Bricks Theory

Version 3.
Theory
March 2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
Address comments concerning this document to:
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A-8020 Graz
Phone:
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Revision
A
B
C
D
Date
30-Nov-1999
14-Feb-2000
29-Oct-2000
03-Mar-2003
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Description
Theory v3.0
Theory v3.0
Theory v3.1
Theory v3.2
Document No.
02.0201.5722
02.0201.5727
02.0201.5732
02.0201.5738
Copyright 2003, AVL

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed, stored
in a retrieval system, or translated into any language or computer language in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, magnetic, optical, chemical, manual or otherwise, without prior
written consent of AVL.
This document describes how to run the BRICKS software. It does not attempt to discuss all the
concepts of design analysis required to obtain successful solutions. It is the users responsibility to
determine if he/she has sufficient knowledge and understanding of fluid dynamics to apply this
software appropriately.
This software and document are distributed solely on an "as is" basis. The entire risk as to their
quality and performance is with the user. Should either the software or this document prove
defective, the user assumes the entire cost of all necessary servicing, repair, or correction. AVL
and its distributors will not be liable for direct, indirect, incidental or consequential damages
resulting from any defect in the software or this document, even if they have been advised of the
possibility of such damage.
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ____________________________________________________ 1-1
1.1. Scope _______________________________________________________________________1-1
1.2. User Qualifications ___________________________________________________________1-1
1.3. Symbols _____________________________________________________________________1-1
1.4. Configurations _______________________________________________________________1-2
1.5. Documentation_______________________________________________________________1-2
2. Theoretic Fundamentals ________________________________________ 2-1

2.1. Crank Train Load Analysis ____________________________________________________2-1
2.1.1. Kinematic Fundamentals of the Crank Mechanism ___________________________2-1
2.1.1.1. Piston Displacement ___________________________________________________2-1
2.1.1.2. Piston Velocity ________________________________________________________2-2
2.1.1.3. Piston Acceleration ____________________________________________________2-3
2.1.2. Force Resolution at the Crank Train ________________________________________2-4
2.1.3. Gas Forces _______________________________________________________________2-6
2.1.4. Mass Forces ______________________________________________________________2-9
2.1.5. Mass Torque ___________________________________________________________ 2-11
2.2. Crankshaft Balancing _______________________________________________________ 2-12
2.2.1. Balancing of Mass Forces at One Crank Mechanism ________________________ 2-12
2.2.2. Balancing of Mass Forces at Multi Crank Mechanism _______________________ 2-15
2.2.3. Balancing of Free Couples _______________________________________________ 2-16
2.2.4. Internal Bending Moments_______________________________________________ 2-20
2.2.5. Influence from Rotating Counterweights on Cross Tipping Moment __________ 2-21
2.2.5.1. Alternating Torque Caused from Rotating Counterweights ______________ 2-21
2.2.5.2. Balancing of Gas and Mass Alternating Torque _________________________ 2-21
2.2.6. Table for Different Engine Types _________________________________________ 2-27
2.3. Crank Throw Optimization __________________________________________________ 2-28
2.3.1. Optimum Selection Efficiency Value Analysis____________________________ 2-28
2.3.1.1. Partial Efficiency Value Determination for Strength ____________________ 2-29
2.3.1.2. Partial Efficiency Value Determination for Torsional Stiffness ___________ 2-30
2.3.1.3. Partial Efficiency Value Determination for Bearing Load ________________ 2-31
2.3.1.4. Partial Efficiency Value Determination for Crank Throw Mass ___________ 2-32
2.3.1.5. Partial Efficiency Value Determination for Crank Throw Unbalance ______ 2-33
2.4. Crank Bearing Calculation __________________________________________________ 2-34
2.4.1. Bearing Shell Calculations _______________________________________________ 2-34
2.4.1.1. Hoop Stress (Tangential Stress) in Shell _______________________________ 2-34
2.4.1.2. Radial Pressure between Shell and Housing ____________________________ 2-34
2.4.1.3. Bearing Clearances __________________________________________________ 2-34
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BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
2.4.2. Abbreviations and Literal Notations ______________________________________ 2-36

2.4.3. Hydrodynamic Oilfilm Theory ____________________________________________ 2-43
2.4.3.1. Reynold's Differential Equation _______________________________________ 2-43
2.4.4. Solution of the Differential Equation of Reynolds (RDEQ) ___________________ 2-44
2.4.4.1. Boundary Conditions ________________________________________________ 2-45
2.4.5. Non-isothermal Consideration of the Slider Bearing ________________________ 2-46
2.4.6. Calculation of the Journal Displacement___________________________________ 2-46
2.4.6.1. The Steadily Loaded Bearing _________________________________________ 2-46
2.4.6.2. The Non-steadily Loaded Bearing _____________________________________ 2-47
2.4.7. Differential Equations for the Journal Displacement ________________________ 2-49
2.4.7.1. Equilibrium of Forces at Increasing Eccentricity ________________________ 2-49
2.4.8. Deduction of the Expressions for
2.4.8.1. Calculation of
______________________________________
2-53
for the Main Bearing________________________________ 2-53

for the Connecting-rod Bearing _____________________ 2-54
for the Piston-pin Bearing___________________________ 2-55
2.4.9. Differences Equation System for Journal Displacement _____________________ 2-56

2.4.10. Sommerfeld Figures____________________________________________________ 2-58
2.4.11. Solution of the Equation System for the Displacement _____________________ 2-59
2.4.12. Summary of the Numeric Solving Method ________________________________ 2-61
2.4.12.1. Principles of the Runge-Kutta Integration ____________________________ 2-63
2.4.12.2. Main-loop of Eccentricity Calculation_________________________________ 2-64
2.4.13. Friction Losses ________________________________________________________ 2-69
2.4.14. Oil Flow ______________________________________________________________ 2-70
2.4.14.1. Oil Flow Due to Rotational Portion___________________________________ 2-70
2.4.14.2. Oil Flow Due to Displacement Portion ________________________________ 2-70
2.4.14.3. Oil Flow Due to Feeding Pressure ____________________________________ 2-70
2.4.14.4. Total Oil Flow _____________________________________________________ 2-72
2.4.15. Determination of the Maximum Pressure_________________________________ 2-72
2.4.15.1. Overlapping of the Pressure Portions_________________________________ 2-73
2.4.15.2. Pressure Distribution_______________________________________________ 2-73
2.5. Crankshaft Torsion Analysis _________________________________________________ 2-74
2.5.1. Lumped Mass - Spring - System __________________________________________ 2-74
2.5.1.1. Lumped Masses (Inertias) ____________________________________________ 2-74
2.5.2. Throw Stiffness_________________________________________________________ 2-75
2.5.2.1. Empirical Formulae for the Calculation of the Torsional Stiffness of a
Crank Throw ______________________________________________________________ 2-76
2.5.2.2. B.I.C.E.R.A.- Method for the Determination of the Torsional Stiffness
of a Crank Throw __________________________________________________________ 2-77
2.5.3. Shaft Stiffness __________________________________________________________ 2-80
2.5.3.1. Shaft with Constant Cross Section ____________________________________ 2-81
ii
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Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
2.5.3.2. Stepped Shaft _______________________________________________________ 2-81

2.5.3.3. Influence of Transition Radius ________________________________________ 2-82
2.5.3.4. Moment of Resistance _______________________________________________ 2-82
2.5.4. System Excitation_______________________________________________________ 2-83
1.1.1.1. The Tangential Force at the Crankpin _________________________________ 2-83
2.5.4.2. Harmonic Analysis of Exciting Torque _________________________________ 2-83
2.5.4.3. Mass Force Harmonic________________________________________________ 2-84
2.5.4.4. Indicated Cylinder Power of the Oscillator _____________________________ 2-84
2.5.5. Determination of Rotation Angles and Torsional Torques ___________________ 2-85
2.5.5.1. Sine Component of Harmonic (j) of the total Exciting Torque ____________ 2-86
2.5.5.2. Extended Holzer Tabulation__________________________________________ 2-87
2.5.5.3. Boundary Conditions ________________________________________________ 2-87
2.5.6. Harmonic Synthesis _____________________________________________________ 2-88
2.5.7. Maxima/Minima-Determination __________________________________________ 2-89
2.5.7.1. The Maximum Alternating Amplitude _________________________________ 2-89
2.5.7.2. The Maximum Stress ________________________________________________ 2-89
2.5.8. Degree of Irregularity ___________________________________________________ 2-90
2.5.9. Maximum Rotational Acceleration of Single Masses_________________________ 2-91
2.5.10. Actual Damper Damping and Heat Load__________________________________ 2-91
2.6. Strength___________________________________________________________________ 2-92
2.6.1. Crankshaft Strength AVL Standard Method______________________________ 2-92
2.6.1.1. Fillet Fatigue Strength_______________________________________________ 2-92
2.6.1.2. Fillet Stresses_______________________________________________________ 2-96
2.6.1.3. Fatigue Strength Data for Typical Crankshaft Steets ___________________ 2-100
2.6.1.4. Fatigue Strength Data of Nodular Cast Iron Crankshafts _______________ 2-101
2.6.1.5. Fatigue Strength Data
f0
(N/mm2) for the Test Crankshafts
acc. gf. Paper "Gegossene Kurbelwellen _____________________________________ 2-102

2.6.1.6. Formulas for the Evaluation of Stress Concentration Factors
acc. to MTZ-Publication ____________________________________________________ 2-103
2.6.1.7. Torsion ___________________________________________________________ 2-104
2.6.2. UR-M 53 Theory _______________________________________________________ 2-105
2.6.2.1. Principles of Calculation ____________________________________________ 2-105
2.6.2.2. Calculation of Stresses ______________________________________________ 2-105
2.6.2.3. Calculation of Stress Concentration Factors ___________________________ 2-109
2.6.2.4. Additional Bending Stresses _________________________________________ 2-110
2.6.2.5. Calculation of Equivalent Alternating Stress __________________________ 2-111
2.6.3. Piston Pin Analysis ____________________________________________________ 2-112
2.6.3.1. Evaluation of Pin Deflections ________________________________________ 2-112
2.6.3.2. Unit Loads in the Pin Bearings ______________________________________ 2-113
2.6.3.3. Piston Pin Stresses according to SCHLFKE/KUHM __________________ 2-113
2.6.3.4. Evaluation of Permissible Deflections ________________________________ 2-114
AST.02.0201.5738 - 03-Mar-2003
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BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
List of Figures
Figure 2-1: Conventional Crank Train....................................................................................................................2-1
Figure 2-2: Kinematic of Various Crank Trains.....................................................................................................2-3
Figure 2-3: Forces and their Components on Conventional Crank Train ...........................................................2-4
Figure 2-4: Gas Pressure Diagrams of Different Engines .....................................................................................2-6
Figure 2-5: Cylinder Pressure Diagrams for Different Speeds of a Diesel Engine .............................................2-7
Figure 2-6: Scatter Range of Gas Pressure Curve on Gasoline and Diesel Engines ...........................................2-8
Figure 2-7: Dissection of a Crankthrow into Simple Geometric Parts.................................................................2-9
Figure 2-8: Mass Forces at Crank Mechanism .....................................................................................................2-10
Figure 2-9: Forces and Moments at the Engine ...................................................................................................2-12
Figure 2-10: Mass Forces 1st and 2nd Order on One Cylinder Crank Train .......................................................2-13
Figure 2-11: Counterweight for the Balancing of Rotating Masses in One Cylinder Crank Train .................2-13
Figure 2-12: Balancing of the Rotating Mass Forces ...........................................................................................2-13
Figure 2-13: Vector Diagram of the Oscillating Mass Forces..............................................................................2-14
Figure 2-14: Total Balancing of Mass Forces 1st and 2nd Order on One Cylinder Crank Train.......................2-14
Figure 2-15: Free Inertia Forces 1st Order in y and z Directions for Various Counterweight Sizes ...............2-15
Figure 2-16: Crank Throw 1st and 2nd Order for Inline Engines (four stroke) with 3 - 6 Cylinders...............2-16
Figure 2-17: Arrangement of a Simple Reference System to Determine the Free Couples .............................2-16
Figure 2-18: Free Couples 1st and 2nd Order of a 3 Cylinder Crank Shaft .........................................................2-18
Figure 2-19: Counterweight Direction for Balancing of Mass Moment 1st Order 90 to Middle
Throw of Shaft .................................................................................................................................................2-19
Figure 2-20: Schematic Overview for Total Balancing of 1st and 2nd Order Couples at 3 Cylinder I
nline Engine.....................................................................................................................................................2-19
Figure 2-21: Inner Couples on Three Different Crankshafts for an 8 Cylinder Engine...................................2-20
Figure 2-22: Balancing of mass force 1. order and influencing of alternating torque 1. order by
using one in opposite direction with rotating intermediate shaft at a 1-cylinder engine
(1-cylinder diesel engine mo/Vn=2.4kg/l, =0.292 ) .....................................................................................2-23
Figure 2-23: Rangement of the Balancing Shafts for Balancing of Mass Torque .............................................2-26
Figure 2-24: Balancing of mass force 2. order and influencing of the alternating torque 2. order
using two reverse rotating intermediate shafts at a 4-cylinder inline engine...........................................2-26
Figure 2-25: Arrangement of crankshaft throw, firing order, ratio numbers of free couples, internal
bending moments and alternating torque of four stroke inline engines. .................................................2-27
Figure 2-26: Class Function of Partial Efficiency Values for Strength CFHOPT respectively
CFGOPT = 1.4 ................................................................................................................................................2-29
Figure 2-27: Class Function of Partial Efficiency Value for Torsional Stiffness ..............................................2-30
Figure 2-28: Class Function of Partial Efficiency Values for Bearing Load ......................................................2-31
Figure 2-29: Class Function of Partial Efficiency Values for Crank Throw Mass ............................................2-33
Figure 2-30: Designations for Main Bearing.........................................................................................................2-39
Figure 2-31: Designations for Connecting Rod Bearing ......................................................................................2-40
Figure 2-32: Designations for Piston Pin Bearing with Pin Fixed in Piston.....................................................2-41
Figure 2-33: Designations for Piston Pin Bearing with Pin Fixed in Connecting Rod ....................................2-42
Figure 2-34: Equilibrium of Forces at the Journal Increasing Eccentricity......................................................2-49
Figure 2-35: Equilibrium of Forces at the Journal Decreasing Eccentricity.....................................................2-51
Figure 2-36: Crankshaft Torsion 1st kind according to Grammel.......................................................................2-75
Figure 2-37: Crankshaft Torsion 2nd kind according to Grammel ......................................................................2-75
Figure 2-38: Crankshaft Bending as a Beam at Torsion 2nd kind.......................................................................2-76
Figure 2-39: Dimensions of Crankshaft taken into consideration from Empirical Formulae .........................2-77
iv
AST.02.0201.5738 - 03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
Figure 2-40: Crank shaft Dimensions taken in consideration from B.I.C.E.R.A. Method ...............................2-78
Figure 2-41: Torsion of Shaft with Constant Cross Section................................................................................2-80
Figure 2-42: Torsion of Stepped Shaft with Circular Cross Section...................................................................2-81
Figure 2-43: Stepped Shaft with Transition Radius ............................................................................................2-82
Figure 2-44: Fatigue Strength Diagram with Constant Stress Relations..........................................................2-92
Figure 2-45: Fatigue Strength Diagram with Constant Mean Stresses.............................................................2-93
Figure 2-46: Construction Method of Fatigue Strength Diagram ......................................................................2-94
Figure 2-47: Crankthrow and Cross section A-A for Crankshaft Stress Analysis.............................................2-97
Figure 2-48: Notch Factor as a Function of the Form Factor...........................................................................2-102
Figure 2-49: Piston Pin Loading ..........................................................................................................................2-112
AST.02.0201.5738 - 03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
1. INTRODUCTION
This document describes the functions and methods for the BRICKS Version 3.1 program
for the design analysis of the crank train. The BRICKS Theory Manual contains all
necessary information about the program kernel.
1.1. Scope
The chapters of this manual describe the theory of the BRICKS software. They do not
attempt to discuss all concepts of design analysis that are required to obtain successful
solutions. It is the users responsibility to determine if he/she has sufficient knowledge and
understanding of design analysis to apply this software appropriately.
1.2. User Qualifications

Users of this manual:
Must be qualified in basic UNIX or Windows NT
Must be qualified in basic Design Analysis
1.3. Symbols
The following symbols are used throughout this manual. Safety warnings must be strictly
observed during operation and service of the system or its components.
Caution: Cautions describe conditions, practices or procedures which

could result in damage to, or destruction of data if not strictly observed or
remedied.
Note: Notes provide important supplementary information.
Convention
Meaning
Italics
For emphasis, to introduce a new term or for manual titles.
monospace
To indicate a command, a program or a file name,

messages, or input / output on a screen or file contents.
SCREEN-KEYS
A SCREEN font is used for the names of windows and

keyboard keys, e.g. to indicate that you should type a
command and press the ENTER key.
MenuOpt
A MenuOpt font is used for the names of menu options,

submenus and screen buttons.
03-Mar-2003
1-1
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
1.4. Configurations
Software configurations described in this manual were in effect on the publication date of
this manual. It is the users responsibility to verify the configuration of the equipment
before applying procedures in this manual.
1.5. Documentation
BRICKS documentation is available in PDF format and consists of the following:
Release Notes
User's Guide
Primer
AVL Workspace Installation Guide (Windows NT and UNIX)
AVL Workspace GUI Introduction
FLEXlm User's Guide
1-2
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
2. THEORETIC FUNDAMENTALS
All calculations are based on a statically determined system of the crank train, i.e. all parts
are rigid and only the crankshaft has joints between each crank throw. The only difference
is the torsional vibration calculation. Here the torsional stiffness of the crankshaft parts
are taken into consideration.
The theoretical principles of the following task are described in this manual:
Crank Train Load Analysis
Crankshaft Balancing
Hydrodynamic Bearing Analysis
Torsional Vibration Analysis
Strength calculation
2.1. Crank Train Load Analysis

2.1.1. Kinematic Fundamentals of the Crank Mechanism
The turning point of the piston pin and crankshaft lies on one line with the centerline of
the cylinder.
Figure 2-1: Conventional Crank Train
2.1.1.1. Piston Displacement

With Figure 2-1 the relation for the piston displacement follows:
s0 + r cos + l cos = r + l
03-Mar-2003
[2.1.1]
2-1
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
The relation between the angle , the conrod length l and the angle is:
sin =
r
sin = sin
l
[2.1.2]
and
cos = 1 2 sin 2
[2.1.3]
With the upper relations the piston displacement becomes:
x=
s0
1 1
= 1 cos +
1 2 sin 2

r
[2.1.4]
With the development into a FOURIER-series it follows:
x=
s0
A
A
A
= A0 A1 cos 2 cos 2 4 cos 4 6 cos 6
r
4
16
36
1
3
5 5
+ 3 +
4
64
256
1
15 5
A2 = + 3 +
+...
4
128
9 5
A6 =
+...
128
A0 = 1 +
[2.1.5]
A1 = 1
1 3 3 5

4
16
1 7
A8 =
39
A4 =
In practice usual used approximation formula
s0
1 + cos cos 2
4
4
r
[2.1.6]
2.1.1.2. Piston Velocity

For constant crankshaft speed
d
= = = const
dt
The velocity of the piston follows from the first derivation of piston displacement:
x =
s0
sin cos
= sin +
r
1 2 sin 2
[2.1.7]
or expressed in a series
x =
2-2
s0
A
A
A
= A1 sin + 2 sin 2 + 4 sin 4 + 6 sin 6 +...
r
2
4
6
[2.1.8]
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

In practice usual used approximation formula for piston velocity
s0
sin + sin 2
r
2
[2.1.9]
2.1.1.3. Piston Acceleration

The piston acceleration follows from the second derivation of piston displacement:

s0
cos 2 sin 2 + 3 sin 4
x =
= cos +
3
r 2
1 2 sin 2
[2.1.10]
or expressed in a series
x =

s0
= A1 cos + A2 cos 2 + A4 cos 4 + A6 cos 6
r 2
[2.1.11]
In practice usual used approximation formula for the piston acceleration

s0
cos + cos 2
r 2
[2.1.12]
In Figure 2-2 displacement, velocity and acceleration for various crank trains are shown
(only the first one is used in BRICKS).
Figure 2-2: Kinematic of Various Crank Trains
03-Mar-2003
2-3
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
2.1.2. Force Resolution at the Crank Train

The load of the engine components depends on the transmitted forces. Therefore it is
necessary to determine the forces acting on the engine parts.
The forces acting on the crank train follows from the force resolution with the geometric
relations from Figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3: Forces and their Components on Conventional Crank Train
sin =
r
sin = sin
l
[2.1.13]
cos = 1 sin 2 = 1 2 sin 2
[2.1.14]
1
1
= FZ
2
cos
1 sin 2
[2.1.15]
FS = FZ
or transformed in a FOURIER series
FS = FZ ( A0 + A2 cos 2 + A4 cos 4 + A6 cos 6 +..)

