Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Hossein Farhady
Abstract
Applied Linguistics (AL), a field emerging as an interface of many disciplines, has
been growing in the last few decades. As an area emerged to deal with practical
applications of linguistics to foreign language teaching, AL has moved beyond this
simplistic perspective. AL began as a practical field, moved into a theoretical area,
and is ending up with a philosophical and epistemological framework to explore the
mysteries of human language and its multifaceted implications and applications to
human knowledge. The purpose of this paper is to shed some light on ever-changing
treatment of the concept of AL from different perspectives and offer some guidelines
for language students and researchers.
Introduction
In recent decades, applied linguistics has been a polemic field. Many scholars have
helped clarify the issue. In some cases, clarifications have led to simplifications while
in some other cases intended clarifications have led to complications and sometimes
to confusions. For example, a group of scholars has advocated the idea that AL is
simply the application of the findings of linguistics to practical issues such as
language teaching. Although clear in explanation, this sort of treatment makes the
issue seem simple-minded. Another group, on the other hand, has tried to move well
beyond the simple application of the findings of linguists and to establish a theoretical
framework for the field of applied linguistics. While Corder might be considered the
pioneer for the first school of thinking, Widdowson can be taken as the leader of the
second movement. There is still the third group the followers of which believe that
AL has a philosophical as well as an epistemological underlying.
This paper is intended to address the issues related to all three perspectives, albeit
quite briefly. That is, it will hopefully clarify some of the vague impressions that the
students of language have about AL, and, at the same time, it will present some
unresolved issues in the field. More specifically, the purpose of this paper is twofold.
First, the concept of AL, its past, and its present status will be discussed, and second,
some theoretically farfetched but practically relevant areas of investigation in the field
of AL will be offered.
Historical Background
In order to understand the present status of a concept, a historical review is often
helpful and illuminating. The origin of AL, then, should logically be sought in the
origin of linguistics. Linguistics, as a scientific study of language, is claimed to be a
branch of science. Thus, the root of linguistics should be sought within the framework
of the general development of the science itself.
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What science is and how it started is an intriguing question. Probably, the point of
inception of knowledge and eventually science goes back to the very first problem
that man encountered and tried to solve, no matter how simple or trivial it might have
been. As the problems might have been simple, so might the solutions. However,
simple solutions were accumulated and gradually organized into the complex system
of present science.
But what is science? Of course, explaining the concept of science is not an easy task.
Nor is it necessary in the limited space here. Nevertheless, since an overview of the
history of science would encompass the history and the development of linguistics as
a branch of science, which in turn might lead to a clear picture of the developments in
the field of AL, a brief review seems warranted.
It is fairly certain that Eastern countries such as old China, Iran, and Egypt have made
significant contributions to the development of science at early ages (Foroughi, 1952).
Most of the branches of science today such as astronomy, mathematics, medicine,
architecture, engineering, and even metallurgy and mining are rooted in the scientific
thinking of the people in old Eastern countries. Technological developments such as
the emergence of the alphabet and the printing industry are also rooted in the Eastern
countries. In its broad sense, one could assume that the origin of civilization would go
back to China and the area of Upherats.
There are three distinguishable eras in the history of the development of science and
technology prior to the flourishing era of science in the western countries.
Documents are available from the first era of civilization in Babolonia. Around 2500
BC, people in Babolonia conducted the measures of physical concepts such as length,
time, etc. The conception of mathematics and engineering also goes back to
Babylonians and Summerians. Among different branches of science, geometry and
astronomy developed in that period of time, but due to the mystic nature of
astronomy, it progressed faster than the other branches of science.
The second era of civilization is attributed to Egypt. The discovery of wheels, boats,
and the calendar is also attributed to this era. The field of medicine progressed in
Egypt very fast around 2000 BC as the first recorded medical doctor in the world is
registered in this country.
The third era of civilization started in India. Since Buda and his thinking had
inclinations toward medical sciences, medicine, especially surgery and pathology had
considerable advancements in this era.
After a flourishing period of science in the early ages, there was a period of silence.
During this period, scientific thinking moved, quite secretively and collectively at the
same time, from the Eastern and the far Eastern countries to Greece. In other words,
all channels of civilization and scientific thinking, regardless of their origin, ended up
in Greece. Most of the thoughts, originated in the East, were revitalized in Greece and
this country became the center of the new era in sciences and arts. In fact, the Greek
thinkers inherited many branches of science, albeit in their primitive form. Some of
them were kept as they had been received, some others were improved, and still
others were modified.
