Basic Pneumatics

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BASIC
NEUMATICS
Indianapolis,
IN 46556
Rev.0100
Copyright1997
Pori # SttlCT-Pl-IX
DO NOT COPYWITT{OUTWRITTEN
PERMISSION
TAgLE
l INTRODUCTION
do?
Whatcan Pneumatics
Propertiesot Compr6ss6dAir
oF cot{tENts
Mainlinefiller
Air Dislribution
DeadEnd Line
RingMain
SecondaryLines
AutomalicDrains
SizingCompressedAir Mains
Materialslor Piping
StandardGas PiPe(SGP)
Table4.21 PipeSizeSpcificalion
StainlesssteelPipes
CopperTube
RubberTube('Air Hose")
Plastictubing
1
1
SYSTEM
2 THEBASICPNEUMATIC
the air Productionand dislributionsvstem e
4
The Air Consumption
Syslem
AIRTHEORY
3 COMPRESSED
Units
Pressur
Prooertiesof Gases
lsothermicchange(Boyle'sLaw)
lsobaricchange
CharlesLaw
Lawof Gay Lussac
lsochoricchange
Adiabatic(lsentropic)change
StandardVolume
Flow
Bernoulli'sEquation
Air Humidity
Relativehumidity
Pressurand Flow
Useof the diagram:
Formulae:
6
6
I
10
10
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
12
13
15
16
16
'
ANDDISTRIBUTIONI9
4 AIRCOMPRESSION
Compressors
19
Reciprocating
Compressors
19
SinglestagePistonCompressor
19
Two stagePistonCompressor
19
Diaphragmcompressor
20
Rotarycompressors
21
Rotaryslidingvanecompressor
21
Screwcompressor
21
Compressorrating
21
VolumetricEtficiency
22
Thermaland OverallEfficiency
22
CompressorAccessories
23
Air receiver
23
Sizinga receiver
23
lnletfilter
23
Air Dehydralion
24
Altercoolers
24
Air cooled
24
Watercooled
24
Air dryers
26
Drying
Absorption(deliquescent)
26
Adsorption(dEsiccanl)Drying
27
Hetrigerant
drying
28
29
29
30
JU
21
?1
35
.tc
?F
AE
36
36
5 AIRTBEATMENT
Fillering
StandardFilter
Air Ouality
Filteringlevels
PressureFlegulation
StandardBegulator
PilotOperatedRegulator
Filter-Regulator
Characteristics
Sizingol Regulatorsand Filters
CompressodAir Lubrication
Proportional
Lubricators
F.R.LUnits
Sizand lnstallation
38
38
38
40
40
42
42
M
45
45
46
46
46
48
rt8
6 ACTUATORS
LinarCylinders
SingleActingCylinder
DoubleActingCylinder
CylinderConstruction
Cushioning
SpecialCylinderOptions
DoubleRod
Non BotalingBod
Twin Rod
FlatCylinder
TandemCylinder
MultiPositionCylinder
CylinderMounting
FloatingJoints
BucklingStrength
CylinderSizing
CylinderForce
ThoreticalForce
BequkedForce
49
49
49
49
50
9U
51
51
51
52
52
52
53
54
54
55
55
55
J5
57
TABLE oF Co
Load Fatio
SpeedControl
Air Flowand Consumption
RotaryActuators
Rackand PinionType
VaneType RotaryActuators:
SizingRotaryActuato|s
Torqueand Inertia
SpcialActuators
LockingCylinder
Rodlessrylinders
Wilh magneticcoupling,unguided
Guidedtypes,with magneticcoupling
Guided,with mechanicalcoupling
SlideUnits
HollowRod Cylinder
linearRotatingCylinder
Air Chuck(GrippeO
7 DIRECTIONAL
CONTROLVALVES
ValveFunctions
Symbol
Portldentification
Monostableand bistable
ValveTypes
PoppetValves
SlidingValvss
SpoolValves
Elastomerseal
MetalSeal
PlaneSlid6Valve
RotaryValves
ValveOperation
Mechanicaloperation
Carewhen usingRollerLevers
ManualOperation
Air Operation.
PilotedOperation.
SolenoidOperation
DirectPiping
Manifolds
Sub Bass
MultipleSub Bases
GangedSub Bases
ValveSizing
Indicationsfor Flowcapacity
Orificesin seriesconnection
Flow capacity of lubes
Valveswith Cylinders
AuxiliaryValves
TENTS
Non-RetumValves
SpeedConlrollers
ShutlleValve
QuickExhauslValves
58
59
60
63
63
63
63
63
66
66
66
66
67
67
68
68
69
69
88
88
88
90
91
8 BAS|CCIBCUITS
91
lntroduction
ol
FlowAmplilication
91
SignalInversion
o,
Selec{ion
MemoryFunction
92
Timetunctions
93
Delayedswitchingon
94
Delayedswitchingotf
94
Pulseon switchingon
94
Pulseon releasinga valve
95
CylinderControl
96
ManualControl
96
SingleActingCylinder
96
DirectOperationand SpedControl 96
IntedockAND Function
97
InverseODeration:
NOT Function
97
DoubleactingCylinder
98
Direct Control
98
Holdingthe end positions
98
DetectingCylinderPositions
99
oo
AutomaticFetum
RepsatingStrokes
101
SquencControl
101
Howto describea sequnoe
101
Nomenclature
101
Sequenceof lwo Cylinders
102
103
SinglCycle/ RpeatingCycle
OpposingCommands
104
with a Pulse
Elimination
104
Clamping:PressureControl
104
CascadeSystem
105
70
70
70
71
71
71
72
73
73
73
74
74
75
76
76
78
76
T7
78
79
80
80
81
81
81
82
82
83
84
85
88
APPENDIX
Symbols
Air TratmentEquipment
Actuators
Valves
Circuits
BasicRules
RestPosition
CircuitLayout
Nomenclature
SampleDiagrams
108
108
108
109
109
111
111
111
112
113
115
P N E U T , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y
INTRODUCTION
A fluidpowersystemis one thal transmitsand controlsenergythroughthe useof pressurizedliquidor gas'
In Pneumatics.
this mediais air.This of coursecomesfromthe atmosphereand is reducedin volumeby
thus incrasingits pressure.Compressedair is mainlyusedto do workby actingon a pistonor
compression,
vane-- producingsomeusefulmotiontor instance.
Whilemanytacetsof industryusecompressedair,the generalfieldof IndustrialPneumaticsis considered
here.
The corect use ol pnumaticcontrolrequiresan adeguateknowledgeof pneumaticcomponentsand their
of lh
functionlo ensuretheirintegralionintoan etficienlworkingsysiem.lt is alwaysthe rsponsibility
dsignerto certifysafetyin all conditions-- includinga failedcondition.As with any otheronergysource,
compressedair can causeharmif not properlyapplied.
sequenceror olherlogiccontrollermay be currenlly
Althoughelectroniccontrolusinga programmable
speciliedit is stillnecessarylo knowthe basicfunctionof lhE pneumaticcomponents.
This bookdealswiththe t9chnologyof the componentsin controlsystems,describingtypesand design
and introducesthe
teaturesof air treatmontequipment,actuatorsand vafues,methodsof inlerconneclion
pneumatic
basic
circuits.
W H A T C A N P N E U M A T I C SD O ?
The applications
tor compressedair are limitless,lrom the optician'sgentleuseof low pressureair to test
fluidpressurein the humaneyeball,the multiplicityol linearand rotarymotionson roboticprocessmachines,
Ij to the hightorcesrequiredtor pneumaticpressesand concretebreakingpneumaticdrills.
'
The shortlist belowseNesonlyto indicateth vrsatilityand varietyof pneumaticcontrolat work,in a
expandingindustry.
continuously
. Operationof systemvalvesfor air,wateror chemicals
. Operationof heavy or hot doors
. Unloadingof hopprsin building,steelmaking,miningand chemicalindustries
. Rammingand tampingin concreteand asphaltlaying
. Littingand movingin slab moldingmachines
. Cropsprayingand operationot othertractorequipment
. Spraypainting
. Holdingand movingin woodworkingandfumituremaking
. Holdingin jigs and fixturesin assemblymachineryand machinetools
. Holdingtor gluing,heatsEalingor weldingplastics
. Holdingtor brazingor wolding
. Formingoperationsof bending,drawingand flattening
. Spotweldingmachines
. Riveting
. Oprationof guillotineblades
. Bottlingand fillingmachines
. Woodworkingmachinerydrivesand teeds
. Tst rigs
. Machinetool,workor toolfeeding
. Componentand materialconvevortransfer
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
EU ATtc TEcHt{oLocY
. Pnumalicrobots
. Autogauging
. Air separationand vacuumlifiingot thin sheots
. Dentaldrills
. and so muchmore...newapplicationsars developeddaily
PROPERTIES
OF COMPRESSED
AIR
Someimportant
reasons
torthewideuseofcompressed
ahinindustry
arai
Avallablllty
Mostfacto.iesand industrialplantshavea compressodair supplyin workingareas,and portable
compressorscan servemorremolesituations.
Storag6
It is easilystoredin largevolumesif required.
Slmpllclty ot Deslgn and Control
Pneumaticcomponentsare of simpledesignand are easilyfittedto provideextensiveautomated
systemswithcomparatively
simplecontrol.
Cholce of Movement
ll offersboth linearmovementand angularrotationwith simpleand continuouslyvariabloperational
sDeeds.
Economy
Installation
is of relativelylow cost due to modestcomponentcost.Thereis also a low maintenance
cosl due to long life withoutservice.
Rellablllty
Pneumaliccomponentshavsa longworkinglife resultingin highsystemreliability.
Reslstanceto Envlronment
It is largelyunatfctedin the hightemperature,
dustyand corrosiveatmospheresin whichother
systemsmay fail.
Environmentally
Clean
It is cleanandwithproperexhaustairtratTentcanbeinstalled
to cleanroomstandards.
Satety
It is nota fire hazardin highriskareas,andthe systemis unattectedby ovedoadas ackratorssimply
stallor slip.Pneumatic
actuators
do notproduceheat-- oth6rthanfriction.
DO NOT COPYWITHOUT WRITTENPERMISSION
P N E U l , t A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y
SYSTEM
2 T H E B A S I CP N E U M A T I C
Pneumaticcylinders!rotaryactuatorsand air motorsprovidethe forceand movemenlof moslpneumatic
controlsystems,to hold,move,form,and procssmatetial.
are requiredi.e. air serviceunilslo
To operateand controltheseacluators,olher pneumaticcomponents
prparlh compressedair and valvesto controllhe pressur,tlowand directionof movementof lhe
actualors.
A basicpneumaticsystem,shownin tig 2.1, consislsof two mainsections:
. The Air Productionand DistribulionSystem
. The Air ConsumingSystem
Fig. 2.1 Th BasicPnumaticSystem.

Th componentpartsand theirmaintunctionsare:
NY S T E M
H E A I B P R O D U C T I OA
NN D D I S T R I B U T I OS
O corpr"""o,
pressureis compressedand delivredat a higherpressureto the
Air takenin at atmospheric
pneumaticsystem.lt thustransformsmechanicalnergyintopneumaticenergy.
Electrlc Motor
Suppliesthe mechanicalpowerto the comprossor.lt transformselectricalenergyinto mchanical
nrgy.
@ PressureSwltch
pressure
Controls
theelectricmotorbysensing
thepressur
in thetank.lt is setto a maximum
at
pressure
whichit stopsthemotor,anda minimum
atwhichit restarts
it.
@ checkvalve
Letsthe compressedair fromth compressorintoth6 tankand preventsit leakingbackwhenthe
compressoris stopped.
-.t-
P N E U U A T t cT c H N o L o c Y
@ranr
Storsthe comprssdair. lts size is dofindby the capacityof the compressor.The
largerthe volume,th longerth interualsbetweencomprssorruns.Mostsystems
shouldbe designedtor a 50o/o
dutycycle,providingat least2x syslemdemandin storage.
@ Prcssure
cauge
Indicatesthe TEnkPressure.
@ AutoDrain
Drainsall the walercondensingin the tankwithoutsupervision.
@ s"hty v"tr"
Blowscompressedair otf if th pressurein the tank shouldriseabovethe allowed
pressure.
@ Retrlgerated
Alr Dryer
Coolsthe compressedair to a tew degreesabovefreezingpointand condensesmostof the air
humidity.This avoidshavingwaterin the downstrcamsystem.This devicemusl be prcededby an
aftercooler(notshownin the simpledrawing)and not directlyinline withthe compressoror it will be
over-taxd.ldeally,inletair temperatureshouldbe ambientor roomtemperature.
@ unerlner
Beingin the mainpipe,this filtermusl havea minimalpressuredropand the capabilityof oil mist
rmoval.lt helpsto keepthe linetreefrom dust,watr,and oil.
THE AIR CONSUMPTION

SYSTEM
(D lttt"t*ott
Forconsumption,
airis takenofftromthetopof themainpipeto allowoccasional
cudensateto slayin
thmainpipe.Whnit reachsa lowpointa watertake-oftfrombeneaththepipewillllowintoan
Automatic
Drainandthecondensate
willbe removed.
Normally
therewouldbea unionin thepipeanda
shut-offvalvto allowmaintenance
to the.dorvnstream
componanlsr
@ luto o."tn
Everydescendingtube shouldhavea drainat its lowestpoint. The mostetlicientmethod
is an Auto Drain,whichpreventswaterfrom remainingin the lube shouldmanualdraining
be neglected.Directlyabovthe Auto Drainis an expansionchamb6r,allowinglhe air to
cool (throughxpansion)and removemorentrainedliquid.
alr ServlceUnlt
Conditionsthe compressedair to providecleanair at optimumpressure,and occasionally
adds
lubricantto xtendthe life of thosepneumaticsystemcomponentsthat nedlubrication.
@ Dlrectlonalvalve
Altematelypressurizesand exhauststhe cylinderconnectionsto controlthe directionof movemem.
Shownas an indiMdualdevice,thermay b6 a numberof directionalvalvesgroupedon a manifold.
-4-
PitEUrrartcTEcHNoLocY
Adu"to,
Transformsthe potentialnergyof the compressedair intomechanicalwork.Shownis a linearcylinder,
it can alsobe a rolaryactualoror an air tooletc.
@ SpeedGontrollers
Allowan easyand steplessspeedadiustmentot the actuatormovement.
We will discussthesecomponenisin moredeiailin sections4 to 7, aftera lookat the theoryof

compressed
air.This is a musttor understanding
whathappensin a pneumaticsystem.
-5-
EU ATIc TEcH OLOGV
3 C O M P R E S S EADI R T H E O R Y
JNITS
The Intemational
Syslemof Unilshasbeenin acceptanceworldwidesince1960,but the USA,UK, and
Japanstillusethe lmperialSystemlo a greatextent.
ll is exirmelyimportanlthat,in thisvershrinkingworld,all measuremnt
systemsbecomecleady
underslood.The delinitivestudyot pneumaticson an inlernational
scalerequiresfamiliarityand competence
witheitherset of units;thereforethis documentwill employbothEnglishand Sl units.
Quantity
Mass
kngth
Time
Temperature,absolute
(Celsius)
TemDeraturc
Radius
Angle
Area, Section
Volume
Speed(velocity)
Angular Speed
Accleration
Inertia
Force
Weight
Symbol
second
Kelvin
'c
DegreeCelsius
2, CoMPoSEDUNrrs:
m
meter
Radian(n/m)
a,F,1-6,e.p I
A,S
m2
squaremeter
v
mt
cubic meter
v
m s''
meterper second
s'
radiansper second
a)
m s-2
nreterper sec.per sec.
J
m2 kg
kilogram per squaremtr
F
N
Newton
G
N
Earth acceleration
Ns
Work
Potentialenergy
Kinetic energy
Torque
Power
Pressurc
Standardvolume
Remarks
T
L E
Impulse
Volume flow
Energy,Work
Power
Ngme
SI Unlt
1 . B A s I cU N I T s :
kg
kilogram
m
meter
w
E,W
E,W
M
P
J
J
t'
J
NewtonSecond
Joule= Newton meter
Joule
Joule
Joule
Watt
3. RELATTDTo CoMPnDSSED
ArR
p
Pa
Pascal
vn
In3n
Standad Cubic Meter
tn-n s'
0"C= 273.16
K
= kg ' rn's'2
9.80665m's-2
= kg . m2's-2
0.5-m-i
= J's-l
=N m''
at0 =0'Candp
=760 nm Hg
Std. cubic meters/ sc
E,W
Joule
N'm
P
w
Watt
Table3.1 Sl Unitsusedin oneumatics
Pa.m3= N.m
p'O=N'm.s-r=W
-6-
EU
ATIc TEcHI{oIoGY
To namunitsby powersof ln,smallerandlargerthantheabovebasicunits,a numbero( prctixeshave

bnagreeduponandarelistedbelow.
Powet
10-1
1O-2
iO-3
10-6
Preflx
Svmbol
d
c
m
deci
centi
milli
micro
Pourer
Preflx
Svmbol
101
fi2
103
tO6
Deka
Heclo
Kilo
Mega
da
h
k
M
],
Table3.2Prefixes
torpowersof ten
This ladsus to a kPa (kilo-pascalor 1/100b ol a BAR)and an MPa (1,OOO,OO0
pascalsor 10 BAF).
Practicewiththeseprefixesand pay attentionto whatth symbolrepresentsin termsof powersof ten. Pay
specialattentionto the difterencebetweenM and m,
Convertinglrom on standad of unitsto anotheris welldocumnted.
Convertingis easiestwh6ndealing
withan answer--- 6.9.whendea,ingwith a mathematical
formula,use one standardonly (tor all terms)and
thenconvertthe answer, Be awarethat formulaemay changewhenexpressedin difierentunitsor standards.
The tablesfollowingshowa comparisonbetweenthe MetricSl unitsand the lmperialunits.
Magnitude
Mass
Metric Unit (m)

kg
s
L:ngth
m
m
mm
TemDeraturc
Area. Section
n'
Volume
n'
m'
VolumeFlow
n'/min
dm3Jmin ffmin)
N
bar
dm3
Force
pound
ounce
foot
yard
inch
Facaorm +e
2,?05
0.o3s27
3.281
l.094
0.03937
sq. ft.
so.inch
cu. yard
cu. inch
cu. fl-
cm2
Pressure
Enelish(e)
scfm
scfm
ooundforce (lbf,)
lbf./sq.inch(psi)
Fsctor e +m
0.4535
?,8.3527
0.3048
0.914
25.4
l.8oC+32
('F-32)/1.8
10.76
0.155
1.308
0.06102
0.03531
35.31
0.0353r
0.0929
6.45t6
0.76/.5
16.388
2832
0.02832
28.32
0.2u8
4.448/.
14.5
0.06895
Table 3.3aConversionof Units
DO NOT COPYWIHOUT WRITTENPERMISSION
PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLocY
Engli$ to fil.lrlc
(itulriply By-To
llrlric lo Englilh
(Mulridy
Lqrgnl
Fn
hln
cm
m
Arr
md
crrf
mt
Volumr
mmt
cm'(cc)
L
L
By-To
mNs
in
in
0.0391
0.0394
0,3937
32E,|0
obrain
-)
lorNr
N.n
kg.m
0.73?5
1ag
It. b
li. h
Prrt|0fa
mm(H,O)
mn(Hg)
bn
kPs
bar
kg/cm?
aln
0,00142
0.0197
0.0t97
0,145
la.5o
la.4a
'|4,7
Pll
Psl
Pri
Prt
Pg
Pii
psi
0.616
0,1550
10.765
h'
h'
ir
6.10x 105
0.0610
35.320
0.0353
o.fi12
inr
in'
ff
lf
gal (U.s.)
Enrgy
N.m
J
MJ
oz
b
Pouar
w
kw
W.ighr
g
k9
O.005il
2.2046
Fo.c.
gl
kgf
N
2.iDs r 'loi lbf

lbf
2.2016
lbl
0.2248
Ke!
Fm = micron(miclongb4
mm- millitnoto,
am r conlimeter
mils-0,001 ilch
h-hch
n - foot
cr - culic cgntmater
L = titsr
gal (U.S,). U.S.gallon
9 r gram
kg - kilogl8m
oz. ouhoo
h-pdd
0.7375
0.7375
0.n7E
0.7375
l.3al
L.n!tl
mls
in
in
Ir
Obtain-)
Toqoc
n. b
It. lb
r.659
0.13811
N.m
kg' m
r 10'
2.s357
0.0s5t8
6 897
0.06697
0.07G1
kg/cm,
xgl',rr,
kPa
bar
kgy'cm'l
2.51
25.,4
2.!A
0.046
pm
mm
cm
tn
Aru
in
id
tf
645.16
6.,1516
0.0929
mrf
qe
l|t,
Praatur!
in{Hp)
h(HS)
psi
psi
psi
t6387
16.387
0.0283
26.329
3.785
mm3
cm! (cc)
mt
En.tty
ft.h
fi.lb
kwr
t.366
1.356
3,6
N.m
J
MJ
rwh
Volum0
inr
in'
lf
It3
gal(U,S.)
t.356
0.7157
W
kW
ll.lUg
np
W!lehl
ot
b
Powra
f.br's
hp
28,3i8
0.4536
Forca
bt
bt
bl
453.6
0,4536
ia.4lEa
fi.lb ll.lb
T!npar.hr!
'F-(1.8r"C)+32
Flo{ r.b
Numint0.035.SCFli
gf= gram- forcr
kgl-tilogratn.brcs
lbfepound-krcr
N.m-nanlon-Ddtr
k9.m.lilog.t|t|.m.br
lt.lb.loqt.pound
mm (HrO). rnllorb( *abr
collmn
h (Hp) . inche! rabr coltm
nm (Hg) - nilllnote. mcrcuy
colurm
in (Hg). ind|ge tne|trty
colu|m
k9
Tlmparaluat
qC- 5A"F'32)
sl
kE
Flov..b
SCFMx 2E.57- Nltnin
p|squarshdl
pri I pounds
kPa. klopascls
atn . qtrnospher.3
J - iruL
MJ. firegajoulo
W-wa[ lW. kibwn
t!'\lh. bloratt-hour
hp. horsaporver
' dogff8 C|rtglade
'F - d.gre Fahmh.il
! - lgcon(b
Nunin - Nofiul lit l! F9r
ninub
SCFi = Sd. cllitic feet per

rnirute
B.aic FgnnlLr
Orda ciEumle.anoa. |!O - 2fi
Ord. a'r8. d.
Fotce=Prg9qjrxAfea
C.ylir{trVolurre(md eide)(pislonaraa . t9d cross-rc1ion
a|oa) r d()Ie
Cflinder Volume(headend) tigton a.ga x *.!ko
Tor$re - h.co t prpodd/hr
dlr.rc ftgrn $haft
Table3.3b Conversionof Units
-8-
P N E u r i t a r t cT E c H N o L o c Y
P R E S S UR E
ll shouldb notedthatthe Sl unitof pressureis th pascal (Pa)
I Pa= I N/m2(Newtonpersquaremerer)
This unil is extremelysmalland so, to avoidhugenumbersin practice,an agreementhas been madeto
use lhe bar as a unitot 100,000Pa.
100,000Pa = 100 kPa = 1 lxr
It correspondswithsutticientaccuracyfor practicalpurposeswiththe old metricunit kgf/cm".Moreprecise
equivalentsare I STDatm =14.696psi =1.01925bar =i.03329 kgrt/cm'?.
ln Englishunitspressureis expressedin psl (almostnevrretenedlo as p.s.i.as one wouldexpect),or
poundspr squarelnch,also relatinga torceto an area.
Physlca
iloteorology
Pneumatlca
500 kPa
i p
t
45r
I
:
!
irn,
200 kPa
Atmospheric
Pressu16
II
l'' I
100kPa
1050mbar
30 in Hg
Standard
14.696psi
Vacuum
Flg. 3.4 the varioussystemsof prcssureindication

