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Appetite
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Research report
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 13 June 2012
Received in revised form 17 May 2013
Accepted 21 May 2013
Available online 11 June 2013
Keywords:
Food choice
Food motivations
Australia
Theory of Planned Behaviour
Ethical values
Sustainable food
a b s t r a c t
This study examined a three-step adaptation of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) applied to the
intention of consumers to purchase sustainably sourced food. The sample consisted of 137 participants,
of which 109 were female, who were recruited through a farmers market and an organic produce outlet
in an Australian capital city. Participants completed an online questionnaire containing the TPB scales of
attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control and intention; measures of positive moral attitude and ethical self identity; and food choice motives. Hierarchical multiple regression was used to
examine the predictive utility of the TPB in isolation (step 1) and the TPB expanded to include the constructs of moral attitude and ethical self-identity (step 2). The results indicated the expansion of the TPB
to include these constructs added signicantly to the predictive model measuring intention to purchase
sustainably sourced food. The third step in the adaptation utilised this expanded TPB model and added a
measure of retail channel (where consumers reported buying fresh produce) and 9 food choice motives,
in order to assess the predictive utility of the inclusion of choice motivations in this context. Of the 8 food
choice motives examined, only health and ethical values signicantly predicted intention to purchase
sustainably sourced food. However, with the addition of food choice motives, ethical self-identity was
no longer a signicant predictor of intention to purchase sustainably sourced food. Overall the adapted
TPB model explained 76% of the variance in intention to purchase sustainably sourced food.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Ethical consumerism has ourished in the last decade, both in
scope and in scale. What was once a focus on environmental/
green behaviour has expanded to cover issues of animal welfare,
human rights, country of origin, fair trade, health, anti-globalisation and many other related concerns (Auger & Devinney, 2007;
Carrington, Neville, & Whitwell, 2010). Similarly, ethical consumerism has shifted from being an issue on the periphery of society
to the mainstream (Carrington et al., 2010). Crane and Matten
(2004) dened ethical consumerism as: the conscious and deliberate choice to make certain consumption choices due to personal
and moral beliefs (p. 290). By doing so, the consumer seeks to
inuence corporate practices by buying or not buying certain products, or demonstrating a willingness to pay for ethically-produced
goods (Auger & Devinney, 2007).
Food production is one of the most commonly-discussed issues
in the ethical consumer literature. The increase in Fair Tradebranded products, such as chocolate and coffee, are invariably cited
as proof of growing mainstream consumer sentiment about ethical
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: k.j.burke@cqu.edu.au (K.J. Burke).
0195-6663/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2013.05.024
138
Self identity
Inclusion of a measure of self identity has also been shown to
enhance the TPBs predictive power (Armitage & Conner, 1999;
Armitage, Conner, & Norman, 1999; Shaw et al., 2000). Self identity
refers to an individuals role identication and the way they view
themselves within society; it is proposed that the stronger an individuals role identication, the more inuence self identity will
have on their behaviour (Armitage & Conner, 1999). Self identity
has been shown to contribute to behavioural intention independently of subjective norms, ethical obligation and other TPB variables (Armitage et al., 1999; Shaw et al., 2000; Sparks & Guthrie,
1998; Sparks & Shepherd, 1992). Notably, Shaw et al.s study,
which incorporated both ethical obligation and self identity, found
signicant independent effects for both measures, as well as a
strong effect for perceived behavioural control. The authors concluded that in certain contexts, the variables contained within
the traditional TRA model are not as central to the decision making
process as the additional measures of perceived behavioural control, ethical obligation and self-identity (Shaw et al., 2000, p.
889). The authors suggested that this is because the traditional
TPB model is more suited to self-interested behaviours than those
with an ethical dimension (Shaw et al., 2000). They argued that an
individuals concern about a variety of ethical issues led to a sense
of ethical self identity, which may be just as important in determining behaviour for some consumers as more self-interested motives, like price. The TPBs focus on rational self-interest
consequently neglected these consumers.
139
140
options for each construct in the TPB, and the constructs added
to the TPB in the current study.
Positive moral attitude
Positive moral attitude was measured in accordance with Arvola et al. (2008). Questions began with the statement Buying this
kind of food would and contained three items. All were rated on
a seven-point scale from 1 = disagree to 7 = agree (Table 1).
Ethical self identity
Ethical self identity was measured with two items, in the format
suggested by Sparks and Shepherd (1992): I think of myself as someone who is concerned about ethical issues and I think of myself as an
ethical consumer, measured on a seven-point scale from 1 = disagree
to 7 = agree (Table 1).
Motivations for food purchases
This construct was measured using Steptoe et al.s (1995) Food
Choice Questionnaire (FCQ), incorporating revisions to the ethical
concerns scale as proposed by Lindeman and Vnnen (2000).
The revised scale consists of 42 items measuring eleven motivating
factors (Table 1). All questions began with the statement It is
important to me that the food I eat on a typical day. . ., and the responses took the form Is nutritious. All items were measured on
a seven-point scale, where 1 = unimportant and 7 = important.
