes.
Ecologist scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect
to each other and their natural environment.
Entomologist scientific study of insects, a branch of arthropodology.
Evolutionary biologist sub-field of biology concerned with the study of the
evolutionary processes that have given rise to the diversity of life on Earth.
Geneticist biologist who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and
variation of organisms.
Herpetologist branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians
(including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and gymnophiona) and reptiles

(including snakes, lizards, amphisbaenids, turtles, terrapins, tortoises,

crocodilians, and the tuataras).
Immunologist branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects
of the immune system in all organisms.
Ichthyologist study of fish.
Lepidopterist person who specialises in the study of Lepidoptera, members of
an order encompassing moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies, skipper
butterflies, and moth-butterflies.
Marine biologist scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or
brackish bodies of water.
Medical scientist basic research, applied research, or translational research
conducted to aid and support the body of knowledge in the field of medicine.
Microbiologist study of microscopic organisms.
Mycologist branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their
genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as
a source for tinder, medicinals (e.g., penicillin), food (e.g., beer, wine, cheese,
edible mushrooms) and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning
or infection.
Neuroscientist individual who studies the scientific field of neuroscience or any
of its related sub-fields.
Ornithologist branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds.
Paleontologist study of prehistoric life.
Pathologist precise study and diagnosis of disease.
Pharmacologist branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of
drug action.
Physiologist science of the function of living systems.
Zoologist branch of biology that relates to the animal kingdom, including the
structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all
animals, both living and extinct.

Chemist scientist trained in the study of chemistry.

Analytical chemist study of the separation, identification, and quantification of
the chemical components of natural and artificial materials.
Biochemist study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not
limited to, living matter.

 Inorganic chemist branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and

behavior of inorganic compounds.
Organic chemist subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of
the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis
or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their
derivatives.
Physical chemist study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate
phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts.

Earth scientist all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth.
Geologist scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the
Earth as well as the processes and history that has shaped it.
Glaciologist study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena
that involve ice.
Hydrologist study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth
and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and
environmental watershed sustainability.
Limnologist study of inland waters
Meteorologist study of weather
Mineralogist study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including
optical) properties of minerals.
Oceanographer branch of Earth science that studies the ocean
Paleontologist study of prehistoric life
Seismologist scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic
waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies.
Volcanologist study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological,
geophysical and geochemical phenomena.

Informatician science of information, the practice of information processing, and

the engineering of information systems.
Computer scientist scientist who has acquired knowledge of computer science,
the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation

Library scientist interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary field that applies the practices,

perspectives, and tools of management, information technology, education, and
other areas to libraries; the collection, organization, preservation, and dissemination
of information resources; and the political economy of information.

Management scientist study of advanced analytical methods to help make better

decisions.

Mathematician person with an extensive knowledge of mathematics, a field that

has been informally defined as being concerned with numbers, data, collection,
quantity, structure, space, and change.
Statistician someone who works with theoretical or applied statistics.

Military scientist process of translating national defence policy to produce military

capability by employing military scientists, including theorists, researchers,
experimental scientists, applied scientists, designers, engineers, test technicians,
and military personnel responsible for prototyping.

Physicist scientist who does research in physics

Psychologist professional or academic title used by individuals who practice

psychology
Abnormal psychologist branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of
behavior, emotion and thought, which may or may not be understood as
precipitating a mental disorder.
Educational psychologist psychologist whose differentiating functions may
include diagnostic and psycho-educational assessment, psychological
counseling in educational communities (students, teachers, parents and
academic authorities), community-type psycho-educational intervention, and
mediation, coordination, and referral to other professionals, at all levels of the
educational system.
Biopsychologist application of the principles of biology (in particular
neurobiology), to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental
mechanisms of behavior in human and non-human animals.
Clinical psychologist integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for
the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based
distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal
development.
Comparative psychologist scientific study of the behavior and mental processes
of non-human animals, especially as these relate to the phylogenetic history,
adaptive significance, and development of behavior.
Cognitive psychologist subdiscipline of psychology exploring internal mental
processes. It is the study of how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and
solve problems.
Developmental psychologist scientific study of systematic psychological
changes, emotional changes, and perception changes that occur in human
beings over the course of their life span.