1 2 9 4 25 6
+ +
+...
4
64
256
1
3
75 6
A2 = 2 4
...
4
16
512
3 4 15 6
5 6
A4 =
+
A6 =
64
256
512
A0 = 1 +
2-4
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

Piston Side Force:
FN = FZ tan = FZ
sin
1 2 sin 2
[2.1.16]
or expressed as a FOURIER series
FN = FZ ( B1 sin + B3 sin 3 + B5 sin 5 +...
3
15 5
+...
B1 = + 3 +
8
64
[2.1.17]
1
15 5
...
B3 = 3
8
128
B5 =
3
5 +...
128
Radial Force at the Crank:
FR = FZ
cos( + )
sin 2
= FZ cos
cos
1 2 sin 2
[2.1.18]
FR = FZ ( A0 + A1 cos + A2 cos 2 + A4 cos 4 + A6 cos 6 + ...) [2.1.19]

1
3
15 5
...
A0 = 3
2
16
128
1
1
45 5
+...
A2 = + 3 +
2
4
256
3
5 +...
A6 =
256
A1 = 1
A4 =
1 3
9

5 ...
16
128
Tangential Force at the Crank:
FT = FZ
sin( + )
sin cos
= FZ sin +
cos
1 2 sin 2
[2.1.20]
FT = FZ ( B1 sin + B2 sin 2 + B4 sin 4 + B6 sin 6 +...)
03-Mar-2003
1
1
15 5
+ 3 +
+...
2
8
256
3
5 +...
B6 =
256
B2 =
B1 = 1
B4 =
[2.1.21]
1 3 3 5

...
16
64
2-5
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
2.1.3. Gas Forces

The gas forces in the cylinder are acting on the piston head, the cylinder head and on the
side walls of the cylinder. The gas forces are transmitted to the crankshaft through the
piston and the connecting rod.
Figure 2-4 shows the gas pressure diagrams of different engines. On the left side the
pressure-time (p-t) diagrams are depicted. The gas pressure in relation to the stroke is
shown on the right side. This is the pressure-volume (p-v)diagram.
Figure 2-4: Gas Pressure Diagrams of Different Engines

a) 4-stroke gasoline engine at average speed (cylinder diameter 80mm)
b) 4-stroke diesel engine at maximum torque (cylinder diameter 125mm)
c) 4-stroke diesel charged engine at rated speed (cylinder diameter 370mm)
2-6
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

Figure 2-5 shows cylinder pressure diagrams for full load and different engine speeds.
Figure 2-5: Cylinder Pressure Diagrams for Different Speeds of a Diesel Engine
The maximum cylinder pressure of gasoline engines lies in the range from 50 to 65 bar and
in Diesel engines without turbo charger from 70 to 90 bar. The maximum gas pressure of
turbo charged Diesel engines reaches 130 to 150 bar.
The load of the engine components mainly depends on the maximum combustion pressure.
This depends on the compression ratio, compression end pressure, combustion process,
mixture and the load of the engine.
Different working principles (Diesel, Otto) require different compression end pressures. If
the compression end pressure is higher, the temperature in the cylinder is also higher.
Diesel engines need a higher temperature at the end of the compression for self-ignition.
Therefore Diesel engines need a higher compression ratio than Otto engines.
03-Mar-2003
Vh + Vc
Vc
... compression ratio
Vh
... displacement
Vc
... dead volume
[2.1.22]
2-7
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
Regarding the engine component stress, the scatter range of the gas pressure can be of
interest.
In Figure 2-6 the scatter range of the gas pressure curve of gasoline and diesel engines are
shown. The reasons for the scattering are differences in the ignition delay, space
expansion of the flame front and differences of the cylinder load through pressure
oscillations and different residual gas portions.
Figure 2-6: Scatter Range of Gas Pressure Curve on Gasoline and Diesel Engines
2-8
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
2.1.4. Mass Forces

Mass forces are acting because of the acceleration and deceleration of moving engine parts.
The mass forces are orientated in the opposite direction of the acceleration.
F = m a
[2.1.23]
To determine mass forces, the masses and the center of gravity of the moving parts must
be known.
Figure 2-7: Dissection of a Crankthrow into Simple Geometric Parts

To determine the mass and the center of gravity of complicated parts, they can be dissected
into simple geometric parts as it is shown in the figures above.
The moving engine parts carry out the following motions:
1. Rotating motion around the crank shaft axis
Crank throw and the part of the conrod near the crank shaft.
2. Oscillating motion
Piston and the part of the conrod near the piston.
3. Revolution path similar to an ellipse
Middle part of the conrod with the center of gravity:
To calculate the effect of this system an equivalent system should be created with the same
static and dynamic effects as the real system. The mass concentrated in one point is a
necessary part of this equivalent system. From this comes the system of connected point
masses.
The mass of the conrod is divided into a rotating portion and an oscillating portion.
The following mass forces are distinguished:
1. Rotating mass forces acting on the crank throw in radial direction
2. Oscillating mass force acting in the direction of the cylinder axis
03-Mar-2003
2-9
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
Figure 2-8: Mass Forces at Crank Mechanism

Rotating mass force:
Fr = mr r 2
[2.1.24]
Oscillating mass force:
Fo = mo r 2 ( A1 cos + A2 cos 2 +...)

A1 = 1
A2 = +
[2.1.25]
1 3 15 5
+
4
128
For the oscillating mass forces only the first and the second orders are important because
higher orders have only low influence, and are therefore not considered in BRICKS. Also,
for the calculation of A2, components with higher orders than the first in are omitted.
The following mass force components in z- and y-direction are acting on a one crank
mechanism running with constant speed .
Inline Engine
Fz = r 2 [ mr cos + mo A1 cos + mo A2 cos 2 + ]
[2.1.26]
Fy = r 2 mr sin
[2.1.27]
V-engine
Fz = r 2 mr cos + mo A1 (1 + cos ) cos + mo A2 cos + cos cos 2 +...
2
2
[2.1.28]
Fy = r 2 mr sin + mo A1 (1 cos ) sin + mo A2 cos cos sin 2 + ...
2
2
[2.1.29]
2-10
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
2.1.5. Mass Torque

From the inertia effect of the accelerated and decelerated piston and conrod movement, a
periodic changing torque follows at the crankshaft.
The mass torque is related to the piston area AK and to the crank radius r with regard to
the later use of this relation to be superimposed with the gas torque.
PT =
M
= r 2 ( m2 + mK ) x x + m3 (u u + w w )
AK r
[2.1.30]
l1
l
e
x + 2 sin cos
l
l
l
l1
l2
e
u = x + cos + sin
l
l
l
l2
e
e
w = cos + sin x
l
l
l
l2
e
e
w = sin + cos x
l
l
l
u =
x is the related piston speed, x is the related piston acceleration.

The following relation is obtained for the mass tangential pressure in the representation as
FOURIER series
PT = r 2 ( m2 + mK ) Bk sin( k ) + m3 B3k sin( k )
[2.1.31]
with the coefficients
1
1
15 5
+ 3 +
+...
4
16
512
1 1 4 1 6
=

...
2 32
32
3
9 3 81 5
=

...
4
32
512
1
1
1
= 2 4 6 ...
4
8
16
5 3 75 5
=
+
+...
32
512
3 4 3 6
=
+
+...
32
32
l1
B1
l
2
l1
l l
= B2 1 2
l
l l
l1
= B3
l
2
l1
= B4
l
l
= 1 B5
l
2
l1
= B6
l
B1 =
B31 =
B2
B32
B3
B4
B5
B6
B33
B34
B35
B36
where:
mK ... piston mass
m2 ... conrod mass at piston side
m3 ... conrod mass in the center of gravity of the conrod
03-Mar-2003
2-11
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
2.2. Crankshaft Balancing

The following figure shows the fundamental forces and moments at an engine caused from
the gas and mass forces.
Figure 2-9: Forces and Moments at the Engine
2.2.1. Balancing of Mass Forces at One Crank Mechanism

The following mass force components in z- and y-direction are acting on a one crank
mechanism running with constant speed .
Inline Engine
Fz = r 2 [ mr cos + mo A1 cos + mo A2 cos 2 + ]
[2.2.1]
Fy = r 2 mr sin
[2.2.2]
V-engine
Fz = r 2 mr cos + mo A1 (1 + cos ) cos + mo A2 cos + cos cos 2 +
2
2
[2.2.3]
Fy = r 2 mr sin + mo A1 (1 cos ) sin + mo A2 cos cos sin 2 + [2.2.4]
2
2
2-12
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
Figure 2-10: Mass Forces 1st and 2nd Order

on One Cylinder Crank Train
Figure 2-11: Counterweight for the

Balancing of Rotating Masses in One
Cylinder Crank Train
The rotating masses only cause the centrifugal force
Fr = mr r 2 which acts in the
radial outside direction (rotating with the crank angle ). The centrifugal force is balanced
through a force in the opposite direction and the same value. To do this counterweights are
mounted at the webs with the same force effect as the centrifugal force as schematically
shown in Figure 2-12. The rotating mass forces can be balanced totally by counterweights.
Figure 2-12: Balancing of the Rotating Mass Forces

The effect caused from the oscillating masses can be shown through a vector diagram. The
oscillating mass force part is replaced through two vectors with the half length. One vector
rotates in the crankshaft direction the other in the opposite direction.
03-Mar-2003
2-13
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
Figure 2-13: Vector Diagram of the Oscillating Mass Forces

Therefore there is a vector couple rotating with for the first order and another vector
couple rotating with 2 for the second order. The resultant of the two vectors gives the
instantaneous value of the oscillating mass force Fo.
A total balancing of the oscillating mass forces first and second order can be done by
balancing systems rotating in opposite direction with single and double crankshaft speed.
The balancing forces must have the same value as the rotating mass force vectors.
Balancing systems for the first and the second order are expensive therefore only seldom
made.
Figure 2-14: Total Balancing of Mass Forces 1st and 2nd Order on One Cylinder Crank
Train
2-14
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

A partial balancing of the mass forces first order can be done by putting the mass for the
oscillating mass force in the counterweights of the crank web. With this method the
oscillating mass force only changes the direction. The decreased part from the cylinder
direction (z) appears in the cross cylinder direction (y). The ratio of the decreased part in zdirection to the original value of the oscillating mass force first order is the "balancing
rate".
For general use a balancing rate of 50% is the best solution.
Figure 2-15: Free Inertia Forces 1st Order in y and z Directions for Various
Counterweight Sizes
A total balancing of the mass forces first order can be reached by increasing the crankshaft
counterweight of mo 2 and with an additional balancing shaft rotating with crankshaft
speed in opposite direction with the balancing mass of
mo 2 .
2.2.2. Balancing of Mass Forces at Multi Crank Mechanism

At multi crank mechanism there is the possibility to choose a construction with a good
balancing of the mass forces. The mass forces first order are balanced if the crank throws
are shifted constant and if all crank throws have the same mass. Therefore the crankshaft
for the first order is drawn to see if the mass forces first order are balanced. To get the
crankshaft for the second order the angle between crank throw and cylinder axis has to be
doubled. In Figure 2-16 all crankshafts for the first order are balanced. The mass forces for
the second order are balanced for the 3, 5 and 6 cylinder crankshafts only. The crank
throws second order for the 4 cylinder crankshaft are all pointed in the same direction.
This results in big mass forces for 4 cylinder inline engines. To balance these mass forces a
balancing shaft rotating with double crankshaft speed would be necessary.
03-Mar-2003
2-15
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
Figure 2-16: Crank Throw 1st and 2nd Order for Inline Engines (four stroke) with 3 - 6
Cylinders
2.2.3. Balancing of Free Couples

Engines with multi throw crankshafts with total balanced mass forces can have free
couples because the crankshaft mass forces are distanced each other at the cylinder
distance. Free mass couples occur if all crank throw mass forces result in a force couple at
the crankshaft.
They are called "outer moments" or "longitudinal tipping moments". The value of the free
couples is calculated as the sum of all products from mass force multiplied with the
distance to a reference point.
Figure 2-17: Arrangement of a Simple Reference System to Determine the Free

Couples
The sum of all moments around the reference point must be zero:
2-16
M = 0
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

From this relation for the mass, moment 1st order can be written:
n
(F
1z , k
k =1
(F
1 y,k
k =1
[2.2.5]
[2.2.6]
[2.2.7]
[2.2.8]
ak ) + M1 y = ( mr + mo ) r 2 a k cos( + k ) + M1y = 0
k =1
ak M1z = ( mr + mo ) r a k sin( + k ) M1z = 0

2
k =1
and for the 2nd order:

n
(F
2 z ,k
k =1
(F
2 y ,k
k =1
ak ) + M2 y = mo r 2 A2 a k cos 2( + k ) + M2 y = 0
k =1
ak M2 z = mo r A2 a k sin 2( + k ) M2 z = 0
2
k =1
or for the free couples 1st and 2nd order with
M 1y =
M 1z =
M 2y =
M 2z =
M1y
=0
(mr + mo ) r 2 a
= k cos k
n
M1z
=
k sin k
( m r + mo ) r 2 a
k =1
M2 y
mo r 2 A2 a
[2.2.9]
k =1
[2.2.10]
= k cos 2 k
[2.2.11]
k =1
n
M2 z
=
k sin 2 k
mo r 2 A2 a k =1
[2.2.12]
From the vector calculation the free couples can be determined
03-Mar-2003
M1 = M12y + M12z
[2.2.13]
M2 = M22y + M22z
[2.2.14]
2-17
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
Figure 2-18: Free Couples 1st and 2nd Order of a 3 Cylinder Crank Shaft
The determination of the free couples 1st and 2nd order is shown in Figure 2-18. The
following values are obtained
M1y
M 1y =
( mr + mo ) r 2 a
M1z
= 0.5 1 + 1 2 0.5 3 = 0
( mr + mo ) r 2 a
M 1z =
M1 =
M1
=
( m r + mo ) r 2 a
M 2y =
M 2z =
M2 =
= 1 0.866 + 2 0 + 3 0.866 = 1.732
M2 y
mo r 2 A2 a
M 1 y + M 1z = 1.732
= 1 0.5 + 2 1 3 0.5 = 0
M2 z
= 1 0.866 + 2 0 + 3 0.866 = 1.732
mo r 2 A2 a
M2
=
( mr + mo ) r 2 a
M 2 y + M 2 z = 1.732
The moment 1st order rotates with the crank shaft. The moment vector points in the
opposite direction of crank throw number 2. The effect of the moment is like a force couple
rotating with the crankshaft.
2-18
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

The counterweights to eliminate the free moment have to be mounted in the same force
couple plane as the acting force couple and in the opposite direction. An appropriate
location of the counterweights is shown in Figure 2-19.
Figure 2-19: Counterweight Direction for Balancing of Mass Moment 1st Order 90 to
Middle Throw of Shaft
The total balancing of the mass moment 1st order requires tuned counterweights at the
crank shaft for the balancing of the rotating and the half oscillating mass moment and a
rotating intermediate shaft balancing the half oscillating mass moment as it is shown in
Figure 2-20.
Two additional balancing shafts are necessary for balancing of the mass moment 2nd order
rotating with 2 .
Counterweights on the crankshaft
mG =
1.732
(m r + 0.5m o )
4
1. Order balancing shaft
m A1r = 1.732 0.5 m o
a
b
2. Order balancing shaft
m A2 r =
1.732
a
mo A2
8
c
Figure 2-20: Schematic Overview for Total Balancing of 1st and 2nd Order Couples at 3
Cylinder Inline Engine
In practice the balancing of mass moment 1. and 2. order is hardly done.
The main influence on the mass moment has the longitudinal symmetry of the crankshaft.
If the crankshaft is symmetric no free couples 1. order will occur.
03-Mar-2003
2-19
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
2.2.4. Internal Bending Moments

The rotating and oscillating mass forces of the single crank throws causes internal bending
moments at crankshafts with more than one crank throw as the mass forces are acting in
different planes. Inner bending moments can occur even when the free mass forces and
mass moments are zero. Corresponding to the generating forces it can be distinguished
between rotating and oscillating inner bending moments. The rotating moments are
rotating with the crankshaft. There are preferred bending lines of the crank case because
of the changing bending stiffness for different planes. Water cooled inline engines often
have a large deflection in y direction.
The oscillating moments result from the oscillating forces in cylinder axis direction and
therefore their direction is fixed in relation to the crankcase.
To determine the inner bending moments, the sum of the products from force multiplied
with the distance has to be made along the crankshaft. The inner bending moment 2. order
has to be determined from the crankshaft 2. order.
In Figure 2-21 the inner bending moments 1. and 2. orders for three different crankshaft
arrangements are shown. The shaft (a) has the smallest rotating bending moment 1. order
*
( Mi1
*
= 1.414 ), but a big bending moment 2. order ( Mio2
= 4 ). The shaft (b) has a big
*
moment 1. order ( Mi1
*
= 3162
.
), but a small bending moment 2. order ( Mio2 = 1 ).
Figure 2-21: Inner Couples on Three Different Crankshafts for an 8 Cylinder Engine
To reduce inner bending moments, counterweights are mounted at the crankshaft even if
they are not necessary for the outer mass balancing.
2-20
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
2.2.5. Influence from Rotating Counterweights on Cross

Tipping Moment
In the opposite direction rotating counter weights can be used at engines to balance the
oscillating mass forces. This rotating counter weights cause a periodic force in the opposite
direction to the mass forces of the oscillating engine parts. With this a total balance can be
reached. If the counterweights are shifted in their height to each other and to the
crankshaft or if they are unsymmetrical to the cylinder axis, they additionally generate a
periodically changing moment on the crankcase. This moment is superimposed with the
tipping moment caused from the gas and mass tangential pressure.
Therefore the additional rotating counterweights can be used to reduce the tipping
moments.
2.2.5.1. Alternating Torque Caused from Rotating Counterweights

To prevent an additional mass moment around the vertical (z) axis the resulting effect
direction of the counter weights has to coincide with the resulting cylinder forces.
2.2.5.2. Balancing of Gas and Mass Alternating Torque

The tangential gas forces of order number q cause following periodic torque:
1
MGq = Vh aq cos q + bq sin q k z kv
2
[2.2.15]
The tangential mass forces of order number q cause following torque:
M Mq = mo r 2 2 Bq sin q kz kv
with
[2.2.16]
Bq = B1 and Bq = B2 for 1. and 2. order

B1 =
1
1
15 5
+ 3 +
4
16
512
B2 =
1 1 4 1 6
2 32
32
If the three alternating torques

the gas pressure alternating torque MGq
the mass moment MMq
and the balancing torque MAq
of the order number q are summed up, the total alternating torque Mwq of the order
number q is obtained.
If the total alternating torque is related to the piston area and the force is acting on the
arm of the crank radius r
( AK r = 1 2 Vh ) there follows the dimension of a tangential
pressure. The angular velocity is replaced by the mean piston speed:
03-Mar-2003
2-21
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
4 r 2 2 = 2 vm 2
PT =
Mwq
= Aq cos q + Bq sin q
1
Vh
2
[2.2.17]
Aq = k z kv aq +
mA
2
2 r (q ) ( y I + y II )
Vh
[2.2.18]
Bq = k z kv bq
mo 2 2 k z k v
m
2
Vm 2 Bq + A 2 r (q ) ( z I z II )
q
Vh
Vh 2
[2.2.19]
Cq =
Aq2 + Bq2
2.2.5.2.1. One Cylinder Engine