A pressurein the contextof pneumaticsis assumedas bver-pressurei.e. aboveatmosphericpressure
'and is commonlyreferredto as gaugo (also geg) pressure(GA or pslg).
A pre*surecan also be exprssedas absolut pressure (ABS or psla) i.e, a pre*surerelativeto a tull
vacuum. In vacuumtechnologya pressurebelowatmosphrici.e. under prcssu]a is usd.
The variouswaysof indicatingpressurear illustratedin fig 3,4, usinga standardatmosphricpressureof
1013m/baras a reterence.Notethat this is not 1 bar, althoughfor normalpneumaticcalculationsthe
dilferencecan be ignored.
DO NOT COPYWTHOUT WRITTEN PERMISSION
-9-
PNEU
ATIC TECHNOLOGY
F n o p e n n e so F G A s E s
t S o T H E R M I CC H A N G E( B O Y L E ' SL A W )
to its voltlme",
the pressureof a givenmassof gas is inverselyproportional
"...withconstanttemperature,
or: P' Y= constant
v=1i p=1
p1xVl
p2xV2
p3xV3
Fig. 3.5 illustration

of Boyle'sLaw
lf volumeV.= 1 m3ata standard absolutepressureot 101325Pa is compressedat constanltemperature
to a volumeV = 0.5 m"then:
p , . v . ,=
P",V"P"=#
i.e. p"=
to1325m.i.n3
202650Pa
o3n3
TheratioV1^r'2is the"Compression
Ratio"cr
witha gaugepressure
of 4 bar,
' { =
\2
aill=l3 =
a.gs
1013
Thetablebelowshowsthe pressureratiofor pressuresfrom 1 to

10 barabs.
p
cr
0.987
1.987
3
2.974
3.961 4.918
5.935
7
6.922
7.908
8.895
10
9.882
Notethe differencebetweenrducinga volumeot atmospheric

air to halt,1:2.026and the pressureratioat
a gaugepressureof 1 bar (2 sps),1:1.987!Butthis is theory;- no adiustmentis madetor practicewhenw
simplyuse gaugepressurin bar +11
lf volumeV, = 1 ff at a standardabsolutepressureof 14.7psi.is compressed
at constanttempraturelo a
volumeV, = 0.5ft" then:
o1.lA
P,.V, = P"'V" P"=-t

.
i.e. p, =
LA7pd(L fr
= 29.4 Psla
-
DO NOT COPYWNHOUT WRITTENPERMISSION
-10-
PNEU ATIc TEcHtIoLoGY

Calculalingthe compressionratioin lmprialor Englishunitsis donein the sameway, p, convertedto
absolulepressure(add 14.7psi) dividedby 14.7psi (oneatmosphere).
P(pslq)
cf
10
1.68
30
20
2.36
40
3.72
3.04
50
4.4
70
5.76
60
5.08
80
6.44
90
7.12
100
7.80
On lh olher handit wouldbe wrongto use Boyle'sLaw in pneumatics.In the caseof toolsas well as
cylindersthe changeis neverlsothermicbut alwaysAdiabaticchange.(Seefunherbelowand pg. 58 - 61
I S O B A R I CC H A N G E
Charles Law
'...at constantprossure, givn
a
massol gas increasesin volume
Celsiusrisein temperature-- --l-
459f,
bv# of its volumelor everydegree
191gysrvoprisein temoerature.
Law ot Gay Luaaac
v1
Y/7= constant,so
T1
and w=+
w=E
Exampfe
1: W = 100m3,I1 =9.9, 72=2O.C,W=?
We haveto use the absolutetemperaturesin K, thus
100
;;;=
ztr
v2
:;;,
.tJ
W=
1 n n . ? q -?
'-:::::
273
= 107.326m'
_>-T
Exampfe2: !4 = 100ff, f 1 = 40"F,T2= AO"F,VZ= ?

Wehaveto usethabsolute
tompratures
in H (Rankine),
thus
1oo- v2
4997
539?
vz= 19!Ij!2Z=1ssrt"
4997
I S O C H O F I CC H A N G E
'at constantvolume,the pressureis proportional
to the temperatur"
('lsochoric"comestromth Greekwordsropo Osad"chora'),for
space,fieldetc. , and roo- , "iso' = equal)
P1.P2
so TT:T,Z
ano
T2
P=nT1
Wheref is the absolutetempraturein K (Kelvin)or R (Rankine).
->T
The previousrelationships
are combindto providethe generalgas equation:
p't v1
pzw
-11-
EUHATIC TECHNOLOGY
This law providssone of the mainthofeticalbasistor calculalionto designor selctpneumaticequipment

\
twhen temperature
changeshaveto be considered.
( I S E N T R O P l C )C H A N G E
ADTABATTC
The previousLawsassumea slowchange,so onlythe two considered
magniludesare changing.h praciice,for example-- whenair flowsintoa
cylinder,this is nol the caseand 'adiabaticchang'occurs.ThenBoyle's
Law ' p.Vis constant" changesto p. lA= constant.
It wouldtake too muchtimeto go intograterdtail,the diagram
illustratesthe ditferenceclearlyenough:w see that thereis a lossof
volumewhenpressurebuildsup quickly.We will meetthis law againwhen
of cylinders.
discussingthe air consumption
S T A N D A R DV O L U M E
it is necessaryto reterall
betweenvolume,pressureand temperature,
Dueto thesemutualrlationships
(m"r),
the
Delined
as the air quantityof
volume, standard cubic meter
daia on air volumeto a standardized
pressure
(101325
Pa)-- or the
and
an
absolute
ol
760
mm
Hg
1.293kg massal a temperatureof ooC
pressure
(absolute
14.7psi) havinga
(scf)
is
cubic
foot
of
air
at
sea
lvel
of
standardcubic foot
which on
temperatureof 680Fand a relativehumidityof 360/o.
FLOW
The basicunitfor volumetlow "O' is the NormalCubicMeterper second(m"%).In pneumaticpractice
volumsare expressedin termsof litrsper minute(l / min)or normalcubicdecimetersper minute(dm?min).
l The usualnon-metricunittor volumetlowis the "standardcubicfoot p6r minute",(sclm).
)
Bernoulll's Equatlon
Bernoullistates:
'lf a liquidof specific
througha tubwithvaryingdiameters,the totalenergyat
aravityflowshorizontalty
point1 and 2 is the same'
or,pt + | p. v't2= Fe+ L

2 P'v2z
The relationship
betweenpressure,the velocity
ol the air, andthe densityot the air (p) appliesto
gases if the flow speeddoes not xced3a)0m/s
approx.(1083tusec).Velocity(tysec)can be
calculated:
-->
-----+
v1
Flg. 3.6 illustralionof Bemoulli'sLaw
v= 0.054Q/D'?(O is cfm, D is i.d. in inches)

Applications
of this equationare the venturitube
and tlowcompensalion
in pressureregulators.
AIR HUMIDITY
Atmospheric
air alwayscontainsa percentageof watervapor.The amountof moisturepresentwill depend
on the atmospheric
humidityand temprature.
Whenatmospheric
air coolsit will reacha certainpointat whichit is saturaledwith moisture,this is known
polnt.
the
dew
lf
the
air coolsfurtherit can no longerreiainall lhe moistureand th su|plusis expelledas
\as
Tminiaturedropletsto torma condensate.
DO NOT COPYWIIHOUT WRITIEN PERMISSION
-12-
P N E U I I A T IT
cEcHNoToGv
The actualquantityol waterlhat can be rtaineddependsentirelyon temperalufe;1mt of comprssdair
is only capableof holdingthe samequantityof watervaporas 1m3of almosphericair.
The tablebelowshowsthe numberof gramsof waterper cubicmeter(andcubicteet)tor a wide
lemperalurerangetrom-40'C to +40"Cand from--400Fto 200 oF.The boldline refersto atmosphericair with
fhe volumeat the lemperaturein question.The thin line givesthe amountof waterpet StandardCubic .
dimension.All air consumptionis normallyexprssedin standardvolume;this makescalculationunnecessary.
Forthe lemperaturerangeof pneumalicapplications
the tablebelowgivesth exactvalues.The upprhalt
refersto temperatures
abovelrezing,the lowerto belowfreezing.The upperrowsshowthe contentof a
slandardcubicmeter,the loweronesthe volumeat th giventemperature.
Temperature oC
g/m'n *(Standard)
5
6.99
9.86
g/m (Atrnospheric) 4.98

Temperrture oC
0
4.98
g/m'n (Standard)
6.E6
9.5t
-10
2.28
-5
3.36
g/m (Atmospheric)
4.98
TempersturoF
giftr *(Srandard)
gifC (Ahospheric)
32
.137
Temprature"F
32
.t37
ItA
.083
.r37
.177
.085
s/fC (Shndard)
g/ft' (Atmospheric)
40
.188
.185
30
l5
20
25
30
35
t3.76 18.99 25.94 35.12 4 7 . 1 9
l0
4.98
60
.4
- 3t J
20
40
OJ.UJ
13.04 17.69 23.76 3t.64 4 1 . 8 3 5 4 . 1 1
-t5
1.52
-20
1.00
l.6l
1.08
60
.78
.71
l0
.053
.056
100
1.48
t.z9
0
.033
.036
-25
0.u
-30
0.4
-35
0.25
0.15
0.7
0.45
o.29
0.18
120
2.65
2.2?
-10
.020
.023
140
4.53
3.67
-20
.ot2
.014
40
lm
160
7.44
5.82
-30
.007
.009
I l.8l
8.94
40
.004
.005
Tabla 3.7 WaterSaturationof Air (DewPoint)

The termg/tf standardrfersto a volumeat gzoF.At BooFit.svolumeis extendedto l+ (80-32) or l.i tf
459?
Consequently
to haveone standardcubicloot at 80oF,1.1tf of atmosphericair at 800Fare requiredwith all its
watercontent;so that makes1.1 x 0.71= 78 gramsol water.
Relative humtdlty
With the exceptionof extremeweatherconditions,such as a suddentemperaturedrop, atrnosphericair is
neversaturated.The ratioof the actualwatercontenlandthat of the dew pointis calledrelativehumidity,and
is indicatedas a percentage.
Relatlvehumldlty (r.h.) =
actual water content
saturatlonqu.ntlty (dewpoint)
1ovh
Erample 1: Temperature25oG,r.h.65"/0.Howmuchwateris crntainedin 1 m3?

Dewpoint2soo= 24glm".0.65= 15.6g/mt
Whenair is compressed,its capacityfor holdingmoisturein vaporform is onlythat of its reduced
volume. Hence,unlessthe temperaturerisessubstantially,
waterwill condenseout.
Erample 2: 1o m3 ol almosphericair at 15oc and 65yor.h. is compresssdto 6 bar gaugepressure.The
temperatureis allowedto riseto 25oC. How muchwaterwill condenseout?
FromTable3.7:At 1soo,10 m3of air canholda maximumof 13.04g/m..10m"= 130.4g
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITIEN PERMISSION
-13-
P NE U A T I c T E c H t t o L o G Y
At 650/o
r.h.the air will conlain130.4g '0.65= 84.9g {a)
The reducedvolumeol compressedair at 6 bar pressurcan be calculated:
pl'v1 = pzvz =
p;
v1 = v2 = +H#
'10m3= 1.44
mc
of 23'76g '1'44 = 34.2g (b)

FromTable3.7 1.44m3ofair at 25oCcanholda maximum
equalsthe totalamountof waterin the air (a) minusthe volumethat ihe compressedair
Condensation
(b),
can absorb hEnce84.9- U.2 = 50'6 I of waterwill condenseoul'
to avoidharmfuletfectein lhe
Thiscondensatemuslbe rmovedbeforethe compressedair is distributed,
lineand the pneumaticcomponents.
Example3: Temperalure800F,r.h.65%. Howmuchwateris conlainedin I ff?
Dewpoint80"F= 0.71g/ ff. 0.65- o.aog/ff
Observethat the metric chart dimenslonswould exhlbll ldentical relationshipswhen convertedto
lmperialunlts.
g HzO/m 3
500
't5
t0
5
0.1
0
from-0 to aboul+80"C
Flg. 3.8 Dewpointsfor tempratures
the thin curveat
Th boldcurveshowslhe saturationpointsot a cubicmeterat the relatedtemperature,
standardvolume.
DO NOT COPYWITHOU'f WRITTENPERMISSION
-14-
P N E U I , | A T ITc E c H N o L o G Y
P R E S S U R EA N D F L O W
The mostimportantrelatlonshlptor pnGumatics
is that btwenpressurand flow.
THEYARENOTTHESAME.DO NOTTHINKTHEYARE INTERCHANGEABLE
TEFMS..,e.g.a 'Iow
conlrolis nol a regulalor(repeatas rquiroduntilretained),lt is the relationshiobetweentlow and pressure
that we will nowconsider.
ll thereis no tlow,the pressurein an entiresystemis the sameat everypoint,but whenthereis flowfrom
one Pointto another,th pressurein the latterwill alwaysbe lowrthatat the first.This differenceis calld
pressuredrop.ll dspendson threevalues:
. initialpressure
. volumeof f low
. llow resistanceof the connection
The flow resistancefor air has no unit;in electricityits equivalentis Ohm (Q). In pneumatics,th6 opposile
of resislanceis used,the equivalenlflow section(S, kv or C" factor)-- a conductancevalue.The equivalent
tlowsectionS is expressedin mm' and representsthe areaof an oriticein a thin plate(diaphragm)which
crsatesthe samerelationshipb6tw6enpressuresand flow as th6 lementdetinedby it. Valveshave
complicatedoriticshapes,thereforelhe flow ratethroughlhe deviceis measuredfirst,and thenthe device
may be assignedthe corresponding
equivalentflowsection.An easyapproximation
wouldbe that:
C, ol 1= 18Smm',e.g.equivalent
orificeof 18 mm' equalstheflowof aC, i.
This relationshipis by dotinitionthe sameas in electricity,wherefuoltagedropequalscurrenttimes
resistance".
This can be transformedfor pneumaticsto "pressuredropequalsflowdividedby FlowSection",
only,whilethe electricunitsare dkectlyproportional,
lhe relationshiplor air is very complexand neversimply
proportional.
In electricity,a cunntot 1 A (oneAmpere)creates,overa rosistorof I Ohm,a voltagedropof 1
Volt.Regardlessif this dropis trom 100to 99 or from4 to 3 volts,the pressuredropoverthe sameobiectand
withthe samestandardvolumeflow varieswiththe initialpressureand alsowiththe temperature.Reason:the
compressibility
of the air.
For definingone ot the four interrelated
data,mentionedpreviously,fromthe oth6rthra6,we requirea
diagram.
10
Sonic Flow
(jn (s..4r/ ,nin)
O (dmgn/min)
Flg, 3.9 Diagramshowingth relationship

betwnpressureand flowfor an oriticewith an equivalntFlow
Sectionof 1 mm"
PNEU
ATIC TECHNOLOGY
The trianglein the lowerrightcornermarksthe rangof "sonicflowspeed".Whenthe airrlowreachesa

speedcloseto lhe spedof sound'flowcan no longerincrease-- whatverthe ditferenceof pressure
betweeninputand outputmightbe. As you can se,all the curvesdropverticallyinsidethis triangle.This
meansthat the flowno longerdependson the pressuredrop,but onlyon the inputpressure.
lJse of the diagram:
The pressurescaleat the lettside indicatesbothinputand outputpressure.At the firstverticallineon the
lett,whichrepresentsa zgroflow,inputand outpulpressuresarethe same.The variouscurves,lor inpul
pressureslrom 1 to 10 bar,indicatehowthe outpulpressuredecreaseswithincreasingflow'
Example1:lnputpressure6 bar,pressuredrop 1 bar = outputpressure5 bar.We followthe curve"6'to the
pointwhereit cutsthe horizontallinemarked'$. Fromtherewe go verticallydownto the Flowscale
(dottedline)and tindabout55 ymin.The 9.44 l/minwrittenbelowthat lineis the exactvalue,calculated
'StandardVolume
withthe formulafurtherbelow.Theseinputand outputpressuresdefinethe so-call6d
FlowOn",a figuretoundin valvecataloguesfor a quickcomparisonot the flowcapacityot valves.
The VolumeFlowof 9.44 l/minappliesto an element(Valve,fining,tubetc.)withan equivalentorifice"S"
of 1 mm'. lf an lementhasfor examplean "S' ot 4,5 mm',the flowwouldbe 4.5 timeshigher,in this case4.5
. 54.44limin= 245 Umln
Example2: Givenan elementwilh an 'S'ol 12 mm",a workingpressureof 7 barand an air consumptionot
willresult?
600ymin.Whatoutputpressure
witha llowof ff = 50 l/minthroughan

A flowof 600l/minthroughan"y ot 12mm"corresponds
quivalent
Weneedthisconversion
fortheuseof thediagramof lig.3.9.Wenow
sectionof 1 mm'?.
line
withth6verticallinetor 50l/min.A horizontal
followthecurvestarting
ai 7 baruntilit intersects
about6.3bar.
towards
theDressure
scaleindicates
Formu tae:
Whenit is requiredto havea morexactvaluethanthat whichcan be estimatedfromthe diagram,the flow
can be calculatedwith one of the two followingformulae.
A glanceat the diagramof fig. 3.9 makesit clear,thattheremustbe ditferntlormulaelor the sonicflow
rangeand the "subsonic"flowcondition.The transientfromsubsonicto sonicflow is reached,whnthe
pressurcratioof the absoluteinputand outsutpressuresis lssor equalto 1.896:
pl + 1,013<1.896. (pA+1.013)
Sonic tlow:
pl + 1.013> 1.896. (pa +1.013)
Subsonlcflow:
The Volumeflow Olor subsonicfloweouals:
' (pl -pa) (vmin)

Q = x2.2 .5.{(pa + 1.013)
andfor sonicflow:
O= 11,1.S.(p1 + 1.013)(Umin)
'
Soundis, after all, vibrating air molerules.Thus the "speedof sound" (sonic condition, Mach #) is the trminal velocity
I for air movemenl For comprcssedair to !!99 therc mustbe a prcssuredrop -- andmaximumflow occursat a certain %
pressuredrop. Therc can be a greaterpressuredrop (up to 100%)but maximumflow (for whatevrsizeorifice) occursat
46% of pr
DO NOT COPYWTII{OUT WRTTTENPERMISSION
-16-
EUTATtcTEcHNoLocY
whersS inmm'and
p inbar;22.aisa constant
andper
withtheouarion
, whichis litersper60 seconds
ffi
torce(delinedbytherulingpressure).
Notethata pneumalic
systsmcannev6roperatsatislactorily
as a supply
undersonicflowconditions,
pressure
of,forexample,
6 barwouldgiveuslessthan2.7barforwork.
Erample3:Wcatculate
thflow,assumed
in example
2, withaninputpressure
of 7 bar,a totalequivalnt
flowsectionof 12mm2forvalvsandtubesandthecalculated
pressure
working
ot 6.3bar:
't2
Q = 22.2. . !7.313'0.7 = 602.74Umln.
Thisshowsthattheaccuracy
pneumatic
of thediagramis sufficient
forpractical
us.
tn Imperlal unlts
The formulafor subsonicflow: e = 224lc."
And lor sonicflorir: Q=0.486C, (p2+14.7)
t,.
P
ro!
=
at)
n
e
'
=
r9
.|l
Downstreamprasauro(wrtical [nes) in psig
Flg. 3.10Air tlowcurvesfor a deMcehavinga C, of 1.0 (derivdfrom the abovetwo tormulae)

Flowat a certainpressuredropcan be derivdfrom Fig.3.10.
Selectlh pl (upstreampressur)lrom the diagonallineand tollowstraightacrossto the verticalaxis-- this
is the maximumflowat that pressure.Nowselcta pressuredroptromitherthe bottomnumbers
pressure)or fromthe numberson th outerarc of the gfaph(Ap in psi). Next,lollovvthe curveol
(downstram
the selec{edpl untilit intersectsyourp2 or Ap slectionand thenfollowstraightacrossfromthat pointto the
verticalaxisto find tlowin sctm.
DO NOT COPYWTIIIOUT WRITTENPERMISSION
-17 -
P N E U T , | A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y
The resultsare linear,.g. il the devicein applicationhasa C, ot 2.0 multiplyyour resultlrom tig' 3' 10 by 2, C,
of 0.5 multiplyby one half,etc.
Observthatcriticalllow occursat a cgrlainpressuredrop- to discoverthis for yourselffind 100psig on the
46
diagonalcriticalflowline.Dropstraightdownto the p2 horizontalaxisand notethat p2 is approximately
46%producesmaximumflow.Therecan be a
psia.This confirmsthat a pressuredropot (approximatelyl
greaterdropin pressurebut tlow wlll not Increase.
(withso many
Obsorvethat useof Fig.3.10 requitesa knownpressuredrop.In realworldapplications
estimateof whata
a
safe
variables)this knowledgeis difficultto comeby, so lhe cautiousindividualwill relyon
pressur
The NFPA
is
very
difficult.
drop
desirdpressuredrop;ught to be. Predictinga system'sactual
pressure
dropof 15%.
(NationalFluidPowerAssociation,
a maximum
a U.S.standardsgroup)recommends
Example1:Howmanysctmwill flowthrougha valvewitha C, of 1.0 givena supplypressureot 80 psig and a
20 psi pressuredrop?
Fromthe chartFig.3.10find 80 psigon the criticalflowline.Next,lind 60 psig (80 psigminusa 20 psi
pre*suredrop)on the horizontral
axis at the bottom.Movingverticallyfromthe 60 psigtind the
intersection
of the 80 psigcurve(fromthe criticalllow line)and movestraightacrossto the verticalaxis
38 scfmwill be tound,
wherethe answerot approximately
Example2: A flowof 40 sctmis requiredfor an applicationand supplyis 60 psig.WhatsizeC" mustall
comDonents
exceed?
Fromthe chartFig.3.10findlh scfmot a C" ot l.0. It the applicationflowsto atmosphere(e.9.a
"blow-off)the criticalflowsc{mwill be used;if the applicationinvolvosotherdevices(e.9,cylindersor
actuators)usethe ruleof thumb157opressuredrop.Observethatat 60 psigsupplya q of 1.0orifice
24
will flowapproximately
36 scfm.Witha 15"/.pressuredrop (p2is 51 psig)the llow is approximately
sctm-- andthusa C" of morelhan 1.66will provide40 scfm(1.66x 24 = 40).
on C" pleasereterto pages84 and tollowingdealingwilh sizingof componentsand
For moreinformation
sy$ems.
DO NOT COPYWTIFIOUTWR]TTENPERMISSION
-18-
P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c Y
COMPRESSORS
engrgyof an eleclricor combustionmotorinlo the potnlialenergy
A comprssorconvrtsthe mechanical
of comoressedair.
and Rotary.
Air compressors
lall intotwo maincategories:Reciprocating
withinthesecatgoriesare shownin fig 4.1.
The principaltypesot compressors
Compressors
Displacement
usedfor PneumalicSystems
Fig. 4.1The MainCompressor'types
RECIPROCATINC
GO M P R E S S O R S
SIngle stage Plston Compressor
pressureis
Air taknin at atmospheric
r
t compressedto the requiredpressurein a single
stroke.
Downwardmovmentof th pistonincreases
volumeto createa loweroressurethanthat of
the atmosphere,
causingair to ent6rthe cylinder
throughthe inletvalve.
At the end of the stroke,the pistonmoves
upwards,th inletvalveclosesas the alr is
compressed,
forcingthe oulletvalveto open
dischargingair intoa r6c6iv6rtank.
Thistypeot comprssoris genrallyusdin
systemsrequiringair in the 3-7 bar rang.
Flg. 4.2 SingleStagePistonCompressor

