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Table of Contents:
021-01-00-00
System Design, Loads, Stresses, Maintenance______________ 3
Loads and combination loadings applied to an aircrafts structure______________ 3
Fatigue ___________________________________________________________ 6
Corrosion ________________________________________________________ 11
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021-01-00-00
A stress is a force within an object that tries to prevent an outside force from
changing its shape. A strain is a deformation or a physical change caused by
stress. A material that is strained within its elastic limit will return to its original
shape after the stress is removed. A material that is strained beyond its elastic
limit will stay permanently deformed.
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Propeller shafts and helicopter rotor shafts are both subjected to torsional
stresses.
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Fatigue
During the normal working life of an aircraft its structure is constantly subject to
varying stresses, which occur due to:
flight manoeuvres
atmospheric turbulence
ground loads
cabin pressurisation and de-pressurisation
thermal effects
vibrations
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It follows that the higher the cyclic stress the fewer the number of reversals
required to cause fatigue failure.
therefore be avoided, particularly in the main load bearing structures, such as,
spars, longerons and stressed skins, where any such failure may prove
catastrophic.
Stress loads of any kind which is repetitive or cyclic can eventually lead to a
weakening or deterioration of metal or other material. This is called "fatigue
strain".
In this condition the actual single stress load is well within the elastic limit of the
material. It is the repetitive loading and unloading of the material that can
eventually lead to a failure.
Structures which are known to have to withstand fatigue stress such as landing
gear, wings or certain structural attachment fittings have a life limit based on the
number of takeoffs, landings or flying hours
Bending
Bending (or beam stress) is a combination of compression and tension.
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In a bar for example the upper half is subject to tensile stress, whilst the lower
half is subject to compressive stress. At the centre of the bar the two stresses
oppose each other and cause maximum shear stress in this region.
When a structural member is subject to a force or load it will tend to distort. For
example if a member is subject to tension it will tend to stretch, and this is
commonly known as strain or elongation.
Beams
Beams are members, which under load, are subject to bending. They can either
be supported at both ends (simply supported), or supported at one end only
(cantilever.)
When a solid beam is under load one side is in tension whilst the other side is in
compression.
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LOAD
LOAD
In the simply supported beam the maximum bending moments occur beneath the
load, whereas in the cantilever beam they occur at the support. Failure is
therefore most likely to occur in these regions.
The fuselage of an aircraft is an example of a simply supported beam, whilst its
wings are examples of cantilever beams. Aircraft wings are therefore normally
tapered in section towards the wing tip where bending moments are least.
LOAD
MAXIMUM
BENDING MOMENT
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Struts
Struts are designed to withstand mainly compressive loads, and unless they are
extremely short will tend to bend under load before failure occurs.
Load
Material in
Tension
Material in
Compression
Long struts therefore behave like cantilever beams when under load, with one
side in compression and the other side in tension. Struts of this type are
consequently normally manufactured as hollow tubes. An example of a strut is
the external bracing employed on some high winged aircraft, which help support
the wings when the aircraft is on the ground.
Ties
Ties are members which are designed to withstand mainly tensile loads, and are
normally constructed from a solid rod, or even a wire of relatively small diameter.
An example of a tie is the external wing bracing employed on some high winged
aircraft to prevent the wings from lifting in flight.
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Corrosion
Many aircraft component failures have been
caused by corrosion.
It is important to recognize corrosion and to
understand how to prevent it, since corrosion,
if
undetected,
may
cause
catastrophic
failures, as was almost the case with the aircraft shown in the photograph.
Due to poor inspection practices, the corrosion on this aircraft was not detected
until the fuselage strength was reduced to almost zero. When the cabin was
pressurized, the stress caused the fuselage to split. This occurred at 17,000 feet
and caused the aircraft to be scrapped. Several passengers and crew were killed
or injured.
Corrosion can occur very quickly in high humidity environments. During the
summer months it is not uncommon for unprotected parts to corrode overnight.