At one cylinder engines the mass forces 1. order are often balanced by using a 50%
balancing rating at the crankshaft with an additional balancing shaft rotating with
crankshaft speed.
The alternating torque is obtained as the sum of following moments 1. order:
Gas torque
1
MG1 = Vh ( a1 cos + b1 sin )
2
[2.2.20]
Mass torque:
M M1 = mo r 2 2 B1 sin
B1 =
[2.2.21]
1
1
15 5
+ 3 +
4
16
512
Moment of the reverse rotating balancing mass
M A1 = r 2 0.5 mo [ z sin(180 ) y cos(180 )]

= r 2 0.5 mo [ d cos sin + d sin cos ]
Finally for the total alternating moment 1. order related to
[2.2.22]
AK r = 1 2 Vh can be
written:
PT =
2-22
Mw
= A1 cos + B1 sin
1
Vh
2
[2.2.23]
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
A1 = a1 + 0.5
B1 = b1
mo 2 d
Vm sin
Vh 2
r
mo 2 2
d
Vm B1 0.5 cos
Vh 2
r
Figure 2-22 shows the alternating torque 1. order in relation to the mean piston speed for a
1 cylinder engine full load. For the distance between the middle of the crankshaft and
counter weight axis two different distance relations are chosen.
Figure 2-22: Balancing of mass force 1. order and influencing of alternating torque 1.
order by using one in opposite direction with rotating intermediate shaft at a 1cylinder engine (1-cylinder diesel engine mo/Vn=2.4kg/l, =0.292 )
03-Mar-2003
2-23
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
The figure shows:

1. To achieve a reduction of the alternating torque 1. order the axis of the counter
weight shaft has to be near the crankshaft axis.
2. The angle between the connecting line of counter weight shaft axis and
crankshaft center and cylinder axis should be between 0 and 30 in the direction of
the crankshaft.
The small distance to the crankshaft axis makes the use of a continuous counterweight
shaft impossible. If one counterweight is transferred to the end of the crankshaft a good
distance and angle can be realized. But a mass moment is generated because of the
distance between counterweight and cylinder axis. This can be avoided by using two
counterweights at the two ends of the crankshaft. But in series this is not done because of
the high costs of the double gear drive and the double bearings.
2.2.5.2.2. Four Cylinder Inline Engine

At four cylinder inline engines there are no mass forces and no mass moments 1. order.
But there are mass forces 2. order. Also the second order is dominating at the alternating
torque generated from the tangential gas and mass forces.
The mass forces 2. order of a 4 cylinder engine are:
F2 z = F 2 z cos 2 = 4 mo r 2 A2 cos 2
with
A2 = +
[2.2.24]
1 3 15 5
+
4
128
The balancing of forces is given with two reverse rotating intermediate shafts with the
force effect of
FA 2 z = m A r ( 2 ) [cos(180 + 2 ) + cos(180 2 )]
2
= m A r ( 2 ) 2 cos 2
2
[2.2.25]
FA 2 y = m A r ( 2 ) [sin(180 + 2 ) + sin(180 2 )]
2
= m A r ( 2 ) [ sin 2 + sin 2 ] = 0
2
[2.2.26]
Out of equation 2.1 and 2.2 follows the value necessary for the balancing reduced on the
crank radius, to:
mA =
1
mo A2
2
[2.2.27]
With these two counterweight shafts rotating reverse to the crankshaft with double speed
even the alternating torques 2. order can be reduced.
From the tangential gas forces following torque is obtained
1
MG 2 = 4 Vh ( a2 cos 2 + b2 sin 2 )
2
2-24
[2.2.28]
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

and from the tangential mass forces the mass torque is obtained
M M 2 = 4 mo r 2 B2 sin 2
[2.2.29]
B2 =
with
1 1 4 1 6
2 32
32
as well as the torque of the counterweights around the longitudinal axis x
M A2 = m A r ( 2 )
2
[ z I sin(180 + 2 ) + z II sin(180 2 ) y I cos(180 + 2 ) y II cos(180 2 )]

=
1
2
mo A2 r ( 2 ) [ z I sin 2 + z II sin 2 + y I cos 2 + y II cos 2 ]
2
[2.2.30]
From the sum of the three moments there follows the alternating torque 2. order expressed
as tangential pressure
PT =
MW
= A2 cos 2 + B2 sin 2
1
Vh
2
[2.2.31]
mo 2 2
y
y
Vm A2 I + II
r
Vh
r
m
z
z
B2 = 4 b2 + o 2 Vm2 2 B2 + A2 I II
Vh
r
r
A2 = 4 a2 +
z I , II = d I .II cos I , II
c2 =
y I , II = d I .II sin I , II
A22 + B22
If the counterweights are used to eliminate the moment caused from the tangential mass
forces, the necessary conditions are shown in the equations above, if the gas force
coefficients a2 and b2 are set zero.
It follows:
y I + y II = 0
that means
y I = y II
that means
z I z II =
and
z
z
2 B2 + A2 I II = 0
r
r
2 B2
1
r r l
A2
The counterweights for the balancing of the mass torque have to be arranged either in the
cylinder axis or in same distances from the cylinder axis and shifted in direction of the
cylinder axis at the distance of the conrod length as it is shown in Figure 2-23 balancing
shaft rotating in the same direction as the crankshaft has to be arranged above the
crankshaft axis the other balancing shaft rotating in reverse direction has to be arranged
below the crankshaft axis.
03-Mar-2003
2-25
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
Figure 2-23: Rangement of the Balancing Shafts for Balancing of Mass Torque
The layout of the torque balancing for a total elimination of the periodic mass torque only
is not optimal as it is shown in Figure 2-24. The distance of the balancing shafts is shorter,
also the gas force components of the alternating torque are reduced. So the alternating
torque balance can be optimized by choosing the distance between the balancing shafts.
Figure 2-24: Balancing of mass force 2. order and influencing of the alternating torque
2. order using two reverse rotating intermediate shafts at a 4-cylinder inline engine.
2-26
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
2.2.6. Table for Different Engine Types
Figure 2-25: Arrangement of crankshaft throw, firing order, ratio numbers of free
couples, internal bending moments and alternating torque of four stroke inline
engines.
03-Mar-2003
2-27
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
2.3. Crank Throw Optimization

2.3.1. Optimum Selection Efficiency Value Analysis
The total efficiency value NUTZ shall be used in the evaluation of the quality of the shape
of the crank throw in a simple way. It combines the information of all evaluation criteria
having influence on it. By it the selection problem of higher order is reduced to a linear
decision characterized through a single factor.
The total efficiency value determination is made by using a known scheme depicted in the
following table:
Table 2-1: Evaluation table for Total Efficiency Determination
Criterion
Partial
Valence
Efficiency Value
Strength of the crank pin fillet
TNFH
BEWFH
Strength of the main journal fillet TNFG
BEWFG
Torsional stiffness
TNST
BEWST
bearing load conrod bearing
TNLH
BEWLH
bearing load at main bearing
TNLG
BEWLG
Mass of crank throw
TNMAS
BEWMAS
Unbalance of throw
TNUNW
BEWUNW
total efficiency value

*
100
Valenced Partial
*
Efficiency Values
NUTZ
valenced partial efficiency value = partial efficiency value x valence
Valence of the Single Evaluation Criteria:

The valence of a certain partial efficiency in relation to the other partial efficiencies is done
by valence factors. These depend on several criteria, for example the size of the engine,
operating purpose, design, etc.
The standard valences are stated in the table below, with which the optimization program
is working, if no other valences are entered.
Table 2-2: List of Standard Valences
2-28
Valence
Small Size Engines
Large Size Engines
BEWFH
20
18
BEWFG
20
18
BEWST
10
20
BEWLH
15
17
BEWLG
15
17
BEWMAS
20
10
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
2.3.1.1. Partial Efficiency Value Determination for Strength

Two partial efficiency values are used. The partial efficiency value TNFH serves the
evaluation of the strength in the crank pin fillet radii and is a function of the belonging
evaluation values CFH from the strength calculation. The second partial efficiency value
TNFG is valid for the strength valuation in the main journal fillet radii and is derived from
the evaluation value CFG.
Strength
CFH(CFG)=
----------------------------occurring stress
C FH, C FG
Figure 2-26: Class Function of Partial Efficiency Values for Strength CFHOPT
respectively CFGOPT = 1.4
Class function for strength (in the example of TNFH)
from CFH=1 to CFH=3/2CFHOPT-1/2 :
TNFH = 1
( CFHOPT CFH )2
( CFHOPT 1) 2
from CFH=3/2CFHOPT-1/2 to CFH=5CFHOPT-4
TNFH =
49 ( CFHOPT 1)
1
20 (CFH ( CFHOPT + 9) / 10)
from CFH=5CFHOPT-4
TNFH = CFHOPT 1,3 0,2 CFH
03-Mar-2003
2-29
BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
2.3.1.2. Partial Efficiency Value Determination for Torsional

Stiffness
A partial efficiency value is used, which serves to estimate the torsional stiffness of one
crank throw.
The target is to find one crank throw shape which has a torsional stiffness that is as high
as possible.
The partial efficiency value TNST is a function of the torsional stiffness CT [Nm/rad],
which is determined according to the B.I.C.E.R.A method in the respective calculation
program.
CTOPT
... highest torsional stiffness under all calculated variants

TNST
1.2
TNST
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
0 .2
0 .4
0 .6
0 .8
1.2
C T /C T O P T
Figure 2-27: Class Function of Partial Efficiency Value for Torsional Stiffness
2-30
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

Class function for torsional stiffness:
from CT=0 to CT=CTOPT :
TNST = 1 1
CT
CTOPT
2.3.1.3. Partial Efficiency Value Determination for Bearing Load

Two partial efficiency values are used. The partial efficiency value TNLH serves the
evaluation of the connecting rod bearing load and is a function of the belonging evaluation
values CLAH from the calculation of the nominal bearing load. The second partial
efficiency value TNLG is valid for the evaluation of the main load and is derived from the
evaluation value CLAG.
allowed nominal bearing press allowed deviation
CLAH(CLAG)= ---------------------------------------------------------occurring nominal bearing press

CLAHOP(CLAGOP) = allowed deviation
TNLH, TNLG
1
0,8
0,6
TNLH, TNLG
0,4
0,2
0
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
3,5
-0,2
-0,4
-0,6
-0,8
CLAH, CLAG
Figure 2-28: Class Function of Partial Efficiency Values for Bearing Load
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Class function for bearing load (in the example of TNLH)

from CLAH=1 to CLAH=3/2CLAHOP-1/2 :
(CLAHOP CLAH )
TNLH = 1
(CLAHOP 1)
from CLAH=3/2CLAHOP-1/2 to CLAH=5CLAHOP-4
TNLH =
49 ( CLAHOP 1)
1
20 (CLAH ( CLAHOP + 9) / 10)
from CLAH=5CLAHOP-4
TNLH = CLAHOP 1,3 0,2 CLAH
2.3.1.4. Partial Efficiency Value Determination for Crank Throw

Mass
A partial efficiency value for the evaluation of the throw mass is required.
A crank throw shape, which has the smallest mass and fulfills all other criteria is
preferred.
The partial efficiency value TNMAS is deviated from the respective throw mass for each
variant.
MASOPT
2-32
... smallest throw mass under all calculated variants
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Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
TNMAS
1
0,5
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
TNMAS
-0,5
-1
-1,5
MASS/MASOPT
Figure 2-29: Class Function of Partial Efficiency Values for Crank Throw Mass
Class function for crank throw mass:
from MASS=MASOPT:
MASS
MASS
TNMAS =
2
MASOPT
MASOPT
2.3.1.5. Partial Efficiency Value Determination for Crank Throw

Unbalance
Analogue to 2.3.1.4 partial efficiency determination for crank throw mass.
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BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
2.4. Crank Bearing Calculation

2.4.1. Bearing Shell Calculations
Formulas for the evaluation of bearing shell data are as follows:
2.4.1.1. Hoop Stress (Tangential Stress) in Shell

=
2 weff 1 weff D BB + BH
[2.4.1]
2.4.1.2. Radial Pressure between Shell and Housing

Pr =
D BB + B H
[2.4.2]
2.4.1.3. Bearing Clearances

C min = Dmin 2wmax Ds max + D2
[2.4.3]
Cmax = Dmax 2wmin Ds min + D2
[2.4.4]
The elasticity characteristics BB and BH as well as the increase of the saddle bore diameter
D due to the pressfit of the bearing shell which are used in the above formulas are further
obtained from the following relations:
BB =
BH
(1 B ) + (1 + B ) (1 2 weff
4 E B weff 1 weff D
2
1 H ) + (1 + H ) ( D0 D )
(
=
D =
E H D0 D
BH
BB + BH
[2.4.5]
[2.4.6]
[2.4.7]
where:
2-34
... interference between free O.D. of shell and saddle bore
... diameter of saddle bore
D0
... estimated outer diameter of the bearing abutments
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Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

Average values for D0/D are:
D0/D = 1.5
for conrod bearings
D0/D = 1.5 - 2
for main bearings in cast iron housing
D0/D = 2
for main bearings in aluminum housing
EB, EH ... modulus of elasticity of the bearing shell and housing respectively
B, H ... poisson's ratio of bearing shell and housing respectively

w
... total wall thickness of the shell
weff.
... effective wall thickness of the shell (= steel thickness + 1/2 lining thickness)
... total width of the shell
Ds
... shaft diameter
With the standard drawing specifications for bearing shells which in general specify a
protrusion of the bearing shell half over the centerline of an inspection block the free outer
diameter of the bearing shells is further obtained from the following formulas:
DF min = 2( p min + v ) + D I
[2.4.8]
DF max = 2( pmax + v ) + D I
[2.4.9]
where:
pmin, pmax
... minimum and maximum protrusion of bearing shell half over the
centerline of the inspection block
... diameter of the inspection block
DI
v = 6 10 6
F0 D I
weff b
.... amount by which the protrusion is reduced by the test load Fo (N).
With these free outer diameters of the bearing shell, the minimum and maximum
interference between the bearing shell and the saddle bore is further obtained from the
following formulas:
min = DFmin - Dmax
[2.4.10]
max = DFmax - Dmin
[2.4.11]
where:
Dmin and Dmax are the minimum and maximum saddle bore diameters
The relevant interferences for the evaluation of D1 and D2 in the bearing clearance
calculations are further obtained from the following consideration:
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BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
The minimum clearance is determined by the minimum saddle bore diameter Dmin and by
the smallest possible bore increase D1 i.e. by the smallest interference which is possible
with the smallest bore diameter
1 = DFmin - Dmin.
[2.4.12]
The maximum clearance is determined by the maximum saddle bore diameter and by the
maximum possible bore increase D2 i.e. by the biggest interference which is possible with
the maximum bore diameter
2 = DFmax - Dmax.
[2.4.13]
2.4.2. Abbreviations and Literal Notations

ai
coefficients
displacement angle (B =
BR
width of the bearing shell
BR/D
width ratio: width/diameter
Ci
coefficients
d0
diameter of the oil supply drilling
diameter of the journal pin
diameter of the bearing shell
e, E
eccentricity of the journal's midpoint
EV
one and a half step (Runge-Kutta calculations)
H
F
2-36
s-
force vector
FD
supporting power due to rotation
FN
frictional force
height of the oil gap
counter of supporting points in circumferential direction
Ki
coefficients
length of conrod
Mi
constants
ni
number of supporting points in circumferential direction
pressure
pz
supply pressure
value of the load vector
value of the resulting supporting power ( P)
PR
frictional power
PH
for intermediate storage of P (Runge-Kutta)
qB, qT
diminution factor (factor of reduction)
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Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

Q
oil flow
related oil flow
radius of the journal
radius of the bearing shell
RK
radius of the crank
Rki
tangens of Runge-Kutta calculation
So
Sommerfeld-figure (dimensionless supporting power)
time
H
v
velocity vector
u, v, w
components of the velocity in circumferential, radial and axial direction
u1
circumferential velocity of the bearing shell
U2
circumferential velocity of the journal pin
UMRZ
x, y, z
coordinates in circumferential, radial and axial direction
related coordinate in axial direction
Z0
width of the oil well
crank angle
step width (Runge-Kutta)
displacement angle
max
/180 (to convert radiant to degree)

z = 2 B z
direction of load vector with regard to the shell

angle between direction of the load and location of the pressure maximum
,s

angle of the smallest oil gap in the spatial coordinate system
related angular velocity of the smallest gap (= d /d )
relative eccentricity = e ( R r )
radial velocity of the journals midpoint (also: )
related relative displacement velocity (= d d )
dynamic viscosity
width ratio: with/diameter BR/D
ratio: crank radius/length of conrod R/L
D, V
dimensionless pressure figures
coefficient of friction
proportionality factor of oil flow
circle constant (3.141592654)
dimensionless pressure
density
03-Mar-2003
angular velocity of the smallest gap (also:
, d /dt)
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BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
math. notation for summation
angle starting at the widest gap
Sommerfeld transformation = tg ( 2)
relative bearing clearance = ( D d ) D
angular velocity of the shaft ( = d dt = n 30)
angular velocity of the bearing shell
angular velocity of the shaft
hydrodyn. effective angular velocity (also: )
angular velocity ratio
vH
for intermediate storage of v (Runge-Kutta)
Nabla-operator
Indices
D
rotation
frictional
groove in circumferential direction
crank shaft
medium
load, power
relative (moving coordinate system)
shell
due to supply
ST
conrod (on figures)
oil well
displacement
journal
Indices not listed above are explained when used.