 Evolutionary psychologist approach in the social and natural sciences that

examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a
modern evolutionary perspective.
Experimental psychologist study of behavior and the processes that underlie it,
by means of experiment
Neuropsychologist studies the structure and function of the brain as they relate
to specific psychological processes and behaviors.
Social psychologist scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.

Social scientist field of study concerned with society and human behaviours.
Anthropologist study of humanity.

Ethnologist branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the

origins, distribution, technology, religion, language, and social structure of
the ethnic, racial, and/or national divisions of humanity.

Communication scientist academic field that deals with processes of human

communication, commonly defined as the sharing of symbols to create meaning.
Criminologist study of criminal behavior
Demographer statistical study of populations
Economist professional in the social science discipline of economics.
Geographer geographer is a scholar whose area of study is geography, the
study of Earth's natural environment and human society.
Political economist study of production, buying, and selling, and their relations
with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national
income and wealth, including through the budget process.
Political scientist social science discipline concerned with the study of the state,
government, and politics.
Sociologist

Technologist
Architectural technologist, a specialist in the technology of building design and
construction
Educational technologist, a specialist in tools to enhance learning
Engineering technologist, a specialist who implements technology within a field of
engineering

 Industrial technologist, a specialist in the management, operation, and

maintenance of complex operation systems
Medical Technologist, a healthcare professional who performs diagnostic analysis
on a variety of body fluids
Radiologic technologist, a medical professional who applies doses of radiation for
imaging and treatment
Surgical technologist, a health specialist who facilitates the conduct of invasive
surgical procedures
By employment status[edit]

Academic community of students and scholars engaged in higher education and

research.

Layperson someone who is not an expert or someone who has not had
professional training

Gentleman scientist financially independent scientist who pursues scientific study

as a hobby.

Government scientist scientist employed by a country's government

Famous scientists[edit]
Main list: Lists of scientists

Aristotle Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of

Alexander the Great.

Archimedes Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and

astronomer.

Andreas Vesalius Flemish anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most
influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the
Structure of the Human Body).

Nicolaus Copernicus Renaissance astronomer and the first person to

formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology which displaced the Earth
from the center of the universe.

Galileo Galilei Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher

who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution.

Johannes Kepler German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer. A key

figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his
eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers, based on
his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi, and Epitome of Copernican
Astronomy.

Ren Descartes French philosopher, mathematician, and writer who spent

most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic.

Isaac Newton English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural

philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to
be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived."

Leonhard Euler pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist.

Pierre-Simon Laplace French mathematician and astronomer whose work was

pivotal to the development of mathematical astronomy and statistics.

Alexander von Humboldt German geographer, naturalist and explorer, and the
younger brother of the Prussian minister, philosopher and linguist Wilhelm von
Humboldt.

Charles Darwin Charles Robert Darwin FRS (12 February 1809 - 19 April
1882) was an English naturalist.[I] He established that all species of life have
descended over time from common ancestors, and proposed the scientific
theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he
called natural selection.

James Clerk Maxwell Scottish physicist and mathematician.

Marie Curie Polish physicist and chemist famous for her pioneering research
on radioactivity.

Albert Einstein German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of

general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics

Linus Pauling American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and

educator. He was one of the most influential chemists in history and ranks
among the most important scientists of the 20th century.

John Bardeen American physicist and electrical engineer, the only person to
have won the Nobel Prize in Physics twice

Frederick Sanger English biochemist and a two-time Nobel laureate in

chemistry, the only person to have been so.

Stephen Hawking British theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author.

Science education[edit]
Science education

Scientific literacy encompasses written, numerical, and digital literacy as they

pertain to understanding science, its methodology, observations, and theories.

See also[edit]
Science portal

Sci-Mate open collaboration of scientists using Web 2.0 software to address

well known challenges in academic publishing and technology transfer

Science Daily news website for topical science articles

Science.tv virtual community for people interested in science

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ Alan Y. Wang, thecrimson, December 2013
2. Jump up^ COLIN MCGINN, New York Times, March 2012
3. Jump up^ Friedland, New York Times, April 2012
4. Jump up^ Philosophy: The Journal of the Royal Institute of Philosophy,
81(316), 189-207. 19 p./ Priest, Graham, April 2006]
5. Jump up^ Environmental Impact of Aquaculture
6. Jump up^ Aquacultures growth continuing: improved management techniques
can reduce environmental effects of the practice.(UPDATE)." Resource:
Engineering & Technology for a Sustainable World 16.5 (2009): 20-22. Gale
Expanded Academic ASAP. Web. 1 October 2009.
<http://find.galegroup.com/gtx/start.do?prodId=EAIM.>.