Two stage Platon Compressor
In a single-stage
compressor,
whenair is compressedabove6 bar,the excessiveheatcreatedgreatly
reducesth efficiency.Becauseof this,pistoncompressorsusedin industrialcompressed
air syslemsare
usuallytwo stages,
pressureis compressedin two stagesto the finalpressure.
Air takenin at atmospheric
\
)
- 1 9-
PNEU ATIc TEcH oLoGY
It the finalpressur
is 7 bar,the firststage
normallycompresses
the air to approximately
3 bar,afterwhichit is
cooled,ll is thenfed
inlo the secondslage
cylinderwhichcomDressesit to 7 bar.
The compressedair
entrslhe second
stagcylinderat a
9reatlyreducdtemperaturafterpassing
throughlhe int6rcooler,thus improving
etficiencycomparedto
that ot a singlestage
unit.The final delivery
temperaturemay be in
th regionof 120"C.
Flg. 4,3 Two StagePistonCompressor
Dlaphngm compressor
Diaphragmcompressorsprovidecompressed
air in the 3-5 bar rangetotallytree of oil and are
thereforewidelyusdby tood,pharmaceutical
and similarindustries.
Output
The diaphragmprovidesa changein chamber

volume.This allowsair intakein the downstroke
and compressionin the up stroke.
Smallertypes,witha fractionalHP electric
motorand smallreseryoirmakepossibleportable
compressoci,ideallor spraypainting,
Flg. 4.4 DiaphragmComprssor
DO NOT COPYWTMIOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
-20-
P N E U M A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y
I R O T A R YC O M P R E S S O R S
I
Rotaty stldlng vane comPressor
mounted
This hasan eccentrically
rotorhavinga seriesof vanessliding
in radialslols.
As the rolorrotales,cenldtugal
,orceholdsthe vanesin contaclwith
the statorwall and the space between
th6 adiacentbladesdecreasestrom
the
air inletto outlet,so compressing
air.
Lubricationand sealingis
achievedby inlectingoil intoth air
streamnearthe inlet.The oil also acts
as a coolantto limitthe delivery
tempeture.
Fig.4.5 VanCompressor
9crew compressor
Two meshinghelicalrotorsrotatein opposite
directions.The freespacebetweenthem
decrasesaxiallyin volumeand this
compressesthe air trappedbetweonthe rotors
1 (figa.6.).
a
'
Oil floodingprovideslubricationand sealing
betweenlhe two rotatingscrews.Oil separators
removthis oil fromthe outletair.
(
Drive
Continuoushighflow ratesin xcessof 400

m"/minare obtainabletromlhes machinesat
pressuresup to l0 bar.
thistype
Moreso thanthe VaneCompressor,
of compressoroffersa continuouspulse-free
delivery.
Flg 4.6 Scr6wComprossorPrinciple
The mostcommonindustrialtype of air

machine,
compressoris stillthe reciprocaling
althoughscrewand vanetypsar tinding
increasingfavor.
C O M P R E S S O RR A T I N G
or /min,dm13/sor
capacityor outputis statedas StandardVolumsFlow,givenin m3yy's
A compressor
litors/min. Th capacitymay alsob describedas displacedvolume,or 'TheoreticallntakeVolume",a

theorticaltigure.For a pistoncompressorit is basedon:
Q (Umin)= (pistonareain dm') x (strokelengthin dm) x (# ot tirststagecylinders)x (rpm)
O (cfm)= ((pistonareain in'?)x (strokelengthin inches)x (# ol lirsi stagecylinders)x (rpm))/ 1728
I
onlythe firstsiagecylindershouldbe considered.

In the caseof a two-stagecompressor,
The effectivedeliveryis alwayslessdueto volumetricand thermallosses.
DO NOT COPYWTIHOUT WRITTENPERMISSION
-21 -
P N E U u a r r cT E c H i r o L o c v
The volumeloss is inevitable,as it is not possiblto dischargeall of lhe compressedair tromthe cylinder
at the end ot lhe compressionstroke,thereis somespacelett,the secalled "deadvolume".
Thermallossoccursdue to the lact that duringcompressionthe air assumesa very hightemperature;
thereloreits volumeis increasedand decreaseswhencoolingdownto ambienttemperature(seeCharlesLaw
in section3).
Volumetrlc Et clency
.. treeair delivered
I ne ratlo:
expressedas a prcentageis knownas lhe volumelricetficiency,and will vary
-Eii;;;ft;with lhe size,type and makeot machine,numberof stagesand ths tinal pressure.The volumetricefficiency
ot a two-siagecompressoris lesslhan that of a singlestag6typ as bothth firstand secondstagecylindeis
havg dad volums.
Thermal and Overall Etficlency
Besidethe lossesdescribedabove,thereare also thermalefiects,whichlowerthe tticiencvot the air
compr6ssion.
Theselossesreducethe overalletficiencyfurtherdependingon th compressionralioand load.
A compressorworkingat almosttull capacityaccumulatgsgreatheatandioses efficiency.In a two srage
compressor,the compressionratioper stageis lessand th air, partlycompressedin a firststagecylinder,is
cooledin an inter-coolrbeforecompression
to tinalpissurein a secondstagecylinder.
Example:lf the atmosphericair,takenin by a firsl stagecylinder,is compressedto a thirdof its volume,the
absolulepressural its outletis 3 bar.The heat,developedby this relativelylow compression,
is
correspondingly
low.The compressedair is then led to a secondstagecylinder,throughthe intercooler,and then againreducedto a thirdof its volume.The linal pressureis then 9 bai abs.
The heatdevlopedby compressing
the sameair volumein a singlestagedirecttytromatmospheric
pressurelo 9 bar.!.,wouldbe muchhigherand the ovrallefficiencyseverelyreduced.
The diagramin fig. 4.7
comparesthe typicaloverall
efficienciesof singlsand two
stagecomprssorswith
901"
varioustinalprssures.
I
Totall8O7o
For low final pressures,a
Etlicienw70%
singlestagecompressoris
I 6o%
better,as its purevolumtric
I
efticiencyis higher.With
increasingfinal pressure
FinalPressure
however,thermallosses
becomemoreand more
importantand two stag types,
Flg. 4,7 OverallefficiencyDiagram
havinga higherthermal
etficienry, becompreterable.
The specltic energy con3umptlon is a measureof.theoveralleflicienryand can be usdto stimatethe

genoratingcost of compressedair.As an averagefigure,it can be assumedthat one kW of olectricalenergyis
neededfor the productionof 120-150ymin(= 0.12...0.15mgn/ min/ kW),tor a workingpressureof Z bar or 1
HP ot electricalenergyis neededto produce4-5 cfm at a workingpressureof 100 psi.
Exactfigureshaveto be establishedaccordingto the type and size of compressor.
DO NOT COPYWTIHOUT WRJTTENPERMISSION
-2-
P N E U M A T I CT E C H I { O L O G Y
roM P R E S S OARC C E S S O R I E S
AIR RECEIVER
or vertically
inslalledhorizontally
An air r@iveris a pressurevesselot weldedstelplateconslruction,
to receivihe compressodair,therebydampingthe initialpulsations
lrom the aftercooler
direc y downstream
in lhe air llow.
Its main,unctionsat io storesutticientair to meettemporaryheavydemandsin excessof compressor
'unloading'ot lhe compressor,but il also providesadditional
capacity,and minimizefr6quent'loading'and
coolingto precipitateoil and moisturecirded ovrfromthe aftercooler,beforethe air is distributedfurther' To
this end it is an advantageto placethe air receiverin a cool location.
The vesselshouldbe fittedwitha safeg valve,pressurgauge,drain,and inspectioncoversfor checking
or cleaninginside.
Slzlng a tecelver
Air receiversare sizedaccordingto the compressoroutput,sizeof th syslemand whlherthe demandis
rlativelyconstanlor variabl.
in industrialplants,supplyinga network,are normallyswilchedon and otf
Electrically
drivencompressors
This needsa certain
btweena minimumand a maximumpressuro.Thisaontrolis called"automatic".
minimumreceivervolumeto avoidoverfrequentswitching.
Mobilecompressors
witha combustionnginearc notstoppedwhena maximumpressureis reachd,bul
the suctionvalvesare liftedso thatlhe air can freelyflowin and out of the cylinderwithoulbeingcompressed.
and runningidle is quitesmall.ln this caseonlya small
The pressuredifferencebelweencompressing
is needed.
IJ receiver
'
For induslrialplants,the rulof thumbfor the sizeof the reservoiris:
Air recelvercapaclty > comprssoroutput of compressedair pcl minute, (Not FreeAlr)

Somewouldsuggesta factorof x1.5whensizinga receivertor a largesystem,and as muchas x3 for small
comoressors.
Exampletcompressordelivery600 cfm (freeair)and an outputpressureof 100psi,Whatsize reciveris
rquired?
t P"v=l
p1+ 147
Where V = capacityof rceiver
Q = compressoroutpul(clm)
plsssurc
Pa = atmosphric
P1 = compressoroutsul pressure
=77lf as a minimumnumber,a prudentsuggestionmightbeginwith 120ft".
V = (600'14.7y(10O+14.7)
INLET FILTER
A typicalcityatmosphorecancontain40 millionsolidparticls,i.e.dust,dirt,pollen,etc.per m".ll this air
wouldbe 320 millionpartsy'ms
or 7.8 millionparts/ff, An
werocompressed
to 7 bar,lhe concentration
importantconditiontor th6 roliabilityand durabilityol a compressoris that it mustbe providedwitha suitable
. and efficientfilterto preventexcessivewearof cylinders,pistonrings,tc.whichis causedmainlyby the
I abrasiveeftectof thesimpurities.
DO NOT COPYWTTTIOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
-23-
PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY
The lilter mustnot b too tine as the compressoretticiencydecreasesdue to highresistanceto airflow,.and

so vry smallparticles(2-5y) cannotbe removed.
The air intakeshouldb sitedso that,as lar as possible,cleandry air is drawnin, with intakepipingol
sufticionllylargediameterto avoidexcessivepressuredrops. Whena silenceris used,it may be arranggdto
includethe ah filter,whichwill be locatedupstramot the silencerposition,so that it is subjectdto minimum
pulsalionetfcts.
AIR DEHYDRATION
AFTERCOOLERS
Atterfinalcompression,
the air will b6 hot and whgncooling,will depositwaterin considerablequantitiesin the
airlinsystem,whichshouldbe avoidBd.The mosteftectiveway to removethe maiorpartof this condensate
is to subieclthe air to aftercooling,
immediatelyaftercompression.
Aflercoolersare heatexchangers,beingeitherair-cooledor watercooldunits.
Alr cooled
Consistingof a nestof tubes
throughwhichthe compressedair
flowsand over whicha lorceddratt
of cold air is passedby meansol a
fan assembly.A typicalexampleis
shownin fig.4.8.
The outlttemperatureof the
cooledcompressedair shouldbe
approximately
15"C (60oF)above
the ambientcoolingair
temperature.
Flg. 4.8 Principleof an Air CooledAttercooler
Water cooled
Essentially,
a stelshellhousingtubeswith watercirculatingon on sideand air on the other,usually
arrangedso that the llow is in oppositedirectionsthroughthe cooler.The
is shownin fig. 4.9
Air Input
AirOutsut
CoolingWaterOUT
Fig.4.9Principle
ol a WaterCooledAftercooler
A water-cooled
aftercooler
shouldnsurethattheairdischarged
wouldbeapproximately
1ooo(50oF)
abovethetemperature
of thecoolingwater.
An automatic
drainattached
to or integral
withtheaftercooler
removes
theaccumulated
@ndensation.
-24 -
PNEU ATtc TEcHt{oLoGY
that
gauge,andit is recommended
witha satetyvalve,pressure
shouldbeequipped
Attercoolers
areincluded.
to monitorairandwaterlempraturs
themometers
or sensors
DO NOT COPYWTIHOUT WRMTEN PERMISSION
-25-
PitEU ATlc TEcHNoLocY
AIR DRYERS
Aftercoolers
cool the air to within10-1socof the coolingmedium.The conlroland operatingelementsot
th pneumaticsystemwill normallybe al ambienttemperature(approx.20cC).This may suggestlhat no
lurthercondensatewill be precipilated,
and that the remainingmoisturepassesout withthe exhaustair
releasedto almosphere.However,the tomperatureof the air leavingthe aftercoolermay be higherthanthe
sunoundinglemperalurethroughwhichthe pipelinepasses,for exampleduringnighttime.This situationcools
the compressedair turther,thus condensingmoreof the vaporintowater.
The measureemployedin lhe dryingot air is loweringthe d6w point,whichis the temperatureat whichthe
air is fullysaluratdwith moisture(i.e.100%humidity).The lowerthe dew point,the lessmoistureremainsin
the comoressedair.
Thereare threemaintypesof air dryersavailable,whichoperateon an absorption,adsorplion,or
refrigrationprocess.
Absorptlon (dellquescent) Drylng
The compressedair is forcedthrougha
dryingagentsuchas dehydratedchalkor
magnesiumchloridewhichremainsin solid
form,lithiumchlorideor calciumchloridewhich
reactswiththe moistureto forma solution
whichis drainedfromthe bottomof the vessel.
The dryingagenlmustb replenishedat
regularintervalsas the dew pointincreasesas
a functionof consumptionof the saltduring
operation,but a pressuredew pointof soc at 7
bar is possible(40 oFat 100 psi).
The mainadvantagesof this methodare
that it is of low initialand operatingcost,but
the inlettmperaturemustnot exceed3OoC,
th chemicalsinvolvedare highlycorrosive
necossitaiingcarelully monitoredfiltefing to
ensurethat a fine conosivemist is not canied
ovrto the pneumaticsystem.
Flg. 4.10 Principleof the AbsorptionAir Dryer
DO NOT COPYWNHOI..TTWRITTENPERMISSION
PNEU$ATIC TECHNOLOGY
ldsorptlon (deslccant)Drylng
A chemicalsuchas silica
gel or aclivaledaluminain
granularform is containdin a
verticalchamberto physically
adsorbmoisturetromthe
compressedair passing
throughit. Adsorptionis a
physicalprocessof a liquid
adheringto lhe surtaceol
certainmaterials(a sponge
absorbs,retainingmoisture
intErnally-- adsorbis a
surfaceetfect).Whenthe
dryingagentbecomes
by
saturatedit is regenerated
drying,heating,or, by a flow
of previouslydriedah as in fig.
4.11.
Wet comoressedair is
suppliedthrougha directional
controlvalveand passes
throughdesiccantcolumn1.
The driedair flowslo the
outletport,
Column1
Column2
OutputDryAir
Exhaust
InputWetAir
AirDryer
of theAdsorption
Fig,4.11Principle
Between10-20%of the dry

air passesthroughorifice02 and column2 in reversedirectionto re-adsorbmoisturetromthe desiccantto rgenerateit,
The dry air entersthe saturatedchamberand expands(droppingthe temperaturefurthr,makingthe dry
process),The regenerating
air ffectivelyevenmoredry to facililatethe regenerating
airllowgoesthento
by a timeror a sensorto altematelyallowthe
exhaust.Th directionalcontrolvalveis switchedperiodically
supplyair to one columnand regsnrating
the other,to providecontinuousdry air.
Extremlylow dew pointsare possiblewiththis method,for example- 40oC(whichis, oddlyenough,-40
"F).
A colorindicatormay be incorporated
in the desiccantto monitorthe degreeof saturation.Microlilteringis
essentlal on the dryeroutleito preventcarryoverof adsorbentmist.Initialand operatingcostsare
comparatively
high,but maintenance
costst6ndto be low.
- 2 7-
E U m A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y
nel gerant drylng

Thisis a mechanical
unitincorporating
circuitandtwohatexchangers.
a retrigeration
Humidhightemperature
air is Dre-cooled
in the tirsl
heatexchangerO by
translerringpartol its heatto
the cooledoulpulair.
It is thencooledby the
retrigeratorprincipleof heat
xtractionas a resultol
evaporatingFreongas in th6
refrigerator
circuit,in heat
exchanger@. At this time,
moistureand oil mists
condenseand are
automatically
drained.
The cold dry air retum
pipepasseslhroughair heat
exchanger@ and gainsheat
tromthe incominghigh
temperaturG
air. This
pr6v6ntsdew formingon the
dischargeoutlet,increases
volumeand lowersrelative
humidity.
DryAir OUT HotAir lN

O Heat Exchanger
inputair / outpulair
@ HeatExchanger
inputair / treon
@ Freoncooler
@ Ventilator(tor 3)
@ Freon
@ Thermostatic
@ Airfilter
@ Auto Drain
.i> Heat
Flg. 4.12 Principleof the Refrigerated
Air Dryer
Anoutputtemperature
ol 2oCis possible
by modemmethods,
although
an outputairtemperature
of SoCis
sufficient
tor mostcommonapplications
of compressed
air.lnlettemperaturos
maybe upto 60oCbutit is more
economical
lo precoolto runat lowerinlettemperaturs.
As a generalrule,thecostof dryingcompressed
airmaybe 10.20%of thecostof compressing
air.
Thecostof notdryingcompressed
airis seenin increased
maintenance
of all pneumatic
components
usd
in lhe system,pluslhe associated
increased
dowhtime,
farexceeding
thecostsof addinga dryingsystem.
EUMATICTECHNOLOGY
l V l a i nl i n e f i l t e r
A largecapacityfiltershouldbe installedafter
oil
the air receiverlo removecontamination,
and watrlrom the
vaporsfromthe compressor,
air. Properselectionmustbe sizedaccordingto
the systemflow.ln somcasesthereare lwo
mainlinefillers(onein reservesoryingas
backupduringthe filterelementchange-- which
shouldbe a rgularlyscheduledmainlenance
item).
FillerCartridge
Bowl
Thisfiltermusthavea minimumpressure
dropandthe capabilityto removeoil vaporlrom
the compressorin orderto avoidemulsitication
(seenas a white,milkyliquid)
withcondensation
in the line.
It has no deflector,whichrequiresa certain
minimumpressurdropto tunctionproperlyas
the 'StandardFiltei' discussedlaterin the
sectionon Air Treatment.A built-inor an
attachedaulo drainwill ensurea regular
waler.
dischargeof accumulated
Glass
DrainValve
Fi9.4.13TypicalLineFilter
The lilter is generallya quick-change

cartridgetype.
Notethat the propersystempositionfor this deviceis afterthe dryingsystem,notiust atterthe compressor.
[IR DISTRIBUTION
systsmcarryingthe air to the variousconsumors.
The air mainis a permanentlyinstalleddistribution
can be al thirhighestlevels- whichfosters
Typicallyinstalledat the ceilinglev6l(whereth6 temperatures
processand
in the installation
entrainedmoisture),the air maincan be a tremendoussourceof contamination
duringnormaluse.
Duringthe installationprocesscars mustbe takento reducethe metalfilings,pipedope,and otherforeign
seem
materialsthal will be generaldfromassembly.The largesizof mostair mainsmakescontamination
is seenrelativeto the extremely
acceptable( a questionof relalivityat this point),yet whenthe contaminalion
smalltolrancesin mod6mautomationcomponents(valves,actuators,gripprs.....)the eflectcan be
disastrous.
(connecting
two buildings,prhapsbeing
It the air maincomesin contactwithoutsideair temperatures
routedunderground,
etc,)it will serveas a moistureproducer.
As manymainsare ironpipe,rustis the eventualby-product.Carefulxaminationshouldbe madewhen
reusingolderpipesto createa new airline.ll the opportunitypresentsitselfand a new airlineis to be cr6ated,
considerthe pipingconfiguration
as well.
Thereare two mainlayoutconligurations:
DEADENDLINEand RINGMAIN.Afterexamining4.14and
wouldbe prelerredfor bettersupplyflow.The
4.15it shouldbecomeapparentthat the Ringmainconfiguration
pip)
but lhe advantagescan be enjoyedeverydayot
additionalcost is a one-timeconcem(lorthe additional
operation.
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRTTTENPERMISSION
Eu Atrc TEcHNoLocy
-^
-...
:.._
.\.:..
( \ .
Flg. 4.14TypicalDeadEnd LineMains

To assistdrainage,the pipeworkshouldhavea slopeof about1 in 100 in the directionof flow and it should
be adequatelydrained.At suitableintrvalsth maincan b broughtbackto its originalheightby usingtwo
longsweeprightangleb6ndsand arranginga drainleg at the low point.
RINGMAIN
:
,
t
I
....'
Flg.4.15TypicalRingMain
DO NOT COPYWITHOUTWRITTEN PERMISSION
P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o G Y
Thaswlll reduce
In a ring mainsvstemmainair can be fd tromtwo sidesto a pointol high consumption.
I pressur"diop. Howeverthis drivescondensatein anydirectionand sutftcientwatertake-otfpointswithAuto
Drainsshouldbe provided.lsolatingvalvescan be inslalledto dividethe air mainintosections.This limilsthe
arathat will be shul downduringperiodsof mainlenanceor repaar.
S E C O N D A R YL I NE S
Unlessan efficientaftercoolerand air dryerare installed,the compressedair distributionpipeworkacts as
a coolingsurfaceand watrand oil will accumulatethroughoutits length.
Branchlinesaretakenotf the top of the mainlo preventwaterin the mainpipelrom runningintolhem,
insteadof intodrainagetubeswhichare takentromthe bottomof the mainpipeat eachlow poinlof it. These
shouldbe trequentlydrainedor littedwithan automalicdrain.
The Waterremains
The Waterrunsintolhe
Auto Drain
Fig 4.15Take-ofistor air (a) and Water(b)

Autodrainsare mor6xpensiveto inslallinitially,butthis is otfsetby the man-hourssavedin the operalion
of the
of the manualtype. Withmanualdrainingneglectleadsto compoundproblemsdue to contamination
the tub guidesthe float,and is

inlernallyconnectedto atmospherevia the lilter,a reliefvalve,
holein the springloadedpiston
and alongthe stemof the manual
operator.
The condensateaccumulates
at the bottomof the housingand
whenil riseshighenoughto lift
the floatfromits seal.the
prssurein the housingis
transmittedto the pistonwhich
movesto the righlto openthe
drainvalveseatand expelthe
water.The floal thenlowerslo
Pressure
ReliefValve
Manual
Operation
Fig. 4.17 FloatTypeAuto Drain
shutotf the air supplyto the piston.