Exponents
2-38
angle measured in degrees
angle measured in radians
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Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
Figure 2-30: Designations for Main Bearing
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BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
Figure 2-31: Designations for Connecting Rod Bearing
2-40
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Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
Figure 2-32: Designations for Piston Pin Bearing with Pin Fixed in Piston
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BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
Figure 2-33: Designations for Piston Pin Bearing with Pin Fixed in Connecting Rod
2-42
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Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
2.4.3. Hydrodynamic Oilfilm Theory

The hydrodynamic calculations in the existing program can be done following Holland
<5>, Eberhard and Lang <2> or Butenschoen <1>. Only the fundamentals and
differences of these theories are discussed. Refer to the Literature for more detailed
information.
2.4.3.1. Reynold's Differential Equation

Taking the equation of Navier-Stokes,
H
H
dv H
= F gradp + v
dt
[2.4.14]
assuming that the mass forces are negligible compared to the frictional forces and the same
also applies to external forces (gravitation), i.e.
H
H
dv
= 0; F = 0
dt
[2.4.15]
the equation of Navier-Stokes will take the following form:
H
gradp = v
[2.4.16]
The geometric relations within the slider bearing (the height of the gap is very low
compared to the radii of curvature of journals and bearings) results that the bearing shell
can be developed in one plane. Furthermore, the change of the pressure in the direction of
the gap's height is without significance compared to the change of the pressure in the
directions of the width and of the periphery. The second derivations of the speed
components in the directions of the gap's height are larger than in the other two directions
by powers of ten. Thus, the latter can be neglected, i.e.
p
2u
= 2
x
y
[2.4.17]
p
2w
= 2
z
y
[2.4.18]
Taking into consideration the no-slip condition, the equations of the motions can be found
from:
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BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
u=
1 p
y
y 2 yh + (U 2 U 1 ) + U 1
2 x
h
[2.4.19]
w=
1 p
y 2 yh
2 z
[2.4.20]
By means of the continuity equation
H u v w
divv =
+ +
=0
x y z
[2.4.21]
and the definitions of the hydrodynamically effective angular velocity
= s + z 2 d dt
[2.4.22]
the equations of the motions can be joined to form the well-known Differential Equation of
Reynold's <6>

3
3
D
(1 + cos )
=
(1 + cos )
+

BR z
z
d
2 d
2
= 6 sin( )
sin( )
cos( )
dt
dt
[2.4.23]
This is the basis of all these theories. If the positions and the motions of journal and shell
are known, the pressure distribution in the oil gap can be found. Conversely, the motion of
the journal can also be calculated. This calculation is based on the equilibrium condition of
the oilfilm's supporting capacity and the external force, if a non-steady load is given, i.e. if
the force curve is variable concerning the dimension and the direction.
2.4.4. Solution of the Differential Equation of Reynolds (RDEQ)

To solve this differential equation, the journals motion is divided into
1. Plain rotary motion with
= s + z 2 d dt
2. Plain displacement with
d dt
These two cases are then solved separately. The use of the hydrodynamically effective
angular velocity * (Fraenkel <3>) reduces the non-steady load to a steady load with the
journal velocity * . The conclusion drawn from this is that every relative velocity
directed towards the gap will cause an increase in pressure. And a mere rotation of the gap
will generate a supporting capacity that is twice as large as in the case of mere journal
rotation. Thus, the supporting capacity in constantly loaded bearing will break down if the
gap rotates in the same direction with half the angular velocity of the shaft (in the case of
bearings without displacement, d /dt = 0).
2-44
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

By introducing dimensionless pressure values
p D 2
D =

for rotation
pV 2
V =
d dt
for displacement
the pressure distribution can be given for every combination between viscosity , angular
velocity * and relative bearing clearance , without having to solve the differential
equation anew each time.
2.4.4.1. Boundary Conditions

Unique solutions for the differential equations for rotation and displacement can be found
by boundary conditions only. These boundary conditions are different for the three ways of
solving the equations.
The first boundary condition requests the pressure at the bearings edges to be 0:
p( , z = BR 2) = 0
The second boundary condition for the rotation requests the pressure in the widest gap to
be 0:
p D ( = 0, z ) = 0
At the end of the pressure distribution of the rotation (after the narrowest gap) the
pressure must become 0 there, where the pressure-gradient in circumferential direction
becomes 0. This will take place on a bent line = 0 (z)
p D ( = 0 ( z ), z ) = 0
with
(p D
) = = 0
0
As this boundary condition, formulated by Reynolds, is difficult to handle mathematically,

it was not considered by Holland and Lang. By means of measurements (e.g. by Carl) of
steadily loaded bearings, it has been shown that a good correlation can be reached when
using Reynolds boundary condition. The result of the measurements was that the pressure
distribution in the direction of the periphery ended only after the narrowest gap.
Thus Butenschoen chose the boundary conditions such that they met the physical
demands: the maintenance of continuity and the incapability of the oilfilm to absorb
tensions. It is easier to apply the boundary conditions named after Sommerfeld <8>.
These result from the periodicity of the pressure distribution. But they result in very high
underpressures which have been equalized to 0 by Gmbel <4>. This fulfills the condition
that no tensions are absorbed. The continuity, however, is not maintained.
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Theory
The pressure distribution in the axial direction is assumed to be parabolical. Holland

introduced a factor of reduction for the supporting capacity (as in the case of a limited
width of the bearing, the pressure in the middle is less than in bearings with an unlimited
width), which results from the continuity condition.
2.4.5. Non-isothermal Consideration of the Slider Bearing

All reflections on the slider bearing considered so far apply to constant temperature and
viscosity. Due to friction, there are spatial temperature distributions which result in a
variable viscosity.
As shown by Motosh, the influence on the pressure distribution is low when it concerns the
oil inlet temperature for slider bearings in combustion engines (at 80C), which is due to
the variable viscosity. Apart from the viscositys insignificant dependency at high
temperatures and the oppositely directed, and thus compensating, influence of the oil
viscositys pressure dependency, the dependency is further reduced nowadays by using
multigrade oils. Thus, non-isothermal calculations are not necessary in the case of engine
slider bearings. It is advisable to put in the viscosity for a suitable mean value of inlet and
outlet temperatures.
2.4.6. Calculation of the Journal Displacement

This chapter deals with the deduction of the differential equation system of the journal
displacement and with its numerical evaluation in the AVL-Program.
2.4.6.1. The Steadily Loaded Bearing

In the steadily loaded cylindrical slider bearing, the load balances the resultant of a
pressure distribution in the oilfilm which is due to the fact that - by its rotation - the
journal pulls with it the viscous oil. In the state of equilibrium, there is no radial motion of
the journal and the narrowest oilfilm gap is always found at the same place.
In this case, the supporting power PD and - indirectly following from it - the eccentricity
and the minimum oilfilm thickness only depend on:
1. the bearing's geometry:
diameter of the shell
width
BR
relative clearance of the bearings
= (D-d)/D
(d = diameter of the journal)
2-46
2. the dynamic oil viscosity
3. the absolute value of the journal's angular velocity
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Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

According to Sommerfeld, this dependency can be represented by the function:
PD = SoD
BR D
2
[2.4.24]
the "Sommerfeld figure of the rotational supporting power SoD" being calculated according
to the laws of hydromechanics based on Reynold's theory (<4>, <7>).
2.4.6.2. The Non-steadily Loaded Bearing

In the non-steadily loaded cylindrical slider bearing, the value and direction of the load
change according to any functions of time, and according to that, the state of equilibrium
will change, too.
This causes the following consequences:
1. There will be radial motions of the journal. These will cause a squeezing of the
oilfilm (squeeze-effect), which in turn will result in a changing of the pressures
in the oilfilm, the resultant of which will act on the journal as an additional
supporting power due to displacement PV.
If we assume that - in a bearing with a rotating journal - this displacement
supporting power is generated by the same physical procedure as in a bearing
with a static journal (an assumption that is not true, but is admitted according
to Holland, Lang and Butenschoen), PV will depend exclusively on the
bearing's geometry and on the oil viscosity, and in addition to this, on the
velocity of the radial motion
=
d 2E
dt D d
E=E(t) being the journals eccentricity

And, once more, the functional correlation can be expressed as a factor of
proportionality by means of a Sommerfeld figure:
PV = SoV
BR D
2
PV constantly changes its value and its direction, which is due to the changing
of the value and the direction of . It will even have a reducing effect on the
total supporting power if the journal moves away from the shell, i.e. if
becomes negative.
2. The total supporting power P which is to counter-balance the load is the
resultant from PD and PV. P's temporal change, however, is not compensated
exclusively by PV, as PD and PV lie in the same direction only seldomly for
moments. Thus, PD, also has to temporarily change its value and direction and,
in addition to this, the geometry of the flow-area will also change as a result of
the eccentricitys change.
Both the change of the load component, which is compensated by PD, and the
change of the eccentricity cause a temporal change of the position of the
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BRICKS Version 3.2
Theory
minimum oilfilm gap. i.e., the azimuth angle of the minimum oilfilm gap will
also change its value with the angular velocity
.
The latter is of particular importance, as this angular velocity of the minimum

oilfilm gap's motion on its part has a direct influence on the creation of the
rotational supporting power.
If you look first at a steadily loaded slider bearing, the journal and shell rotate
with angular velocities Z and S, the substantial flow velocity in the
minimum oilfilm gap will be the one of the medium oilfilm streamline
z +s
2 z + s
um =
=
=
2
D
D
D
with z + s = ;
[2.4.25]
and if s = 0;
um =
=
D
D
with
z = ;
Otherwise, if the minimum oilfilm gap moves with an angular velocity
z + s 2
2 z + s
2 z + s

=
um =
=
=
D
D
D
D
2
2
. , then
[2.4.26]
with the "hydrodynamically effective velocity"
= z + s 2
In the case of a non-steadily loaded radial slider bearing, * is used instead of
Z in the formula for the steadily loaded bearing with static shell.
The following is obtained:
PD = So D
BR D
with
= z + s 2
[2.4.27]
In addition, as we derivated beyond, exists:
PV = SoV
BR D
2
[2.4.28]
In these formulae the Sommerfeld figures themselves are functions of the relative
eccentricity and the width ratio BR/D.
2-48
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

To calculate them, authors have used different approximations, as a precise calculation
from Reynold's differential equation is not possible. The formulae alternatively used in this
software originate from Lang <2>, Holland <5> and Butenschoen <1>.
We will list these formulae at the end of this survey and state that we have corrected some
obvious publishing errors in the formulae of Lang and Holland.
In concern to the explicit deductions of the formulae, the reader is referred to literature as
these theoretical fundamentals bear no direct reference to our program. In our program,
only the final formulae which are relevant for the user are given.
2.4.7. Differential Equations for the Journal Displacement

This chapter deals with the set up of the differential equations for the journal
displacement (eccentricity ratio).
This is done by generating the equilibrium of forces at the bearing journal:
2.4.7.1. Equilibrium of Forces at Increasing Eccentricity

Equilibrium of forces at the journal with positive rotation sense of
eccentricity.
* and increasing
Figure 2-34: Equilibrium of Forces at the Journal Increasing Eccentricity
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With the angle designation according to Figure 2-34 the following applies:
Projection on the x-axis:
P cos(90 B) = PD cos(90 )
P sin B = PD sin
[2.4.29]
Projection on the y-axis:
P sin(90 B) = PD sin(90 ) + PV
P cos B = PD cos + PV
[2.4.30]
PD cos = P cos B PV
Equation 2.4.30:
therefore, with equation 2.4.29:
tan =
P sin B
P cos B PV
P cos B tan PV tan = P sin B
PV = P (cos B sin B tan )

PD = P sin B sin
0
sin B 0 .
As with
also
always
S S , here always B 0 . Further, always B 90 . Therefore,
The absolute value of the angle between PD and the eccentricity vector is always 90 and
bmin = B. Therefore, b always is within the 1st quadrant. For that reason always sin 0
and
tan 0 , so that the following will apply, too:
PV = P (cos B sin B tan )

PD = P sin B sin
Note: sin B could have been written instead of sinB .
As
Note: We could have written
instead of sinB at this place, but did
not so deliberately.
sin B or tan B can be computed as functions of the ratio BR/D (width/diameter) and
of the relative eccentricity e, finally:

2-50
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
sin B
PV = P cos B
tan ( BR D, )
PD = P
sin B
sin ( BR D, )
[2.4.31]
[2.4.32]
The equalization of equation 2.4.27 and equation 2.4.31 results in:
=
sin B
P 2
cos B
tan ( BR D, )
SoV BR D
[2.4.33]
The equalization of equation 2.4.28 and equation 2.4.32 results in:
P 2
sin B
=
So D BR D sin ( BR D, )
[2.4.34]
2.4.7.1.1. Equilibrium of Forces at Decreasing Eccentricity

Equilibrium of forces at the journal with positive rotation sense of and decreasing
eccentricity.
Figure 2-35: Equilibrium of Forces at the Journal Decreasing Eccentricity
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With the angle designation according to Figure 2-35 the following applies:
Projection on the x-axis:
P cos( 90 B 180) = PD cos( 90 )

P sin B = PD sin
[2.4.35]
Projection on the y-axis:
P sin(90 B 180) = PD sin(90 ) + PV

P cos B = PD cos + PV
Equation 2.4.36:
[2.4.36]
P cos = P cos B PV
therefrom with equation 2.4.35:
P sin B
P cos B PV
tan =
PV = P ( cos B sin B tan )

PD = P sin B sin
With
is
0 B 90, sin 0;
Under these circumstances, is always within the 3rd quadrant.

Therefore,
sin < 0, tan > 0.
For that reason, both formulas can be written in the form:
PV = P ( cos B sin B tan )

PD = P sin B sin
Or with
sin = sin ( BR D, )
and
tan = tan ( BR D, ) :
sin B
PV = P cos B
tan ( BR D, )
PD = P
2-52
sin B
sin ( BR D, )
[2.4.37]
[2.4.38]
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Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

The equalization of equation 2.4.27 and equation 2.4.37 for negative results in:
=
sin B
P 2
cos B
tan ( BR D, )
SoV BR D
which is identical to formula 7a.

The equalization of [2.4.28] and [2.4.38] results in:
P 2
sin B
=
which is identical to formula 8a.

The same formulas will arise for clockwise rotation if the direction of the rotation
determines the positive sense of rotation of all angles, as it is the case throughout this
program.
So, for all cases the following formulas apply:
=
sin B
P 2
cos B
tan ( BR D, )
SoV BR D
P 2
sin B
=
with
B = s s
0 B 90
2.4.8. Deduction of the Expressions for
The deduction of the expression for for main bearing, connecting-rod bearing, and
piston-pin bearing used in the program CBCALC is as follows:
2.4.8.1. Calculation of for the Main Bearing

= Z + S 2
[2.4.39]
In the case of a main bearing:
Z K ;
S = 0;
= S ;
thus
= K 2 S
According to definition the angular velocity ratio is
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BRICKS Version 3.2
v =
Theory
Z S
K
At the main bearing v = 1;

Thus, the following will apply, too:
= K v 2 S
[2.4.40]
2.4.8.2. Calculation of for the Connecting-rod Bearing

= Z S 2 Sr
[2.4.41]
As in the case of connecting-rod bearings the entire hydromechanical calculation is

referred to a coordinate system that is moved with the shell, Z is expressed by Zr :
Z = Zr + S ; Z = Zr + S
therefore:
= Zr 2 Sr
because of
Zr = K + K ; Zr = K + K ;
= K + K 2 Sr
follows:
As is well-known:
K = arctan
sin
1 2 sin 2
with
=R L
therefore
K
thus
cos
1 2 sin 2
= K +
or with Sr
2-54
22 sin cos
2
2
cos
sin
sin
1
2 1 2 sin 2
=
2 sin 2
1 2 sin 2
1 +
1 2 sin 2
cos
1 sin
2
K 2 Sr
= S :
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Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
v = 1 +
cos
[2.4.42]
1 2 sin 2
again
= K v 2 S
[2.4.43]
2.4.8.3. Calculation of for the Piston-pin Bearing

Pin is fixed in the Piston
The pin is fixed in the piston and rotates in the rod end. The hydrodynamic calculations
will be done in the reference system of the connecting-rod.
Note: Here, like in the previous and following chapter, K is

orientated against the positive sense of rotation of all the other
angles.
= Z S 2
(10)
Z = 180 = S + K = S + Zr
Z S = Zr = K
= K 2 Sr ;
( S Sr )
= K v 2 Sr
or
v =
with
cos
1 2 sin 2
(11)
(13)
Pin is fixed in the Conrods End

The pin is fixed in the conrods end and rotates in the piston-pin bearings of the piston. The
hydrodynamic calculations will be done in the absolute reference system.
= Z + S 2
as the shell doesnt move:
(9)
S = 0
Z = 180 K
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(because K is orientated against the positive sense of rotation)
Z = K
= K 2 S
= K v 2 S
thus
v =
with
cos
1 2 sin 2
(11)
(14)
2.4.9. Differences Equation System for Journal Displacement

Set up the differences equation system for the journal displacement in that form how it is
used in this program.
Form:
=
sin B
P 2
cos B
tan ( BR D, )
SoV BR D
P 2
sin B
=
with
(7)
(8)
B = S S ; 0 B 90
= K v 2 S
(11)
the following will be obtained:
d d 180 d n
d
1
=
=
K
dt d
dt
d UMRZ
with
UMRZ = 180
K = angular velocity of the crank shaft
and with change-over to finite differences
P 2 UMRZ
=
K K BR D SoV
, K :
sin( BUMRZ )
cos( BUMRZ )
tan ( BR D, )
(15)
and with:
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n
n
n
0
n = d S = d S d = d S = K v
S
K
2
dt
d n dt
d
and with change-over to finite differences
, :
sin( BUMRZ )
0S
P 2
1
= v
K BR D So D sin ( BR D, )
K 2
(16)
For these formulae v = 1 for main bearings, whereas it will be calculated according to the
preceding formulae 12, 13, 14 for connecting-rod and piston-pin bearings.
As already mentioned, the Sommerfeld figures SoV and SoD will be calculated as functions
of and the width ratio BR/D according to the formulae of Holland, Lang and Butenschoen
depending on the chosen procedure.
To make a solution of the equation system possible, a defining equation for the
displacement angle is lacking, apart from the calculation formulae for the Sommerfeld
figures not quoted yet.
(which must not be confused with the angle K between the cylinder axis and the
connecting-rod center line) is the angle between the supporting power component due to
rotation PD, and the supporting power component due to displacement PV.
In the case of the steadily loaded bearing, is identical to the angle between the supporting
powers vector and the direction of the eccentricity (see Figure 2-7 - Figure 2-9).
Under the influence of a basic solution for the steadily loaded bearing of infinite width
developed by Gmbel <4>, approximation equations for have been developed from the
hydrodynamic basic theory by several authors:
With reference to Holland and Sassenfeld, Lang states:
1
1 2
arctan
+ K1 sin( ) + K 2 sin( 2 ) + K 3 + K 4
C3
(17a)
the coefficient C3, K1, K2, K3, K4, (QC3, QK1, QK2, QK3, QK4 in the program) being
tabulated as functions of the width ratio BR/D.
According to Butenschoen
1 2 5
a i i 1
= arctan
2 i =1
(17b)
the ai (BTS5, BTS6, BTS7, BTS8, BTS9 in the program) have to be calculated as linear
functions of the width ratio BR/D.
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The calculation of the time function of the relative eccentricity for sections with
decreasing journal (moving towards the shell) is done at any rate by integrating the
difference equation 15. For sections with increasing (moving away from the shell) journal,
this calculation is done by integrating the difference equation 15, only then if the
Sommerfeld figures are calculated by the formulae of Butenschoen.
If calculating the Sommerfeld figures according to Holland or Lang also for increasing
journal, this method would provide rather unprecise values for . For that reason, the
computation of for an increasing journal in these cases will be done by using a formula
given by Lang, ignoring the displacement supporting power (which usually is very small in
case of an increasing journal):
= cos(C3 UMRZ ) C4 sin(2 C3 UMRZ )
(18)
must be computed according to formula 17a. The coefficients C3 and C4 (QC3, QC4 in the
program) are tabulated as functions of the width ratio BR/D.
In general, it must be stated that the computation by using the Sommerfeld figures of
Butenschoen is the more modern and more reliable method. Generally, it provides
considerably lower eccentricity values and thus higher values for the minimum oilfilm
thickness than the two other methods.
The computation methods according to Holland and Lang have been used by AVL in
BRICKS to make possible comparative considerations on previous computation results, for
which only these two methods had been available.
2.4.10. Sommerfeld Figures

The computation equations for the Sommerfeld figures given by the authors mentioned are
discussed here.
Sommerfeld Figures of the Rotational Supporting Power
According to Holland and Lang:
SoD = M 0 + M1 ( 0.65) (1 )
2
M2
(19a)
the constant M0, M1, M2 (QM0, QM1, QM2 in the program) being tabulated as functions
of the width ratio BR/D.
According to Butenschoen:
SoD = 0.5 1 2
) ( D BR) )
2
2 (1 2 ) + 16 2 a1 ( 1) a 2
(19b)
a1 and a2 (BTS3 and BTS4 in the program) must be calculated as 4th-degree polynoms of
the width ratio BR/D.
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Sommerfeld Figure of the Displacements Supporting Power

According to Holland (we have corrected sign errors in the publication):
6
SoV =
1+
1
2
+
1 2
2 arctan
(1 )
2 3
D
+ 2
.
1 + 3 353429
BR
(20a)
According to Lang (sign errors in the publication have been corrected):
2 + 2
1+
3 6 + 2
2 arctan
2
1
1
SoV =
2
16
. D
2
+
2 2 4 1 +
4
3
2 + 2 BR
(20b)
According to Butenschoen:
SoV =
BR
2
. 1 2 a1
(20c)
0.5 arccos( ) 1 + 2 + 15
2 2.5
2
a
2
1
a1 and a2 (BTS1, BTS2 in the program) being calculated by means of cubic polynomials of
the width ratio BR/D.
2.4.11. Solution of the Equation System for the Displacement