These parts must then be cleaned, repaired and protected against further
corrosive attacks. This is expensive! It would be far better if we could stop the
corrosion before it began.
Galvanic or Dissimilar metal corrosion will occur any time two dissimilar metals
are connected so that a galvanic current flows through them. This electric current
occurs because all materials are in possession of what is called an "electric
potential".
Since two dissimilar metals have their own potential, there will be a potential
difference (voltage) between the two, resulting in a current flow.
In other words, an ANODE (positive electrode) and a CATHODE (negative
electrode) will be formed.
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In the drawing, the two dissimilar metals are the steel of the rivet forming a
cathode and 2024 aluminium alloy sheet metal forming the anode. The current
will cause electrons and-or ions to leave the surface of one material and to be
deposited on the surface of the other. This slow loss of material will weaken the
surface, which will eventually fail.
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How to prevent corrosion? First of all, ensure that all (aircraft) parts are kept
clean and dry. Do not allow any part to touch other parts, your skin, the floor or
any chemicals.
The human skin contains fatty acid that is made up of all sorts of elements (e.g
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon) that induce forms of corrosion. It is
therefore advised to wear specified gloves when handling aircraft parts.
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Lastly, we must remember that once we see corrosion, the damage has already
occurred. It makes far more sense to take the precautions that were just
mentioned and not have to deal with corrosion in the first place.
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When corrosion deposits are removed, the metal's surface may appear etched
and pitted, depending upon the length and severity of the attack.
If deep enough, these pits may become sites for crack development.
Some types of corrosion can travel beneath surface coatings and can spread
until the part fails.
The photograph shows the terrible result of poor inspection practices. The
corrosion on this aircraft was not detected until the fuselage strength was
reduced to almost zero. When the cabin was pressurized the stress caused the
fuselage to split causing the terrible damage shown here. This occurred at 17,000
feet and caused the aircraft to be scrapped. Several passengers and crew were
either killed or injured.
Corrosion is not always easily detected and can sometimes only come "out in the
open" after a full disassembly of a component.
The photograph shows a heavily corroded shaft of an aircraft engine's gearbox
shaft.
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Many metals become ionized due to galvanic action when brought into contact
with dilute acids, salts or alkalis, such as those found in industrially contaminated
air.
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Perhaps the easiest way to visualize what is actually taking place is to consider
the action of a battery.
If two metals, for instance, Aluminium and Copper are immersed in an electrolyte
of acid, in this particular example a weak solution of hydrolchloric acid, saline or
alkaline solution, a battery is formed and produces a flow of electrons between
the two metals. This process continues as long as there are active materials in
the metal and electrolyte and the cathode and anode are connected by a
conductive path.
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How can this process be explained in terms of the nobility of the metals?
In the electrochemical series, aluminium is considerably more active than copper,
which is the nobler material of the two. When electrons flow from the aluminium,
through the conductor to the copper, positive aluminium ions are left.
Two of these ions attract six negative chlorine atoms from the acid and form two
molecules of aluminium chloride (AlCl3) on the surface of the aluminium. This
eats away some of the base metal. The six positive hydrogen ions remaining in
the acid are attracted to the copper by the electrons which came from the
aluminium. These electrons neutralize the hydrogen molecules (3H2) and leave
the surface as free hydrogen gas.
If the entire area is covered with a strong electrolyte, corrosion can develop
uniformly over an extensive area.
This type of corrosion is called direct chemical attack. The illustration shows how
an electrolyte can "cross a bridge" between the steel material of a fastener (rivet)
and the aluminium sheet metal it is attached to.
The illustration shows the importance of the use of a sealant that isolates both
materials and thus protecting them against galvanic corrosion.
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In summary we have seen that there are four requirements for the formation of
corrosion:
-
An electrical contact between the anode and cathode, usually metal-tometal contact, or a fastener.
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