The reliefvalvelimitsthe pressurebehindthe pislonwhenthe floatshutsthe nozzle.This pre-setvalue
ensuresa consislentpistonre-settingtim6as the capturedair bleedsotf througha tunctionalleak in th reliet
valve.
-31 -
Fig4.18showsan electricallydriventype,whichperiodically
purgesthe condensateby a rotatingcam
wheeltrippinga lever-operated
poppetvalve.
It otfersthe advanlag6s ot beingableto
work in any orientalion
and is highlyresistant
to vibration,so lending
ilseltto use in mobile
compressors,
and bus
or lruck pneumatic
systems.
Fig. 4,18 MotorizedAuto Drain
S I Z I N GC O M P R E S S E D
AIR MAINS
The cost of air mainsrepresentsa highproportionof the initialcost of a compressedair installation.A
reductionin pipediameter,althoughloweringthe investmentcost,will increasethe air pressuredrop in the
system,potentiallythe opratingcostswill riseand will exceedthe additionalcost of th largerdiameter
piping.
Also,as laborchargesconstitutea largepartof the overallcost,and,as this costvariesvery littlebetween
pipe sizes,the cost of installingsay a 25 mm Dia borepipe is similarto that ol a 50 mm Dia pipe. Butthe flow
capacityof the 50mmDia pipewill be tourtimesthat ot 25 mm pipe.This additionalvolumemay equaltwo or
thre(or more)receivertank volumes,reducingcompressordutycycles.
In a closedloop ring mainsystem,the supplyfor any particulartake-otfpointis fed by two pipepaths.
Whendeterminingpipesize,this dualfeedshouldbe ignored,assumingthat at any time air will be supplied
throughone pipeonly.
The sizeof the air mainand branchesis determinedby th limitationof th air velocily,normally
recommended
at 6 m/s,whilesub-circuitsat a pressureof around6 bar and a few mete6 in lengthmaywork
at velocilisup to 20mls. The pressuredropfromthe compressorto the end of the branchpipe shouldnot
exceed0.3 bar.The nomogram(figa.l9) allowsus to determineth requiredpipe diameter.
Bendsand valvescauseadditionalflow resistance,whichcan be expressedas additional(equivalent)
pipe
lengthsin computingthe overallpressuredrop.Table4.20Oivesth equiva6ntlengthsforthe variousfittings
commonlyused.
Example(a) To dettminethe sizeot pip6thatwill pass 16800Uminol free air with a maximumpressuredrop
of not morethan 0.3 bar in 125 m ot pipe.The 2 stagecompressorswitcheson at 8 bar and stopsat 10
bar;the avrageis 9 bar.
3o kPa pressuredropin 125 m of pipeis equivalentto
ffi
=o.24 kpaI m.
Refeningto Nomogram4.19:Drawa linefrom 9 baron the pressureline through0.24 kPa/ m on the

pressuredrop lineto cul lhe referencline at X.
Join X to 0.28m3n/s and drawa lineto intecectthe pipesize linesat approximatly
61 mm.
Pipewitha minimumboreof 61 mm can b used.a 65 mm nominalborepipe (seeTable4.21)has a
boreol 68 mm and wouldsatisfythe requirements
withsomemargin.
Example(b) lf th 125 m lngthof pipe in (a) abovehas a numberof littingsin the line,e.g.,two elbows,two
90" bends,six standardteesand two gatevalves,will a largersizpipe be necessaryto limitthe
pressuredropto 30 kPa?
P N E U M A T I CT E C H N O I O G Y
In Table4.20,column"65 mm Dia',we findthe lollowingequivalentpipelength:

2.8m
2. 1.4m
twoelbows:
=
1 . 6m
six standardlees:
2'0.8 m
6 . 0.7 m
4.2m
two gatevalves:
2 . 0.5 m
1 . 0m
two90obends:
Total
9.6 m
10 m additionalpipelengthThe twelvefittingshavea flow resistanceequaltoapproximately

The "E rectiveLength"ot the pipeis thus 125+ 9.6 -135 m
= 022 kPa/ m
and the allowed4p I r, *#P
r35 m
Relerringagainto nomogramin fig 4.19:The pipesize linewill now cut at almoslthe samedia;a
nominalborepipeot 65 mm,withan actualinnerdiameterot 68 mm will be satistactory.
Note:
Th6 possibilityof futureair demandsshouldbe taien intoaccountwhendeterminingthe sizeof mainsfor a
new installation.
DO NOT COPYWITHOLITWRITTENPERMISSION
-3{}-
E u f r t A T t cT E c H t r t o L o c Y
2
1.5
1
2.O
1.75
0.5
o.4
1.5
1.0
0.9
0.8
6
7
..-8
o.7
0.6
0.3
6t
1.5". 40
, , o . 1 . .25! 35
0.5
9:
0.4
10
11
'12
o.3
0.25
o::.
0.05
0.04
0.03
o.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.15
"p
kPa/m
= bar/100m
PipeLength
Flg. 4.19 Nomogramfor Sizingthe MainsPipeDiameter
DO NOT COPYWTIIJOUT WRITTENPERMISSION
P N E U M A T I CT E C HN O L O G Y
Type of Flttlng
Nominalplpe 6lze (m!n)

65
40
50
30
1.4
0.8
l
.
l
0.5
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.1
2.6
3.0
1.6
1 . 8 ?.2
1.0
1.2
t.1
2.0
t.2
l.l
0.8
0.5
0.6
4.0
3.4
2.0
2.4
l.l
0.8
0.4 0 . 5
0.3 0.3
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.5
0;l
0.4
0.4
o.2 0.2
0.1
2.7
1,6
2.1
1.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
main
fittings
tor
lhe
Pipe
Lengths
Table 4,20 Equivalent
t5
Elbow
90' Bend(lono)
90' Elbow
180' Bend
GlobeValve
GateValve
StandardTee
SideTee
20
25
80
1.8
0.9
5.2
0.6
0.9
100
2.4
1.2
5.4
125
3.2
1.5
7.1
4.1
9.4
0.9
t.z
t.2
t.5
4.1
6.4
Materlels for Ptplng

Standard Gas Pipe (SGP)
The air mainis usuallya steelor malleableiron pipe. This is oblainablein blackor galvanizedlorm, which
is lessliableto corrode.Thistype of pipingcan be screwedto acceptthe rangof proprietarymalleable
fittings.For over80 mm Dia,weldedflangesare oflenmoreeconomicalto installralherthancut threadsinto
largepipes.The specifications
ol the CarbonSt6elStandardGas Pipe(SGP)are:
Nominal Width
B
6
l/8
8
v4
l0
3/8
Outside Dia.
mm
10.5
I t.J
tn
21.7
20
3t4
27.2
25
3?
40
Iv4
75
100
34.O
I ltz
48.6
60.3
76.1
88.9
114.3
2|n
2.0
13.8
l5
50
65
Thicknesc
mm
2.8
2.8
3.2
3.5
3.5
3.65
3.65
4.05
45
Mass
ks/m
0.4t9
0.652
0.851
1.310
1.680
2.430
3.380
3.890
5.100
6.510
8.470
12.100
T a b l e 4 . 2 1 P i p eS i z e S p e c i t i c a t i o n
Stainless steel pipes
Thseare primarilyusedwhenvery largediametersin longstraightmainlinesare required.
Copper Tube
Wherecorrosion,heatresislanceand highrigidityar required,coppertubingup to a nominaldiameterof
40 mm can be used,but will be relativelycostlyovet28 mm. Dia. Compression
fittingsusedwith annealed
qualitytubingprovideeasyworkingtor installation.
-35-
P N E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y
FlubberTube ("Air Hose")

Rubberhoseor reintotced
plasticis mostsuitable
tor airactuaiedhandloolsas it otterstlexibility
tor
treedomof movement
tortheoperalor.
Thedimensions
of pneumatic
RubberHoseare:
Nominal Width,
inches
v8
v4
3/8
tn
5/8
3t4
I
1u4
I ltz
1 3t4
2
2lt4*
2 v2*
OutsideDia.
Mm
lnside Dia.
mm
9.2
10.3
t8.5
2t.7
74.t0
29.0
3.2
6.3
35.4
45.8
a<A
52.1
60.5
66.8
8 1 l.
90.5
Inner SectionalArea
mm2
8.04
9.5
t2.7
t5.9
19.0
31.8
31.2
70.9
r27
t99
284
507
794
I140
1560
38.1
44.5
50.8
2030
57.r
25ffi
63.5
3170
fable 4.22 RubberhoseSpecitication.
Ctorh-wrappd
hose
*Rubberhoseis mainly
recommended
for toolsand olherapplicationswherethe tub is exposedto
mchanicalwear.
Plastic tubing
Commonlyusedfor the interconnection
of pneumaticcomponents.
Withinils workingtemperature
limitationsit hasobviousadvantagestor installation,
allowingasycuttingto length,and rapidconnectionby
eithercompressionor quick-fitfinings.
greatertlxibilityfor tighterbendsor constanlmovementis required,a softergradenylonor polyurethane
. lf
is available,but it has lowermaximumsafeworkingpressures,Be awarethat its o.D., nofits intemal
dimension,callsout tubing.A %"tube hasa typicall.D. of only0.12S".
DO NOT COPYWTHOTJT WRITTENPERMISSION
-36-
P N E U l , t a T l cT E c H N o L o G Y
Flttlngs ln Systems
byvariousmethods
pneumatic
areconnected
componenls
In systems,
The INSERTtype providesa reliable

retainingforceinsideand oulsideof the
tub.The sleevepressesthe tubewhen
screwingin th cap nut. The tube (inserl)
enteringintothe tube reducesits inner
diameterand thus represenlsa
extraflow resistance.
considerabl
Insertsleevesare not reusable.
Fig. 4.23 Exampleof an lnsertFitling.
The PUSH- lN connectionhasa large

retainingforceand the useof a special
profilesealensurespositivesealingfor
pressureand vacuum.Thereis no additional
as the connectionhasthe
flow restriction,
sameinnerflowsectionas the inner
diameterof th fittingtube.
Reusablelor hundrdsof inserlions.
Flg.424 Exampleof a Push-inFitting,elbowtype
The SELF-SEALING
fittinghas a builtin
mechanismso that air doesnot exhaust
atterremovalof the tube and is also
applicablefor copperfree applications.
a. lf no tube is pushdin, a check
valveshutsotf the fitting.
b Whena tube is inserted,it opens
lhe air flow by pushingth6 chec*valve
fromits seat.
Flg. 4.25 Exampleof a Self-SealFitting.
E U r r A T t cT E c H a { o L o c Y
5 AIRTREATMENT
moisture
air carriesbothdustand moislure.Aftercompression,
As describedpreviously,all atmospheric
will
be
caried
over.
that
condenssout in the aftercoolerand receiverbut therewill always bo some
Moreovertineparticlesof carbonizedoil, pipescaleand otherforeignmatter,suchas wornsealingmaterial,
All of this is likelyto haveinjuriouseffectson pneumaticequipmentby increased
tormgummysubstances.
sealand componentwear,seal expansion,corrosionand stickingvalves.
the air shouldbe furthercleaned(tiltered)as nearas possibleto the point
To removBthesecontaminants,
Lubrication'
also
includes
Pressure
Begulationand occasionally
Air
treatment
ol use.
FILTERING
S T A N D A R DF I L T E R
The standardtilteris a combinedwaterseparatorand lilter. It the air has not beende-hydraled
quantityof waterwill be collectedand the lilter will holdbacksolidimpuritiessuch
beforehand,
a considerable
as dustand rustoarticles,
CleanAir
PilotValve
Baffle Plate
DrainValve
QuietZone
Bowl
BowlGuard
-.'i\.7
DrainValve
Symbol
SymbolFilter/Separator
Filter/Separator
with Auto Drain
Fig. 5.1 TypicalFilter/Water

Separatorand an AutomaticDrainas option
The waterseparationoccursmainlyby a rapidrotationof the air,causedby the detlector at the inlet. The
heavierparticlesot did, walerand oil arelhrownoutwardsto impaclon the wall of the ftlterbowlbetore
runningdownto collectat the bottom.The liquidcanthenbe drainedoff througha manualdraincock or an
automaticdrain.The baffle plate createsa quietzonebeneathth swidingair, prventingthe separatedliquid
intothe air stream.
frombeingre-entrained
DO NOT COPYWTIT{OUTWRITTENPERMISSION
P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c v
The filterelementremoveslhe tinerparticlesof dust,rust scaleand carbonizedoil as the air flowsthrough
to the oullel. The standardelementwill removoall contamination
Darticlesdownto 5 micronsin size. Some
elomentscan be easilyrmoved,cleanedand re-useda numberof timsbetoreneedingto be rplaced
becauseof excessivepressuredrop.
The bowlis normallymadefrompolycarbonate.
For satetya metalbowlguardmustprotectit. For
chemicallyhazardousenvironmenlsspecialbowl materialsmustbe used.Wherethe bowlis exposedto heat,
sparkselc, a metalbowlshouldbe used.
lf the condensateaccumulatesat a highrateit is desirableto provideautomaticdraining.
The righthandside of Fig.5.1 showsa floattype of autodrainunitbuilt-infor standard,ilter.
Micro Filters or Coalescrs
Wherecontamination
by oil vaporis undesirable,
a micro-tilteris used.Being
a Durefilterit is not
equippedwith a detlector
ptate.
FiltringTissue
0.3 pm
The alr tlows from the

inlet to the center of th
fllter cartridge then outwards through the outlet.
Dustis trappedwithin
the microfilterelement,the
oil vaporand watermistis
convrtedintoliquidby a
coalescingactionwithin
the lilter material,torming
dropson the filtercartridge
lo collecl at th bottomof
the bowl.
Sub-microFiltfrs
A sub-microfilterwill
removevirtuallyall oil and
waterand alsoline
Particlesdownto 0.01of a
micron,to provide
maximumprotectionfor pnumaticprecisionmeasuringdevices,electrostatic
spraypainting,cleaningand
dryingot electronicassembliesetc -- the principleof operationis the sameas a microlilter,but its fifur
elementhas additionallayerswitha higherliltrationefficiency.
Filter Selection
The sizeof air filterlhat is requhdtor a particularapplicationis dependenton two factorsi
a) The maximumflow of compressedair usedby the pneumaticequipment.
b) The maximumacceptablepressuredropfor the application.
provideflowpressurediagramsto enablecorrectsizingto be done.
Manufacturers
DO NOT COPYWNHOUT WRITTENPERMISSION
-39-
PNEU$ATIC TECHNOIOGY
, lt shouldbe notedthat usinga standardfiltertor the applicationmightnot separateas etficientlybecauseof

I a lowerflowvelocity.
A ! FO U A L I T Y
:ILTEBINGLEVELS
Fig5.3 illustratesditferentlevelsof purityfor variousapplications.
Air froma compressorpassesthroughan aftercoolerwithan autodrainto removecondonsate.As the air
coolslurtherin the air receiver,an autodrain,installedon the bottomremovesmoreoondensale.Additional
drainsmay be tittedto all low pointson the pipeline.
The svslemdividesintothreemainparts:
Branches(1 and 2)
provideair directlrom the
air receiver.Branches(3 6) useair conditionedby a
type ot dryer.
retrigerated
an
Branch7 incorporates
additionaldryerot the
adsorptiontype.
Refdgerated
AirDryer
Standardfiltersin sub
Compressor
branchesI and 2.
equippedwithautodrains
removecondensate:
subbranch2 beinghigher
buritybecauseof th
a MicroFilter
microtilter. Subbranches
dry
3 5, use refrigerated
b Sub-microFilter
air.Thus.branch3
c OdorRemovalFilter
requiresno autodrain,
branch4 needsno pre
d AdsorbtionAir
lihe ng and branch5
givesan improvedlevelot
air purityusinga micro
filterand sub microfilter,
the moisturehavingbeen
removedby a refrigerated
typeof air dry6r.
3
4
5
6
7
Flg. 5.3 SchematicDelinitionof 7 Degreesof Filtration

an odor rmovalfilter.An adsorptiontypedryereliminatesall risk of
Sub branch6 incorporates
at lowlempraturesin sub branch7.
condensation
Typical applicationsare listed in Table 5.4.
-40-
P N E U M A t I cT E C H N O L O G Y
Number
Removalof:
Dustpanicles>5F Liquid oil
>99%Sarurated
humidity
46%.
Dustpanicles>0.31rOil misr
>99.9%
Saturated
humidity99%.
Humidityto an aunospheric
dewpointof -l7'C
Funherasin (l ).
Dustpanicles>0.3uOil mist
>99.9%Humidityup to an
atmospheric
dew pointof
Application
Wheresomesolid impurities,
humidityandoil canbe
acceDted.
Wberetheremovalof dustand
bui a cenain
oil dominaaes,
canbe
amountof condensation
risked.
Wherethercmovalof humidily
is imperativebut tracesof fine
dustandoil areacceDtable.
Whereno hurnidity,fine dust
andoil vaporareacceptable.
-t7"c.
Typical Examples
Workshopair for clamping,
blowing,simplepneumatic
drives.
Generalindustrialequipment
pneumaticconirolsanddrives
metallicjoints, air
Sealless
toolsandair motors.
Similarto (l) but asthe air is
dry additionally generalspray
Daintins.
Processcontrol,measuring
equipment,high qualityspray
painting,coolingof foundry
andinjectionmoldingdies.
Dust particles>0.01U
Oil mist >99.9999%Humidity
as(4).
Where purc air, practically free Pneumaticprecisionmeasuring

from anyimpurityis required. devices,electrostaticspray
painting, cleaningand drying
of electronicassemblies.
as(5) with additionalodor
Whereabsolutelypurc air, as
Pharmacy,food industdesfor
removal.
packaging,air transportand
in (5), but odor freeair is
brewing.Breathineair.
reouircd.
all impuritiesasin (6) but with Whereevery risk of
Drying electroniccomponenb
an atmosphericdew point
s
condensation
duringexpansion Storageof pharmaceutical
below-30" C.
Marine measuringequipment
and at low temperaturesmust
be avoided.
Air transportof powder.
Table 5.4 Definitionand typicalapplications

of the sevenqualitiesof air
P N E U T / t A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y
b n e s s u n eR E G U L A T T o N
rapidwearwilltakeplacewilh
aboveoptimum,
at pressures
is necessary
becausa
Regulation
o{ pressure
it resultsin poorefficiency.
because
pressure
too
low
is
uneconomical
is
littleor noincrease
that
in output.Air
S T A N D A R DR E G U L A T O R
AdiustingKnob
Pressureregulatorshavea pislonor
diaphragmto balancelhe outputpressure
againstan adiustablespringforce.
The secondarypressureis set by lhe
adiuslingscrewloadinglhe settingspringto
holdthe mainvalveopen,allowingllow from
the primarypressurepl inlelportlo the
secondarypressurepz outlotport.Thenthe
pressurein the circuilconnectedto the outlel
risesand actson the diaphragm,creatinga
littingforceagainstthe springload.
Whenconsumption
starts,pAwill initially
dropand the spring,momentarily
stronger
than the liftinglorce {rom p2 on th
diaphragm,opensthe valve.
Adjusling
Spindle
SettingSpring
Diaphragm
p2
PI
alve Spring
Fig 5.5. Principleot the PressureRegulator
lf the consumptionratedrops,p2 willslightlyincrease,this increasesthe forceon the diaphragmagainst

the springforce-- diaphragmand valvewillthen lift unlillhe springforceis equaledagain.The airflowthrough
the valvewill be reduceduntilit matchesth6 consumplionrateand the outputpressureis maintained.
lf the consumptionrateincreases,p2 will slightlydecrease.This decreasesthe forceon lhe diaphragm
againstthe springtorce,diaphragmand valvedropuntilthe springforceis equaledagain.This increaseslhe
airflowlhroughthe valveto matchthe consumptionrate.
Withoul air consumF
tion the valvis closed.lf
the secondarypressur
risesabovethe set valu
by virtueot:
. re-settingthe
regulatorto a loweroutlet
pressure,or
. an eliemal rverse
thrustfroman actualor,
the diaphragmwill liftto
openth relievingseatso
thal excessoressurecan
be bledoff throughthe
vent holein the rigulator
body.
DoNOTrelyonthis
orificeas anexhaust
flow
Path.
I
Believing
P1
a
b
Fig. 5.6 RelievingFunction
DO NOT COPYWITHOUT WRTTTENPERMISSION
-42-
P N E U M A T I cT E C H I t o L o G Y
Wilh vry highllow ratesthe valveis wide

open.The springis thertoreelongatedand lhus
weakerand the equilibriumbetweenp2 on th
diaphragmareaand the springoccursat a lower
level.This problemcan be corrctdby creatinga
thirdchamberwitha conneclionlo lhe outout
channel.In thischanneltheflowvelocityis high.
As xplainedin section3, the staticpressureis
then low (Bemoulli).As pOis nowat a lowerstatic
pressure,the balanceagainstlhe weakened
springal highflow ratesis compensated.
The etfectcan be improvedby insertinga tube
in the connection,cut at an anglewiththe opening
orientedtowardsthe outlet(fig 5.8).
p1
Fig. 5.7 Principleof a FlowCompensated

Regulator
Thereis stillan inconvenience

in the regulator
of fig. 5.7: if the inletpressurepl increases,a
higherlorce is actingon the bottomof the valve,
tryingto closeit. That meansthat an increasing
inputpressuredecreasesthe outputpressurand
vice ve6a. A valvehavingequalsurfaceareasfor
bothinputand outputpressurein bothdirections
can eliminatethis.This is realizedin the regulator
of fig. 5.8
The mostimportanlparlsar:
(O Adiustingspindle
@ SettingSpring
O RelievingSeat
@ Diaphragm
@ FlowComoensation
Chamoer
(D FlowCompensation
ConnectionTube
O vatve
@ O-Ringlor PressurCompensation
0 ValveSpring
@ O-Ringfor FtowCompensation
Flg. 5.8 FullycompensatedPressure

