Chapter 4- Learning and Memory

Not all behaviors are learned, such as reflexes

(unlearned or innate response in reaction to a specific
class of stimuli) and instincts (complex patterns that
are genetically determined).

PART I. LEARNING
What is Learning?
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral
potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced
practice. (Kimble, 1961)

*Does Learning Result from a Specific Kind of

Experience?
Only reinforced behavior will be learned.
-Is reinforcement a necessary prerequisite for
learning to take place? Most psychologists disagree.

Key phrases and points to assess the universality of

the definition

Modified definition of Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
or behavior potentiality that results from experience
and cannot be attributed to temporary body states such
as those induced by illness, fatigue, or drugs.

Change in Behavior the results of learning must

always be translated into observable behavior.
Relatively Permanent learning is neither transitory
(lasting only a short time; temporary) nor fixed.
Behavior Potentiality the change in behavior need
not occur immediately after learning. (Note the
difference between potential and actual.)
Practice change in behavior results from experience
or practice.
Reinforced only those reinforced responses will be
learned.

Four Cases of Learning

1. Classical Conditioning (Ivan Petrovich Pavlov)
- A process in which a neutral stimulus is paired
with an unconditioned stimulus until the neutral
stimulus elicits a natural response.

Reinforcement v/s Reward

Reinforcement
Reward
It is anything initially
without value. It
It is a desirable and
remains meaningless
pleasurable stimulus
until it is paired with a
given after a worthy
rewarding stimulus.
accomplishment
Generally speaking, a
applauded by the
reinforcer is not
society.
necessarily rewarding
(such as electric shocks).

Phase 1:

Issues with regards to the acceptability of the

definition given by Kimble (1961)

Phase 3:

Camera Child does not blink

The camera is the neutral stimulus. The child elicits no response.
Phase 2:

The camera flashes suddenly in front of the child. The child blinks
due to the intensity of light from the camera. Blinking is a natural
response. This pairing is done for a long period of time.
Camera Child Blinks
The neutral stimulus (camera), without having the need to
flash, already elicits the natural response of the child (blinking).

*How permanent is relatively permanent?

1. How long must a behavior change last before we say
that learning has been demonstrated?
-maybe due to fatigue, illness, maturation, and
drugs (temporary body states).
2. Short-term Memory
-despite the fact that the information is lost
over such a short period of time, psychologists would
still hesitate to conclude that no learning has occurred.
3. Other cases: Sensitization and Habituation

Key Terms:
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Something that elicits a natural response; the reinforcer
Ex.: Food
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Natural and automatic response from US
Ex.: The dog salivates after seeing the food

Sensitization happens when an organism is made more

responsive to certain aspects of its environment.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Neutral object that originally does not elicit a response
Ex.: The footsteps of the feeder
approaching the dog

Habituation happens when an organism is made less

responsive to the environment.

Conditioned Response (CS)

The result of CS + US UR, until CS alone can
produce the UR without the US.
Ex.: The footstep makes the dog salivate
anticipating for food.
Basically, the CR is the same as the UR (salivation),
but the UR has greater intensity than the CR (the
dog salivates more to the sight of the food than in
hearing the footsteps of the approaching feeder).

*Learning and Performance

The potential to act differently results from learning,
even though the behavior was not immediately affected.
Learning v/s Performance
Learning
Change in behavior
potentiality

Camera Flash Child Blinks

Performance
Translation of this
potentiality into actual
behavior.

*Practice or Experience

Basic Concepts in Classical Conditioning

Child feels hungry + Says, I am hungry.

= Fed by mother (Positive reinforcement)

EXPERIMENTAL EXTINCTION
If the unconditioned stimulus is not paired with the
conditioned stimulus, a conditioned response would
not exist.

Reinforcements as Consequences
1. Positive Reinforcers anything with informative
value added to the situation which can increase the
likelihood of repeating a behavior.
Ex.: high grade, money, a nod, a token
2. Negative Reinforcers the removal of unpleasurable
events that can increase the likelihood of repeating a
behavior. It is not the same as punishment.
Ex.: Removal of pain, frustration, or boredom.

[Bell + Food = Salivation]

Association is made between the US and the CS, thus,
[Bell = Salivation]
But if, for a long period of time, the unconditioned
stimulus (food) is no longer presented with the
conditioned stimulus (bell), the conditioned stimulus
will no longer be an effective reinforcer.

2 Types of Negative Reinforcement:

[Bell Salivation]
Extinction results when, for a remarkable period of
time, the CS is presented to the organism and is not
followed by reinforcement.

a. Escape Learning an organism increases a

particular behavior to end or escape from an aversive
stimulus.
b. Avoidance Learning a warning stimulus signals
an aversive stimulus and the organism avoids it by
responding to the warning stimulus.

SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
If a reminder to the US (which is the CS) is presented
to the organism after extinction, a temporary recovery
happens.

Punishment is the addition of anything unpleasant to

the situation/environment, or the removal of
something pleasant from the organism, that aims to
inhibit/decrease/eliminate an undesired behavior.
Psychologists agree on the fact that punishment doesnt
decrease the probability of a response. Although
punishment suppresses a response as long as it is
applied, it does not weaken the habit.
1. It causes unfortunate emotional byproducts.
2. It indicates what the organism should not do,
not what it should do.
3. It justifies inflicting pain on others.
4. In the absence of a punishing agent, there is no
reason to avoid doing punishable activities
5. Punishment often replaces one undesirable
response with another undesirable response.
6. Punishment elicits aggression towards the
punishing agent and others.