It is understandable that due to the complexity of the equation-system 16 to 20, it is not
possible to obtain an analytic solution and that only a numerical iteration method can be
successful.
In case of such a numerical calculation, it is assumed that the terms of the equations,
which are dependent on the variables and , remain constant over short intervals of an
independent parameter that is common to all variables (here, this parameter is the
crankangle ). Thus, the values of the target-variables can be computed at the end of each
small "step" from the values at the start of the step and from the known changes of the
independent variable load value P and the loads angle of direction as well as of the
eventually changeable angular velocity of the journal K v .
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A necessity for this methods success is that the procedure converges, i.e. that the
consequences of the initial values arbitrary assumption are reduced in the course of steps,
and that the method is steady, i.e. that the errors arising from the approximation remain
minimal and - in successive steps - alternatively deviate to higher or lower values. Thus, a
polygon is generated that represents the true result curve with acceptably little deviations.
Yet, the use of this generally known method for the solution of the problem is not at all
easy. Mainly, the following difficulties have to be overcome:
1.
The avoidance of unrealistic intermediate results which may arise from initial
values that have not been modified sufficiently yet, or from sudden changes of
the load state. Using these unrealistic step-results as initial values of the
subsequent step of calculation would bring about the failure of algorithms.
For those reasons, the limiting value "1" may be exceeded in the newly
calculated point of the polygon which represents the function of the relative
eccentricity (meaning that the journal penetrates into the shell). Or, the
limiting value "0" may be fallen below (meaning that the journal was more
centric than the center). Of course, both is geometrically impossible and the
use of such intermediate results would provide complex or infinite values
which would stop the program run.
Equally, the angle B between the load vector and the eccentricity vector must
not become more than 90 degrees for physical reasons, as this would result in
mathematical impossibilities, too.
2. Further, mathematical instabilities which are due to overcompensation of

errors based on wrong initial values or of consequences of sudden large
changes of the load state must be avoided. Such overcompensation can
increase considerably in the course of the calculation, just as a persistent
oscillation in a resonant condition. But, even if such a calculation oscillation
is fading away by itself, and even if there is convergency in spite of existing of
this oscillation, it will adversely affect the calculations result in most cases.
The most important by-product of the displacement calculation is the
minimum oilfilm thickness. This minimum thickness, however, is mostly of an
order of a few percent of the largest possible eccentricity. This is why errors in
the eccentricity calculation in the range of the minimum oilfilm gap multiply,
reducing the accuracy of the latter.
3. When using the calculation methods of Holland or Lang, the equation 15 must
be used, if > 0 , but if < 0 , you will have to use equation 18. Therefore, if
a result is received which does not apply to the respective condition for the
equations use when using the one or other equation, you will have to repeat
the step of calculation with the respective other equation.
In case of plane sections of the -function, it happens rather frequently,
however, that the result of formula 15 shows the increase of the journal. This
releases a repetition of the step with formula 18, which then shows a decrease
of the journal, what in turn causes a repetition with formula 15. Thus, an
infinite oscillation between these two alternatives - a so-called dead-loop would be started. This must be avoided, of course.
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4. As can be seen, the calculation expenditure is considerable for each step of
computation. Thus, everything must be done by means of a very carefully
optimized mathematical method of solution as well as by means of a carefully
optimized program technology, to obtain acceptable times for the program run
without neglecting the above considerations.
While all the details described so far are part the theory of the known and generally
accessible field of contemporary technology, the numeric solving method, which is
described in the following and which fulfills all requirements mentioned before, is a
development and, therefore, the intellectual property of AVL.
2.4.12. Summary of the Numeric Solving Method

To achieve satisfactory results in the numeric calculation of the journal displacement
(Eccentricity ratio) by using the equations represented before and fulfilling the boundary
and secondary conditions mentioned, simple numeric integration methods as those of
Newton, Heun or even of Simpson will not meet the requirements of all possible load
functions, even if the chosen step width of calculation is very small.
In particular, the method of Newton produces equidirectional errors in any case, which
constantly add each other (tendence errors) in the course of longer curve sections. These
errors inevitably will release overcompensation, if the load function changes abruptly,
which very often is the case. Difficulties also may arise in cases of constant, almost
constant or very low loads. The eccentricity function will proceed very flatly or - in case of
a constant load - as a straight line parallel to the abscissa. When using an inefficient
numeric integration method, the calculated curve will swing around the real curve in a
plane, saw-tooth shaped form. Although the deviations often are within the necessary
tolerance required for the accuracy of the result, no end of the iteration will be found as
the phase relationship of the deviations shifts from iteration cycle to iteration cycle.
Finally, we have to consider that the time needed for the program run will increase
proportionally to a decrease of the step width of the calculation.
Thus, using the integration method of Runge-Kutta, a special management for the solution
of the equation system has been developed in the AVL for this program, the result of each
step of calculation being checked by a subsequently added integration according to
Simpson.
The basic thought being the following:
Beginning with the step width, which is chosen by the user and which the load function called main step in the following - has been calculated in and are computed
alternatively by means of the integration method of Runge-Kutta. Afterwards, the same
values computation is done by means of the method of Simpson beginning of the actual
step. The fact, that the latter do not have to be found out by an approximation method, but
already are safe intermediate results, has the effect that - in case of a fairly smooth course
of the curve - the resultant accuracy of the twice as long iteration step of Simpson is in
the same order as the resultant accuracy of the single long iteration step of RungeKutta.
Now, the results of the calculation according to Runge-Kutta and the results of the
calculation according to Simpson are compared. If the difference is beyond a given
tolerance, the computation of the actual step will be nullified and repeated with a
subdivision in partial steps.
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The integrations of the partial steps will follow the same method as the integrations of
the main steps.
If a comparison between the result obtained following Runge-Kutta and the result
achieved following Simpson brings about another insufficient correspondence, the entire
calculation of the actual main step will be annulled once more and repeated with
accordingly reduced partial steps.
The same dynamic reduction of the step of calculation will be released, if one of the
admitted limiting values is exceeded (as described above), or if an infinite oscillation
between the computation equations of take place when calculating according to Holland
or Lang.
The subdivision of a main step of the calculation in partial steps, however, cannot be
carried out infinitely, as - as a result of elementary losses in accuracy - iterative
improvements would stagnate and deadloops would be released.
Thus, limits for the allowed reductions of the steps have been introduced, out of which the
calculation results of the preceding step are used as results of the actual step, or, if this is
not sufficient, a message stating the unfeasibility of the calculation and a skipping of the
calculation for the actual bearing will be effected.
Required intermediate values of the load functions and - with connecting-rod or piston-pin
bearings - of the relative angular velocity are interpolated by AVL Spline-subroutine FS12.
In spite of its speed, the method is very steady and very accurate. This has been proven in
comparison to other programs. And it is shown by the fact that the variations of the
parameters: width of the main step (between 4 and 7.5 degrees), admitted largest number
of partial steps with insufficient checking accuracy (between 6 and 28) and iteration
tolerance (between 1 and 0.5%), have only little influence on the results.
In the following, the calculation management without detailed comment is outlined.
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2.4.12.1. Principles of the Runge-Kutta Integration

Based on the publication of E. Stiefel.
x
y( x K + x K ) = y K + K ( RK1 + 2 ( RK 2 + RK 3) + RK 4)
6
wherein:
RK1 = y ( x K , y K )
RK 2 = y ( x K + x K 2 , y K + x K 2 RK1)
RK 3 = y ( x K + x K 2 , y K + x K 2 RK 2)
RK 4 = y ( x K + x K , y K + x K RK 3)
above formula can also be written:
x
y( x K + x K ) = y K + K ( RK1 + 4 ( RK 2 + RK 3) 2 + RK 4)
6
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2.4.12.2. Main-loop of Eccentricity Calculation

It is:
... angle of crank rotation
... value of load vector
... direction of the load vector with regard to the shell
... angular velocity ratio
... relative eccentricity
... direction of eccentricity with regard to the shell
... =d/d
... =d/d
... step width

1. Preparation
Clear all counters and switches, set tolerances, constant values etc.
Set:
0 = 0.8
1 = 0.8
0 = (I=1)
1 = (I=2)
0 = 0
1 = 0
0 = 0
1 = (1-0)/
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2. Begin the Loop

Situation at the begin of a step.
Safe load vector and v at 2:

PH = P2
H = 2
vH = v2
EV = i +1 +
( = step width)
2
Spline P, , v for EV and store them at 2 (1.5 is now 2).

Compute
151 = 1 + 1
; check bounds.
2
3. Computation for Increasing Eccentricity
1 0
Compute
151 = 1 + 1 2
Compute
151 ; check tendency
Compute
151
Compute
152 = 1 + 151
2 ;
Compute
152 = 1 + 151 2 ; check bounds
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Compute
152 ; check tendency
Compute
152
Restore load vector and v at 2:

P2 = PH
2 = H
v2 = vH
(2 is now again at I+2).
Compute
2 = 1 + 152
(preliminary computation of 2 in order to get 2);
check bounds
Compute
2 = 1 + 152 ; check bounds
Compute
2 ; check tendency
Compute
Runge-Kutta computations:
2 = 1 + ( 1 + 2 ( 151
+ 152
) + 2 ) 6 ;
check bounds
2 = 1 + ( 1 + 2 ( 151
+ 152
) + 2 ) 6 ;
check bounds
Final computation of 2, check tendency (preparation for next step).
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Final computation of 2, check tendency (preparation for next step).
4. Computation for Decreasing Eccentricity
1 < 0
Only with Holland or Lang.
Compute
151 ; check tendency = SIGN( 151 1 ); check bounds;
Compute
151
Compute
152 = 1 + 151 2 ; check bounds
Compute
152
Restore load vector and v at 2:

P2 = PH
2 = H
v2 = vH
(2 is now again at I+2).
Compute
2 = 1 + 152 ; check bounds
Compute
2 ; check tendency = SIGN( 2 1 ); check bounds;
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Runge-Kutta computation:
2 = 1 + ( 1 + 2 ( 151
+ 152
) + 2 ) 6
2
Computation of
by parabolic approximation:
2 = ( 0 4 1 + 3 2 ) 4
Check tendency.
If
2 > 0 :
Computation of
repeated by formulas for increasing eccentricity.
Final computation of
2 .
5. Further Calculation for Both Cases

Thereafter, the following will be calculated for increasing and decreasing eccentricity:
If
respectively
2 10
. E6
and not for the first of diminished steps:
Control by Simpson computation with double step width:
v = 0 + 0 + 4 1 + 2 3
v = 0 + 0 + 4 1 + 2 3
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2.4.13. Friction Losses

The non-steadily loaded slider bearings friction losses result from the rotational portion of
the load, as well as the damping energy of the journal in the bearing shell.
The rotational part is evaluated as followed:
PF =
R Z 4
( ) FD ( ) d [Nm/s]
4 0
[2.4.44]
Friction value:
( ) =
FN
FD
Frictional force
---------------------------------------------------------External force (= the rotations supporting power)
usually given as /:
( )
=
+ sin
4
2
SoD (1 )
Connection
[2.4.45]
SoD FD :
SoD ( ) =
FD ( ) 2
BR D
[2.4.46]
By this, equation 2.4.46 is converted to:
PF =
BR D 2 Z 4 ( )
SoD ( ) ( ) d
4 2
0
[2.4.47]
Butenschoen applies Simpsons rule for the numerical integration.
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2.4.14. Oil Flow

The oil flow in the slider bearing consists of three shares:
QD ... due to rotational pressure
QV ... due to displacement pressure
QS ... due to supply pressure
A prerequisite for the following approximation functions is:
pS << pmax
and an oil well or drilling in the widest gap.
2.4.14.1. Oil Flow Due to Rotational Portion

3
BR
BR
QD = 3
= 2
0.223

D
R
D
QD
[2.4.48]
2.4.14.2. Oil Flow Due to Displacement Portion

QV =
QV
d
R
dt
3
= a i i 1
[2.4.49]
i =1
a1 = 0.00401 + 4.053471 W 0.23579 W 0.3546 W

2
a 2 = 0.03021 + 0.3434 W 0.96401 W 0.0358 W

2
a 3 = 0.02609 + 0.3017 W 0.87376 W 0.24087 W
2.4.14.3. Oil Flow Due to Feeding Pressure

The following options are implemented for the oil feed:
Groove in circumferential direction
..... QSG
Drilling
.... QSD
Oil well (axial)
.... QSW
Groove in Circumferential Direction
QSG =
2-70
1 + 15
. 2
QS
=
3 3
3
3
BR
R pS
R pS
3
D
[2.4.50]
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Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
Drilling
1
qD
QSD = QS
(1 + )
1
=
BR qV
6 ln
d0
3
QSD
QS =
qD
[2.4.51]
QS
R 3 pS
3
... Factor of reducing used when comparing with parallel disks
q D = 1204
.
+ 0.368 1046
. 2 + 1942
. 3
d0
BR
0 < 0.5
d0
... Diameter of the drilling
BR
... Width of the bearing
Oil Well (Axial)
QSW = QS
1
qW
( QS see above)
(1 + )
1
=
BR qW
6 ln
Z0
3
QSW
[2.4.52]
qW = 1188
.
+ 1582
. 2.585 2 + 55625
.
3
Z0
BR
0 < 0.5
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Z0
... Width (= length) of the oil well
BR
... Width of the bearing
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2.4.14.4. Total Oil Flow

The portions QD, QV, QS are calculated for each angle of the cycle (720) and integrated as
in the case of the friction losses.
720
Q=
Z 4
( Q ( ) + Q ( ) + Q ( ))d
D
p
720
d
3
Q=
R QD ( ) + QV ( )
+ QS ( ) S 2 di
ni 180
dt

0
Butenschoen does the integration according to Simpson.
2.4.15. Determination of the Maximum Pressure

To dimension the bearing, the evaluation of maximum pressures arising in operation is of
importance.
As when using approximation functions for the calculation of the oilfilms supporting
power portions due to rotation and displacement, the pressure distribution is not received
as an interim solution (contrary to the direct RDEQ-solution), approximation functions are
to be set up for the determination of the maximum pressures arising in every operating
point of the journal also.
In general, the position of the maximum due to journal rotation and journal displacement
is varying. Thus, the maximum cumulative pressure arising, pmax, can only be found from
the correctly built cumulative pressure curve.
pmax = ( p D ( ) + pV ( )) max
[2.4.53]
The pressure distributions pD() and pV() are calculated by means of appropriate splinefunctions.
If * is the hydrodynamically effective angle velocity and if d/dt is the sinking velocity,
four states of equilibrium on the journal will be possible. For these states the overlapping
of the partial pressure should be analyzed in the following:
1) +*, +d/dt
3)
-*, +d/dt
2) +*, -d/dt
4)
-*, -d/dt
The hydrodynamically effective angle velocity consists of the journals velocity (Z), the
velocity of the bearing shell (S) and the velocity of the minimum gap (d/dt):
= S + Z 2
d
dt
If the load angle is taken into consideration, the cases 1) to 4) will be equivalent for the
maximum pressure due to rotation:
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max = max D P
[2.4.54]
max D1) = max D 2 ) = max D3) = max D 4 )

For the total maximum pressure, the cases 1) to 3) or 2) to 4) will be equivalent:
max1) = max 3)
max 2 ) = max 4 )
[2.4.55]
2.4.15.1. Overlapping of the Pressure Portions

If pD() and pV() are known, the overlapping for every angle will take place. The
maximum value should be found from ptot().
For the determination of the pressure maximum only the central pressure in the bearing is
of importance:
Z=0
BR
DS ( ) = 3
sin
(1 + cos ) 3
[2.4.56]
D ... Rotation
V ... Displacement
S ... Short bearing
W ... Bearing with infinite width
tot .. total
In general, the so-called physical boundary conditions are used as in the case with
Holland/Lang.
2.4.15.2. Pressure Distribution

To set up approximation formulae for the calculation of the pressure distribution, some of
Butenschoens functions which give the angles 0V, 0D may be used. With Butenshoen
there is a table for maxD (or maxD) and for pmaxD and pmaxV.
The following developed approximation functions start out from the theory concerning
short bearings or from bearings with infinite widths, and use the Butenschoen results to
determine corrective factors.
1. Pressure Distribution Due to Journal Rotation
When following the theory of short bearings, the pressures second derivation in
circumferential direction is neglected as compared to the one in the direction of the width:
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2
=0
z 2
Thus, the result is as follows:
2
sin
BR
2
DS ( , z ) = 3
1 z
D
(1 + cos ) 3
[2.4.57]
According to the theory of the bearing with an infinite width, the following will show:
DW ( ) = 6 1
2 3 2
2 sin + 0.5 2 (sin cos + )

sin
1 cos 0
[2.4.58]
0 = 0.46096 + 4.49004
cos 0
0 = 2 arccos
1 cos 0
2. Pressure Distribution Due to Displacement
Short bearing - theory: (with Z=0):
2
1
BR
VS ( ) = 6
cos
D
(1 + cos ) 3
[2.4.59]
Bearing with infinite width - theory:
VW ( ) =
6
1
1
2
(1 + cos ) (1 + ) 2
[2.4.60]
2.5. Crankshaft Torsion Analysis

2.5.1. Lumped Mass - Spring - System
2.5.1.1. Lumped Masses (Inertias)
The real parts of the vibration system with distributed masses have to be substituted by
individual inertias. Thereby the basic formula for the inertia (MTM) has to be used:
MTM = ( 32) ( D 4 d 4 ) L
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whereby
= specific mass of the individual element [kg/mm3]
= outside diameter [mm]
= inside diameter [mm]
= length [mm]
2.5.2. Throw Stiffness

The stiffness of a crankshaft cannot be calculated exactly because of its throws.
The masses are assumed to act in the middle of the crank throw. The pins and journals
twist and the webs bend. An equivalent shaft is found which has the same torsional
stiffness as the crankthrow.
This problem was analyzed by R.GRAMMEL in 1933 and he made the following
distinctions:
1st kind of torsion:
The load comes from two equal torsional moments.
Figure 2-36: Crankshaft Torsion 1st kind according to Grammel

2nd kind of torsion:
The load happens by two equal forces working in opposite direction and normal to the
throw plane. Both main and secondary torsion occurs.
Figure 2-37: Crankshaft Torsion 2nd kind according to Grammel

The composted load leads to a twisting and bending with effects on the neighbored throws
as it is by a beam:
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Figure 2-38: Crankshaft Bending as a Beam at Torsion 2nd kind
2.5.2.1. Empirical Formulae for the Calculation of the Torsional

Stiffness of a Crank Throw
Empirical formulae were developed as calculation of the torsion stiffness with the methods
of the theory of elasticity was not possible. Many torsion tests with pure torsion moments
were carried out according to the 1st kind of torsion (R. Grammel).
All found empirical formulae have the following shape:
le = a j
le
Ie
I
I
+ ac e + a w e
Ij
Ic
IW
[mm]
... equivalent length
with the indices:

j
... main journal
... crank pin
... web
... equivalent shaft
The moments of inertia are called:
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Ij =
( D j4 d j4 )
32
Ic =
( Dc4 dc4 )
32
Iw =
B3 B3
1
Lw 3max min
3
6
Bmax + Bmin
Ie =
De4
32
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Figure 2-39: Dimensions of Crankshaft taken into consideration from Empirical

Formulae
The coefficients a of the formula have the dimension of a length and they are determined
by different test series. The following table shows the dependence of these coefficients:
Table 2-3: Coefficients for the Empirical Formulae
Nr.
Author
aj
ac
aw
Carter
Lj+0.40Lw
0.75Lc+0.40Lw
1.273R0
Heldt
Lj+0.40Lw
1.096Lc
1.090R0
Jackson
Lj+0.27Dj
(Lc+0.27Dc)
0.594R0
2
(1+0.07((Lc+0.27Dc)/R0) )
4
Ker Wilson
Lj+0.40Dj
Lc+0.40Dc
0.849(R0-0.20(Dj+Dc))
Kritzer
Lj+0.20Dj
Lc+0.20Dc
0.770R0
Timoshenko
Lj+0.90Lw
Tuplin
Lc+0.90Lw
4
(Lj+0.15Dj)/(1-(dj/Dj) )
0.790R0
4
(Lc+0.15Dc)/(1-(dj/Dj) )
10.186Iw((2Lw4
0.15(Dj+Dc))/(Be 4
dj ))+0.849R0(0.065Dj/Lw
2
+0.58)+ 0.0136Be /Lw
2.5.2.2. B.I.C.E.R.A.- Method for the Determination of the Torsional