Regulator
DO NOT COPYWTII{OI]T WRITTENPERMISSION
- 43-
I L O T O P E R A T E DR E G U L A T O R
The piloloperatedregulatoroftersgreateraccuracyof pressureregulationacrossa largetlow rang6'
Thisaccuracyis obtainedby replacingthe seningspringot a standardregulatorwith pilotpressurelrom a
smallpilotregufdorsit6don the unit.
The pilotregulatoron top ol the unitsuppliesor exhaustspilotair onlyduringcorrectionsof the oulput
pressure.Thisenablesthe regulatorto achievevery highllow ratesbut ke6psthe settingspringlenglhto a
minimum.
SettingSpring
PressureRelief
PilolDiaphragm
PilotValve
Diaphragm
P1
MainValve
MainValve
MainSecondary
Pressure
Reliel
Flg 5.9 PilotPressureRegulator
P N E U M A T T cT E c H N o L o c y
F I L T E F . R E GU L A T O R
Air filleringand pressureregulationis combindin the
singleliltr regulatorto providea compactspacsavingunit.
Charccterlstlcs
A regulatorsizeis selectedto give the flow requiredby the
applicationwitha minimumol prssurevarialionacrossthe
tlow rangeot the unit.
Manufacture6providegraphicalinlormationregardingthe
tlow characteristics
ol theirquipment.Th mostimportantis
the Flow/ pA diagram.lt showshow pA decreaseswith
increasingflow.(Fig.5.11).The curvehasthreedistinct
portions:
1. the inrush,witha smallgap on the valvethat doesnot
yel allowrealregulation
2. the regulationrangeand
3, the saturationrange;lhe valveis wideopenand further
rgulationis impossible
p 2 ^
(bar)o
(bar)
2000
4000
>
6000
O (l/min)
Fig 5.10 Typical Filter Regularor
Flg.5.11 TypicalFloWPressure
Chancteristics:
a: Regulator,b: Filter
P N E U M A T T CT E C I I N O L O G Y
S I Z I N GO F B E G U L A T O R SA N D F I L T E F S
I
FRLelementshaveto be sizedin accordancewiththe requiredflowcapacity.For Regulalols,lhe average
range(ll in ti9.5.11a).Thesizeof lhe tilteris
volumellowshouldbe theonein the middleot the regulating
" (nota Line Filte0,a minimumpressuredrop
definedby the pressuredrop,For a'StandardFilter/Separator
Withmaximumflow,AAp (allowableor desirabledeltap)
of about0,2 bar is requiredto nsurefunctioning.
shouldhoweverb keptbelow1 bar.
The sizeis theretoredetinedby the requiredflow,not by the connectionsizeof the component.Modular
systemsgivethe capabilitylo adaptthe connectionthreadto lhe availablelube size.
} O M P B E S S E DA I R L U B R I C A T I O N
Lubricationis no longera necessityfor the majorityof modernPneumaliccomponentsare availableprelubricatedfor life.
of modemhighcycling
The life and performance
of thesecomponentsare tullyup to the requirements
processmachinery.
The advantagesol "non-lube'systemsinclude:oil levels.
a) Savingsin the cost ol lubricationequipment,lubricatingoil and maintaining
b) Cleanermorehygienicsystems;of particularimportancein foodand pharmaceutical
induslries.
for a healthier,saferworkingenvironmenl.
c) Oilfree atmosphere,
To 6nsurethey are continuallylubricated,a certainquantityof
Certainequipmentstillr6quireslubrication.
is
to
the
compressed
by
means
of
a lubricalor.
oil added
air
' R O P O R T I O N A LL U B R I C A T O R S
to lhe flow rate,
ln a (proportional)
lubricatora pressuredropbotweeninletand outlet,directlyproportional
is crealedand littsoil fromthe bowlintothe sightfeed dome.
Witha tixedsizeot restriction,
a greatlyincreasedflow ratewouldcreatean excessivepressuredropand
producean air/oilmixturethat had too muchoil,{loodingthe pneumaticsystem.
Converselya decreasedflow ratemaynol createsufficientprssuredropresultingin a mi)durewhichis too
lean.
crosssectionslo producea conitant
To overcomethis problem,lubricatorsmusthaveself-adiusting
mixture.
Air enleringa lubricator(as shownin Fig 5.12)followstwo paths:it llowsovrthe dampervaneto the
outletand also entersthe lubricatorbowlvia a checkvalve,
Wh6nlhereis no flow,the samepressureexistsabovethe surfaceot the oil in th bowl,in the oil tubeand
the sighlteeddome. Consequntly
thereis no movementof oil.
Whenair llowsthroughthe unit,lhe dampervanerstrictorcausesa prgssuredropbtweenthe inletand
outlet. The higherthe flow,the greaterthe pressuredrop.
zonimmediately
Sincethe sightleed domeis connectedby the capillaryholeto the low-pressure
afterthe
pressure
vane,
the
is
lower
than
that
in
the
bowl.
damper
in the dome
This pressureditferenceforcesoil up the tube,throughthe oil checkvalveandJlowregulatorintothe
dome.
Once in the dome,the oil seepsthroughthe capillaryholeinlo the mainair streamin the areaof the
highestair velocity.The oil is brokenup into minusculeparticles,atomizedand mixedhomogeneously
withthe
air by the turbulencein the vortexcreatedby the dampervane.
WRITTENPERMISSION
DO NOT COPYWTTHOLTT
-46-
EU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY
FletlllPlug
SightFeedDome
Capillary
Connction
Oil Thronb
CheckValv
DamoerVane
Oil Tube
BowlGuard
SinteredBronze
Oil Filler
Fig 5.12 Proportional

Lubricator
The dampervaneis madelrom a flexiblematerialto allowit to bendas flow increases,wideningthe tlow
path,to proportionally
adjustthe pressuredropand thus maintaina constantmixturethroughout.
The oil throttleallowsadjustmntof the quantityot oil tor a givenpressuredrop. The oil checkvalve
retainsthe oil in the upperpart ot th tubewhenthe air flowtmporarilystops.
The air checkvalveallowsthe unitto be refilledunderpressure,whileworkcan normallygo on.
The conectoil feed ratedependson operatingc-onditions;
but a gneralgude is to allowone or two drops
per cycleof th6 machine.
A pure(no-additives)
minoraloil of 32 cnti-stokesviscosityis recommended
(lSO standardVG32).Some
oil companieshavea specialoil tor compressedair lubrication,
with a highcapacityto absorbmoislurewithout
lossof lubricatingproperties.
DO NOT COPYWNHOI}T WRITIEN PERMISSION
-47-
P N E U I , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y
Lub.lcator
I' F . R . L .
UNITS
Modulartilter,pressureregulatorand lubricator
elementscan be combinedintoa serviceunitby
joiningwithspacersand clamps.Mounting
can be easilyfitted
bracketsand olheraccessories
in morerecenldesigns.
SlZE AND INSTALLATION
The combinalionunitmuslagainbe sizedfor
the maximumtlow rateof the system.
Manulaclurers
willgenerallyprovidethis
information.
Mostsystemsrequirean approvedshul-otfor
lockoul valve.ln addition,thereare doviceslhat
allowan EmergencyStoptunctionand a slowslart
option,whereair is introducedto lhe systmat a
reducedrate.
Flg. 5.13 TypicalFBL Unitin a modular

design
For
instruclions.
Forconectplacementand operalionof thesedevicesconsultthe manufacturers'
threshouldbe a way to stopair flowatterthe F.R.L.unitand belorethe unit,isolatingthe F.R.L.
maintenance
for repair.In mostcases,the EmergencySlopshouldbe downslreamo{ the F.R.L,to preventbacKlowing
(reverseflow)the filter(whichcouldcauseelementcollapse),the regulator(diaphragmcouldbe damaged),
andthe lubricator(drivingoil mistinsidethe tilterelement).
DO NOT COPYWITHOI.JTWRITIEN PERMISSION
PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLocY
6 ACTUATORS
by piston
is obtained
canbelinearor rotary.Linearmovement
Theworkdoneby pneumatic
actuators
pinion
type
actuators
and
rack
and
vane
or
to
270'
by
up
reciprocating
rotary
motion
wilh
an
angle
rylinders,
continuous
rotation
by airmotors.
I N E A RC Y L I N D E R S
Pneumaticcylindersof varyingdesignsare the mostcommonpowercomponentsusedin pneumatic
are derived:
Thereare lwo basictypesfromwhichspecialconslructions
automation.
. Singl-acting
cylinderswithone air inltto producea powrstrokein one direction
. Double-aciing
cylinderswilh two air inletsto produceextendingand relractingpowerstrokes
I N G L E A C T I N GC Y L I N D E F
A singleactingcylinderdevelopsthrustin one directiononly.The pistonrod is retumedby a fittedspringor
by externalforcefromthe loador spring.
It maybe a 'push'or 'pull"type(lig6.1)
SinteredBronzeFiller
Stoo
Spring
Fig. 6,1 TypicalSingleActingCylinder,SpringRetractedor'Push" type

Singleactingcylindersare usedlor clamping,marking,eiectingetc. Theyhavea somewhatlowerair
consumption
comparedwiththe equivalentsizeot doubleactingcylinder.Howeverthereis a reductionin
thrustdue to the opposingspringforce,and so a largerboremay be required.Alsoaccommodating
the
springresultsin a longeroveralllengthand limitedstrokelength.
O U B L E A C T I N GC Y L I N D E R
Withthis actuator,thtustis developedin bothelitendingand retractingdirectionsas air pressureis applied
alternatelyto oppositesidesof a piston. The thrustavailableon the retractingstrokois reduceddue to the
smallerettectivepislonarea,but is onlya consideration
if the cylinderis to 'pull' the sameload in both
dirctions.
Rod Seal/
Rod
ISOSymbol:
Fig. 6.2 DoubleActingCylinder
EU ATtc TEcHNoLocy
Cyllnder Constructlon
The conslructionol a doubleactingcylindris shown. The barrelis normallymadeot samlesstubewhich
may be hardcoatedand super-finished
on ths innerworkingsurfaclo minimizewearand friction.The end
caps maybe aluminumalloyor malleableironcastingsheldin placeby tie rods,or in the caseot smalle!'
cylinders,fil intothe barreltube by screwlhreador be crimpedon. Aluminum,brass,bronzeor stainlesssteel
may be us6dtor the cylinderbodyfor aggressiveor unsafeenvironments.
Seal
Guiding
or Wear
Pislon
Magnetic
Cylinder
Ring
Seal
Ring
Barrelor
Frontor RodCover
Backor
Head
Cover
Tube
ScraperRing/
Bod-Seal
Blind
End
Rod End
PistonRod
t
L
1
(
ISO Symbol
CushionSeal
Cushion
Barrel
Tie Rod
Tie Rod Nut
Flg. 6.3 the componentpartsof a doubleactingcylinderwithair cushioning

Varioustypesof sealsensurethat the cylinderis airtight.
Cushlont ng
Pneumaticcylindersare capableot very highspedand considerable
shockforcscan be dvlopdon
the end of the stroke.Smallercylindersotlenhavefixedcushioning,i.. rubberbufters,to absorbthe shock
and preventinternaldamageto the cylinder.Oh largercylinders,the impactetfectcan b absorbdby an air
cushionthat deceleratesthe pistonoverthe lastportionof the stroke. This cushiontrapssomeof the
exhaustingair nearthe end of the strokebeforeallowingit to bleedoft moreslowlythroughan adjustable
nedlevalve(fi9.6.4).
Fig. 6.4 Principleof the Air Cushion
-50-
1 The normalescapeof the exhaustingairto the outletportis closedoft as the cushionpistonentersthe

fcushion
restriction
Port.Thetrappedair is
seal,so thattheair canonlyescapethroughme adjuslable
piston.
to a relativelyhighpressure,whichbrakesthe inertiaof the
compressed
Whenthe pislonreverses,lhe cushionsealacts as a checkvalveto allowairflowto the piston.lt howover
of the piston.The cushioningstrokeshouldthereforebe as
restrictsthe air flowand delaysthe acceleration
possible.
shorlas
To decelerateheavyloadsor highpistonspeeds,an extemalshockabsorberis required.It the piston
speedexceedsabout5OOmrn/san externalmechanicalstop mustb provided,whichis alsothe casewith
built-incushioning.
S P E C I A LC Y L I N O E RO P T I O N S
,ouble Rod
ISOSymbol
Fig. 6.5 Principleof lhe doublerod
A doublrod makesa cylinderstrongeragainstside load,as it hastwo bearingsat the widestdistance
possible.Thistypeof cylinderis ottenmountedwiththe rodstixedand the cylinderitselfmovingto displacea
oart.
ton Botatlng Rod
The pistonrod of a standardcylinderrotatesslightlyas thereis no guideto prevontthis.Thereforeit is not
possibleto directlymounta tool,e.g.a cuningblade.
Forlhis kindof application,
whreno
considerable
torqueis exercisdon the tool,a
cylindGrwithnon-rotating
rod can be used.The
suppliersspecitythe maximumallowabletorque.
As tig. 6.6 shows,lwo flat planson the rod and
a fittingguidepreventthe rotation.
It showsalso howa torquecrealesa high
forceon the edgesof the rod profile,whichwill
damageit in the longrun.
DO NOT COPYWITHOLTTWRITIEN PERMISSION
P N E U $ A T r cT E c H N o L o c Y
Twln Rod
Thistype o, cylindgrhas a highlateralload resistanceand highnon-rotatingaccuracy.Thesecompactdual
rod cylindersare of highprecisionand idealfor pickand placeoperations.Do not assumethatthe dual
cylindersqualthetheoreticalforceof ong largercylinder'stheoreticalforce,,9. two 25 mm.boresin a dual
rod cylinderproducehalfthe torceol one 50 mm borecylinder(provethisto yourselt).
Sectlon A-A
Symbol;
Unofficial:
rso:
A
-'-+i
Fig. 6,7 Twin RodCylinder

FIet Cylinder
A cylindernormallyhas squarecoversand,generally,a roundcylinder.By stretchingthe pistonto a
relativelylong rectangularshapewith roundends,it achievesthe sameforceas a conventionalcylinder.The
advantage,of course,is the savingin spaceachievedif they are to be stackedtogethr.Suitablefor mostnon
rotatingapplications.
SectlonA-A
rsosymbor,Fll
Flg. 6.8 Principleof a FlatCylinder

Tandem Cylinder
A tandemcylinderis two doubleactingcylindersioinedtogetherwith a commonpistonrodto form a single
unit.
ISO Symbol:
Fig. 6.9 Principleof the TandemCylinder

pressurizing
By simultaneously
bothcylinderchambersthe outputforceis almostdoublethal of a standard
cylinderof the samediameter.lt oflersa higherlorce froma givendiameterol cylinder,theretoreit can be
usedwhreingtallation
spaceis restricted.
DO NOT COPYWNHOUT WRITIEN PERMISSION
PNEU ATIc TEcHNOLOGV
Multl Posltlon Cyllnder

The two end positionsot a standardcylinderprovidetwo fixedpositions.lf morethantwo positionsare
requird,a combinalionof two doubleactingcylindersmaybe usod.
Thereare hvoprinciples:
Forthreepositions,the assmblyon the lett is required;it enablesusersto tix the cylinder.lt is very
suilabletor verticalmovements,
e.g. in handlingdevices.
The secondis to mounttwo independent
cylinderstogetherbackto back.This allowsfour ditferent
positions,butthe cylindercannotbe tixed.A combination
wilh threecylindersof diflerentstrokelength
gives8 posilions,one withlour 16,but a ratherexolicstructureis requiredand the movement,when
cylindersrun in oppositedirections,is very unstable.
Stroke Lengths
Positions
100 200 300
ISO Symbols:
Fig. 6.10Thiee andfourpoiitioncylinder
DO NOT COPYWIIIIOUT WRITTENPERMISSION
-JJ-
P N E U i t a t t cT E c H N o L o G Y
CYLTNDER
MOUNTING
To ensurethal cylindersare correcllymounted,manutaclurers
oftera selectionot mountingsto meetall
requirements
includingpivotingmovementusingswiveltype mountings.
BearClvis
Flg. 6.11The variousmethodsof CylinderMounting

Floatlng Joints
To accommodate
unavoidable
"misalignment'betweenthe
cylinderrod movementand the
drivenobiect,a lloatingioint must
be fittedto the pistonrod end.
3(
Flg 6.12"Floatingjoinf
The investmntin thes

deviceswill insurlongercylinder
life and morereliableoperation-lar exceedingthe cost of the
deviceitselt.
-54-
f,uckllng Sttength
2f\
Whenan excesslhrustis applied

lo a cylinderthe bucklingslrenglh
This
mustbo takenintoconsideralion.
excessthrustcan manifestitselfwhen
lhereis -:
1 -: Compressing
Strss.
.h
,M
2 -: lf lhe stressedpart,i.e.a
cylinder,
is longandslender.
's
The bucklingstrengthdepends
greatlyuponthe mountingmethod.
Thereare four maincases:
'&
1. Rigidlyfixedon onesideand
looseat the oppositeend.
2. Pivotingon bothends.
3. Rigidlyfixedon one side,
pivoiingon the other.
Fig.6.13 Thefourmounting
4. Rigidlytix6dat bothends.
lo
The above-mentioned
conditionsapplyif a cylinderliftsor pushesa load;it is lhen sub.iected
compressing
stress.lf a certainspecifiedstrokelengthis exceeded,the cylindercan "brakout'sidewaysand
seizethus renderingthe cylinderuseless.To avoidunnecessarylossof timeand money,checkwiththe
lengthlable"in the supplier'scatalogue.Th generalruleof thumbis if the strokeof cylindersabove
mm boreis threetimesthe diameleror, in the caseof smallercylinders,the strokeis tive timesthe bore
the cylinderis pushinga load.
Y L I N D E RS I Z I N G
Y L I N D E RF O R C E
heoretlcel Force
Linearcylindershavethe followingstandarddiametersas rcommended
in ISO:
8, 10,12, 16,20,25,32,40,50,63,80,100,125,140,160,200,250,320 mm
The forcedevelopedby a cylinderis a functionof the pistondiameter,the operatingair pressureand the
resistance.Forthe theoreticalforc,the thruston a stationarypislon,the frictionis neglectd.This,
force,is calculatedusingthe tormulae:
Force(N)
Force(lbt.)
(N/m2),
Pistonarea1m2)' airpressure
or
(lbf./in2)
Pistonarea(in2). airpressure
Thustor a double acting cyllnder:
FE= +
Extending
strcke:
.d- A
Where(D = pislondiameter,p9 = Working(gauge)pressure)
Retractingstroke:Fg =
. tB - &l . n
where(d= pistonroddiamerer)
DO NOT COPYWTHOUT WRITTENPERMISSION
E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o G Y
lor a singleactlngcyllnder:
FEs= =
' d 'p
- Fs (Fs = Springforceat the end of stroke)
It may be quickerlo use a diagramsuchas lhe one in fig. 6.14,showingthe theoreticalforcetor 10,7and 5
bar , or any similarsuppliersinformationto selecta cylindersize.
10
rooozj
-;,2.
500
400
300
?50
200
150
r25
100
---,7
p : (bar)
lq-t- - 7.
=:v7-
-4i -2
40
30
.44
m
12.5
10
5.
-.-71--Z
1 -
I 2
../
7-,
---------_
15{)00
.z
z.
5000
4m0
-.4
2500
2000
1500
{E
d----
===-rt=='-t
-.2-_L-2.
- - r - /
.zx.
:2.
6 (mm)
Fig.6.14 TheorticalForceof pneumaticcylinders,trom2.5 to 30 mm (leftand top scales)

and from32 to 300 mm (rightand bottomscales)for 19,.1-a"ng,5
bg!.workingpressure
Example: Determinethe theoreticalsizeof a cylinderoperatingat a pressureof 6 bar that wouldgeneralea
clampingforceof 1600N.
ttf
Assumingan extendingstroke:-
Transposing:
D=
Fe=
G'p
4'1600 N
= 0.0583m = 58.3mm.
r'600000N/m2
A 63 mm. Dia.cylinderwouldbe selected,the largersize providingextratorceto overcomefrictional
resisiance.
By usingthe diagram,we lookfor 1600N on the ForceScaleat the rightside and find 1500as a dashedline.
We followit to the left untilwe reacha poinlbetweenlhe PressureLinesfor 5 and 7 bar and find an
intersectionbotween50 and 63 mm Dia.on the DiameterScaleon the bonom.Thereis no doubtthat
the samediameteris correctfor 1600Nas well as 1500N,
DO NOT COPYWTIFIOUTWRITIEN PERMISSION
P N E U M A T TTcE c H No L o c Y
.lequlred Force
The requiredforcedependson lhe massol lhe load,the angleof movementor elevation,lhe triction,the
workingpressureand the ettectivepislonarea,
The loadconsistsof the Weightof the mass(Fig.6.15a), the ForceB representedby the trictionlacior
(Fig.6.15c). The re-partitionof theselorcesdependg
timesmass(Fig.6.15b) and the requirdacceleration
plane
(elevation)as shownin tig' 6.15d.
horizontal
with
the
on the angleof the cylinderaxis
F= G. (sina+
F=G
l'-;l
F=y.G
W6 --tn2. , v2
@
@
Fig 6.15Thecomponentforcsof the LOAD
A horizontalmovement(elevation= 0") has onlyfrictionto overcome.Frictionis definedby the friction

coetficientU,whichvariesbetweenabout0.1 to 0.4 for slidingmetalparts,and about0.005for iron,rollingon
iron(0.001for ballson the ring in a ballbearing).Thiscoetficiententersthe formulaas a cosine,whichvaries
from 1 tor horizontalto 0 for vertical.
The massreprsentsa load,equalto itrsweight,whenth6 movemenlis vertical(90'elevation),The weight
equals,on a lalitudeof
is th forc6creatodby the earth'sacceleration
on the mass.The earth'sacceleration
450(Standardlor Europeand N. America),9.80629m.s'"or 32.17ft sec?.Witha horizontalmovementthe
The entirecylinderthrustis thenavailablefor
weightis a zero loadas it is fullybornby the construction.
The loadof the massvariesthereforewiththe inclinationtrom0 to 1000/".lts valueas a factoris
sineof the inclinationangle,0 for horizontal,1 for verlical:
P N E U i T A T TT cE c H N o L o c Y
LOAD RATIO
This ratiois generay referredto as "Lo' and equab
. 100%
##
A cylindorshouldnot havea highrloadratiothan about85%. It an accuralespeedcontrolis requirdor

loadlorcesvarywidely,60-700/0
shouldnot be exceeded-- perhapsno morethan soyoin vertical
applications.
Table6.16givsthe Load Ratiofor cylindersfrom25 to 1OOmm dia.and variouselevationsand two
trictioncoetficients
tor rolling(0.01)and slidingsteelparts(0.2).
Cyl.Dia Mass(kg)
60"
po.2
0.01
25
32
40
100
50
25
12.5
180
90
45
22.5
63
80
100
(87.2) (s6.7) 71.5

51.8
.+o.o
48.3
30'
p
p 0.2
0.01
84.9 50.9
342.5 25.4
67.4
400
200
100
50
650
300
150
75
1000
500
250
't25
'r600
800
400
200
tr
0,01
4
2.2
'|
aa7
It 0.2
80
40
20
10
4.4
(s5.6)
54.9
47.8
53
78.4
39.2
/oa ll
46.6
55.8
27.9
73.9
37
250
125
oc
.tc
50
45'
p
It 0.2
0.01
(ee.2)
54.6
47.6
52.4
72.4
39
(86)
46.3
51.6 68.3
27.4 36.8
2.2
ls.s
1.1
0.55
22
11
3.9
2
78
39
20.3
10.9
79.9
40
20
0
0.5
4
EA
(e4.4)
47.2
(e7.6)
48.8
CU
(87) (e6.5) 71.3