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Such a cyclic movement, i.e., from applied to pure and then from pure to applied,
exists for other scientific disciplines as well. That is, at first, the scientific principles
are applied to the real world activities intuitively without peoples having much
theoretical knowledge on the area. Then, the processes of application, observation of
the outcomes, and drawing the conclusions thereupon have led to the evolution of a
scientific area. When a discipline is established, the scientific application with
theoretical foundation has started under the name of the applied science of that
discipline.
The pioneer in applied sciences, which originated from the application of the findings
of certain branches of science to real world activities, was the emergence of
technology. Technology, defined as a systematic application of knowledge to practical
tasks in industry, dominated the 20th century. Further, with the expansion of the
domain of sciences, the application of various branches of knowledge to practical
problems gave birth to a new counterpart for almost every discipline, i.e., the applied
part of every science. So, applied mathematics, applied physics, applied chemistry,
etc. which shared a similar definition as a systematic application of knowledge in a
particular area to practical tasks in the real world were developed. And so it began.
Applied sciences developed along with the so-called pure sciences. AL was not an
exception. Basically, applied sciences aim at achieving objectives that are outside the
realm of sciences themselves. That is, an applied science is not the science itself.
Nor is it a subsection of that science.
The reason for this discrepancy lies in the fact that the concept of application has
different interpretations. In principle, three types of application can be imagined for
all applied sciences including AL (Back, 1970). The first reason is the application of
the methods, techniques, and results from one branch of science to another in order to
broaden the scope of the field. For example, the findings of linguistics can be used to
improve stylistics, which by itself is neither linguistics nor a branch of linguistics.
The second reason is the application of the findings in one area of science to another
in order to solve some of the practical problems in that field. As an example, the
application of the findings of second language acquisition research to language
teaching can be mentioned where neither one is linguistics nor branches of linguistics.
And the third reason is the mere application of the findings of a particular area of
science by itself and in itself. For instance, a teacher applies the findings of
linguistics about language to the teaching of language.
Applied Linguistics
As mentioned before, linguistics itself as a scientific area emerged in late 1800s.
Ignoring the unprincipled application of linguistics to real life problems, the
theoretically oriented AL should logically appear after the emergence of linguistics
itself. Unfortunately, from among the three types of applications mentioned above,
only the third type became known as applied linguistics. That is, the application of
the findings of linguistics to language teaching. As Corder (1973) claims,
Applied linguistics is the utilization of the knowledge about the nature of language achieved
by linguistic research for the improvement of the efficiency of some practical tasks in which
language is a central component (p. 4).
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One of the major applications of linguistics to the real world activities has been its
application to the teaching of languages. As with other applied sciences, the history of
language teaching clearly shows the precedence of AL to linguistics, because
linguistics is hardly one hundred years old. In the early days, language teaching was
considered the only area where linguistics could be applied. Of course, the most
salient, observable, and accessible situation in real life setting in which the findings of
linguistics could be readily applied was the teaching of languages in general, and the
teaching of foreign languages in particular. That is probably why Corder (1973)
stated some thirty years ago that AL is the relevance of those studies that are broadly
called linguistic to a number of practical tasks connected with language teaching. Of
course, this approach might have been well justified then. However, Corder himself
believed that while the relevance of linguistics to language teaching cannot be
disputed, the approach might be criticized in the grounds that linguistics cannot be
restricted to language teaching alone. However, due to some social and educational
factors, the term AL had been restricted to language teaching.
The idea that AL is, or almost is, interchangeable with language teaching misdirected
the field of AL for some years. The reason is that the scope of AL cannot be limited
to language teaching, because linguistics was one of the fields of which the findings
were applicable to language teaching. There were some other areas of science that
contributed to language teaching as well. Furthermore, there were other areas of
science, which had little or no connections to language teaching, to which linguistics
contributed.
That is why even Corder who used the two terms almost
interchangeably, later admitted that these two terms should not be taken as equal. He
stated that
theories about the human language are, of course, of use to other people besides the
language teacher. It would be a mistake to associate AL exclusively with language teaching.
There are other people who are engaged in practical activities which involve language in a
central role for whom a knowledge of its nature could be of use in dealing with problems
which arise in their work: the speech therapist, the literary critic, the communication engineer,
for example. We do not associate AL with any single of these activities. Whilst AL and
language teaching may be closely associated, they are not one and the same activity (p. 10).