Table 1 shows that all variables in this study had good reliability, with internal consistency (Cronbachs a) ranging from .76 to
.97.
Procedure
Participants were targeted through the organisers of a local
farmers market, and an organic food market in and around an Australian capital city. As these individuals may already have been
purchasing sustainably sourced foods, they were considered an
appropriate group to target in order to examine the intentions
underlying these food purchases. Snowballing was used with participants encouraged to pass the survey details onto family and
friends. Both market businesses listed the survey address on their
Facebook pages, as well as distributing it in a newsletter emailed to
subscribers. The survey remained open for seven weeks, and due to
the nature of the sample reminders were not sent. Ethical approval
was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee of an
Australian University.
Results
Factor structure of food choice motives
Following the instruction and suggestions Lindeman and
Vnnen (2000) and Lockie et al. (2004) prior to being examined
as predictor variables, the eleven scales of food choice motives
were subjected to principal components analysis (PCA). The results
of Monte Carlo PCA for parallel analysis suggested retaining eight
factors (45 variables 137 respondents), so PCA was rerun forcing
an eight factor solution, with a varimax rotation.
The eight factor solution was found to explain 70.5% of the variance and retained ve of the original FCQ scales mood, weight,
sensory appeal, price and religion as distinct constructs. The nal
three components merged six FCQ scales, but kept the items within
them intact, and each showed good internal consistency. The revised scales included an Ethical Values scale (a = .94), which
merged the ecological welfare and political values scales (10
items); a Health scale (a = .91) merged the Health and Natural Content scales (9 items); and a Convenience scale (a = .84) merged the
141
Example item
Cronbach
a
Theory of Planned Behaviour
Behavioural intention (3 items)
Attitude (5 items)
Perceived behavioural control (3
items)
Subjective norm (1 item)
I intend to buy this kind of food the next time I buy groceries (1 = disagree, 7 = agree)
For me buying this kind of food is... (1 = bad, 7 = good; 1 = harmful; 7 = benecial)
If I want to, I can easily buy this food (1 = disagree; 7 = agree)
.97
.94
.82
Most people important to me think I should buy this food (1 = disagree; 7 agree)
.94
Buying this kind of food would... ...feel like I was making a personal contribution to something better
(1 = disagree, 7 = agree)
I think of myself as someone who is concerned about ethical issues (1 = disagree, 7 = agree)
.92
.90
.88
.83
.93
.76
.91
.79
.94
.89
.92
(r = .85)
.91
(r = .83)
Lindemann & Vaananens (2000) adaptations of Steptoe et als (1995) original scale.
Correlation coefcients also provided for scales with two items only.
(b = .21, p < .001), ethical self identity (b = .18, p=.002) and subjective norm (b = .16, p=.005).
Retail channel and food choice motives were added at Block 3
and also made a small, but signicant contribution to the prediction of intention R2 change = .03, F change (3, 122) = 6.76, p = .02.
The model as a whole was signicant, F(8, 123) = 32.96, p < .001,
and explained 75.7% of the variance in intention to purchase sustainably sourced food an additional 14% to the TPB alone. In
the nal block, all TPB variables remained signicant (Table 3).
Moral attitude was signicant but ethical self identity was not
(b = .08, ns). Of the food motives variables, only ethical values
and health were signicant. The signicant Beta weights for the direct prediction of intention in the nal block are reected in
Table 3.
Discussion
The inclusion of ethical dimensions in the TPB
Consistent with other studies which have applied the Theory Of
Planned Behaviour in the context of food choice, and supporting
hypothesis 1, the original TPB model was found to be robust,
explaining 62% of the variance in intention to purchase sustainably
sourced food. This is considerably higher than the 39% average variance explained in Armitage and Conners meta-analysis (2001) and
to the 44.3% of the variance found by McEachan, Conner, Taylor, and
Lawton (2011) in a more recent and more stringent meta-analysis.
However, the explained variance is similar to other applications of
the TPB to food choice. For example, the TPB was found to explain:
61% of the variance in intention to drink soft drinks (Kassem & Lee,
2004); 50% of the variance in intention to eat fruit and vegetables
(Murnaghan et al., 2010); 61% of the variance in intention to eat a
low fat diet (Armitage & Conner, 1999); 55% of the variance in
intention to purchase organic apples and 36% of the variance in
intention to purchase organic pizza (Dean et al., 2008).
In step 2 both positive moral attitude and ethical self identity
were found to be signicant in predicting intention to purchase,
142
Table 3
Signicant beta weights for variables directly predicting
intention to purchase sustainably sourced food in the
nal step of an hierarchical multiple regression.