What is the Correlation of Science with other Subjects?

Correlation of Science with other Subjects
As known that for over all development of the students, various subjects are being included in the
curriculum. These subjects are not selected on ad-hoc basis, but this decision is taken after
proper consideration and analysation. Generally those subjects are included in the curriculum
which is found to be complementary to each other, as the main objective of all of them is to
achieve set objective of education that is to bring about over all development of the students.
Science is quite a complex and vast kind of subject, because of which the task of correlating it
with other subjects of curriculum seems to be quite an easy task. Deliberate effort should be done
by the science teacher to bring about co-relation in between the science and other subjects of the
curriculum, which are being imparted to the students.
Through this, students will find the opportunity to relate the knowledge which they have already
gained, with the knowledge which they are gaining. This kind of relation activity leads to
development of interest among the students.
While imparting knowledge of one subject, teacher gets much help in communicating his ideas if
he makes use of examples or reference of concepts covered by other subjects. Although it is not
very easy to co-relate various subjects with the complex subject like science, but it is not
impossible. This can be done in the following manner:Science and Language:
Although science is a practical subject, but it is very important for it's learners to be able to
express their views and ideas in clear and attractive form. For this purpose, it is necessary that
they should have thorough knowledge of language which they use. Student who does not have
good control over the language cannot express his views and various scientific laws and
principles in front of others and especially in front of teacher.
Today, as a result of adoption of uniform technical terms and symbols, vocabulary of different
languages have been enriched to considerable extent. In making students able to give answers of
various scientific queries, in effective manner, either in written form or orally, science teacher
and language teacher should take up a joint responsibility on their shoulders.
To co-relate science with language subjects, students can be asked to write essays on some
scientific topic. If student make any kind of grammatical mistake, then the teacher can ask him to
make correction in his language. Likewise, language teacher can give the task of writing about
some scientific happening in the assignment designed for them. In this manner, he can correlate
science with the language.
Science with Mathematics:

A large number of scientific principles and rules are represented in the form of mathematical
expressions, for which it is very necessary for the student or person intending to get advanced
study of science subjects to have sound mathematical basis. Without making use of mathematical
expressions and rules, it is not possible for any teacher to conduct science teaching in effective
manner.
The significance of mathematics in the science can be proved by the views of the experts that
mathematics has given sound footing to the scientific laws and principles. Before beginning any
topic in the science, it is essential for the teacher to make sure that mathematical basis of all the
students is strong and vast.
Probably, mathematics is considered to be sole language of science because of which real
understanding of science is considered to be impossible without adequate knowledge of
mathematics. Some of the useful mathematical tools which are generally used in the science
teaching are Algebraic equations, Geometrical formulas, Graphs etc.
Correlationship existing in between one of the subject of science and mathematics can be
understood. Astrology is an advanced branch of science in which it is predicted or enumerated
that which planet revolves at which speed and when it will get appeared to the people of earth.
This is quite complex area, and no one can enter into this complex area without having a sound
mathematical basis. Likewise, mathematical rules and theories are also applied to considerable
extent in physics, in which no one can intend to take even single step without relying on the
subject of mathematics.
Thus, it can be said that science teacher should make all efforts by which he can establish corelation in between the subjects of science and mathematics. It will not be improper in any way to
consider both of these subjects as complementary to each other, which can be studied
simultaneously or at the same time.
For this reason it can be said that without making use of examples from mathematics, it is not
possible for science teacher to explain various scientific principles and concepts properly to the
students. To make it possible, sincere and deliberate efforts should be made by science as well as
mathematics teacher to co-relate both the subjects in accordance with the syllabus.
Science and History:
It sounds quite amazing that some kind of correlation can exist in between the science and
history as earlier subject is practical in nature while nature of later subject is purely theoretical.
However, it is possible to co-relate these subjects with each other.
While mentioning about the various scientific discoveries taken place in the earlier periods,
teacher can relate with the major events of the world history. Students should be told about that
what was the situation of science at the time of reigns of various famous kings or rulers. Teacher
should narrate to the incidences which inspired various scientists to found out the medical
remedies of various diseases.