43.5 48.3 35.7
82.3 (s1.2)67.4
41.1 45.6 33.7
85 (s4.3) 69.7
42.5 47.1 34.8
(87) (vo.c,
43.5 48.3
71.4
35.7
84.8
42.4
80.1
40.1
82.8
41.4
84.4
42.2
50.8
25.4
4A
24
49.6
24.8
50.8
25.4
o/.J
J5.O
31 .8
65.7
32.8
67.3
itJ.o
4.1
1.9
0.9
0.5
3.9
2
1
0.5
4
2
1
0.5
Table 6.16 LoadRatiosfor 5 barworkingpressureand trictioncoefticientsof 0.01and 0.2
DO NOT COPYWTTHOU"T
WRITTENPERMISSION
81.8
37.8
18.9
9.4
74.1
ov
19.5
9.8
79.9
40
20
10
'I
A morepracticalhelptor findingthe correctcylinderdiameterwouldbe to knowlhe allowedloadunder

variousconditions,
Therelore,table6.17showsth massol the totalloadin kg that resultsin a LoadRatioot
85%,lt is basedon 5 barworkingprssureon the cylindrand againlhe two frictioncoefticients0,01tor
rolling(lttcolumn)and 0.2 for sliding(rightcolumn).Thesevaluesare the maximummassol the totalload.
30"
e
0.01
o.z 0.01 n t
106
42.5
25
3 t . 5 2t23
25
24.5
77
196
40.5
46.2
3920
45
5
4
.
8
58.2
32
39.2
107
272.5
56.4
76.3
64.2
80.9
5450
40
54.5
62.5
100.2 t67.3 126.4 8500
50
97.7
88
Il9
85
1
5
5
t39.8
r
8
9
t59.2 265.5 200.5 13500 675
63
135
428
80
250
225.5
305
256.7
323.5 21775 1 0 8 9
zl7.'l
476.2
390.8
669.2
100
340.2 390.5
352
505.s 34020 l 7 0 l
wilh 5 bar
Table.6.17Massin kg tor cylinderstrom25 to |00 mm Dia.for a LoadRattoot 85olo
workingpressure.
?
CYL. Dia
u:
2t.2
60'
0.01 0.2
0.01
30
0.2
P E E DC O N T R O L
The speedof a cylinderis delinedby the extraforcebehindthe piston,abovethe torceopposedby the
load.The loadratioshouldnvarexceed85o/o
approx.The ,owerlhe loadratiothe benerthe speedcontrol,
especiallywhenthe loadis subiectto variations.A positivespeedcontrolis obtainedby throttlingthe exhaust
ot the cylinderby meansof a peed Conlrollef,whichis a combinationol a checkvalve,to allowfreeflow
towardsthe cylinder,and an adjuslablethroftle(needlevalve).An exampleol speedcontrolis shownin the
sclionon valvesin the chaptron AuxiliaryValves.To get a conslantspeed,the Load Ratioshouldbe
apprcx.75"/".
Forcis mass(Wg) timesacceleration.
The unitsarefor torce:kg . m . s'"and for acceleralion:
m . s'. In
EnglishunitsW = lbs and g = 32.17tvsec".
Example:Massof the load 100 kg, workingpressure5 bar,CylinderDia 32 mm, horizontalmovementwitha
friclion coefficientot 0.2. The theoreticalforce is 401.2 N
Table6.16showsthis caseand 90 kg massa load ratiool43.9 "/..
oh.
Thusfor1ooxg:ns.s.$ = 48.8
The Forceof the load is 48.8% of 401.92N = 196 N. Witha cylinderetficiencyof 95%,95 - 48.8%=
46.2o/oof the torceis lettfor the acceleration
of the load.This is 185,7N. The acceleration
is therefore:
.
.
=
185.7kg m s-2/ 1OOkg 1.857m' s-2.Withoutcontrol,the pistonwouldthoretically
approach2 m/s
afterone second."Theoretically"meansif threis no limiiationto the accessof compressedair behind
and no backpressurein fronl of lhe piston.
The limitationof the exhaustairflowcreatesa pnumaticload,whichis definedby the pistonspeedandth
volumtlowthroughthe restrictionof the speedcontrollr.Any incraseof the pistonspeedincreasesth6
opposingtoroe.This limitsand stabilizesthe pistonspeed.The higherthe pneumaticpartof the toial load is,
the strongerit can stabilizeth pistonspeed.
Witha loadratiool 8570and a cylinderefficiencyof 95%, 10 prcentof the torceis stabilizingthe
pneumaticload.Whenthe mechanicalloadshowsa variationof * 5olothereis a compensation
of haltthe
influence.Witha load ratioof tor example50%,thesevariationswill no longerhaveany visibleetfecton the
soeeo.
-5v-
P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c y
Nole that tor a subtlespeodcontrol,the flowcapacityof the tube has to be muchhigherthan that of the
speedcontrollersetling.Witha tubewhichis too smallin diameterthe tubelor a greatpart,limitsthe flowand
changingthe needlepositionhas littleefiect.
AIR FLOWAND CONSUMPTION
Thereare two kindsof air consumptiontor a cylinderor pneumaticsystem.
The.firstis the averageconsumptionper hour,a tigureusedto calculatethe energycost as partof the total
cosl priceol a productand to estimatethe requiredcapacityof compressorand air main.
The secondis lhe peakconsumptionof a cylinderrequiredto ascertainthe conectsizeof its valveand
conneclingtubes,or lor a wholesystem,to properlysizethe F.R.L.unitand supplytubes.
The Air Consumption
ot a cylinderis definedas:
Pistonarea ' Strokelength numberof singlestrokesper minute' absolutepressurein bar,
Explanation; Whenthe pistonis againstthe cylindercovr(fig.6.18a), the volumeis zero.Whenwe pull the
rod out unlillhe pistonis on the oppositeend,the cylinderis filledwith atmosphericpressureof lOlg25
Pa- (fig.6.18b), Whenthe pressuretromthe supplyenters,the sweptvolumetimesthe gauge
pressurein bar is added,in additionto lhe atmosphericpressureof 10132Spa.
A-
dfn
K
F-b--'tl
--+'
l= /.- s -!-E
P.19-z
Y = D 2 ' ! .s.PP'
nres
nm2 {
rft
Frtn
rrnqfte
Fig 6.18TheoreticalAir Consumptionol a cylinder

Withthat,the theoreticalair consumptionof a cylinderis fqrthe extndingstrokeas indicatedin fig.
6.lSandlortheretumstrokeAB.s.(p+patm).WithA=D2.n/4wegetforoutstroking
D (m) . D (m) . rd4.(p + 1.013).Stroke(m) . n (stroks/ min) . 103(l / min),or
D(mm).D(mm).nt4. (p+ 1.013). Stroke(mm). n (srrokes
/ min). 10 (t/ min).
(Wherep = th6gsugepressureandn = the numberol srhglostokes).
For lhe returnstroke,D is replacedby (D-d).
The consumption ot the tubes bet\ een valveand cylinderequals:
InnerTube Dia.(mm.).InnerTube Dia.(mm). Tube Lngth(mm). Gaugepressurein Mpa (0.1 bar)
Table6.19 givesthe thoreticalair consumptionper 1OOmm stroke,for variouscylinderdiamete6and
workingpressures:
-60-
P N E u f iA T t c T E c H t i l o L o cY
Pistondis.
20
3
0.124
7<
0.194
32
0.3r9
Working Pressurein bar

5
6
4
0.217
0.186
0.155
0.243
0.398
0.291
0.477
o.622
0.340
0.557
0.870
0.248
0.388
0.636
0.993
0.746
l.t)J
r.359
1.165
0.97t
50
2.158
2.465
r.850
t.542
63
3.4't9
3.975
2.983
2.487
EO
4.661
5.436
6.2t1
3.III
3.886
100
ot doubleactingcylindersfrom20 to 100 mm dia,
Table6.19TheoreticalAir Consumption
per
in liters
100mm stroke
40
0.498
0.777
|.235
t.93
Example1. Findtheenergycostperhourof a doubleactingcylinderwithan 80 mm.dia.anda 400 mm.

strokewith t2 doublestrokesper minuteand a workingpressureof 6 bar
In table6.19we see that an 80 mm dia.cylinderconsumes3.5 liters(approx.)per 100mm strokeso:
O /100 mm stroke. 400 mm stroke. numberot strokesper min . forwardand retumstroke = 3.5 ' 4
. 24 = 336 Umin.
In the paragraph'Thermaland OverallEtliciency"
in section4, we tindan electricalconsumption
ot 1
kw tor 0.12- 0.15m3/minwitha workingpressureof 7 bar.To produce1 mgn/ minwe require
thereforeapproximately
I Kw of electricpower.
We assumea currencyin whichone kW hr (kilowatl-hour)
costs5 c6nts.
Thecostofproducing
flowof .| r3"hin isthen ffififW
a volume
= 40cents/ hr.
0.336m3ry'min
. 40 cents/ hr = 13.4cents per hour.
In ourexample:
1mg/min
The sum of all the cylinderson a machine,calculatedlhal vvay,represntsthe air consumption
as energy
cosl,
It shouldhoweverbe notedthat,
. the consumption
ligursin the abovetabledo not includethe 'dead volume"at eitherend ot the
stroke,il any, northal for the connectingtubes.
. the transferof energyis notwithoutlosses(seefurtherbelow).
Forsizing the valve ot an individualcylinderwe needanotherfigure:the peaktlow. lt dpendson the
highestcylindersped.The highestsum of the peakflowsol all simultaneously
movingcylindersdefinesthe
tlowon whichthe FRL unlt hasto be sized.
We may no longerneglctthe thermallosses.In the sectionon the propertyof gaseswe discussed
'adiabatid'change,whichmeansthatthereis no timeto exchangeany heat.Boyle'sLaw,
?.y= constanf is
no longerapplicable,but changesto, ?.lf = constant".The xponentK (kappa)for air is 1.4.The tableot the
compressionratiotablefrompage7 is reproducedbelowwithan additionalrowfor p.t^ = constantand one
withthe ratiolsothermic/ adiabaticcomoression,
1
2
4
5
6
tl
10
I
Pabs
crisothermic 0.987 1.987 2.974 3.961 4.948 5.935 6.923 7.908 8.895 9.882
cl adiabatic 0.991 1.633 2.178 2.673 3.133 3.576 3.983 4.38 4.749 5.136
factor
I
1 . 2 1 6 1.365 '1.482 1.579 1.66 1.738 1.80 1.873 1.924
-61-
PNEU ATIcTEcHNoLoGY
To compensate,or the phenomenarelatedto this change,withoutmakingthingstoo complicated,the
theoreticalvolumtlow has to be multipliedby a ,actor1.4,whichrepresentsa fair averagecontirmedin a
high numberot practicaltests.This tigureis lessthan in theory,but the changeis generallynot 100%
adiabalic.
Table6.20showsthe liguresof table6. 19,but withthiscorreclionfactor.
Piston dis.
20
25
32
40
50
63
EO
100
3
o.174
o.272
0.446
0.697
t.088
1.729
2.790
4.355
WorkinePrssurein bsr
!
4
6
o.2t7
0.260
0.304
0.340
0.408
0.476
0.557
0.668
0.779
0.870
!.044
1.218
1.360
1.631
r.903
2.t59
2.590
3.021
4.t76
4.870
3.482
5.440
6.525
7.6t1
0.347
0.543
0.890
L391
2.174
3.45r
5.565
8.696
Table6.20AirConsumption
of doubleactingcylinders
in litersper100
strokecorrected
tor losssbyadiabalic
change
Example2:A cylinderof 63 mm dia.and 500 mm slrokeworksal 6 bar.Whichis the realair consumptionfor
15cyclespermin?
. nr4.500mm. sotrin.
O= 1.4. (63mmr2
ffiff
.16-66634;1s1
= 453.19s
Umin
By usingthe table,we find 3.021yminper 100 mm skoke.This ligurehasto be multiplidby 150,tor 5

times100mm strokeand30 timesperminute:150/min.3.021liters= 453.15l/min.
DO NOT COPYWTIHOTJTWRITTENPERMISSION
PTIEU ATIC TECHNOLOGY
horanvA C T U A T O R S
R A C K A N D P I N I O NT Y P E
The outputshatthas an integralpiniongeardrivenby a rackanachedto a doublepiston. Standardangles
of rotationare 90" or '180'.
Rack
Pinion
ISOSymbol:
Fig 6.21 Backand PinionRotaryActuator

VANETYPE BOTARYACTUATORS:
Air oressureacls on a
vane, which is attached to the
outputshaft. A titiedrubbr
, seal or lastomercoating
sealsthe vaneagainst
leakage.
Elastomer
Damper
A specialthre
dimensionalsealsealsthe
stopperagainstthe shaftand
the housing.The size of the
stopperdelineslhe rotalion
angleof 90, 180or 270'.
Adjustablestopsmay be
providedto adjustany angle
ot rolationof the unit.
,rOar*$
180'
900
Fig 6,22VaneTypeRotaryActuator
I Z I N G R O T A R YA C T U A T O R S
orque and Inartia
Linearcylindershavea cushionto reducethe impactwhenlhe pistonhitsthe cover.The capacityof the
f'
cushioningis the kineticenergyit can absorb.This6nrgyquaV! ' vZ.lt is mostimportantwhena loadis

propelledwith littletrictionand highspeed.
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRTTTENPERMISSION
-63-
P N E U M A T I Tc E c H N o L o c Y
Thesedynamicsare evenmoreimportantto understandin the caseof a rotaryacluator.A tree stopof a
rotatingmasswithoutcushioningor overloadingrisksbreakingthe pinionor vane,The allowableenergy
publishedby the manutacturer
muslbe caretullyrespected.
J=m.r
6 J=m. V-
J=m.
rl 2+122
+I ri
J' = m .
r 2
4
J=m.
v
I
,#,*,
' i l Ea -
!-::-!.
-'d-mb= n,t r
y r=m".**'o.F
a+b
ll
2 . ^ '2
ta2+c2 +lho'oo#"
i
'
1 J = n a Ti- 1 2
Fig. 6.23 Formulaefor the momentol inertiaof variousbodyshapes

To definethis energywe needto knowthe inertiaof the rotatingmass.Thinkol its materialbeing
composedof extremelysmallparts;the sum of the massof eachindividualpart,multipliedby the squareot its
distancetromth6 rotationaxis givesthe tolal inertia.
The basiccaseis a cylinder,lts inertiaqualsits masstimesthe squareof the radius:
J = m. f.
(kg.m2)
DO NOT COPYWITHOUT WRITIEN PERMISSION
-&-
P N E U M A T I C T E C HN O L O G Y
The inertiaot morecomplicatedformshasto be calculatedwiththe helpof tormulator specificshapes'Fig.

6.23showsthe formulaelor a numberof basicshapes.
hasto be splitup intobasicelementsand the parlialinertiatoialed.For examplea
A rotatingconstruction
chuckon an arm as in fig. 6.23k is addedto the ineriiaof the arm by multiplyingits masswilh the squareol
the distanceof its centerof gravitytromthe rotationaxis.
Wheneverpossible,rotatingmasseshaveto be stoppedagainsta mechanicalstop,prferablya shock
absorber.lt shouldbe placedas far fromthe axisas possibleas in tig. 6.24a.Any closerto the centerwould
createa reaclion,seefig. 6.24b.lf an xternalstopon the arm itsellis not possible,it can be donewitha
stopperleveron the oppositeend of the shaft.This is subiectto highreactionforcesand shouldbe doneonly
withthe consenlof the supplier,
StopperLeveron
souareShaftEnd
c
ShockAbsorbers
Stops
Fig. 624 Stoppinga rotatingarm
The inertiator rotatingobiectsis whatlhe movingmassis to a linearmovement.The energyis dofinedby
its speed.For a rotation,the speedis definedby the ?ngular Speedaf. lt is expressedin radiansper second.
Fig.6.25illustratestheseexpressions.
o-- |
rao
' = 7o
1 rad:o= 57.3'
of angularspeed
Fig. 6.25 Definitions
As for the cushioningcapacitytor linearmovements,
tor the maximumallowedenergyto be stoppedby a
rotaryactuatorwe haveto considerthe tinalspeed.An acceleration
by compressedair, if not limitedby a
may be consideredto be almostconstant.The movementstartsat zeroand
stabilizingback-pressure,
reachesaboutdoublethe averagespeed(Strokepertime)at the end of stroke.
-09-
Fortastpneumatic
movemenls,
calculations
haveto bebasedontwicetheaveragespedasfig.6.26
Low Speed
.- FinalSpeed
Hlgh Speed
- AverageSpeed
Flg. 6.26Averageand tinalspeed
S P E C I A LA C T U A T O R S
L O C K I N GC Y L I N D E R
A cylindercan be fitted
witha lockingheadin placeof
the standardend cover.
It will holdthe pistonrod in
any position.The locking
actionis mechanical,so
ensuringthe pislonrod is
securelyheld,evenin the
caseof pressurebreakdown.
Fig. 6.27TypicalLockingCylinder
R O D L E S SC Y L I N D E R S
With magnetlc coupllng, ungulded
MagneticRingswith
oppositopolarity
lron Discs
StainlssSteel
fig 6.28.TypicalRodlessCylinderwith magnticcouplingbetweenpistonand caniage

A conventional
cylinderof say 500 mm.strokemay havean overalloulstrokeddimensionof 11OOmm. A
rodlesscylinderof the samestrokecan be installedin a muchshorterspaceot approximately
600 mm. ll has
particularadvantageswhenvery longstrokesare required.
The magneticretainingforcelimitsthe forceavailabletroma magnetically
couplodtype of rodlesscylinder.
It equalsthat of a normalrodcylinder,up to 7 bar workingpressure,but withdynamicshocksa separationof
the caniagefromthe pislonis possible.Verticalmovementsare therefornot recommended,
unlessa saletv
marginspecifiedby the supplieris obseNd.
-66-
Whenthe couplingbetweenthe carriageand

the loadcannotbe donein the centerlineol the
cylinder,but at a cerlaindistance(X in fig.6.29),
The
the allowabletorcedecreasesdrastically.
data,spocifiedby lhe supplierhasto be
respecledto avoiddamageto the cylinder.
Fig 6.29 SideLoadX reducesthe allowable

load
Gulded types, wlth magnetlc coupllng

Dependingon the kindof guideused,lhe problemof sideloadcan be solvedor madeworse.Withball
and alsothe slrokelength.Precisionguideshowever
bearingsfor the guide,a side loadcan be considerable
haveso littletolerancethat the slightstdetormationincreasestriction.Forthesetypes,the strokelenglhis a
maintactorfor the allowabletorce.Suppliersgivedatator any possiblemounlingorientationand side load.
Fig.6.30showsa
guiddrodlesscylinderwithmagneticcouplingbehveenpistonand carriage'
Fig. 5.30 Rodlesscylinderwithguides,ShockAbsorbersand cylinderswitches

It is rcommended
that the carriageis deceleratedsoftlywithshockabsorberson bothends;in fig. 6.30
theyare builtin. A rail holdsadjustableswitches,operatedby a magnetbuill-into the carriage.
Guided, with mechanlcal coupllng
Carrier
CoveringStrip
SealBelt
Cushioning
Tube
Piston
Cushioning
Seal
Fig.5.31RodlessCylinderwith mechanicalcoupling
For littingor movingheavierloads,a "slottedcylinder"typeexcludesthe riskot disconnection
of the carrier
fromthe pistonunderdynamicshocks,but it is nottotallyleakfree unlikethe magnetically
coupledtype.
P r { E UA T r cT E c H N o L o c Y
SLIDE UNlTS
The slideunitis a precisionlinearactuatorof compactdimensions,whichcan be usedon robotic
manutacluring
and assemblymachines.
, f f i " 8
Fig. 6.32TypicalSlideUnit
Preciselymachinedwork mountingsurfacesand parallelpistonguiderodsensureaccuratestraight-line
movementwhenbuiltin as part of the construction
of a transterand positionmachine.
In one position,the bodycan be tixedand the rodswith end barscan move(b). Upsidedown,the end bars
touchthe mountingsurfaceand lhe bodycan move(c). In bothcases,the valvecan be connectedto the fixed
part,eitherby the portsA and B, or Al and Bl in fig. 6.32a.
HOLLOW ROD CYLINDER
This actuatoris speciticallydesignedfor .pickand place.applications.
The hollowrod
providesa direclconnectionbetwena
vacuumsourceand a
vacuumpad,attached
to the rodsworking
end.The connecting
tube at the rearof the
cylinderremainsstatic,
whilethe rod extends
and retracts,
Vacuum
Connection
(stationary)
Fig. 6.33 HollowRodGylinderwith a non movingvacuumconnection
-68-
P N E U U A T t cT E c H N o L o G Y
|'rne
l n R o r A T r N cc Y L T N D E R
A so-calledrotatingcylinderis an assemblyot a linearcylinderwitha rotaryactuator.A rotatingarm can be
attachedto the shattand be equippedwitha gripperor vacuumpad to pickup wolk piecesand deposilthem
handling.
"pickand place"uni or materials
in anotherlocationafterrotatingthe arm.Thisgivesa
Fig. 6.34TypicalRotatingCylinder
\ I R C H U C K( G R I P P E B )
An actuatordesignedto
gripcomponentsin robotic
typeapplications.
Opened
MainPiston
I The typeshownhas
two opposingpistons,to
openand closthe iaws.
SecondaryPiston
SpeedControlScrew
Fig.6.35TypicalPneumaticFulcrumTypeGripper
Fig.6.36showsthreetypicalapplications
of the lasttwo elements:
Flg. 6,36Typical
Applications
of the
RotatingCylinder
andAir Gripper
-69-
7 D I R E C T I O N A LC O N T R O LV A L V E S
V A L V EF U N C T I O N S
A directionalcontrolvalvedeterminesthe tlowot air betwenits portsby opening,closingor changingils
The valvesare describedin termsot: lhe numberof ports,the numberof switching
internalconnections.
positions,its normal( not operated) positionand the methodot operation.The firsttwo pointsare normally
expressedin the trms5/2, 312,2!2elc.The tirstfigurerelateslo th numberol ports(excludingpilotports)
and the secondto the numberol gosilions.
The mainIunctionsand
are:
Principal Construclion
Symbol
Function
Application
2y2oN/oFF
Air motors and

withoulexhaust. pneumatictools
3/2 Normally
closed (NC),
pressurizing
or
exhaustingthe
outDutA
Singleacting
cylinders(push
type),pneumaric
signals
3/2Normally
open(NOl
prcssurizing
or
exhausting
the
outDutA
Singleacting
cylinders(pull
type),inverse
pneumaticsignals
4/2 Switching
betweenoutput Doubleacting
A andB, with
cylinders
comrnonexhaust
4
5 1 3
5/2: Switching
betweenoutput Doubleacting
A andB, with
cylinders
sePaBte...
exhausts.
5/3,Opencenter: Double acting
As 5/2 but with cylinders,with the
possibilityto deoulputs
pressurizethe
exhaustedin
mid-oosition
cvlinder
5/3 Closed
Double acting
centenAs 512
cylinden,with
but with rnidstopping
positionfully
possibility
shutoff
5/3 Pressurized Specialapplicenter:
cations,i.e.
Locking Cylinder
Table 7.1 ValveSymbols,Principles,descriptionand mainapplications
DO NOT COPYWTI}IOUT WRITTENPERMISSION
-70-
P N E U M A T IT
c E c HN o L o G Y
PORTlDENTIFICATION
The denominations
of the variousporlsare not uniform;thereis moretraditionthan respecledslandard.
Originally,the codespreviouslyusedlhe olderhydraulicequipmenthavebeenadapted.'P" for the supply
portcomesfrom"pump",lh hydraulicsourceot fluidnergy
The outletof a 2/2 or 3/2 valvehas alwaysben"A",the s6cond,antivalentoutputporl "8".
The exhausthas initiallybeen"R" from Return(to the oil tank).The secondexhaustport in 5,/2valveswas
thn namedS, or the former"R1"and the lattr"R2".
The pilolport initiatingthe powerconnectionto portA hasoriginallybeencoded"Z (thetwo elitreme
bners in lhe alphabetbelongstogether)and the other.y'.
Afler20 yearsbargainingaboulpneumaticand hydraulicsymbols,one ot the ISO workgroupshadthe
idealhat porlsshouldhavenumbersinsteadof letters,delayingthe terminationof the standardISO 1219by
anolher6 years.Supplyshouldbe "1",the outputs2'and "4', the pilotportconnecting"l"with 2" is then"12"
etc.Table7.2 showsthe tour mainsetsof port identifications
in use.Preterredare now the numbers.
Supply NCoutput NOoutput
P
P
P
A
2
Exhaustof
NC
R
R1
EA
B
B
exhaustof
NO
R2
EB
5
Table 7.2 Typicalportidentitications
Pilottor NC Pilotfor NO
z
z
PA
12
Y
Y
PB
14
M O N O S T A B L EA N D B I S T A B L E
Springreturnedvalvesare monostable.
They havea definedprefenedpositionto whichthey automatically
retum.
A bistablevalvehas no preferredpositionand remainsin eitherpositionuntilone of its two impulsesignals
are operated.
VALVE TYPES
The two principalmthodsof construction.are
Poppetand Slidewitheitherelastic.ormetalseals,Fig.7.3
relatesto the variouscombinations.
Directional
Control
Valves
MetalSeal
Flg. 7,3 The varioustypesof valvesand sealingmethods
P N E U M A T T CT E C H N O I O G Y
P O P P E TV A L V E S
Flowthrougha poppetvalveis controlledby a discor pluglittingat rightanglesto a seat,withan elastic
seal.
Poppetvalvescan be two or threeporl valves,f or a lour or five portvalvetwo or morepoppelvalveshave
Fig. 7.4 The maintypesot poppets