GENERALIZATION
We can have a learned reaction to a situation we have
never encountered before because of the similarity
between the current and previous environment.
Examples include
*using cellular phones of different brands
*you assume that, since your bf/gf is well mannered,
his/her family is also the same.
*smelling hospital-like scented areas trigger fear to
someone who is afraid of hospitals
DISCRIMINATION
We only respond to a limited set of stimuli, preferably
those which are very identical to the original reinforcer.
*In the absence of a favorite t-shirt, a person will look
for the one most identical to the original, or that which
elicits almost the same feeling of satisfaction.
*Your heart only beats for the one that you truly love.
*You always want to go out with a particular person
because he/she reminds you of your significant
someone.

Basic Concepts in Operant Conditioning

STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION
An organism checks on whether a reinforcer is available
if a certain response is made.
Ex.: A student only studies when a teacher is in sight.
EXTINCTION
As with classical conditioning, when we remove the
reinforcer, we produce extinction.
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
The increased frequency with which a conditioned
operant response occurs following extinction without
further training.

BACKWARD CONDITIONING
This happens when the conditioned stimulus is
presented FIRST before the unconditioned stimulus.
Food + [BELL] = Salivation
(US)
(CS)
(UR/CR)
In the above example, no association is made for the
BELL as it serves no definable purpose.
Food = Salivation
Bell Salivation
The CS must have an informative value to become an
effective reinforcer. Thus, the CS must come first
before the US.
2. Operant Conditioning (Burrhus Frederic
Skinner)
-Behavior is changed by the anticipated
consequences rather than what motivates it.

SUPERSTITIOUS BEHAVIOR
A ritualistic behavior believed to cause a reinforcer to
take place, but is actually of no relevance to the
reinforcer.
Ex.: Imagine what happens to the baseball player who,
after stepping the plate, adjusts his/her hat in a certain
way and hits the very next pitch out of the ball park.
There will be a strong tendency on his/her part to

adjust the hat in a similar way the next time he/she is at

bat.

What is Memory?
Memory is a process by which people encode,
store, and retrieve information.

GENERALIZED REINFORCER
This is a secondary reinforcer that has been paired with
more than one primary reinforcer. Money is a
generalized reinforcer because it is ultimately associated
with any number of primary reinforcer.
3. Social Learning (Albert Bandura)
- People can learn from the experience of
others.
Social learning works in two ways:
1. Vicarious Learning a learning process by
seeing or hearing about the consequences of
other peoples actions.
2. Observation Learning watching what others
are doing; the person being watched is called
the model.

INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL of
MEMORY
1. Encoding a process by which
information initially is recorded in a form
usable to memory.
2. Storage maintenance of a material saved
in the memory system. This is the part
where failures in the retention process
happen.
3. Retrieval location of stored memory and
bring it to full awareness for use.
4. Forgetting the inability to recall certain
events, usually a cause of faulty memory
storage. This aspect is essential to the
proper
functioning
of
memory.
Inconsequential details about people,
objects, and experiences help us avoid
being burdened and distracted by trivial
stores of meaningless data.

Four Elements in Social Learning

Attentional Process
Only what is observed can be learned.
WHAT DETERMINES WHAT BEHAVIOR IS
LEARNED?
The Attentional Capacity
o The sensory capacity of the individual
should be considered.
Prior Reinforcement
o The behavior observed must be
proven effective (followed by
reinforcements/rewards)
Similarity to Observer
o Models are usually of the same sex,
age, etc., and are mostly proficient,
effective, and not repeatedly punished.
Retentional Process
For learned behavior to be useful, it should be retained
imaginally or verbally.
Behavioral Production Process
What has been learned via observing is translated into
performance.
1. One must be physically equipped to perform an
imitated behavior (e.g. you cant swing on branches like
monkeys do because you dont possess a tail).
2. A period of cognitive rehearsal must be made before
an observer can match that of a model.

Three Systems of Memory

Sensory Memory information received from all
the senses; usually happens in a snap; raw, senseless
stimuli; not meaningful.
Short-Term Memory information stored has
short meaning, but does not stay long enough in
the memory system.
Long-Term Memory information received is
filed and stored accurately for easy recall.
Types of Memory
1. Episodic Memory memory of specific
events that happened while you were
present; memory of a particular incident
that occurred at a specific time and place.
2. Semantic Memory general knowledge.
3. Procedural Memory memory about how
to do things.
4. Generic Memory general outline of a
familiar, repeated event without details of
time and space.
5. Autobiographical Memory memories
that form a persons history; specific and
long-lasting.

Motivational Processes
Only those behaviors that are motivated or rewarded
can be successfully learned.
4. Cognitive Learning (Jean Piaget, Gestalt
Psychology, and many others)
- Learning is not automatic. There are
important cognitive or motivational processes that
occur between stimulus and response.
- The emphasis is on thinking and cognition.
Two phases of Learning
1. Initial Phase Problem-solving to derive a
solution.
2. Second Phase The solution is stored in
memory and retrieved wherever a similar
problem is encountered.

PART II. MEMORY

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