Although this was a great contribution to the development and expansion of the scope
of AL, it was not comprehensive enough to elaborate on the yet to come multiple
aspects of AL. When AL established itself as an area of inquiry in relation to
linguistics on the one hand, and independent of linguistics, on the other, an interesting
issue evolved. To some scholars, AL was simply the application of linguistics to
practical issues. That is, AL is practical not theoretical. As Corder (1973) states:
The application of linguistic knowledge to some object, or applied linguistics, is an activity. It
is not a theoretical study. It makes use of the findings of theoretical studies. The applied
linguist is a consumer, or user, not a producer, of theories. If we use the term " theory " as is
used in science, then there is no "theory of language teaching" (p. 10).
Hossein Farhady
Linguistics
Theoretician
Applied Linguistics
Mediator
Pedagogy
Practitioner
Hossein Farhady
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language. At present, studying the structure of brain, which is the main concern in
neurology in connection with the structure and functioning of language has brought
up a new field referred to as neurolinguistics that specifically addresses the issues
related to brain and language.
Another part of the questions deals with the leaner who is a human being. Human
beings are social beings. They learn language, no matter what it is and how it is
learned, in order to communicate with the members of a community. A community
lives under certain social rules and regulations that influence the use of language. The
field that inquires about such rules is sociology. Again, sociology is an independent
field of study. However, its findings are important regarding what Widdoson calls the
use of language. The interrelationship of language use and sociology has led to the
emergence of a new field called sociolinguistics. The group of scholars studying the
use of language has to get involved in discourse analysis, pragmatics, and stylistics.
The fourth point in the question relates to the person who is supposed to help the
learner learn the languages, i.e., the teacher. Teachers, too, live in societies with all
sorts of variables influencing their personal, social, psychological, and academic
lives. All these variables influence the teacher, and thus the teaching process. A
motivated, dedicated, knowledgeable, and creative teacher would definitely help
learners more than a teacher without such characteristics.
It should be noted that the factors mentioned under the question of who is taught, are
not, by any means, unrelated to each other. Nor do they operate independently of one
another. They all function interactively within a macro network of learner/teacher
variables. A motivated teacher will certainly be more successful with a motivated
learner than with an unmotivated one. Similarly, a motivated learner will benefit more
from a committed teacher than from an indifferent one. Thus, discussing these
variables in isolation is just for the sake of clarity and not for demonstrating their
independent functioning within the process of language learning and language
teaching.
The third question deals with the purpose of learning. Undoubtedly, within the era of
communicative teaching, one of the most important factors has been the significance
of the learner needs, along with the ways of identifying, determining, and categorizing
these needs. When learner needs are determined, implementing a program that would
fulfill the needs of the learners requires considerations of materials development,
syllabus design, and teacher education. In fact, needs analysis, materials development,
syllabus design, and teacher education, each of which has established itself as an
interesting and an almost independent field of inquiry, have collectively led to the
development of a new trend in language teaching called teaching English for specific
purposes (ESP). ESP has been the focus of research in many scientific and
technological disciplines within the last quarter of a century in order to meet, as much
as possible, the learners purpose for learning a language.
The fourth question addresses the issue of the conditions of teaching. Conditions
refer to so many variables including the physical environment of the class, the time of
the teaching, the facilities available for teaching, the country in which the language is
taught, to name a few. All these factors influence, directly or indirectly, the teacher,
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the learner, and the outcome of teaching learning process. For instance, the number of
students in a class is an important factor in most public educational systems. In
crowded classes, the teacher does not find ample time or an acceptable environment to
have students repeat or practice the materials. The number of students is related to
the space available in the classroom. In most classrooms students do not have enough
space to sit comfortably, let alone to get involved in some class activities. So,
conditions of teaching influence conditions of learning and thus the effectiveness of
instruction.
Technological and technical facilities available in class are also important. Computer
assisted language learning (CALL) has recently established itself as a major area of
interest for language educators. The utilization of electronic devices in translation, the
so-called machine translation, has also intrigued language educators for a long time
now.
Taking into account all the WH questions of language education, along with related
issues, indicate that AL cannot be equated with language teaching. AL involves so
many variables in so many seemingly unrelated areas. Therefore, the notion that AL
equals language teaching did not hold true for two reasons. On the one hand, theories
of language, language learning, language teaching, etc., formulated through different
disciplines, were not exclusively used in classroom situations. There were many other
occasions in which the findings of these fields played a central role. On the other
hand, none of the mentioned fields alone was capable of accounting for the multitude
of variables involved in the complex process of language related activities.