In a) the inlelpressuretendsto liftthe sealott its seat requiringa sutficientforce(spring)to keepthe valve
closed.In b) the inletpressuroassistslhe returnspringholdingthe valveclosed,butthe operatinglorcevaries
thereforewithditferntpressures.Thesetactorslimitthesedesignsto valveswith l/8" portsor smaller.
ISO Svmbol
Fig.7.5.Mechanically
operatedpopptvalv
Fig7.5 a) showsa NC 3/2 poppelvalveas shownin fig.7.4 b.

position(a),theoutletexhauslsthroughthe plunger.Whenoperated(b) the exhaust
ln its non-operaled
porl closesand the airflow'sfromthe supplyport P to the outletA.
Design7.2 c) is a balancedpoppetvalve.The inletpressureacts on equalopposingpistonareas.
NC NO
ISOSymbol
Fig 7.6 Balancad3/2 PoppetValve
Thisfeatureallowsvalvesto be connectedup normallyclosed(NC)or normallyopen (NO).
Normallyopenvalvescan be usedto loweror retumsingleactingcylindrsand are morecommonlyused
in satetyor sequencecircuits.
-72-
E U M A T T Tc E c H N o ! o c Y
S L I D I N GV A L V E S
Spool,rotaryand planeslidevalvesusea slidingactionto opn and closeports.
Spool Valves
A cylindricalspoolslideslongitudinally
in the valvebodywilh the air tlowingat rightanglesto the spool
movemenl.Spoolshaveequalsealingareasand are pressurebalanced.
Elastomet seal
Commonspooland seal anangemnlsare shownin tig. 7.7 and7,8.In fig 7.7 O-ringsare tittedin grooves
on the spooland movein a metalsleeve.Two of themare crossingoutputports,whichare lhereforedividedin
a greatnumberol smallhol6sin the sleeve.
Flg.7,7SpoolValvewithO-Ringsonthespool,crossing
thecylinderports
Thevalvein fig.7.8hassealsfittedin thevalvebody,whichar6keptin position
by meansof sectional
spacers
Flg. 7.8 SpoolValvewith sealsin the housing

Fig 7.9 sho|s a spoolwith oval rings.Nongof th6m haveto crossa porti butlust to open or closeits own
seat.Thisdsignprovidesa leakagefree sealwith minimumfrictionandthereforean xtremelylong life.
Flg. 7.9 Valvewithoval ringspool
P N E U M A T t Tc E c H N o L o G Y
Itetal Seal
Lappedand matchedmetalspooland sleevvalvshavevery low trictionalresistance,rapidcyclingand
longworkinglife. But 6venwitha minimalclearanceol 0.003mm,a smallinternalleakagerate
exceptionally
as longas the cylinderhasnot to be heldin a positionby
of aboutone l/minoccurs.Thishas no consequence
a 5/3 valvewithclosedcenlertor sometime.
EBPEA
EBPEA
Flg. 7.10 Principleof the seallessSpooland SleeveValve
,lane Slide Valve
Flowthroughthe portsis controlledby the positionof a slidemadeol metal,nylonor otherplastic.The
slideis movedby an elastomersealed,air operatdspool.
Flg. 7.11 5/2 PlaneSlideValve
DO NOT COPYWITHOUT WRITIEN PERMISSION
-74-
P N E U t r t A T t cT E c H
oLocY
notary Valves
A mlalporleddiscis manually
rotatedto interconnect
imbalance
is
theportsin thevalvebody.Pressure
employed
lo forcethediscagainstits matingsurfaceto minimize
leakage.
Thepressure
supplyis abovethe
disc.
tffi
P
ISO Symbol
A B
rT--r]
PEX
A E T
t--l
IT TI
PEX
A B
t-vt
PEX
ffi
PEX
Fig 7.12 Sectionthrougha RotaryDiscValveand a discfor a 4/3 tunctionwith closedcenter
-75-
P N E U U A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y
I
U A L V EO P E R A T I O N
MECHANICAO
L PERATION
On an automatedmachine,
mechanically
operaledvalvescan
detectmovingmachineparlsto
providesignalstor the automatic
conlrolof lhe workingcycle.
t-l
n
n
tldt
!ol/
-e+
=r
:E
l:Ez
:
:
Plunger StraighlBoller Square Roller
The maindirectmechanical
operators
areshownin 1i9.7.13
RollerLever
Fig 7.13The mainMchanicalOperators
Cate when using Roller Levers

Specialcaremustbe takenwhenusingcamsto operaterollerlevervalves.Fig.7.14 illustratesthis:the
utilizedportionof the rollerstotaltravelshouldnot go to the end ot stroke.The slopeot a cam shouldhavean
angleof about30"; steeperslopeswill producemechanicalstresseson the levr.
PT:Pre-travel
OT.: OverTravel
TT.:Total
W FollerStroke
to
beutilized
Fig. 7.14Carewith RollerLeversand Cams

Th one way roller (or idle rturnroller)will only operatewhenthe controlcam strikesthe actuatorwhen
movingin one direction.In the reversedireclionthe rollercollapseswithoutoperatingthe valve.
U I A N U A LO P E B A T I O N
Manualoperationis generally
obtainedby attachingan operator
head,suitabletor manualcontrol,
ontoa mechanically
operated
valve.
lry
Flush
'
l-r-\
E]
Baised
TfI
,ffi'
Mushroom
Flg. 7.15The mainmonostableManualOperators
Manuallyoperated,monostable(springretumed)valvesare generallyusedtor starting,sloppingand

otherwisecontrollinga pneumaticcontrolunit.
For manyapplicalionsit is
moreconvnientif the valve
ftsposi on. Fig.7.t6
marntains
showsthe moreimoortanltvoes
ol bistablemanualoperators
Im
l--r
E
m
t-,
-1
\ \
1+r
:
:
RotatingKnob
Toggle
Key
Flg. 7.16BistableManualOperators
-76-
P NE U I I I A T I Tc E c H N o L o G Y
AIR OPERATION.
Directionalcontrolvalves,usedas "PowerValves",shouldbe locatedas closeas possibleto ils aclualor
and be swiichedby remolecontrolwith a pneumaticsignal.
A monostsbleair operatedvalveis switchedby air pressureactingdirectlyon one side ot the spoolor on
a pislonand returnedto ils normalpositionby springtorce.The springis normallya mechanicalspring,but is
can also be an "air spring"by applyingsupplypressureto the spoolend,oppositeto the pilol port,or a
combinationof both.In the lattercase,the pilotside requirsa biggeretfectivearea,whichis providedby a
piston.
Air connection
for
spnngassistanc
Pistonwith twice the ara

of th spoolal sping side
Fig.7.17 A2 Ait operatedValve,with ah assistedspringretum

Air assistedspringretumgivesmoreconstantswitchingcharacteristics,
and higherreliability.
In fig 7.18an ak springis providedthroughan internalpassagefromthe supplyportto act on the smaller
diameterpislon.Pressureappliedthroughthe pilol portontothe largerdiameterpistonactuatesthe valve.
This methodof returninglhe spoolis oftenusedin miniaturevalvesas it requiresvery littlespace
ISOSymbol
ri
I
!
ir t4
Flg 7.18Ah operated3/2 Valvewith air springreturn

The air-operated
valvesdiscussedso far havebeensinglepilotor monostabletyps,but the more
commonair operatedvalvefor cylindercontrolhasa doublepilotand is designedto restin eitherposition
(bisiable).
PA
EAPEB
NFPA labels
EB
Fig. 7.19 Bistable,air operatd 5,/2Valve
-77 -
P N E u l t A T t cT E c H N o L o G Y
pulsehaslastbeenappliedto the pilotport"P8",shiftinglhe spoolto ihe dghl
In tig,7.19,a shortpressure
I andconnecting
through'EA".Thevalvewill
thesupplyport"P'lo thecylinderport'8". Port"A' is exhausted
'memoryfunction''
remainin this operatedpositionuntila countersignalis received.This is referredto as a
Bistablevalvesholdlheir operatedpositionsbecauseol lriction,but shouldbe installedwiththe spool
the positions
horizontal,especiallyif the valveis subiectedto vibration.In the caseot metalsealconstruction,
are lockedby a delenl.
Plloted Operation.
A directoperationoccurswhena force,appliedto a pushbutton,rolleror plunger,movesthe spoolor
poppetdirectly.Withindirect,or "piloted"operation,the externaloperaloracts on a smallpilotvalvewhichin
tum switchesthe mainvalvepneumalically.
JIS labls:
Fig 7.20 IndireclMechanicalOperation

Fig.7.20a showsa 5/2 Valvewilh indhector ?iloted" nchanicaloperationin its normalposition.Th
magnitieddetailsin b and c showthe pilotpartin normal(b) and in operatedposition(c).
-78 -
EU ATIc TEcHNoLocY
S O L E N O I DO P E R A T I O N
Electropneumatically
and electronically
controlledsyslemsare discussdin a laterbookin this seriesand
it is sufficienlat this stageonly to considerthe electricaloperationof directionalcontrolvalves.
In smallsizesolenoidvalves,an ironarmaluremovesinsidean airtighttube.The armatureis finedwith an
elastomerpoppeland is liftedtroma supplyseat in the bodyby the magnetictorce ol the energizedcoil. Fig
7.21a.
ISO Symbol
--=
D t:-_
FlgT,21 a:2J2,b: 3/2 directsolenoid,springretum,poppettypevalve.
A 3/2 valvehas also an exhaustseaton top and the armaturean elastomerpoppetin its top end (Fi9.7.21
b)
Directlyoperated5/2 solenoidvalvesrelyon the electromagnetic
forceof the solenoidto movethe spool
(1i97.221.
lt can only be a seallesslappedspooland sleevetype withoutfriction.
Flg. ?.22 Directsolenoidoperated512Valvewithspringretum

To limitthe sizeof th6 solenoid,largerand elastomersealedvalveshaveindirect(piloted)solenoid
ooration.
R2
JIS Symbol
Fi$.7.23 5/2 monostableSolenoidValvwithelastomercoatedspool
-79 -
P N E U M A T I CT E C H I I O L O G Y
it will retum,by meansof springs,whenbolh solenoids

, The 5/3 valvehas a third(center)positionto which
rarede-energized.(lig
7.241
JIS Symbol
Fig Z.24.Pilotoperated 5/3 Solenoid Valve with closed center and spring centeringvalve mounting
I R E C TP I P I N G
The mostcommonmethodof connectionto a valveis to screwfittingsdirectlyintothe threadedportsof a
so-calledbodyportedvalve.This methodrequiresone fittingfor eachcylinder,piloland supplyportand one
types,exceptfig. 7,22' whicn
silencertor eachexhaustporl,All the valvesshownpreviouslyare body-ported
is sub basemounted,.
ANIFOLDS
Manifoldshavecommonsupplyand exhaust
channElsior a givennumberof bodyported
valves.The outputrs
are connctedseparatelyto
eachvalve,
Cylinder Ports
AandB
Fig.7.25showsa manitoldwithtourvalvesof
difterenltunctions:a 5,/3.a bistableand two monostabletypesof the sameseries.
A manifoldshouldbe orderedlo accommodate
the requirodnumberof valves,extnsionis not
possible,but usinga blankingkit can sealspare
positions.
that
With5 or morevalvesit is recommended
air is suppliedand silencersmountedat bothends,
Common
Supply
Common
for
Exhausts
A andB Ports
'
Fig.7.25TypicalManifold
-80-
P N E u t , A ' I cT E c H N o L o G Y
SUB BASES
Valveswithall of theirportson one lace are designedto be gasketmounledon a sub base,to whichall lhe
externalconnectionsare made.Thisallowsquickremovaland replacemenlof a valvewilhoutdisturbingthe
lubing.Generally,a basemountedvalvehas a slightlybetterflow capacitythan a body-portedvalveof the
sametype.Fig.7,22showsa typicalbasemountedvalve.
M U L T I P L ES U B B A S E S
In a similarway to lhe manifold,
multiplesub basessupplyand
exhausta numberol valvesthrough
commonchannels.Alsothe cylinder
portsare providedin the sub base.
Multiplesub basesalso haveto
be orderedlor the reouirednumber
of valvesand are ableto be blanked
otf in the sameway as manifolds.
Fig.7.26showsa manitoldwith
lour basemounttypes3ii2Solenoid
Valves,The commonexhaustports
are to be equippedwilh Silencers,
prelerablyon bothendsto avoid
back-pressure.
This is not only
recommended
tor soundelimination
but also tor dust protection,
ValveOulputs
. (A Porrs)
Fig. 7.26 MultipleSub Basewithtour 3/2 Valves
G A N G E DS U B B A S E S
GangedSub Basesare assemblies
ol individualbass,whichallowany
reasonablenumberto be assemblsd
intoone unit.This systemhasth
advantageof allowingextensionor
reductionof the unit if the systemis
altered,withoutdisturbingthe existing
comoonents.
Thereis stillthe oDtionto
blankotf positions,il required.
Fig.7.27showsa typicala$sembly,
equippdwilh one monostableand two
bistablesolenoidvalvesand a blanking
plate.The individualsub basesare
holdtogetherwithclamps.Other
constructions
mayalso haveboltsor tie
rodsfor the purpose.O Rings,inserted
in groovesaroundthe channels,
providea leakagetreeconnectionof
supplyand exhaustchannelsfrom end
to end.
Fig. 7.27 GangedSub Basewiththreevalvesand one

blankedoosition.
V
A L V ES I Z I N G
t
I N D I C A T I O N SF O F F L O W C A P A C ] T Y
Portdimensionsdo not indicatethe flowcapacityof the valve.The selectionot the valvesizewill depend
on the requiredtlowrale and permissiblepressuredropacrosslhe valve'
provideintormationon lhe flowcapacityof valves.Flowcapacilyis usuallyindicatedas
The manutacturers
the so called"standardtlow" On in litersof lree air per minuteal an inletpressureot 6 bar and an outlet
pressureof 5 bar,or witha flowfactor,Cv or kv, or wilhthg equivalentFlowSection"S".Thesefactorsrequire
lormulaeor diagramsto definethe tlowundervariouspressureconditions.
The Cv faclor of 1 is a llow capacityof one US Gallonol waterper minute,witha pressuredropof 1 psi.
The kv factor of 1 is a llow capacityof one literol walerper minutewitha pressuredropol 1 bar.
The equivalentFlow Section "S" of a valveis the flow sectionin mm2ol an orilicein a diaphragm,
btweenpressureand flow.
creatingthe samrelationship
All threemethodsrequirea formulalo calculatethe airtlowundergivenpressureconditions.Theyare as
tollows:
C=400'Cv'
r_.013)
Q=21.94'kv
LtJ
t-=---:-=-;;-|
Q = 2 2 . 2 ' s' .vt (sD- z + r u J . s , | . A' p. '. 1 l\; t; -n-! + e
WhereCv, kv =Coefficients
ol flowand S =EquivalentFlowSectionin mm2
Q = Flowratestandardliters/min
p2 = Outletpressureneededlo moveload(bar)
pressuredrop(bar)
Ap or EAp = Permissible
0 = Air temperaturein *C
Withthis,the dimensionof 'a" O *
To lind the llow capacily,theseformulaeare transtormedas follows:
v
Cv=
k v =
4 0 0 . J F 2 + 1 . 0 1 3 ). A p
2 7 . 9 4 . 4 @ 2 + l - 0 1 3 ). A p
222. l@2 + r-013). Ap
-82-
E U M A T I cT E c H i I o L o G Y
1 C v = l kv=
The normalflow Ontor othervarioustlow capacityunitsis:

The Relationshio
betweentheseunitsis as tollows:
rs =
981.5 68.85 54.44

1
14.3
18
1.26
o.o7 1
0.055 o.794 1
Note:The outcomeof this calculationgivesin fact not the flow capacityof the valve,as we simplystated
above,but tor the assemblyof lhe valveand the connectingtubesand tilling.To get as muchtlow
capacity,thal of the valvehas to be higher.Howmuchhigher?
Orlllces In series connectlon
Beforewe can determinelhe sizesot valveand tubing,we haveto lookat how pressuredropsovera
numberot subsequentorificesin series.The formulafor the resulting"S" is:
s total=
s12*sl*"'sn,
To avoidunnecessarily
dealingwithsuchtormulaewe looktor a thumbrule.Fig.7.28.1and Fig.7.28.2
showthe relationship
betweena numberof orificesin.seriesconnoctionand the resultingflow.
C"=l
C'=l
C;l
C,=l
C;l
C;l
C"=t
Flg.7.28.1In Seriescircuit,all deviceshavinga C" of 1 and the resultingimpacton the circuit,sovsrallC,
\i_
--+
C,-=t
_><_><_#
=.x><+<_=
-..>---.>
c,=1.4
C,=1.4
C,=1.73 c"=1.73 C"=1.73
G".v"=1'0
C,*=1.0
c,=1
C-"=r
C"=2
C,=3
C*"=0.9g
C"*=o.06
C,=2
C"=2
Q,=2
C"-=1.0
c,=4
C,"r.=0.84 C",l/|=0.89
C*=0.82
Flg. 7.28.2Orificesin seriesconnectionand resultingllow

Retumingto our topic,we can say that it is mostobviousto haveaboutth sameflow capacityfor th
valve and the connectingtube withits fittings.We considerthesepartsas two equalflow capacitiesin series
connectionand lo havethe calculatedtlowthroughbothparts,the requiredsectionhasto b multipliedwith
1.4(\E ).
NOTEthat eventhoughthe C, is largrit reduces(whenaddedin series)the systemC, -- a chainis only

as strongas its weakestlink.The smallestoriticedeterminesthe llow for the circuit.
DO NOT COPYWTII{OUT WRITTENPERMISSION
-83-
E U T , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y
llow clplcrrY oF TuBEs

Stillunknownis the tlowcapacityof tubesand tittings.The formula,or the equivalentsectionot a tubeis:
r=
Lrr
S = s . .fr- where c is the tube cotlicient(se below),d the Pipe lD and L th tube length in mm.
I L
in
a = 2.669' Q . d0.155 whreq is thetubecoetlicient
fr
ct is 1.6tor gas pipeand 2.0 tor Plastic,Rubberand CopperTubes.The two formulaecan be unitedto
a2.655
S = q , 2.669.:--lf
vL
that wilh very shorttubesit is no longervaluable.For
This tormulahas,however,lhe inconvenience
as the effective
example:a tube8x6 mm with0.1 m lengthwouldhavean S ot 65 mmz.This is impossible,
areaof the innertube diamtris only28.26mm2.Thereforethe aboveformulafor Stotalhasto be appliedfor
correction.
Youcan by-passall thesecalculalionsby readingthe equivalentSectionof nylontubes,normallyusedfor
pneumatics,
fromthe diagram7,29.
'i:
20
10
0
0.02
0.05
0.1
o.2
0.5
5
1
0
ube Lengthin m
Fig. 7,29tho equivalentFlowSectionS in mm2of the cunenttubesizesand length
-84-
P N E U T T A T TT Ec c H N o L o c Y
The FlowSectionol littingshas to be specifiedin the catalogues.The totalof a tub lengthwith ils two
tittingscan be calculatedwilh the tormulaabove.To reducethe needot its use to exceptions,you can tind the
sctionsfor the mostcurrenttubeassemblisin table7.30.
Tube Material
Dia,
(mm)
4x2.5
N,U
l m
Lenqth
0.5 m
1.86
3.87
6x4
N,U
6.12
7.78
8x5
10.65
13.41
8x6
t6.&
20.28
l0 x 6.5
20.19
24.50
Fittinss
Inserrype
O n e ' lo uch
elbow
straisbt elbow
sraight
1.6
1.6
4.2
5.6
6
6
l3.l
t.4
(9.5)l l
ll
l8
t4.9
(t2) l 6
l7
2t.6
26.1
35
(24r30
l0 x 7.5
28.U
33.38
30
(23)26
12x8
33.18
39.16
J)
(24)30
12x9
43.79
5r.00
45
(27135
Total
0.5 m tube+
2 stn. fittinss
1.48
3.r8
3.72
5.96
6.73
9.23
10.00
r3.65
r2.70
29.5
25
15.88
19.97
41.5
35.2
46.1
39.7
22.t7
20.92
25.05
50.2
Table 7.30 EquivalentFlowSectionof currenltubeconnections
58.3
?9.45
32.06
Table7.30showsth flow capacityol currenttubesand fittings,basedon so called"push-in"or'On6

Touch"littings$tg.4.22),havingthe sameinnerdiametras the tube.Insertfittings(fig.4.21)reducethe flow
considerablyr
especiallyin smallersizes,and shouldbe avoidedfor pneumatics.
Valves wlth Cylinders
We now retumto the cylinderconsumption.
This is firstof all th p6akflow,dependingon speed.
Secondwe haveto definethe allowablepressuredrop,a maiorligurein calculatingthe valvesize.An
assumptionol aveEge velocitymay be made,sincemaximumtlow is achievedat a pressuredropof
-- lor our purposes23"/.is the maximumallowablepressuredrop (halfof 46%)-- the
approximately
46010
NFPAstatesa 157omaximumpressuredrop is d6sir6d.
The actualsizeol the valvehasto be muchhigherlhan the theoreticalvalue,to compensatefor the
additionalpressuredropin the connectingtubesand fittings,as discussedabove. But if th maximumflow is
determined(limited)by the finingsand tubingpart of the circuit-- changingthe valvefor a largerflow
capabilitywill not havean etfect. E.g.il lhe valvehasa C" of 2 and th tubingand fittingscollectivelyhavea
C, of 1 -- the systemwill not be improvedby a valvewitha C" 4); noie Fig.7 28.2.
To makethingseasy,all the calculationsmentionedbeforcon lhis subject,table7.31,givesyou the
requiredequivalentsectionS tor the valvand tor the selectionot a suitabletubeand fittingsassemblylrom
table7.30.Th6 tableis basedon a supplypressure6 bar (approx.90 psig)and a pressuredropof 1 bar (15
psig)beforethe cylindr.lt includesalsoth6 lossby adiabaticpressurechangeand th temperalure
coetficientfor 20'G. Usuallythis will sufficefor mostrealworldapplications.
-85-
P N E U T / | A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y
dla.mm
8,10
12,16
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
140
160
50
0.1
0.12
o.2
0.35
0.55
0.85
1.4
2.'l
3.4
5.4
a.4
10.6
13.8
100
0.1
0.23
0.4
0.67
1.r
't.7
2.7
4.2
6.8
10.8
16.8
21.'l
27.6
Averageplston speed ln mm/s