Stiffness of a Crank Throw
The torsional stiffness of about 200 half crank throws were measured in the B.I.C.E.R.A.
laboratories. A method to calculate the equivalent length and with that the torsional
stiffness of a crank throw was developed from the results of these tests.
The equivalent length of the crank pin and of the main journal are calculated without
correction factor. Then the equivalent length of the crank web is determined by addition of
10 different values of influence found with the help of diagrams.
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De4
De4
le = L j 4
+ Lc 4
+ L w1 + L w 2
D j d j4
Dc dc4
le
[mm]
... equivalent length
De
[mm]
... reference diameter
Lj
[mm]
... length of main journal
Lc
[mm]
... length of crankpin
By this Lw1 and Lw2 are the equivalent lengths of the crank web.
For one web follows:
10
Lw = Di* Z i
i =1
Di*
[mm]
reference diameter
Zi
[-]
dimensionless value of influence
Figure 2-40: Crank shaft Dimensions taken in consideration from B.I.C.E.R.A. Method
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Table 2-4: Values of Influence for Determination of Equivalent Length of Crank Web
Influence taken in
consideration:
values of
influence Zi
Influence of the
reference values from which values of

*
diameter Di influence depend
3
Z1=Le0/De
De
(Rj+Rc-R0)/R0; (R0De )/(LweBe )
Z2=Le1/De
De
(Rj+Rc-R0)/R0; (Be/De)
Z3=Le2/De
De
(Rj+Rc-R0)/R0; De/Dc
axial bore
Z4=Le3/De
De
(Rj+Rc-R0)/R0; a/R0
Crank pin fillet
Z5=Lef/Dc
Dc
rfc/Rc
main journal fillet
Z6=Lef/Dj
Dj
rfj/Rj
back chamfer crank pin
Z7=Lec/Dc
Dc
hbc/(Rc+h0)
back chamfer main journal
Z8=Lec/Dj
Dj
hbj/(Rj+h0)
side chamfer crank pin
Z9=Lec/Dc
Dc
hsc/(Rc+h0)
side chamfer main journal
Z10=Lec/Dj
Dj
hsj/(Rj+h0)
web width Be
At first, the equivalent length le of the crank throw for the reference diameter De=Dj was
calculated by addition of the equivalent length of the main journal, the crank pin and the
both crank webs. Then, the torsional stiffness CT of the crank throw is determined with
following relation:
CT =
[N/mm2]
De4
G
32 I e
modulus of rigidity
Also the reduced length REL can be determined having the equivalent length of a
reference shaft with a diameter of 188.08 mm with the modulus of rigidity
N/m2.
For this there follows a relation value of
G = 0.814 1011
G I p = 10 7 Nm2, and the following equation is
valid:
REL =
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CT
10 7
[m]
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2.5.3. Shaft Stiffness

The determination of the deformation and of the distribution of stresses caused by torsion
can be made in an elementary way for cylindrical bars with circular cross section and
circular ring cross section.
Figure 2-41: Torsion of Shaft with Constant Cross Section

For shafts fixed at one side according to the above figure and loaded by a torsion moment
T(x) variable over the beam length, the following relation is valid for the torsion angle at
the beam end:
l
T (x)
dx
G IT
0
For shafts with circular cross section respectively circular ring cross sections the following
relations are valid:
IT =
( D4 d 4 )
32
= Gr
IT
[mm4]
polar area moment of inertia
[mm]
outer diameter
[mm]
inner diameter
[N/mm2]
shearing strength at distance r from the center
[N/mm2]
modulus of rigidity
For
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d
dx
r=
D
following is valid:
2
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max =
TD
2 IT
2.5.3.1. Shaft with Constant Cross Section

The torsional stiffness of shaft with constant cross section loaded with a constant torsion
moment T comes from the relation:
CT =
T G IT
=
2.5.3.2. Stepped Shaft
Figure 2-42: Torsion of Stepped Shaft with Circular Cross Section

The equivalent stiffness has to be determined according to the rules of the serial
connecting of springs if the shaft is stepped or there are different diameters.
1
1
1
1
=
+
+...+
C C1 C2
Cn
It is usual in engine calculations to determine the overall stiffness from the equivalent
length le. The equivalent length is the physical length of a shaft with a given diameter De
with the same torsional stiffness as the real shaft. It follows from this definition:
n
le = Ge De4
i =1
li
Gi ( Di4 di4 )
From this the torsion stiffness of the stepped shaft comes with following formula:
CT =
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D4
Ge e
le
32
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2.5.3.3. Influence of Transition Radius
Figure 2-43: Stepped Shaft with Transition Radius

The torsional stiffness of the real shaft is smaller than the stiffness calculated with the
equations before. This effect is considered by an additional length L which increases the
value of the equivalent length Le as shown below:
4
4
4
De
De
Ge D e
L1 + l 2 + L
Le =
G D1
D2
D1
The value of
L depend on the relations D2 / D1 and r / R1 .
Further information about the consideration of eccentric bores and the calculation of the
torsional stiffness of conical shaft element can be found in the literature
Torsionsschwingungen in der Verbrennungskraft-maschine.
2.5.3.4. Moment of Resistance

For the evaluation of stresses in the different sections of the crankshaft and power train
the value of the minimum moment of resistance
W=
D3
16
[mm3]
for circular full shaft sections and
W=
2
D B
2
[mm3]
for friction surfaces as in viscous shear dampers.
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2.5.4. System Excitation

2.5.4.1. The Tangential Force at the Crankpin
The tangential force is calculated from the pattern of the gas force on the piston by
cos
T ( ) = GAS( ) sin 1 +
1 2 sin 2
whereby
= angle of rotation (from T.D.C. firing)
= R(0)/L(con)
L(con) = length of connecting rod
2.5.4.2. Harmonic Analysis of Exciting Torque

The exciting torques and their harmonics have to be calculated for every oscillator type
from the input data.
To simplify the data input only the ordinate values (YS) of the cylinder pressure diagrams
are read in. Therefore the abscissa values have to be made for the further processing and
they will be put into the support field XS.
The tangential pressure values are then calculated from the cylinder pressure values and
are overwritten to the ordinate values.
These tangential pressure values are interpolated on 96 equidistant support points as
preparation for the harmonic analysis, for this a Lagrange interpolation with three support
points is used. Thereby, as well the passing of the limit values at switching of the support
points, as the interpolation of values falling at the support points itself (with a tolerance of
+/- 1.0E-5) is avoided.
Then the harmonic analysis itself is carried out with the known formulae of the Fourier
analysis until the 24th harmonics. So 4 support points exist per period of the highest
harmonics, in general this is seen as the limit for the required accuracy. The values up to
the 24th harmonics are determined directly and not by Fourier analysis, if amplitude and
phase were entered.
The harmonic analysis of exciting torque of the tangential gas forces of 1 cylinder is
evaluated by (J is the index of the harmonic orders i.e.: 0.5 - 12.0 in 4-stroke engines and k
is the index of the pivot points)
T ( gas ) = a( 0) + ( a( gas, j ) cos( j ) + b( gas, j ) sin( j ))

with
T ( )
a(0)
b(0)
=0
a(j)
b(j)
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(2 k T ( ) cos( j ))
= ( 2 k T ( ) sin( j ))
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2.5.4.3. Mass Force Harmonic

Following the harmonic analysis, the harmonics for all oscillator types of the exciting mass
rotatory forces are determined and added to the corresponding sine components of the gas
rotatory force. It is assumed that it is exact enough to use the first six harmonics with
their series terms up to the 6th power of LAMBDA (crank ratio).
The indices of the mass force harmonics are doubled in their value with the help of the
value REIG acting as a switch (that means 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 instead of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 as by 2stroke engines or compressors) at 4-stroke oscillators.
The components of the exciting torque of inertia forces are for 4-stroke-engines:
b( in,1) = b( x ) ( 4 + 3 16 + 5 15 512)
b( in,2) = b( x ) ( 0.5 4 32 + 6 32)
b( in,3) = b( x ) ( 3 4 3 9 32 + 5 81 512)
b( in,4) = b( x ) ( 2 4 4 8 6 16)
b( in,5) = b( x ) ( + 3 5 32 + 5 75 512)
b( in,6) = b( x ) ( 4 3 32 6 3 32)
with
b( x ) = m( osz ) R( 0) 2 A( piston)
m(osz) = reciprocating mass of one cylinder
A(piston)= area of piston (cylinder bore)
2.5.4.4. Indicated Cylinder Power of the Oscillator

The indicated mean pressure and the indicated power are calculated with the coefficient
a(0) from the harmonic analysis. With this, it is possible to control the correctness of the
indicator diagrams, which have been input.
Mean indicated pressure (MIP):
p( mi ) = a( 0) 2 [MPa]
Mean indicated power (per cylinder):
N ( i ) = a( 0 ) A( piston) R( 0) 10 6 [kW/Cyl]
The mean rotatory force torque F(k)R(k) a(0) is equal for each crank position, and
therefore it has no influence on the vibration behavior of the system.
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2.5.5. Determination of Rotation Angles and Torsional Torques

The Holzer method in the extend according to W.Benz is used, to determine the torsional
angle and the torsional torque in the following shaft section for each exciting harmonics
and for each mass in the system.
By using this method the amplitudes of the rotation angles (respectively their sine and
cosine components) PHISIN(i+1) and PHICOS(i+1) of the mass (i+1) and the amplitudes
of the torsional torques TSIN(i) and TCOS(i) acting between mass (i) and mass (i+1) of the
system, can be determined recursively according to formula for each harmonic (j)
corresponding to the frequencies ( j ) of the forced vibrations, if the starting values are
known.
These starting values at first unknown are determined so that the boundary conditions of
the system are fulfilled.
The boundary conditions for a free vibrating chain are:
MSIN(i=0) = 0.0 ,
MCOS(i=0) = 0.0
and
MSIN(i=ZMA) = 0.0 ,
MCOS(i=ZMA) = 0.0
Now two calculation runs are carried out for preparation, its results are used for the
determination of the final starting values by fulfilling the boundary conditions:
The first calculation run (with switch K = 1) starts with the values:
PHISIN(i=1) = 1.0 ,
PHICOS(i=1) = 0.0
and
MSIN(i=0) = 0.0 ,
MCOS(i=0) = 0.0
without consideration of the existing rotatory force moment of the "outer constrain", and
delivers the "residual torques" (that means torques after the last mass in the system):
MRS1 = MSIN(i=ZMA) ,
MRC1 = MCOS(i=ZMA) .
Physically, this calculation run means a damped vibration without outer rotatory force
torques, forced through the deflection PHI(i=1) = 1.0.
The second calculation step (with switch K = 2) starts with the values:
PHISIN(i=1) = 0.0 ,
PHICOS(i=1) = 0.0
and
MSIN(i=0) = 0.0 ,
MCOS(i=0) = 0.0
but this times by taking the existing rotatory force torque into account of the outer
constraint, and delivers the residual torques:
MRS2 = MSIN(i=ZMA) ,
MRC2 = MCOS(i=ZMA) .
Physically this calculation run means a damped vibration forced through the outer
rotatory force moments with fixed starting mass.
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Now the vector of the phase angle PHAS(i=1) at the beginning of the vibration chain can
be calculated with the help of the both residual vectors resulting a residual torque of zero
corresponding to the boundary conditions.
For this, the residual torque vector of the first calculation run is changed in its size
(increased or decreased) and turned so that it covers the residual torque vector of the
second calculation run. The mirror image value of the so changed residual torque vectors,
added to the residual torque vector of the second calculation run gives exactly zero. There
can be a small mistake due to the finite digit number of digital calculating systems. The
present program works with "double precision" (that means. 8-byte-real-variable) to make
this theoretical mistake as small as possible.
The size and the angle of the vibration deflection of the first mass in the system result
from this changing of the residual torque vector of the first calculation run for each
harmonics.
Now the third (switch K = 3) and final calculation run (for each of the 24 harmonics) is
started with this vibration deflection. For this the starting values are set to:
MSIN(i=0) = 0.0 ,
MCOS(i=0) = 0.0
to correspond to the boundary conditions, and the rotatory force torques of the "outer
constrain" (as at the second calculation run) are considered. Then there result the
deflections at each mass and the torques between all (neighbored) masses in the system
with its sine and cosine components.
2.5.5.1. Sine Component of Harmonic (j) of the total Exciting

Torque
According to the law of geometrics for the addition of angles:
A cos( ) + B sin ( )
= A cos cos A sin sin + B sin cos b cos sin
= ( A cos B sin ) cos + ( B cos A sin ) sin
the sine component of harmonic (j) of the total exciting torque of 1 cylinder (mass i)
considering the firing interval angle nb(i) of that mass after cylinder No. 1 can be
evaluated by:
A(i, j ) = A( piston) R( 0) ( a( gas, j ) cos( j b( i ) ) b( gas, j ) + b(in, j ) sin( j b( i ) ))

and the cosine component:
B(i, j ) = A( piston) R( 0) (b( gas, j ) + b(in, j ) cos( j b( i ) ) + a( gas, j ) sin( j b( i ) ))
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2.5.5.2. Extended Holzer Tabulation

An extended tabulation also considering the damping and exciting torques is made with
the following formulas:
Sin-component of the torque between mass i and mass (i-1)
T ( s, i ) = T ( s, i 1) + ( j ) MTM ( i ) (s, i, j ) + ( j ) ADA( i ) (c, i, j ) + B(i, j )

2
and the cos-component of the torque
T ( c, i ) = T ( c, i 1) + ( j ) MTM ( i ) (c, i, j ) + ( j ) ADA( i ) (s, i, j ) + B(i, j )

2
The sin-component of the vibration amplitude of mass (i+1):
(s, i + 1, j ) = ( s, i, j ) (c( i ) T (s, i, j ) + j RDA( i ) T (c, i, j )) c( i) + ( j RDA( i) )

2
))
and the cos-component
(c, i + 1, j ) = (c, i, j ) (c( i ) T (c, i, j ) + j RDA( i) T (c, i, j )) c( i) + ( j RDA( i) )

2
whereby
i
= index of lumped mass in the vibration system
= harmonic order (0.5 - 12.0 with 4-stroke engines)
n(engine) 30 = angular speed of the engine [rad/sec]
MTM(i)= inertia of mass (i)

c(i)
= torsional stiffness between mass (i) and mass (i+1)
ADA(i) = absolute damping coefficient at mass (i)

RDA(i) = relative damping coefficient between mass (i) and mass (i+1)
A(i,j)
= cos-component of exciting torque of harmonic (j) at mass (i)
B(i,j)
= sin-component of exciting torque of harmonic (j) at mass (i)
2.5.5.3. Boundary Conditions

The amplitudes (sin/cos-components) at the beginning of the system have to be chosen so
that the resulting torques at the end of the system (i(max) to i(max+1)) equal 0 (for each
of the individual harmonic orders).
This can be achieved by two precalculations with defined border conditions at the
beginning of the system.
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The first loop - calculated without excitations - starts with:
(c, i, j ) = 0.0
(s, i, j ) = 1.0
and gives the results:
MRC1 = T (c, i, j )
MRS1 = T (s, i, j )
The second loop - calculated with the actual excitations - starts with:
(c,1, j ) = 0.0
(s,1, j ) = 0.0
and gives the results:
MRC 2 = T (c, i, j )
MRS2 = T ( s, i, j )
Then the final loop - considering the actual excitations also - starts with:
(c,1, j ) = ( + MRC1 MRS2 MRS1 MRC2) ( + MRS12 + MRC12 )

(s,1, j ) = ( MRS1 MRS2 MRC1 MRC 2) ( + MRS12 + MRC12 )
2.5.6. Harmonic Synthesis

The 24 single harmonic vibrations are combined in a time periodic function to have the
possibility to determine the vibration deflections and vibration torques at each mass place
of the system.
One period with the length 2 (at a pure 2-stroke respectively compressor system equal
to 360 degree, otherwise equal to 720 degree crank angle) is divided into 1 degree intervals
and for this supporting points the value of the function becomes
y( x ) = ( a( j ) cos( j x ) + b( j ) sin( j x ))
or also
y( x ) = (c( j ) sin( j x ) + d ( j ))
with
c( j ) = a( j ) + b( j ) and d ( j ) = arctan( a( j ) b( j ))
2
determined for the whole range
0 < x < (2 ) .
It is not necessary to calculate the numerical values of
sin( j x ) and cos( j x ) each time
by the compiler functions calls new in spite of the high calculation speeds of modern
electronic calculation systems, but it is better and much faster to calculate them once at
first and to store them indicated. Only the sin-values of one quadrant are stored and
transferred over a quadrant query with the right sign to save storage.
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So for example:
cos(75 Grad) = + sin(15 Grad) or
sin(215 Grad) = - sin(35 Grad) and so on
The harmonic synthesis for each angular step (n) is carried out by
T ( i, n) = (T ( s, i ) sin( j n) + T ( c, i ) cos( j n))

( i, n) = (( s, i ) sin( j n) + ( c, i ) cos( j n))
2.5.7. Maxima/Minima-Determination
It is only necessary to determine the maximum and minimum by a query of the supporting
points, as a result of the very narrow division of the functions for the vibration motion and
for the vibration torques.
Such a query alone could not give the real maxima and minima at low damped systems
with high critical frequencies and larger supporting point intervals (as in the earlier
program version). These had to be determined (corrected) from the plotted (with
interpolated intermediate points) course of the vibration curve. Such vibrating systems
occur rarely, because normally they have intolerable high vibration loads of the crankshaft.
2.5.7.1. The Maximum Alternating Amplitude

The maximum alternating amplitude of any of the inertias of the vibration system
(crankshaft) is calculated by
(i ) = 0.5 ( (i )( max, i ) (i )( min, i ))

where
(i )( max, i ) =
maximum (positive) deflection
(i )( min, i ) =
minimum (negative) deflection
2.5.7.2. The Maximum Stress

The maximum stress in any section of the vibrating system (crankshaft) is calculated by
( i ) = 0.5
T( max, i ) T( min, i )
W (i)
where
T( max, i )
= maximum (positive) torque
T( min, i )
= minimum (negative) torque
W (i)
= sectional modulus of the shaft section

=
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( D3 d 3 )
16
in the case of a circular cross section
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2.5.8. Degree of Irregularity

The degree of irregularity is defined as the highest minus the lowest angular velocity,
divided by the mean angular velocity of a mass.
The definition from above can be replaced with sufficient precision by the following,
because the above calculated vibration courses represent the interference of the movement
over the mean rotation movement:
The degree of irregularity is given by the highest positive amplitude difference of two
neighbored supporting points minus the highest negative amplitude difference, divided by
the interval length.
The result of this calculation cannot be compared with results from previous calculations.
At these, the degree of irregularity was determined from the work differences during one
working cycle over the acceleration respectively the deceleration of the torsional stiff
system.
Also the motion of the rotary masses due to the torsional vibration of the elastic system is
considered in this method.
The difference is considerable at least in the range of resonance phenomena. But also the
influence of a torsional soft coupling (by an elastic coupling or a torsional elastic shaft
section) and the influence of the vibration damping is included.
This is valid especially for generator plants, if the rotor of the generator is included in the
calculation of the vibration system. The real vibration amplitude and the real frequency
(from the plotted figures) and the real degree of irregularity of the generator rotor is
known, and these results can be compared with the admissible values according to the
Simmons curve (which describes the flicker sensitivity of the human eye).
The cyclic speed irregularity (the real value because its considers the torsional vibration
also) is evaluated by
1
180
= ( ( max) ( min ) )
where
( max) = Maximum (positive) difference of successive amplitudes which power is

dissipated by the damper
The power dissipated by the damper can be calculated by
P( D) = 0.5 RDA( D) j ( D)
) [Watt]
with
( D) = Difference of the amplitude between the seismic mass and the damper fixed
(bolted) to crankshaft (e.g. the case of viscous shear dampers)
RDA( D) = Damping coefficient of damper