Not only this, the function of co-relating science with history can be done by mentioning the kind
of living standard people used to experience at different parts of the human history. With such
knowledge, they will become aware of the scientific concepts like sanitation and healthful living.
Science and Geography:
Geography is the subject in which various concepts relating to earth on which we live are dealt
with. Everything existing on earth, on different planets of the universe are also main subjects of
geography. Which kind of crop should be sown in which kind of soils, how many kinds of rocks
are found on the earth are some of the main topics which are covered by Geography. One will be
surprise by this fact as these topics are also covered by the subject of Science.
In science, various concepts relating to the atmosphere and earth in which living and non-living
beings exist are made. For this reason, temperature, wind directions and measurement of rainfall
are conducted in the subject of science by making use of various apparatus.
Results obtained by the science in terms of climate and the manner in which it affect the human
beings and earth are being interpreted by subject of Geography. The manner in which it is
mentioned by the geography that how soil gets produced through crushing process of rocks, it
makes the subject a special branch of science.
Therefore, geography lessons on these subjects will be best understood and appreciated if they
have been discussed in length by the science teacher. There are various topics which are of
common interest for geographers and scientists. Thus, it can be said that both of these subjects
are complementary to each other. Both of these subjects are very near to each other, thus science
teacher will not find any kind of problem in relating science with the subject of geography.
Science and Social Studies:
If one explores the history of development of human society, he will find various incidences in
which human got victory over forces of nature, by which he got control over the land, sky and
seas. As said that an important impact of science teaching is that outlook and perspective of
students or people become scientific in nature, as a result of which, various kinds of changes take
place in their way of living.
Scientific thinking affects the standard of living of human beings to considerable extent, as
through such information, outlook and perspective of human beings become more wide and they
can freed themselves successfully from the clutches of superstitions and false beliefs.
Various evidences can be found in our life which can show the significant way in which life style
of human beings have got affected by inclusion of scientific developments in their life. Today, we
can found various kinds of machines for performing different functions, about which primitive
men even did not think.
As a result of these machines, our life has become very easy and smooth and now we can
accomplish complex functions within short period of time, which were considered to be very time
consuming. Not only this, various research works has led to development of various medicines

with the help of which physicians have found the remedies of various diseases, which were once
considered to be incurable and were responsible for bringing about heavy loss of life in earlier
times.
Not only this, earlier a large number of manpower was being engaged in the agricultural sector,
but now we are moving towards highly developed industries, as a result of which we are ready to
participate in the competition taking place in global market. We have third highest number of
professionals engaged in different areas of the world.
Now a large number of students intend to get education from foreign universities, but they want
to serve their own nation and want to play effective role in bringing about development of the
nation with greater pace. Earlier people were not provided with the developments taking place in
the scientific area, as a result of which they used to accept all the orders imposed on them.
But now, in a scientific advanced time, people have learned that being human beings, they have
certain rights, and if any attack is being made on their rights, they begin to agitate. This can be
the possible reason that why women of our nation has attained those rights which were not
permitted to them in the earlier time.
Another change which has taken place in our society through such reasoning ability is the
manner in which people belonging to minority section of the society are asking or reservations in
various spheres of the life. They are asking about reservations in educational institutions and
even in parliament of the nation.
Thus it can be said that science and social sciences are two subjects which can be co-related with
each other without much problem. A science teacher can correlate science with social studies on
different occasions by providing suitable relations of relevance.
Science and Civics:
The main objective of imparting information of both the subjects is to create good and useful
citizens for the nation, thus it is possible to correlate both of these subjects with each other.
Through science, students become able to understand the utility of scientific inventions in their
life, by which they become more responsible.
They begin to realise a sense of responsibility, which help them in playing important role in
development of the nation. Through information of scientific facts, students get to know about
various kinds of diseases and the role which they can play in creating a healthy and clean
atmosphere around them. Through this kind of information, they become more responsible
citizens and play an important role in creating an ideal civic life in the society and nation as a
whole.
Science and Art:
It is considered by the majority of people that it is science who has contributed a great deal in
developing the field of art, but this is not true, as both of these subjects or areas has played
important roles in enriching each other. All types of arts have got enriched as a result of scientific