Construct
.35
.25
.16
.11
.15
.19
.21
The adapted TPB and inclusion of food choice motive and retail
channel preference
The third step of this study involved testing the signicance
of contextual variables food choice motives and retail channel
alongside the adapted TPB from step 1 given its increased explanatory power. Surprisingly, of the eight food choice motives examined, only ethical values and health directly predicted intention
to purchase sustainably sourced food. The nding that health predicted intention is consistent with prior ndings of health being a
strong predictor of the motivations underlying the purchase of organic food (Baker, Thompson, Engelken, & Huntley, 2004; Hamzaoui Essoussi & Zahaf, 2009; Magnusson, Arvola, Hursti, Aberg, &
Table 2
Correlations between TPB constructs, moral attitude, ethical self-identity and food choice motives (N = 137).
*
**
Construct
Health
Health
Convenience
Ethics
Mood
Sensory
Price
Weight
Religion
Ethical SI
Moral
attitude
Subj norm
PBC
Attitude
Intention
.10
.09
.27**
.04
.01
.01
.05
.25**
.15
p < .05,
p < .01.
.16
.17*
.15
.21*
Conven
Ethics
Mood
.17
.22**
.11
.07
.00
.30**
.25**
.32**
.13
.11
.02
.30**
.25**
Sensory
Price
Weight
Religion
.29**
.10
.07
.09
.06
.18*
.01
.11
.03
Ethical self
iden
Moral
attitude
.47**
Subject
norm
PBC
Attitude
Intention
.30**
.51**
.68**
.06
.03
.01
.01
.10
.03
.09
.14
.04
.11
.10
.11
.07
.16
.25**
.30**
.21
.29**
.15
.30**
.04
.03
.01
.18*
.12
.05
.16
.06
.16
.03
.16
.05
.10
.03
.09
.00
.02
.08
.10
.05
.08
**
.34
.38**
.51**
.61**
.46**
.32**
.60**
.73**
.30**
.44**
.55**
concerned with where their food came from; that they could not
reconcile the question about purchasing sustainably sourced food
with a recognisable goal or action; and that they gave middling
scores in response. If this were the case, none of the six food choice
motives mentioned would differentiate them, with the possible
exception of price.
It is also possible that there is a small percentage of people who
do care where their food comes from, and that their choice is predominantly a function of reasoning regarding ethics or health. For
these people, it would be natural to seek out sustainably sourced
food (in whatever form that might mean for them), and it would
be expected they would endorse strongly the questions relating
to intention to purchase. If this were the case, it would explain
the signicant results for just those two variables. Retail channel
was shown to have a direct effect on intention to purchase, suggesting that people shopping at farmers markets and specialty
stores were more likely to intend to purchase sustainably sourced
food than those shopping at supermarkets. This is consistent with
the assertions of Lockie et al. (2004) who suggested that about half
of organic food sold is to a niche group of committed organic
purchasers.
The modied TPB model in step 3 of this study remained a robust predictor of intention to purchase sustainably sourced food,
and although signicant, the increase in explained variance was
modest at best. That said, this step of the model adaptation produced some interesting results particularly regarding ethical motives underlying intention to purchase. All three TPB variables of
attitude, subjective norm and PBC were signicant, uniquely contributing up to 2% of the total variance each. Moral attitude was
highly signicant, uniquely accounting for 7% of the total variance.
These results were very similar to those found when testing the
step 2 TPB model in which moral attitude uniquely contributed
8% and the TPB variables uniquely contributed 23% of the total
variance. However, in the step 3 model, ethical self-identity was
not signicant in predicting intention to purchase. It was noted
that ethical self identity and ethical values were moderately correlated and, perhaps importantly, that the ethical values questions
were more specic in nature (e.g. Has been produced in a way
that respects animals rights) than the self identity questions
(e.g. I think of myself as an ethical consumer). Thus it is possible
that the specicity of the ethical values questions (as a food choice
motive) was responsible for the signicant result in the case of
intention to purchase in step 3, whereas the more abstract attitudinal questions for ethical self-identity were responsible for predicting intention to purchase when considered alone, but not
when these more specic questions had been asked.
143
Despite the limitations, the study identies the need to incorporate and acknowledge the role of ethical inuences in examinations of intentions, and by extension, behaviours that may
involve an underlying moral/ethical decision process. Both adaptations of the TPB models signicantly predicted intention to purchase sustainably sourced food. The step 2 TPB model, with ve
signicant predictor variables including ethics domains, explained
73% of the total variance in intention to purchase sustainably
sourced food. The step 3 model, with seven signicant predictor
variables including ethical and contextual constructs, explained
76%. In both models, positive moral attitude accounted for the
highest amount of unique variance. Ethical self identity was significant in predicting intention in the step 2 TPB model, whereas ethical values predicted intention in the step 3 TPB model. These
results suggest that measures of ethical concern make a useful
addition to the TPB framework when considering domains, such
as sustainable food choice, that involve moral/ethical judgements.
It is suggested that, in the domain of ethical food choices, future
144
examination of intention to purchase and, by extension, actual purchase of sustainably sourced foods should incorporate measures of
positive moral attitude, a measure of ethical concern, and a
measure of contextual inuences such as health concern or current
health status.
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