The extension of theoretical perspectives has recently led to a philosophical thinking
on AL. Rampton (1995) claims that research in AL has shifted from focusing on
products, linguistics, and psychology to focusing on processes, psycholinguistics,
sociology, anthropology, and media studies, respectively. He claims that the situation
in AL is moving from autonomous to ideological thinking. According to this new
trend, AL has a sociopolitical, cultural, and ecological interpretation. In this sense,
AL research can occupy a position that deals with political orders characterized by
cultural authoritarianism, service to the governments, competition on the market,
independent analysis and critique, and new social movements.
For instance, much AL research serves the principles and policies of the government.
Whether the language education curriculum should be centralized or localized is an
AL domain of research. Whether educational system is localized or centralized, each
entails many other areas such as materials development, teacher education, teaching
methodology and so forth. In addition, many research projects dealing with ESP,
lexicography, and communication skills training are sponsored by manufacturing and
educational organizations. This indicates that part of research in AL deals with
competition in the market. Only independent critical studies conducted by individual
academicians serve the liberal aspects of AL research. Last but not least is the direct
or indirect effect of the new social movements in different parts of the world on the
social systems and the way the members of the societies behave, which in turn
influences the educational policy and language education.
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Along the same lines, Corson (1997) claims that AL goes beyond ideal matters of
linguistic meaning and moves into the real world of human interaction. The influential
philosophy of human sciences, critical realism, begins with questions of being and
views the nonhuman properties of the social world as real entities especially the
reasons and accounts that people offer to interpret the material and immaterial aspects
of their world. He claims that if AL were to take these accounts more seriously, it
might contribute more directly to improving human condition.
Phillipson (1992) sees the following two rather incompatible epistemologies that now
underpin the work in AL,
In one, applied linguistics takes over theories and methods from other areas of scientific study,
which then have the status of feeder disciplines, in the other, it is an autonomous scientific
activity requiring the elaboration of its own theoretical base in relation to its intended
applications. When all these ambiguities in the term exist, it is not surprising that there is
uncertainty about what applied linguistics stands for (p. 167).
Clearly on logical grounds, the first of these theories of knowledge is more relevant
and appropriate for the academic study of language teaching. However, it is the
second epistemology that governs their work. For much of the work in AL does on
independent of other disciplinary influences. This recent generation of AL assumes
much more into AL. As Corson states,
The task of theorizing the point of intersection between applied linguistics and the real world
of human social interaction, is an ontological matter: what is the status of human reasons and
accounts, offered up in natural language exchanges, that in turn become the data and domain of
inquiry of applied linguistics, and provide the system of discourses that support that domain?
Are these reasons and accounts ontological elements? And if they are, what follows from this?
An answer to these questions can be found in the philosophy of human sciences, notably in the
critical realism recently advanced by Roy Bhasker, a British philosopher of science who
extends his ideas directly and compellingly from the sciences, so that they have comparable
impact in the human sciences as well (p. 168).
Conclusions
Certain conclusions can be drawn from the discussion presented in this paper. The
first set of conclusions as was hoped at the beginning, comprises the following
clarifications:
1. The idea that AL is a mere application of the findings of linguistics to practical
activities is clearly wrong.
2. The idea that AL can be used interchangeably with foreign language teaching is
clearly wrong.
3. The idea that AL is only a practical field and it does not deal with theoretical issues
is clearly wrong.
4. Applied linguistics is neither a subordinate nor a superordinate to linguistics. That
is, it is neither a subsection of linguistics nor linguistics itself.
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Summary
In this paper an attempt was made to clarify the scope of AL. Through a historical
review, the emergence of sciences and applied sciences was presented. Then the
concept of AL was discussed and its different meanings were explained. It was
mentioned that AL started as a mere application of the findings of linguistics to
practical problems of foreign language teaching, moved into a theory building area,
and eventually to a philosophical thinking. Finally certain clarifications and
suggestions were made for research in AL.
* Paper presented at the 4th international conference on Linguistics and Applied Linguistics (1998).
Allame Tabatabaee University, Tehran.
Bibliography
Wardaugh, R. & Brown, H. D. (eds.) (1977). A survey of applied linguistics. An
Arbor, The University of Michigan Press.
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