developments, but it is not possible for a science teacher to impart information relating to various
scientific facts and principles without having thorough control over the art.
As known that science is a practical subject, as a result of which, science teacher is required to
draw various kinds of diagrams, models and charts, which cannot be performed unless he does
not have sound artistic skills. Not only this, it is equally important for an artist to have thorough
knowledge of scientific principles, as without it, he will find it difficult to keep the colour contrast
of his images in attractive and controlled position.
An artist should know the principles of light and shade, objects and background for drawing or
keeping the colour contrast in attractive condition. Thus, it can be said that some common
features are found in the subjects of science and art, because of which they can be co-related with
each other effectively.
Science and Music:
In our nation, music has its own importance as different kinds of songs are found in different
parts of the nation. There are songs and theories of music in different languages. Various musical
stars got born in our nation, but the number of persons engaged in musical area has diminished
to considerable extent as now people consider it as wastage of time and efforts.
To encourage people and especially students to get involve themselves in professions having their
roots in music, this has been accepted as an independent subject in various schools and
institutions and it forms an integral part of school curriculum. For the students of music,
knowledge of resonance, vibration systems in strings and air columns is very necessary and
important.
To make improvements in their voice and manner of singing, various scientific equipments are
being used today, which could not come into being without scientific developments. Thus, it is
only through the utilisation of scientific developments in the real life that led to development of
various apparatuses used in the musical field. Science teacher can relate subject of science with
the music by narrating the students that what led to development of various equipments used by
the musicians and on which principles do they operate or function.
Science and Craft Works:
Some people will find it quite unsound to relate science and craft works with each other, but
various kinds of improvements can be brought about in ability of students to understand various
scientific principles and facts. During craft periods, students can be provided with the task of
designing various pieces of scientific apparatuses and equipments.
Through such step, scientific interest can be developed in the students, which will help in
arousing the interest of students in various scientific incidences. An urge will get developed in
them to see or observe the equipments or apparatuses designed by them in reality, by which they
will be motivated to get more and more information regarding the research functions conducted
in the scientific field through various means and sources.

Thus, it can be said that if science teacher will relate science with other subjects of the
curriculum, then he will get more justifiable and satisfactory results.

Physical science, the systematic study of the inorganic world, as distinct from the study of the
organic world, which is the province of biological science. Physical science is ordinarily thought
of as consisting of four broad areas: astronomy,physics, chemistry, and the Earth sciences. Each
of these is in turn divided into fields and subfields. This article discusses the historical
developmentwith due attention to the scope, principal concerns, and methodsof the first
three of these areas. The Earth sciences are discussed in a separate article.
Physics, in its modern sense, was founded in the mid-19th century as a synthesis of several older sciences
namely, those of mechanics, optics, acoustics, electricity, magnetism, heat, and the physical properties
of matter. The synthesis was based in large part on the recognition that the different forces of nature are
related and are, in fact, interconvertible because they are forms ofenergy.
The boundary between physics and chemistry is somewhat arbitrary. As it developed in the 20th century,
physics is concerned with the structure and behaviour of individual atoms and their components, while
chemistry deals with the properties and reactions of molecules. These latter depend on energy, especially
heat, as well as on atoms; hence, there is a strong link between physics and chemistry. Chemists tend to be
more interested in the specific properties of different elements and compounds, whereas physicists are
concerned with general properties shared by all matter.
Astronomy is the science of the entire universe beyond the Earth; it includes the Earths gross physical
properties, such as its mass and rotation, insofar as they interact with other bodies in the solar system. Until
the 18th century, astronomers were concerned primarily with the Sun, Moon, planets, and comets. During
the following centuries, however, the study of stars, galaxies, nebulas, and the interstellar medium became
increasingly important. Celestial mechanics, the science of the motion of planets and other solid objects
within the solar system, was the first testing ground for Newtons laws of motion and thereby helped to
establish the fundamental principles of classical (that is, pre-20th-century) physics. Astrophysics, the study
of the physical properties of celestial bodies, arose during the 19th century and is closely connected with
the determination of the chemical composition of those bodies. In the 20th century physics and astronomy
became more intimately linked through cosmological theories, especially those based on the theory
of relativity.

Heritage of antiquity and the Middle Ages

The physical sciences ultimately derive from the rationalistic materialism that emerged in classicalGreece,
itself an outgrowth of magical and mythical views of the world. The Greek philosophers of the 6th and 5th
centuries BCE abandoned the animism of the poets and explained the world in terms of ordinarily
observable natural processes. These early philosophers posed the broad questions thatstill underlie science:
How did the world order emerge from chaos? What is the origin of multitude and variety in the world?
How can motion and change be accounted for? What is the underlying relation between form and matter?
Greek philosophy answered these questions in terms that provided the framework for science for
approximately 2,000 years.