For viscous shear dampers is the optimum value of RDA(D)
RDA( D) = ( nat ) MTM ( seism)

with
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( nat )
= natural frequency of a modified vibration system calculated with 1

damper inertia substituted by
MTM ( SUBST ) = MTM (case) + 0.5 MTM ( seism )

MTM (case)
= inertia of damper case
MTM (seism)
= inertia of seismic mass of damper
2.5.9. Maximum Rotational Acceleration of Single Masses

The maximum (positive or negative) rotational acceleration of single masses in the system
is determined similar to the degree of irregularity from the motion course of the respective
mass.
2.5.10. Actual Damper Damping and Heat Load

The damper effect and the damper heat load depend on the relative motion between the
seismic and the damper mass fixed with the crankshaft and on the frequency of this
motion. The sum of the squares of the relative amplitude multiplied with the frequency is
determined from all 24 harmonics for the location of the damper corresponding to this
dependence.
Then the damping REDA is calculated for viscosity dampers (DATY = 1) and compared
with the starting estimated value. The starting value is improved if the deviation is bigger
than 1.E-4 REDA, and the whole vibration calculation is repeated.
It was seen in the calculations during the test phase of this program, that the probably
correct value of the damping coefficient is about 15% of the difference between calculated
result and estimated value further away from the starting value as the actual result value.
Therefore the improved starting value is calculated. This makes an automatic iteration
possible mostly reaching the target in the 3rd run.
The final values of the damping coefficient are calculated for the whole damper, i.e. sum
for all "friction areas", for the peripheral part, i.e. part of the damping originating from the
"friction" at cylindrical outer surface of the seismic mass, and for the values of the
dissipative damping power and their peripheral part referred to one square meter surface
(of the seismic mass), if the iteration has converged within specified limits and is then
printed in the table of results.
No iteration of the damping coefficient is carried out for spring coupled dampers (DATY =
2), but the dissipated power is calculated. Then this allows the possible need for additional
forced cooling of the damper to be assessed.
Also no iteration of the damping coefficient is carried out in the case of the material
(rubber) damper (DATY = 3). The dissipated power is calculated.
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2.6. Strength
2.6.1. Crankshaft Strength AVL Standard Method
According to AVL's design practice the evaluation of the crankshaft strength is based on
calculated safety factors which are defined by the ratio of the local fillet fatigue strength
(sf) to the maximum fillet stress amplitude (sa)
KS = f/a
2.6.1.1. Fillet Fatigue Strength

The fatigue strength sf for any particular loading condition can be determined from a
fatigue strength diagram (Smith diagram) as follows:
1. Constant Stress Relations
Figure 2-44: Fatigue Strength Diagram with Constant Stress Relations

The actual loading condition is represented in this diagram by the actual mean stress
and the actual stress amplitude
as shown in the sketch.
The fatigue limit for this particular loading condition is obtained by drawing a line from
the origin 0 through the point L and extending this line to the fatigue limit in the point
F . Then the stress designated f in the above sketch is the stress amplitude at the
fatigue limit for this particular loading condition.
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2. Constant Mean Stress
m = M = const
Figure 2-45: Fatigue Strength Diagram with Constant Mean Stresses

The diagram shows the actual loading conditions with actual mean stress
stress amplitude
mean stress
and actual
a . The fatigue strength can be determined as the distance between the

( M = m ) and the fatigue limit in point F.
Design of Fatigue Strength Diagram

1. Steel Crankshafts
In the instance of steel crankshafts the design of the fatigue strength diagram in the area
of positive mean stresses (tension) is performed with the construction method shown in
the sketch below. (Construction method taken from O.R. Lang's book: "Triebwerke
schnelllaufender Verbrennungsmotoren", published by Springer-Verlag Berlin/
Heidelberg/New York).
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ultimate tensile strength
0.2.
... 0.2% proof stress
... fatigue strength for fully

reversed bending
... mean stress
Figure 2-46: Construction Method of Fatigue Strength Diagram

iN
... a characteristic value for the internal notch effect which, in case of forged steel
crankshafts depends on the degree of deformation attained by forging. For dieforged steel crankshafts
iN = 0.95
may be entered in the above formula.

eN
... a characteristic value for the notch effect of the surface roughness
... a characteristic value depending on the material structure by which the notch
sensitivity of the material is expressed
(radius of an equivalent notch)
1 ds
S dx
... relative stress gradient in where the max. stress gradient occurs
eN is determined from the following formula:
e N = eN + (1 eN )
200
ST
where:
e'N
... a characteristic value for the surface roughness
(e'N > 0.95 for a ... roughness height of less than 1.0 m)
... tensile strength of crankshaft material (N/mm)
2 is obtained from the relation
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1600
HB 2
where HB is the Brinell hardness.

For the case of bending of a grooved cylindrical bar, the relative stress gradient is further
obtained from the relation
2 2
+
R D
where R is the groove radius and D the minor groove diameter, both values in mm. This
formula is also applicable for crankshaft fillets using the fillet radius for R and the pin
diameter for D.
The fillet fatigue strength obtained by the above method applies to crankshaft fillets
without any surface treatment.
The increase in fatigue strength by proper methods such as deep rolling or hardening of
the fillets or nitriding of the crankshafts has to be taken into account separately.
Basic fatigue strength data "" for some typical crankshaft materials acc. to DIN 17200.
2. Nodular Cast Iron and Malleable Cast Iron Crankshafts

For nodular and malleable cast iron crankshafts few fatigue strength data is available.
Some of the most comprehensive information in this field is included in the MTZpublication by GEORG FISCHER A.G. (G.F.) entitled "Gegossene Kurbelwellen" ("Cast
crankshafts") and published in September 1969. In this paper, fatigue strength data for
fully reversed as well as for pure pulsating loading conditions is specified for various cast
iron qualities and for various surface treatments. This data has further been determined
for one particular crankshaft design.
According to recent experience, however, it has been ascertained that this data is not
generally applicable for any other type of a nodular cast iron crankshaft. Fatigue tests with
nodular cast iron crankshafts as well as the recalculation of approved crankshafts
indicated that a considerably higher fatigue strength can be accomplished with this
crankshaft type than the data quoted in the G.F. paper, provided that the quality of the
shafts is on a high level. In some instances a more than 60% higher fatigue strength has
been ascertained. But experience also shows that this crankshaft type is rather sensitive on
material defects in the critical areas of the shaft e.g. porositys in the fillets.
It seems that any particular cast iron crankshaft has its specific fatigue strength not only
depending on the design and the material but also on the foundry technique and the
specific response on fillet rolling or other treatments. To consider all these influences in
the final evaluation of a nodular cast iron crankshaft for a particular engine, it is necessary
to perform an extensive development program which should include the following steps:
1. Development of the foundry technique in particular to assure that the castings are free
from porositys and other defects in the critical areas of the shaft. It must be
furthermore assured that the casting quality is on a uniform level for all produced
crankshafts (close control of casting conditions).
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2. Development of the fillet rolling process to achieve the utmost improvement of fatigue
strength.
3. Final fatigue testing to determine the actual fatigue strength accomplished with the
optimized production technique. Based on this data, a basic decision about the
feasibility of the cast crankshaft can be made.
4. If the foregoing steps are promising then extensive durability and field tests in actual
engine operation should be carried out for a final evaluation prior to the production
release.
In light of the above considerations, only a cursory evaluation of a nodular cast iron
crankshaft can be performed in the design stage. According to AVL's current design
practice this cursory evaluation is based on 60% higher fatigue strength data than those
quoted in the G.F. paper. Based on recent experience this higher fatigue strength data
should be accomplishable with high quality cast iron crankshafts.
For the application of this upgraded G.F. data for any particular crankshaft design, it is
further necessary to convert the data in view of different stress concentration factors
between the investigated crankshaft and the crank shafts as tested by G.F. whereby the
interdependency between the fatigue notch factors and the stress concentration factors of
nodular cast iron materials has to be taken into account.
Basic fatigue strength data which is derived from the G.F. paper as well as a detailed
description of the conversion procedure are presented in chapter 3.5.
By this conversion the fatigue strength data for fully reversed as well as for pure pulsating
bending loads are obtained for any actual crankshaft design which are finally used for the
design of a fatigue strength diagram in the area of positive mean stresses (tensile stresses).
In the area of negative mean stresses (compressive stresses) a constant fatigue strength
equal with the fatigue strength under fully reversed loading conditions is assessed, which
is a safe assumption.
2.6.1.2. Fillet Stresses

Actual Fillet Stresses due to Bending and Radial Forces
With the applied calculation method for the evaluation of fillet stresses, based on the stress
concentration factors as derived by "Forschungsvereinigung Verbrennungsmotoren" (FVV),
the actual maximum fillet stresses are obtained from the following formulas:
Crankpin fillet:
c = BN
Main journal fillet:
j = B BN + Q QN
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where:
c, j
... maximum stress in crankpin and main journal fillet respectively
BN
... nominal bending stress related to the normal crankweb cross- section
QN
... nominal tensile or compressive stress in the normal crankweb cross-section due
to radial forces in the crankweb
... stress concentration factor for the crankpin fillet
B, Q
... stress concentration factors for the main journal fillet
In order to ascertain the maximum and minimum fillet stresses and then the fillet stress
amplitudes and the mean fillet stresses above fillet stress, calculations have to be carried
out for a complete load cycle.
With the maximum and minimum fillet stresses (max , min) occurring during one load
cycle, the stress amplitude and the mean stress for this operating condition are obtained
from the following formulas:
a =
max min
2
m =
max + min
2
2. Nominal Stresses
According to the applied calculation method the nominal stresses have to be related to the
projected crankweb cross section area passing from the crankpin fillet to the main journal
fillet. (Projection of the cross-section A-A on a plane which is perpendicular to the
crankthrow direction; see sketch below).
Figure 2-47: Crankthrow and Cross section A-A for Crankshaft Stress Analysis
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Consequently the nominal stresses are obtained from the following formulas:
BN =
MB
d
= L1
Z
Z
QN =
L1
A
where:
M B = L1 d
... bending moment in the center of the crankweb due to the bearing force
component L1
L1
... bearing force component acting in the crankthrow direction
Z, A
... sectional modulus and cross section area of the projected web cross
section respectively
... axial distance between bearing center and web center (see sketch above)
It should be noticed that the bearing force component L1 is equal with the radial force in
the web.
In the evaluation of the bearing force components L1 the following forces are taken into
account:
Gas forces according to cylinder pressure diagram
Reciprocating inertia forces due to piston and connecting rod reciprocating

portion
Centrifugal forces due to the connecting rod rotating portion, crankpin, crank
webs and due to the counterweights.
Furthermore, a statically determined support of the individual crankthrows is taken into

account in these computations.
In order to provide the necessary data for the evaluation of the maximum and minimum
fillet stresses according to chapter 3.2.1. the computations of bearing loads should be
carried out for a complete load cycle at different engine operating conditions.
3. Stress Concentration Factors
The stress concentration factors are determined according to the FVV-method published in
the MTZ-paper "Einflu der Formgebung auf die Spannungsverteilung von
Kurbelkrpfungen mit Lngsbohrungen" ("Effect of design parameters on the stress
distribution in crankthrows with longitudinal crankpin and main journal bores") which
paper is attached to this description (MTZ 34/1973, page 205-210 and page 303-307).
In particular the formulas for the calculation of the stress concentration factors are given
on page 303 & 304 of this paper and are summarized in chapter 3.6.
With only one exception (stress concentration factors for torsional stresses in the main
journal fillets) the crankthrow parameters which should be entered in these formulae are
relative values related to the crankpin diameter Dc, i.e.
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s = S/Dc
... relative crankpin to main journal overlap
w = W/Dc
... relative web thickness
b = B/Dc
... relative web width (B is the equivalent web width
r = R/Dc
... relative crankpin or main journal fillet radius
dG = DG/Dc
... relative main journal bore diameter
dH = DH/Dc
... relative crankpin bore diameter
The equivalent web width
B is introduced for the following reasons:
The formulas for the stress concentration factors quoted in chapter 3.6 apply to
crankshafts with a simple rectangular web cross section area.
In those cases, where the actual projected web cross section according to chapter
3.2.1.1 is not a rectangle, an equivalent rectangle is determined which has the same
thickness W as the actual cross section but a reduced equivalent width B. This
equivalent width is determined from the condition that the sectional modulus of the
equivalent rectangle is the same as for the actual cross section. From this condition the
following formula for the equivalent width is obtained:
B=
6Z
W2
where z is the sectional modulus of the actual projected cross section.

This equivalent width is then used for the computations of stress concentration factors.
4. Evaluation of Torsional Stresses

For a cursory evaluation of a crankshaft design e.g. in an early design stage when a
torsional vibration calculation and consequently torsional stresses are not yet available,
the safety factors are determined only with the bending stresses according to chapter 3.2.1.
In this level of computations the additional torsional stresses are roughly taken into
account by the assessment of accordingly high required safety factors which include an
allowance for the additional torsional stresses and which are available from experience.
In a final level of computations, however, a more precise evaluation of torsional stresses
has to be performed.
According to the customary practice this more accurate evaluation of the effect of
additional torsional stresses is based on combined stresses due to bending and due to
torsion which in general are determined according to the energy of distortion theory.
C =
( a )2 + 3 (C T )2
where:
... combined stress
... fillet stress amplitude due to bending acc. to chapter 3.2.1
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... fillet stress amplitude due to torsion = nominal torsional stress amplitude in the
crankpin or main journal times stress concentration factor in torsion.
In this evaluation of a combined stress amplitude it is assumed that the maximum and
minimum bending stresses occur simultaneously with the maximum and minimum
torsional stresses. This assumption is probably too extreme which tends to yield higher
than actual combined stresses.
The evaluation of the combined stresses is based on the fatigue strength in bending fB
(=f according to chapter 3.1.1) i.e. the safety factors follow from the relation
KS = fB/c
In general the coefficient C in above formula for the combined stress is set equal unity
(C = 1).
This assessment is correct if the bending fatigue strength, is 3 -times the fatigue
strength in torsion. If the actual ratio of these fatigue strengths should considerably differ
from this figure, a correction of the torsional stresses has to be performed by the
introduction of
C=
fB
3 fT
where fB and fT are the actual fatigue strength data in bending and torsion.
2.6.1.3. Fatigue Strength Data for Typical Crankshaft Steels

Material acc.
DIN 17200
N/mm
C 45
640 - 785
295
30 Mn 5
785 - 930
360
34 Cr 4
880 - 1030
370
25 Cr Mo 4
785 - 930
350
34 Cr Mo 4
880 - 1030
400
42 Cr Mo 4
980 - 1180
450
30 Cr Ni Mo 8
1230 - 1420
510
N/mm
... ultimate tensile strength
... fatigue strength of a smooth and polished test specimen under fully reversed
tension-compression stresses
If the actual tensile stress is different from the above tabulation the fatigue strength has
to be corrected by multiplication with the ratio
K=
2-100
Ta min
T min
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where:
Ta min ... actual minimum tensile strength

T min
... minimum tensile strength quoted in the tabulation
2.6.1.4. Fatigue Strength Data of Nodular Cast Iron Crankshafts

Bending moments at the fatigue limit for test crankshaft see paper: "Gegossene
Kurbelwellen" ("Cast crankshafts") by Georg Fischer A.G.
Crankpin fillet stresses at the fatigue limit for test crank shaft see enclosed tabulation on
page 3/3.
This data is calculated with the bending moments acc. to para 1 as well as with the
following crankshaft properties:
Sectional modulus Z = 6400 mm3
Stress concentration factors
Rolled fillets
(R = 1.95) 0 = 2.472
Others
(R = 2.0 ) 0 = 2.440
Fatigue limits for any particular crankshaft:

The conversion of the fatigue strength data according to the enclosed tabulation is
performed with the following formula
f = f 0
0 e
0e
where:
... fatigue strength of crankshaft to be analyzed (e, )
f0
... fatigue strength of test crankshaft according to enclosed tabulation (0e, 0)
0e, 0
... stress concentration factor and fatigue notch factor respectively for test
crankshaft
e,
... stress concentration factor and fatigue notch factor respectively for crankshaft
to be analyzed
Note: The stress concentration factors which have to be used for this
conversion are effective values related to the actual critical web
section passing from the crankpin fillet to the main journal fillet.
These effective stress concentration factors are obtained from the stress concentration
factors which are related to the normal web cross-section area with the following formulae:
e =
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W2
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where:
S
... crankpin to main journal overlap
... total web thickness
For the test crankshaft the coefficient (S2 + W2)/W2 is 1.621, i.e. the effective stress
concentration factors for the test crankshafts are
0e = 4.01/3.96
for 1.95 and 2.0 mm fillet radius respectively.
The fatigue notch factors
can be taken from the Georg Fischer paper "Schwingfestigkeit
von Tempergu und Gueisen mit Kugelgraphit" ("Fatigue strength of malleable cast iron
and nodular cast iron) see diagram below.
Figure 2-48: Notch Factor as a Function of the Form Factor
2.6.1.5. Fatigue Strength Data f 0 (N/mm2) for the Test Crankshafts

acc. gf. Paper "Gegossene Kurbelwellen
Fully reversed bending fatique strength
Crankshaft
Brinell
without
fillets deep
Material
Hardness
treatment
rolled
Steel Ck 45
246-282
344
440
252-285
277
538
GGG 70
244-278
280
GGG 60
185-278
GGG 42
GTS 70
GGG 70
without
fillets deep
treatment
rolled
tufftrided
187 190
405 405
534
150 150
432 432
523
273
307
398 398
209 209
158-170
284
314
224 224
234-257
277
546
as cast
Nodular C.I.
M
tufftrided
Pulsating bending fatique strength
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GTS 70
231-266
288
561
161 161
394 394
GTS 55
177-204
542
262
295
360 360
142 142
GTS 35
128-137
209
217
116 116
air h.t.
Crank fillet radii: 1.95 mm for rolled fillets, 2.00 mm for others
2.6.1.6. Formulas for the Evaluation of Stress Concentration

Factors acc. to MTZ-Publication
"Einflu der Formgebung auf die Spannungsverteilung von Kurbelkrpfungen mit
Lngsbohrungen" by A. Eberhard
2.6.1.6.1. Bending due to Radial Forces

Crankpin Fillet
= K f ( s, w ) f ( w ) f ( b) f ( r ) f ( d G ) f (d H )
where:
K = 2.6914
is a constant coefficient and
f(s, w) = 1.5158 - 4.1032w + 11.1919w - 13.6064w + 6.0668w4 +
+ s(- 1.8642 + 8.2592w - 18.2273w +18.5190w - 6.9252w4) +
+ s(- 3.8399 + 25.0444w - 70.5571w + 87.0328w - 39.1832 w4)
f ( w ) = 2.1790 w 0.7171
f ( b ) = 0.6840 0.0077 b + 0.1473 b 2
f ( r ) = 0.2081 r 0.5231
f ( d G ) = 0.9993 + 0.2700 d G 1.0211 dG2 + 0.5306 dG3
f (d H ) = 0.9978 + 0.3145 d H 1.5241 d H2 + 2.4147 d H3
Main Journal Fillet

B = K B f B ( s, w ) f B ( w ) f B ( b ) f B ( r ) f B ( d G ) f B ( d H )
Q = K Q f Q ( w ) fQ ( b ) f Q ( r ) f Q ( d G ) fQ ( d H )
where:
KB = 2.7146
f B ( s, w) = 11977
.
0.4971w + 0.3163w 2 + s 0.8035 + 11495
.
w 0.5487w 2 +
+ s 2 2.1567 + 2.3297w 1.2952 w 2
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f B ( w) = 2.2422 w 0.7548
f B ( b) = 0.5616 + 0.1197 b + 0.1176 b 2
f B ( r ) = 0.1908 r 0.5568
f B ( dG ) = 1.0012 0.6441 d G + 1.2265 d G2
f B ( d H ) = 1.0012 0.1903 d H + 0.0073 d H2
as well as
KQ = 3.0128
fQ ( s) = 1.0786 + 0.8794 s 1.5212 s 2

fQ ( w ) =
w
0.0637 + 0.9369 w
fQ ( b) = 0.5 + b
fQ ( r ) = 0.5331 r 0.2038
fQ ( d H ) = 0.9937 11949
.
d H + 1.7373 d H2
2.6.1.7. Torsion
Crankpin Fillet
T = K f ( r, s) f ( b)
where
K = 0.9230
f ( r, s ) = r ( 0.2205 0.1015s )
f ( b ) = 7.8955 10.6540 b + 5.3482 b 2 0.8570 b 3
Main Journal Fillet

