CHEMISTRY SOLUTIONS

Solutions

Solutions are the homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two components.
Binary solution: A solution having two components is called a binary solution. Components of a binary
solution are solute and solvent.
When the solvent is in the solid state, the solution is called a solid solution.
When the solvent is in the liquid state, the solution is called a liquid solution.
When the solvent is in the gaseous state, the solution is called a gaseous solution.
Concentration is the amount of solute in a given amount of solution.
Mass by volume percentage (w/v): Mass of the solute dissolved in 100 mL of solution.
Molality (m) is the number of moles of solute present in 1 kg of solvent.
Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute present in 1 L of solution.
Normality is the number of gram equivalent of solute dissolved per litre of solution.
Solubility is the maximum amount of the solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent
at a specified temperature.
A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature and pressure is called a
saturated solution.
In a nearly saturated solution, if the dissolution process is an endothermic process, then solubility
increases with increase in temperature.
In a nearly saturated solution, if the dissolution process is an exothermic process, then solubility
decreases with increase in temperature.
Henrys Law: At a constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the
pressure of the gas. Henrys law can also be stated as The partial pressure of a gas in the vapour
phase is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas in the solution.
P = KH x
When a non-volatile solute is dissolved in a volatile solvent, the vapour pressure of solution is less
than that of the pure solvent.
According to Raoults law, for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each
component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
p1 = po1 x1; p2 = po2 x2
Using Daltons law of partial pressure, the total pressure of solution is calculated.
ptotal=p1o+(p2o -p1o )x2
On comparison of Raoult law and Henrys law, it is observed that the partial pressure of the volatile
component or gas is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution. In case of Henrys Law, the
proportionality constant is KH and it is different from p1, which is the partial pressure of the pure
component. Raoults Law becomes a special case of Henrys Law when KH becomes equal to p1 in
Henrys law.
Liquidliquid solutions can be classified into ideal and non-ideal solutions on the basis of Raoults Law:
Ideal solutions
The solutions which obey Raoults
Law over the entire range of
concentrations are known as ideal
solutions.
mix H=0 and mixV=0
The intermolecular attractive forces
between solute molecules and
solvent molecules are nearly equal to
those present between solute and
solvent molecules, i.e. AA and BB
interactions are nearly equal to those
between AB.

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Non-ideal solutions
When a solution does not obey
Raoults Law over the entire range of
concentration, it is called non-ideal
solution.
mix H 0 and mixV 0
The intermolecular attractive forces
between solute molecules and
solvent molecules are not equal to
those present between solute and
solvent molecules, i.e. AA and BB
interactions are not equal to those
between AB.
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CHEMISTRY SOLUTIONS

Non-ideal solutions are of two types:

Non-ideal solution showing positive
deviation
The vapour pressure of a solution is
higher than that predicted by Raoults
Law.
The intermolecular attractive forces
between solutesolvent molecules
are weaker than those between
solutesolute and solventsolvent
molecules, i.e.
AB < AA and BB interactions.

Non-ideal solution showing negative

deviation
The vapour pressure of a solution is
lower than that predicted by Raoults
Law.
The intermolecular attractive forces
between solutesolvent molecules
are stronger than those between
solutesolute and solventsolvent
molecules, i.e.
AB > AA and BB interactions.

Azeotropes are binary mixtures having same composition in the liquid and vapour phases and boil at
constant temperature. Liquids forming azeotrope cannot be separated by fractional distillation.
There are two types of azeotropes called minimum boiling azeotrope and maximum boiling azeotrope.
The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoults law form minimum boiling azeotrope
at a specific composition.
The solutions which show a large negative deviation from Raoults law form maximum boiling
azeotrope at a specific composition.
Properties of solution which depend on only the number of solute particles but not on the nature of
solute are called colligative properties.
There are four colligative properties:
Relative lowering of vapour pressure
Elevation of boiling point
Depression of freezing point
Osmotic pressure
Relative lowering of vapour pressure: Difference in the vapour pressure of pure solvent ( p1o ) and
solution ( p1 ) represents lowering in vapour pressure ( p1o p1 ). Dividing lowering in vapour pressure
by vapour pressure of pure solvent is called relative lowering of vapour pressure (

p1o p1

).
p1o
Relative lowering of vapour pressure is directly proportional to mole fraction of solute. Hence, it is a
colligative property.
p1o p1
x2
p1o