T = K f ( r, s ) f ( b)
where the constant K as well as the formulas for f(r, s) and f(b) are the same as for the
crankpin fillet. The relative fillet radius, however, has to be determined in this instance
with the main journal fillet radius Rj and the main journal diameter Dj
r=
Rj
Dj
The nominal torsional stresses have further to be determined for the hollow crankpin and
main journal cross-section respectively, i.e. the nominal torsional stresses for crankpin and
main journal are different except both journals have same O.D. and I.D.
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2.6.2. UR-M 53 Theory

These rules for the scantlings of crankshafts should be applied to diesel engines for main
propulsion and auxiliary purposes, where the engines are designed to be capable of
continuous operation at their rated power when running at rated speed.
Crankshafts which cannot satisfy these rules will be subject to special consideration as far
as detailed calculations or measurements can be submitted.
In case of:
1. surface treated fillets;
2. when fatigue parameter influences are tested; and
3. when working stresses are measured
Individual Societies may have special requirements.
These rules apply only to solid-forged and semi-built crankshafts of forged or cast steel,
with one crank throw between main bearings.
2.6.2.1. Principles of Calculation

The scantlings of crankshafts are based on an evaluation of safety against fatigue in the
highly stressed areas.
The calculation is also based on the assumption that the fillet transitions between the
crankpin and web as well as between the journal and web are the areas exposed to the
highest stresses.
The outlets of oil bores into crankpins and journals should be formed in a way that the
safety margin against fatigue at the oil bores is not less than that acceptable in the fillets.
The engine manufacturer, if requested by the Society, should submit documentation
supporting the manufacturers oil bore design.
Calculation of crankshaft strength consists initially in determining the nominal alternating
bending and nominal alternating torsional stresses which, multiplied by the appropriate
stress concentration factors using the theory of constant energy of distortion (von Misses
Criterion), result in an equivalent alternating stress (uni-axial stress). This equivalent
alternating stress is then compared with the fatigue strength of the selected crankshaft
material. This comparison will then show whether or not the crankshaft concerned is
dimensioned adequately.
2.6.2.2. Calculation of Stresses

1. Calculation of Alternating due to Bending Moments and Shearing Forces
The calculation is based on a statically determined system, so that only one single crank
throw is considered of which the journals are supported in the center of adjacent bearings
and which is subject to gas and inertia forces. The bending length is taken as the length
between the two main bearings (distance L3 ).
The nominal bending moment is taken as the bending moment in the Crank web crosssection in the center of the solid web (distance L1 ) basing on a triangular bending moment
load due to the radial components of the connecting rod force.
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For crank throws with two connecting rods acting upon one crankpin the nominal bending
moment is taken as a bending moment obtained by superposition of the two triangular
bending moment loads according to phase.
The nominal alternating stresses due to bending moments and shearing forces should be
related to the cross-sectional area of the crank web. This reference area of cross-section
results from the web thickness and the web width in the center of the overlap of the pins
or, if appropriate, at the center of the adjacent generating lines of the two pins if they do
not overlap.
Nominal mean bending stresses are neglected.
Calculation of Nominal Bending and Shearing Stresses
As a rule the calculation is carried out in a way that the individual radial forces acting
upon the crank pin owing to gas and inertia forces will be calculated for all crank positions
within one working cycle. A simplified calculation of the radial forces may be used at the
discretion of each Society.
By means of these radial forces variable in time within one working cycle and taking into
account the distance of acting position on the pin, the time curve of the bending moment
M B in the web center as defined in Section 5.14.2.1.1 will then be calculated.
The decisive nominal alternating bending moment will then be calculated
M BN = ( M B , max M B , min )
and, from the latter, the nominal alternating bending stress which will be modified by the
empirical factor K e . Factor K e considers to some extent the influence of adjacent cranks
and bearing restraint.
BN =
Weq =
M BN
10 3 K e
Weq
B W 2
6
K e = 0,8 for 2-stroke engines

= 1,0 for 4-stroke engines
In the case of V-type engines, the bending moments, progressively calculated from the gas
and inertia forces, of the two cylinders acting on one crank throw are superimposed
according to phase, the differing designs (forked connecting rod, articulated-type
connecting rod or adjacent connecting rods) being taken into account.
Where there are cranks of different geometrical configuration (e.g. asymmetric cranks) in
one crankshaft, the calculation is to cover all crank variants.
The calculation of the nominal alternating shearing stress is as follows:
QN =
2-106
QN
Ke
F
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1
Q N = (Qmax Qmin )
2
F = B W
where:
M BN
[Nm]
BN
[N/mm2]
Weq
[mm3]
nominal alternating bending moment

nominal alternating bending stress
equatorial moment of resistance related to cross-sectional area of
web
QN
QN
F
[N]
[N/mm2]
[mm2]
nominal alternating shearing force

nominal alternating stress due to shearing force
area related to cross-section of web
Calculation of Alternating Bending Stresses in Fillets

The calculation of stresses should be carried out for the crankpin fillet as well as for the
journal fillet.
For the crankpin fillets:
BH = ( B BN )
where:
BH
B
[N/mm2]
[-]
alternating bending stress in crankpin fillet

stress concentration factor for bending in crankpin fillet
(determination see item ...
For the journal fillet:
BG = ( B BN + Q QN )
where:
BG
[N/mm2]
alternating stresses in journal fillet
[-]
stress concentration factor for bending in journal fillet
[-]
stress concentration factor for shearing
2. Calculation of Alternating Torsional Stresses

The calculation for nominal alternating torsional stresses should be undertaken by the
engine manufacturer.
The maximum value obtained from such calculations will be used by the Society when
determining the equivalent alternating stress. In the absence of such a maximum value it
will be necessary for the Society to incorporate a fixed value in the calculation for the
crankshaft dimensions on the basis of an estimation.
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Calculation of Nominal Alternating Torsional Stresses

The maximum and minimum alternating torques should be ascertained for every mass
point of the system and for the entire speed range by means of a harmonic synthesis of the
forced vibrations from the 1st order up to and including the 15th order for 2-stroke cycle
engines. While doing so, allowance must be made for the dampings that exist in the system
and for unfavorable conditions (misfiring in one of the cylinders). The speed stages should
be selected in a way that the transient response can be recorded with sufficient accuracy.
The values received from such calculation should be submitted.
The nominal alternating torsional stress in every mass point, which is essential to the
assessment, results from the following equation:
N =
MT
10 3
Wp
M T = (M T max M T min )
4
D 4 D BH
Wp =
16
D
or
4
4
DG D BG
Wp =
16
DG
where:
[N/mm2]
nominal alternating torsional stress referred to crankpin or

journal
MT
[Nm]
Wp
[mm3]
nominal alternating torque

polar moment of resistance related to cross-sectional area of
bored crankpin or bored journal
M T max' M T min [N/mm2]
extreme values of the torque with consideration of the
mean torque
The assessment of the crankshaft is based on the torsional stress which in conjunction
with the associated bending stress, results in the lowest acceptability factor. Where barred
speed ranges are necessary, the torsional stresses within these ranges should be neglected
in the calculation of the acceptability factor.
Barred speed ranges should be so arranged that satisfactory operation is possible despite
their existence. There should be no barred speed ranges above a speed ratio of 0,8 of
the rated speed.
The approval of crankshafts should be based on the installation having the lowest
acceptability factor.
Thus, for each installation, it should be ensured by suitable calculation that the approved
nominal alternating torsional stress is not exceeded. This calculation should be submitted
for assessment.
Calculation of Alternating Torsional Stresses in Fillets
The calculation of stresses should be carried out for both the crankpin and the journal
fillet.
2-108
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

For the crankpin fillet:
H = ( T N )
where:
[N/mm2]
[-]
alternating torsional stress in crankpin fillet

stress concentration factor for torsion in crankpin fillet
(determination see item ...)
G =(T N )
where:
G
T
[N/mm2]
[-]
alternating torsional stress in journal fillet

stress concentration factor for torsion in journal fillet
(determination see item ...)
2.6.2.3. Calculation of Stress Concentration Factors
B ' B is defined as the ratio of the

The stress concentration factors for bending
maximum bending stress occurring in the fillets under bending load acting in the central
cross-section of a crank to the nominal stress related to the web cross-section.
The nominal stress has to be determined under the bending moment in the middle of the
solid web.
T' T
The stress concentration factor for torsion
is defined as the ratio of the maximum
torsional stress occurring under torsional load in the fillets to the nominal stress
related to the bored crankpin or journal cross-section.
( )
O is defined as the ratio of the maximum

The stress concentration factor for shearing
shear stress occurring in the journal fillet under bending load to the nominal shear
stress related to the web cross-section.
03-Mar-2003
2-109
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Theory
The following related dimensions will be applied for the calculation of stress concentration
factors in
crankpin fillets
journal fillets
= RH / D
= RG / D
s = S/D
w = W/D
b = B/D
dG = DBG/D
dH = DBH/D
tH = TH/D
tG = TG/D
Stress concentration factors are valid for the ranges of related dimensions for which the
investigations have been carried out. Ranges are as follows:
-0,5
0,7
0,2
0,8
1,2
2,2
0,03
0,13
dG
0,8
dH
0,8
The factor (recess) which accounts for the influence of a recess in the fillets is valid if
t H RH / D
t G RG / D
and should be applied within the range
- 0,3 s 0,5
2.6.2.4. Additional Bending Stresses

In addition to the alternating bending stresses in fillets (see item ...) further bending
stresses due to misalignment and bedplate deformation as well as due to axial and bending
vibrations are to be considered by applying add as given in the following table:
2-110
Type of engine
add [N/mm2]
crosshead engines
30
trunk piston engines
10
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
2.6.2.5. Calculation of Equivalent Alternating Stress

The equivalent alternating stress should be calculated for the crankpin fillet as well as for
the journal fillet. For this calculation the theory of constant energy of distortion (von
Misses Criterion) should be used. It is assumed that the maximum alternating bending
stresses and maximum alternating torsional stresses within a crankshaft occur
simultaneously and at the same point.
1. Equivalent Alternating Stress
The equivalent alternating stress is calculated in accordance with the formulae given.
For the crankpin fillet:
V = ( BH + add ) + 3 H
2
V = ( BG + add ) + 3 G
2
where:
[N/mm2]
equivalent alternating stress
The fatigue strength should be understood as that value of alternating bending stress
which a crankshaft can permanently withstand at the most highly stressed points of the
fillets. Where, the fatigue strength for a crankshaft cannot be furnished by reliable
measurements, the fatigue strength may be evaluated by means of the following formulae:
Related to the crankpin diameter:
785 B 196
1
+
DW = K (0,42 B + 39,3) 0,264 + 1,073 D 0, 2 +
B
RH
4900
Related to the journal diameter:
785 B 196
1
0, 2
+
+
DW = K (0,42 B + 39,3) 0,264 + 1,073 DG
4900
B
RG
where:
DW
K
[N/mm2]
[-]
allowable fatigue strength of crankshaft

factor for different types of forged and cast crankshafts
without surface treatment
= 1,05 for continuous grain flow forged or drop-forged
crankshafts
= 1,0 for free form forged crankshafts
= 0,93 for cast steel crankshafts
[N/mm2]
minimum tensile strength of crankshaft material
However, it should be considered that for calculation purposes
R H and RG should not be
taken less than 2 mm.
03-Mar-2003
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Theory
Where no results of the fatigue tests conducted on full size crank throws or crankshafts
which have been subjected to surface treatment are available, the K-factors for crankshafts
without surface treatment should be used.
In each case the experimental values of fatigue strength carried out with full size crank
throws or crankshafts are subject to special consideration of each Society. The survival
probability for fatigue strength values derived from testing should be to the satisfaction of
the Society and in principle not less than 80%.
2.6.3. Piston Pin Analysis

The evaluation of the piston pin assembly is based on calculated longitudinal and oval pin
deflections as well as on maximum unit loads in the pin bearings. Stresses in the piston pin
are determined as a further criterion.
The limitation of pin deflections is decisive for the avoidance of cracks in the piston bosses
in particular due to an excessive edge loading condition if the longitudinal deflection
becomes too high.
2.6.3.1. Evaluation of Pin Deflections

The calculation of pin deflections is carried out with the formulae quoted in the MTZpublication by M. KUHM "Das Problem des Kolbenbolzens im Kurbeltriebwerk" ("The
problem of the piston pin in the crank train") (MTZ 25/2, page 56 - 62 and MTZ 25/6, page
251 - 254). This method is based on the loading pattern shown in the sketch below where
the load Fmax is the maximum gas force on the piston.
Figure 2-49: Piston Pin Loading

1. Longitudinal Deflection
f = Fmax
a3
48 EJ
[2.6.1]
where:
= 1
2-112
b
2a
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2

... a coefficient, which considers the uniform load distribution in the conrod small end
bearing
E
... modulus of elasticity of the pin material
J = ( 64) D 4 d 4
... flexural moment of inertia of the pin cross section
2. Oval Deflection
r 3 Fmax
12 EJ W
[2.6.2]
where:
D+d
4
L w3
JW =
12
Dd
w=
2
r=
... mean radius of the pin cross section

... flexural moment of inertia of the pin wall
... wall thickness
2.6.3.2. Unit Loads in the Pin Bearings

The maximum unit loads in the pin bearings are determined from the formula
Pmax =
Fmax
AP
[2.6.3]
where:
Fmax
... maximum gas force on the piston
Ap
... projected bearing area in the piston bosses and in the conrod small end
respectively
2.6.3.3. Piston Pin Stresses according to SCHLFKE/KUHM

1. Bending Stress
For the load pattern according to page PP 1 the bending stress in the piston pin is obtained
from the following formula:
B =
Fmax a
4 ZB
[2.6.4]
where:
D4 d 4
32
D
b
= 1
2a
ZB =
03-Mar-2003
... sectional modulus of pin cross section area

... coefficient for load distribution (see para 1.1)
2-113
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Theory
2. Stress due to Oval Deflection
= 1
b
2a
[2.6.5]
where:
r=
D+d
4
L
3.
... mean radius of the pin cross-section

... overall pin length
Combined Stress
According to the customary practice, combined stresses in steel components are

determined with the energy of distortion theory which yields the following formula for the
combined stress in the piston pin:
C = 2B + 20 B 0
[2.6.6]
In the paper by M. KUHM (para 1.1), however, also the following simplified formula is
proposed for the combined stress:
C = 2B 20
[2.6.7]
Both formulae are in practical use at the individual piston manufacturers and other
companies. This circumstance requires special attention when using the permissible
combined stresses proposed by any particular company.
2.6.3.4. Evaluation of Permissible Deflections

In AVL's standard piston pin calculations the evaluation of pin deflections is based on
permissible pin deflections which are recommended by the German piston manufacturer
KOLBENSCHMIDT A.G. (KS). These recommendations specify a linear dependency of the
permissible longitudinal deflection on the piston diameter according to the relation
fP = f0
DP
100
[2.6.8]
where
Dp ... piston diameter in mm
f0 ... permissible specific deflection for 100 mm piston diameter
The permissible specific deflection depends on the flexibility of the piston bosses because
this flexibility determines the ability of the bosses to follow the pin deflection in order to
avoid an excessive edge loading. Stiff piston bosses therefore require smaller deflections
than flexible ones.
In the instance of diesel engine pistons with generally rather stiff piston bosses, the
recommended permissible specific deflection is
2-114
03-Mar-2003
Theory
BRICKS Version 3.2
f0 = 0.022 mm
[2.6.9]
For pistons of gasoline engines with in general flexible bosses, a permissible specific
longitudinal deflection of
f0 = 0.056 mm
[2.6.10]
is recommended.
Regarding the oval deflections different formulae are specified for the permissible limits.
In the instance of diesel engines the permissible oval deflection is determined with the
formula
P =0
100 + 0.5 ( DP 100)

100
[2.6.11]
where:
0 = 0.027mm
[2.6.12]
is the permissible specific oval deflection for a piston diameter of 100 mm. The
recommended permissible oval deflection for gasoline engines is expressed by the relation
P =0
DP
100
[2.6.13]
In this instance the permissible specific oval deflection for 100 mm piston diameter is
0 = 0.035mm
[2.6.14]
It must be emphasized that the above data for the permissible deflections are the
recommendations of only one particular piston manufacturer and are normally used by
AVL for a basic piston pin layout.
Other piston manufacturers (e.g. MAHLE GMBH) propose different permissible pin
deflections which may require also slightly modified pin dimensions. In view of these
different design standards the final piston pin design has to be assessed in close
cooperation with the piston supplier for any particular case.
03-Mar-2003
2-115

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Version 3.

BRICKS Version 3.2

Address comments concerning this document to:

AVL LIST GmbH

Copyright 2003, AVL

BRICKS Version 3.2

2. Theoretic Fundamentals ________________________________________ 2-1

BRICKS Version 3.2

2.4.2. Abbreviations and Literal Notations ______________________________________ 2-36

for the Main Bearing________________________________ 2-53

2.4.9. Differences Equation System for Journal Displacement _____________________ 2-56

BRICKS Version 3.2

2.5.3.2. Stepped Shaft _______________________________________________________ 2-81

(N/mm2) for the Test Crankshafts

acc. gf. Paper "Gegossene Kurbelwellen _____________________________________ 2-102

BRICKS Version 3.2

BRICKS Version 3.2

BRICKS Version 3.2

1.2. User Qualifications

Must be qualified in basic UNIX or Windows NT

Must be qualified in basic Design Analysis

Caution: Cautions describe conditions, practices or procedures which

Note: Notes provide important supplementary information.

For emphasis, to introduce a new term or for manual titles.

To indicate a command, a program or a file name,

A SCREEN font is used for the names of windows and

A MenuOpt font is used for the names of menu options,

BRICKS Version 3.2

BRICKS Version 3.2

Crank Train Load Analysis

Hydrodynamic Bearing Analysis

Torsional Vibration Analysis

2.1. Crank Train Load Analysis

Figure 2-1: Conventional Crank Train

2.1.1.1. Piston Displacement

BRICKS Version 3.2

With the upper relations the piston displacement becomes:

With the development into a FOURIER-series it follows:

In practice usual used approximation formula

2.1.1.2. Piston Velocity

BRICKS Version 3.2

2.1.1.3. Piston Acceleration

In practice usual used approximation formula for the piston acceleration

Figure 2-2: Kinematic of Various Crank Trains

BRICKS Version 3.2

2.1.2. Force Resolution at the Crank Train

Figure 2-3: Forces and their Components on Conventional Crank Train

cos = 1 sin 2 = 1 2 sin 2

or transformed in a FOURIER series

FS = FZ ( A0 + A2 cos 2 + A4 cos 4 + A6 cos 6 +..)

BRICKS Version 3.2

or expressed as a FOURIER series

FN = FZ ( B1 sin + B3 sin 3 + B5 sin 5 +...

Radial Force at the Crank:

or expressed as a FOURIER series

FR = FZ ( A0 + A1 cos + A2 cos 2 + A4 cos 4 + A6 cos 6 + ...) [2.1.19]

Tangential Force at the Crank:

or expressed as a FOURIER series

FT = FZ ( B1 sin + B2 sin 2 + B4 sin 4 + B6 sin 6 +...)

BRICKS Version 3.2

2.1.3. Gas Forces

Figure 2-4: Gas Pressure Diagrams of Different Engines

BRICKS Version 3.2

... compression ratio