Elevation of boiling point: The difference in boiling points of solution ( Tb ) and pure solvent ( Tb0 ) is
called elevation in boiling point T Tb Tb0 .
For a dilute solution, elevation of boiling point is directly proportional to molal concentration of the
solute in solution. Hence, it is a colligative property.
K 1000 w2
Tb b
M2w1
Depression of freezing point: The lowering of vapour pressure of solution causes a lowering of
freezing point compared to that of pure solvent. The difference in freezing point of the pure solvent
( Tf 0 ) and solution ( Tf ) is called the depression in freezing point. T Tf 0 Tf
For a dilute solution, depression in freezing point is a colligative property because it is directly
proportional to molal concentration of the solute.

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CHEMISTRY SOLUTIONS

Tf

Kf 1000 w2
M2w1

Osmosis: The phenomenon of flow of solvent molecules through a semi-permeable membrane from
pure solvent to solution is called osmosis.
Osmotic pressure: The excess pressure which must be applied to solution to prevent the passage of
solvent into solution through a semi-permeable membrane is called osmotic pressure.
Osmotic pressure is a colligative property as it depends on the number of solute particles and not on
their identity.
For a dilute solution, osmotic pressure ( ) is directly proportional to the molarity (C) of the solution i.e.
CRT
Osmotic pressure can also be used to determine the molar mass of solute using the equation
w RT
M2= 2
V
Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called isotonic solution.
If a solution has more osmotic pressure than the other solution, then it is called hypertonic solution.
If a solution has less osmotic pressure than the other solution, then it is called hypotonic solution.
Reverse osmosis: The process of movement of solvent through a semi-permeable membrane from the
solution to the pure solvent by applying excess pressure on the solution side is called reverse
osmosis.
Colligative properties help in calculation of molar mass of solutes.
Molar mass which is either lower or higher than expected or normal molar mass is called abnormal
molar mass.
vant Hoff factor (i) accounts for the extent of dissociation or association.
Normal molar mass
i
Abnormal molar mass
Observedcolligative property

Calculatedcolligative property
Totalnumber of moles of particles after association/dissociation

Totalnumber of moles of particlesbefore association/dissociation

Value of i is less than unity in case the solute undergoes association.
Value of i is greater than unity in case the solute undergoes dissociation.
Inclusion of vant Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative properties as
p1o p1
n
i. 2
o
n1
p1
Tb i.

Tf i.

Kb 1000 w2
M2w1

Kf 1000 w2
M2w1

i.

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n2RT
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CHEMISTRY SOLUTIONS

TOP formulae
Mass of component in solution
100
Total mass of solution

Mass percentage of a component =

Volume percentage of a component =

Mole fraction of a component (x) =

ppm

Molarity

Number of moles of solute

Volume of solution in litres

Molality

Number of moles of solute

Mass of solvent in kilograms

Normality

p1o p1

T Tb Tb0

Volume of component
100
Total volume of solution

Number of moles of component

Total number of moles of all components

Number of parts of component

106
Total number of parts of all components of solution

p1o

Number of gram equivalent of solute

Volume of solution in litres

x2

Kb 1000 w2
M2w1

Tb

T Tf 0 Tf

Tf

Kf 1000 w2
M2w1

= CRT
w RT
M2= 2
V

Normal molar mass

Abnormal molar mass
Observedcolligative property

Calculatedcolligative property

Totalnumber of moles of particles after association/dissociation

Totalnumber of moles of particlesbefore association/dissociation
p1o p1
p1o

i.

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n2
n1

CHEMISTRY SOLUTIONS

Tb i.

Tf i.

i.

Kb 1000 w2
M2w1

Kf 1000 w2
M2w1

n2RT
V

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