150 200 250 300 400 500
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5
1
0.36 0.46 0.6 0.72
1.2 1.6
1
0.8
0.6
3.4
2.7
2
I
1.3
c.c
3.7 4.4
2.2 2.4
8.5
6.8
5
2.6 3.4 4.3
8.1 10.8 13.5
4
5.4 6.8
A E
8.4 10.5 12.6 16.8 21
10.2 13.6 1 7 20.4 27.2
16.2 21.6 27
750
0.75
1.8
3
5
8.5
12.8
20.3
1000
1
2.4
4
6.7
11
17
27
za.z
EqulvalentFlow Sectlon in mmZ

Table 7.31EguiyalentSectionS in mm2for the valveand the tubing,lor 6 barworkingpressureand a
pressuredropol 1 bar (OnConditions)
Allhoughthe assumedpressureof 6 bar and a dropof 1 bar are a quitenormalcase (the Qîs basedon
thermightbe otherpressureconditions.Thenthe figuresfromtable7.31 rquirea
the sameassumption),
conection.The diagram7.32givsthe percentageol the tiguresin table7.31for any practicallypossibleinput
pressuresand pressuredrop.
ct
1.8
1.6
1.4
P12
1.2
0.8
7
I
o
'10
0.6
0.4
1.25 1.5
?p in bar
Fig. 7.32CorrectionFactor"cf'for the Sectionsgivenin Table7.31,for otherpressureconditions
DO NOT COPYVVITHOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
-86-
PNEU ATtcTEcHNoLocY
The figuresbelowthe boldlineare values,whichar6 in gneralnot coveredwith 5/2 valves.Wherethese
sizesare not available,two High Flow3/2 vatveswill do the iob.
Example1
An 80 mm Dia cylinderwitha strokelengthof 400 mm has an averageworkingpressureol 6 bar.The
maximumallowablepressuredrop is 1 bar. lf a cylinderspeedot 500 mm/secis required,what is the
minimumCv of the valve?
We find in Diagram7.31 an equivalentsectionof 34 mmz.To obtainthe Cv factorwe haveto dividethis
numberby 18:34 /18 = 1,89.
A Tubsizeof 12 x 9 mm.with"OneTouchFittings'is requiredto get this speed.
Example2
A 50 mm Diacylinderhas to run witha speedof 400 mm/s,with an availablesupplypressureol 7 bar
and an allowablepressuredropof 2.5 bar.That meansthatthe cylindersize is basedon an eflective
pistonpressureof 4,5 bar.
Table7.31givesan S of 10.8mm2.This figureneedscorrectionfor a supplypressureof 7 bar and a ?
ot 2.5 bar.We followthe line? bar fromthe rightto the lft untilit interects the verticalline of 2.5 bar p. We
find a "cf of 0.66.The requiredS ot the valveand the.tubeconnectionis therefore10.8. 0.66= 7.128mm2.
Selecta valveof this size or bigger.A tube of 8x5 or 8x6 mm Dia is suitable.
-87 -
PNEU
ATtc TEcHNoLoGY
A U X I L I A R YV A L V E S
N O N . B E T U F NV A L V E S
A non-returnvalveallowstreeaidlowin one directionand sealsil otf in lhe opposite.Thesevalvesare
also referredto as checkvalves.Non-retumvalvesare incorporaledin speedcontrollersand self-sealtittings
etc.
ISOSymbol
Flg 7.33 Gheckvalve
b
p e e oc o N T R o L L E B s
I
I
A "speedcontrolle/'consistsof a checkvalvand a variablethrottlein one housing.lt is also correctly

will cali devicsspeedcontrols
calleda Flow Control (baseduponits symbol).Manytimesmanufacturers
and,in fact,theyare reallyneedlevalves,veriiywiththe symboltobe certain.
Keepin mindthat flow controlscan onlyslowdowna cylinder;they posea restrictonin bolhdirectionsof
air flowand thereloreslowthe responseof the cylinderon boththe extendas well as the retraclstroke.In
mostcasesflowcontrolsshouldbe usedto meterthe exhaustflowot a cylinder.Thiswill providebetter
conlroland a smoothercylinderstroke.
Fig.7.32showsa typicalexamplewiththe flow indicated.In a), air flowslreelyto the cylinder,in b) it flows
backto the exhaustDortof lhe valvewitha restrictedtlow.
ISO Symbol
Fig 7.34TypicalSpeedController/ FlowControl

S H U T T L EV A L V E
This is a three-ported
valvewithlwo signalpressureinletsand on outlet.The outletis connectedto eithr
signalinput.lf only one inpulis prssurized,
the shuttlepreventsthe signalpressuretromescapingthrough
the exhaustedsignalporton lhe oppositeside.(Fig7.35)
-88-
E U A T T cT E c H N o L o G Y
ISOSymbol
Fig. 7.35ShunleValve
P N E U i , A T I CT E C H T { O L O G Y
U I C K E X H A U S TV A L V E S
Thiscomponentpermilsa maximumoutstrokingpistonspeedby exhaustingthe cylinderdirectlyat its porl
witha grealllow capacity,insteadof throughlhe tube and valve.
The rubberdiscclosesoff the exhaustporton the bottomas the supplyair tlowsto the cylinder.Whenthe
direclionalcontrolvalve,connecledto the inletporton top is reversed,the supplytube is exhaustdand the
opensthe wideexhaustport.
discliftedby the cylinderpressure.lt thencloseslhe inletportand automatically
CYL
ISOSymbol
Fig 7,36.QuickExhaustValve;a: Connection,b: Withoutpressureor cylinderunderpressure,

c: tlowto cylindr,d: exhausting
Withminiaturecylinders,it happensquiteeasilythal the volumeof the tube betlveenvalveand cylinderis
as big or evenbiggerlhan that of lhe cylinder.ln thal case,lhe air in the tube is onlycompressedand
decompressed,
but nevercompletelyevacuatedand moisturecan condensatein the tubesand disturbnormal
operation.lf a shortertube is not possible,a quickexhauslvalvecan be usedto solvethe problem.
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITTENPERMISS]ON
I B A S I CC I R C U I T S
NTRODUCTION
BasicCircuitsare asssmbliesol valveslo pertormcertaintunctions.There area limitdnumberot
circuitsare composed.
elementarytunclionsof whicheventhe mostsophisticated
Theselunctionscan havethe abilityto:
. Control a cylinder,or
. Operateanothervalve
- for remolecontrolfroma Panel,
- to changeone valvefunctionintoanother,
- for safetyinterlocksetc.
The lattertypeof lunctionis also relerredlo as a "logicalfunclion".Thereare four basiclogicalfunctions:
.tdenttty ("YES")
. Negatlonor Inversion ("NOT')
. AND
.OR
We will not dealwith logicalmethodsot switchinghere,but we will usethe lermsas theyclearlydescribe
functionsin a singleword.
: L E M E N T A R YF U N C T I O N S
FLOW AMPLIFICATION
A largecylinderneedsa largeAir Flow.One
can avoidhavingto manuallyoperatea large
valvewithsutficientflowcapacityby usinga
largeair operatedvalveand operatingit witha
smallermanuallyoporatedvalve.Thistunctionis
called"FlowAmplification".
This is oflen
combinedwith remotecontrol:the largevalveis
clossto the cylinderbut the smallone can be
builtintoa panelfor easyaccess.
Fig, 8.1 Flowamplification

or indirectcontrolof
S l G N A LI N V E R S I O N
The methodas shownin fig. 8.1 cen alsobe
usedto changethe functionot a valvefrom
normallyopento normallyclosedor vic6versa.
It valve@ in tig. 8.2 is operated,the
pressureon the outputof valve@ disappeaF
and reappearswhenO is released.
Fig.8.2 Signallnversion:
it valve@ is operated,
thepressure
ontheoutputof valve@ disappears
andre-appears
when@ is releasd
DO NOT COPYWTHOUT WRITTENPERMISSION
-91 -
PNEUl|ATtc TEc HNOLOGY
SELECTION
Selectionis achievedby convertingfrom a 3l2 to a 5/2 function.
The initiatingvalveO is a small3/2
manuallyoperatodvalve,th indirctly
opraledvalve@ is a 5/2 valveof a
sufticienttlow capacitylo actuatea doubJe
actingcylinder.UsingthislunctionFlow
Amplification
is also per{ormed.
One positionof the toggleswitch"lightrs"
lhe greenindicator,the othef lights"th rd.
The samefunctionis also usedtor
selectionbetweentwo circuits:one of the
portsol th 5/2 valvesuppliesfor example
an automaticcircuit,lhe other,valvesfor
manualcontrol.This makessurethat no
automaticactioncan take placeduring
manualoDeration.
Flg. 8.3 Selectionbetweentwo circuitswithone

manuallyoperatedmonostable312valve
M E M O R YF U N C T I O N
A regulartype of
lunctionreouirementis to
perpetuatea momentary
valveoperationby
holdingits signalon, until
anothermomentarysignal
switchesit permanently
otl.
The red indicatoris
"memorizing"that valv
Flg. 8.4 Switchingtrom redto greenby trippingvalve@ and from green
@ was the last to be
to red with valve @
operatedand the green
indicatorthat valveO will
give the signalto change
over.
-92-
P N E U $ A T t cT E c H t { o L o c Y
ME FUNCTIONS
A pneumaticdelayis basedon the time requiredto changethe pressurein a fixedvolume,by the airflow
)ughan orifice,As this is a meteringfunction,subjectto changingcondilionsin supplyair,certain
inconsistncies
shouldbe sxpected.
In addilion,do not relyon Timealonetor circuitsatety-- e.g.thereneedsto be somepositiveindicationof
a partbeingpresent,a processbeingcompleted,anctso on.
lt, witha givenvolumeand
orificewe get the prssureîme
a in fig.8.5.Eithera
volumeor a smal16r
orifice
changeit to b.
In the caseof characteristic
a,
timedelavto switcha valvewith
switchingpressureps will be lt,
b it will be increasedlo t2.
In praclice,the pressureot the
is connectedto the pilot
oi a spring retum valve and a
speedcontrolleris usedto varythe
orifice,ils built-incheckvalve
an unrestricted
tlow in the
direclionand thereforea
resttime.
of compressedair,
Fig. 8.5 The pressure/ time relationship
flowinglhroughan orificeintoa volume
Thereare tourditferenttime related

functions:
1. The delayof switchingON a pressur
signal
2. The delayof swilchingOFFa prssure
signal
3. A pulsto switchON a pressuresignal
4. A pressurepulseto switchOFF,
ON
InitialSignaloFF .
a) delayedat'ON'
b) dlayedat 'OFF"
c) Pulseat "ON'
d) Pulseat "OFF'
Fig. 8.6 The four timefunctions
-93-
P N E U tA r t c T E c H N o L o c Y
D E L A Y E D S I ' Y I T C H t N GO N
Fig.8.7 showshow a pressur
signalcan be delayed.The signalon
the outputport (A) of valve@ appears
E variabletim atteroperationof the
valve@. This is due to the flow
restrictionvalveand the reservoir
(whichmay be nothingmorethan a
largediametersectionof tubing).
For a veryshortdelay,the
reservoircan be omitted.
Flg. 8.7 Delayedswitchingon
D E L A Y E DS W I T C H I N GO F F
The delayedreselof a valveis
achievedin lhe sameway as btore,
but insleadof limitingthe air flow
towardsthe pilotportol valveb, its
exhaustis restrictod.
Fig.8.8 showsa delayin
switchinga signalott. Atteroperating
valve(Dthe indicatorimmediatly
goeson, bul afterreleasingthe
valve,the indicatorwill slay on for an
adjustableperiod.
Flg 8.8 Delayedswitchingoff
P U L S E O N S W I T C H I N GO N
lf a signalfroma valveis passinga
normallyopenvalve,whichis operatedwith
the samesignal,therewill b no pressureat
the outputof the latlervalve,Howeverif its
operationis delayed,the pressurecan pass
untilthe operaliontakesetfectafterthe delay.
The resultis a pressurepulseof adiustable
durationon the outputof the normallyopen
valve.
In fig. 8.9, a pulseappearsat the outputot
the normallyopenvaNe@, whenthe vatue(D
is switchedon.
Fig. 8.9 Pulseon switchingon
-94-
P N E U M A T I C T E C H NO L O G Y
P U L S E O N F E L E A S I N GA V A L V E
,'
Whnthe pressurepulsehasto
appearatlerlhe initialsignalhas been
switchedotf,lhe pressurelo produce
it mustcomfromanolhersource.
The methodis lo simultaneously
operatea normallyopen3Y2Valve@
and pressurizea volume@ withthe
initialsignal.WhenvalveO is
released,vafue@ switchesin its
normalposition,connectingthe
volumewithils oulput.The prssure
lrom the volumewill ebb awayaftera
shortperiod,adlustableby meansof
the soeedcontroller.
signal
Fig. 8.10 Pulseon a disappearing
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRNTEN PERMISSION
-95-
PNEU ATIc TEcHI{OLOGV
C Y L I N D E RC O N T F O L
M A N U A LC O N T R O L
Slngte Acttng Cyllnder
Ditect Operation and Speed Control
lf a singleactingcylinderis connectedto a
manuallyoprated312valve,it will extendwhen
lhe valveis oDeratedand retumuDonrelease.
This is the so-called'directcontrol.'ln the caseot
a largecylinder,tlowamplificalionas shownin fig.
8.1 is applied.
The only way to regulatethe outstrokingpiston
speedof a singleactingcylinderis to throttlethe
flow intoit. The speedol the returnstroke,by
meansof the spring,is seldomlimitedin practice.
.Fig.8.11Directcontrolot a singleactingcylinder
Control from two points: On

Function
A cylinderor a valvemay
be operatedin two ditfrent
ways,lor example,manuallyor
via a signalfrom an automatic
circuit.
lf the outputsoI two 3/2
valvesare interconnected
with
a Tee,the air comingtromone
ol the valveswill escape
throughthe exhaustof the
olher.
A shuttle valve type
applicationavoidsthis
Droblem.
ShuttleValve
Flg. 8.12 Operationof a single

actingcylindertromtwo points
DO NOT COPYWTII{OUT WRITTENPERMISSION
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EU
ATIC TECHNOLOGY
tntetlock: AND Function

ln somecasestwo conditionshaveto be fulfilledto allowa certainoperation.A typicalexamplecouldbe
thata pnumaticpressmay onD operateit a satetydooris closedand a manualvalveis operated.To control
operated3/2 valve,the inpulot the manuallyoperatedvalveis
the safetydoorit tripsa mechanically
connectedto its output,so thereis an openflow pathonlyif bothvalvesare operated'
In caselhe signalsfromthe h/vovalveseachhaveanolherpurpose,as illustratedin circuilb by the two
indicators,an air operaled312valvecanperformthe AND Function:One of the signalssuppliesit, lhe other
operatesit.
Fig. 8.13Satetyinterlock:AND Function
lnverseOperction:NOT Function
Mechanicallocks,stopsfor
productson a conveyorand
similarsituationsmightrequire
a cylinderto be energizedlor
locking.Unlockingoccursby
operatinga valve.For this
typs of applicationa normally
oDnvalvecan be used, lf
however,the samesignalfor
unlockingmustalsostartany
otherdevice,as symbolized
by the indicator(D in fig. 8.14,
a signalinversionhasto be
used,by operatinga separate
air operatednormallyopen
valve@, witha normally
closedvalveO.
Flg, 8.14 SignalInversion:the cylinderretractswhnvalveO is tripped
E U M A T T cT E c H | t o L o G Y
Double actlng Cyllnder

Dirccl Conlrol
The only diflerencbetweenthe operationof a
doubleactingand a singleactingcylinderis that
a 5,/2valvehas to be usedinsteadof a 3/2. In its
normalposition(notopsrated),port"8" is
connectedwiththe supplyport "P". lt hasto be
connectedto the rod sideof the pistonif the
cylinderis naturallyin the negativeposition.
For independent
speedcontrolin both
directionsthe speedcontrolleris attachedto both
connections.
Theirorientationis oppositeto that
of a singleactingcylinderas the exhaustingair
is throttled.This givesa morepositiveand
sleadiermovementthanthrottlingthe air supply.
Insleadof supplyingiust enoughpowrto get the
pistonmoving,an additionalloadis addedwitha
backpressure,whichincreaseswith increasing
speed,thus compensates
variationsin the load.
i
i
i
I
.Flg.8.15 Directcontrolof a doubleactingcylinder
Holding the end positions

In mostcases,a cylinderhas to maintain
its position,evenafterlhe operatingsignal
has disappeared.
This requiresthe
"Memonf functionot fig. 8.4.A bistable
valvewill stay in positionuntilswitchedtrom
the oppositeend.
In Fig.8.16,the outgoingstrokeot a
doubleactingcylinderis initiatedwithvalve
@ and retumedwithvalve@. Valve@
maintainsits positionand thereforealsothat
of the cylinder.
Valve@ will onlyoperatewhenonryone
of the manuallyoperatedvalvesis
depressed.lf both pilotportsare
pressurizedat the sametimthe spool
maintainsits primarypositionas an equal
prcssuron an equalareacannotoverrid
the primarysignal.
In circuitryihis phsnomenonis knownas
'ovrlappingcommands'and is one of the
maiorproblemsin circuitdesign.
Fig. 8.16 Maintainingthe positionsot a doubleacting
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PNEU
A'IC
TECHI.IOLOGY
b e r e c r r N cC Y L T N D P
E oRs t r r o N s
ûtometlc Return
Valve@ in the circuitof fig. 8.16can be replacedby a rollerleveroperatedvalve,trippedat the positive
end of the cylinderstroke.Th; cylinderthenswitchesvalveO backby itseltand thus returnsautomatically.
of a cylinder.
This is reterredto as reciprocation
I
I
I
Valve@
siluatedhere
Fig. 8.17SemiAutomaticreturnot a cylinder

A problemwill arisEil valve@ is not releasedwhenthe cylinderreachesthe end ol its stroke,th6 cylinder
doesnot retum.Valve@ is unableto switchvalve@ backas longas the opposingsignallrom valveO
remains.A bistiable
valvecan only be switchedwitha pilotpressurewhenthe oppositepilotinputhas ben
exhausted.
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P N E U M A T TTcE c H t { o L o c Y
ll the cylinderhas lo returnunconditionally
as soonas it reachesthe end of stroke,a simplesolutionwould
be lo transformthe signalof lhe manuallyoperaledvalveintoa pulse.This is a combinationot the two
elementarylunctionsot fig. 8.9 and 8.17.
I
I
I
ValveO
situaledhre
F19.8,18Automaticretumof a cylinder6venwitha remainingsignal
EU ATICTECHNOLOGV
|}epeattng Slrotes
By sensingbothendsof the strokewith rollerleveroperatedvalvesand usingthemto switchthe main
valve@ bact-andlorth,the cylinderwill rciprocate.ln orderto stopthe motionwe applyan ANDfunctionof
valvethe
fig. 8.13.Witha bistablemanuallyoperatedvalveconnectedin serieswilh the roller-operaled
position
negative
cylinderwill ceas6to cycleif switchO is tumedotf, butas beforeit willalwaysreturnto the
Fig.8.19 Repeatingstrokeas longas valve@ is operated
S E Q U E N C EC O N T R O L
H O W T O D E S C R I B EA S E O U E N C E
A few ruleshelpus in describinga cycleof movementsin an extremelyshortbut precisemanner.
Nomenclature
Eachactuatorassumesa capital lettr.
Its positionot rest,in whicha circuitdiagramis drawn,is definedas "ZroPosition".The oppositeend
posilionis the "1" posilion.
Pressursignalsto switchdirectionalcontrolvalvesare called"commands",to distinguishthemfromother
signals,e,g.fromleverrollervalves.A commandfor movinga cylinderfromthe "zero"to the "1" positionis
caltda 'posilive"command;in the caseof cylinder?', ils codeis simply'A+".Accordingly,
th commandto
refumcylinderA is ?-".
As the restposilionis called'zero",it is logicalto codethe valvethat sensesthe rest positionof cylinder
wim 'a6".The oppositepositionis thencalled"a1".Forclarity,signalsar alwayscodedwith lowercase
-J"A"
letters.The sensedpositionis designatedby an index.
P N E U A T T cT E c H i r o L o c Y
In Fig.8,20thsecodesar6 reproducedin a schematicsetupfor clarity.This setupis calleda "Functional
Unif , as it provideseverythingrequiredto performa machinetunctionand to conlrolit.
Direction
aoG
lSignals: as
Fig. 8.20 FunctionalUnitwith all codes

S E Q U E N C EO F T W O C Y L I N D E R S
Withthesecodes,we can writea sequenceof two cylinderslor examplewith:
A+, B+, A-, BThe sequenceof evenlsnow becomespatentlyobvious.
Nowcomesthe queslionof wh6rthesecommandscomefrom.The answeris quitesimple:lrom the roller
levervalvesthat sensethe endsof the stroke.They alsoneeda cod,againquiteself-explanatory:
lhe terminalionof a command(A+, B+)will alwaysbe signaledby the roller/lvervalvewiththe same
letterand an indexnumber:"at", "bt", a Zero Command A- by ao, etc.
Withthesecodeswe can writethe solutionfor thg abovementionedsequenceas tollows:
A+ -) al .+B+-)bf-+A--+i0+B-*bO
We also neda manuallyoperatedvalvetor startingand stoppingthe sequence,it is placedin the lin6
priorto the firstcommand,A+. Shouldthe sequenceneedto conlinuethenthe startvalveshouldbe lettopen,
but it th circuitis switchedoff in mid-cycleit will continueto operateuntilall ot the movementsin the
sequencehavebeencompletdand thenthe cyclewill cometo rest.This meansthatthe lastsignalbo has
apparedbut it is unableto passthroughthe startswitch(coded"sf). This is anotherapplicationol the
elemntary'AND" functionof fig. 8.13.The commandA+ needsbothsignals:bg and"sf. In switchingalgebra
this is writtenas a multiplication
in normalalgebra:"st . b0'.
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PNEU ATIcTEcHNoLoGY
This may be referredlo as a "closedloop' circuit.The sequenceof signalsand commandsis lhen as
lollows:
Slgna,s
Commands
The samesequenceas in the blockdiagramaboveis drawnin Fig8,21as a pneumaticcircuitwith ISO
Symbols.As we havenowcodedthe rollerlevervalvesaccordinglo theirposition,thereis no needto draw
shownnearthe cylinders,or indicatethem
valvestopographically
the circuitas a mapwiththe end-of-stroke
withnumbersas in figures8.18and8.19.
The standardis to drawall the cylindersat the top, dhectlybeneaththemlheir powervalvesand below
circuitstheremay be some
thosethe valvesprovidingthe end of strokesignals.ln moresophisticated
'sf in fig.
additionalvalvesin a levelbetweenthe mainand signalvalves.This is the casewiththe startvalve
8.21.
SIngle Cycle / nepeatlng Cycle
The type of valveusedfor startingthe sequencemakesthe ditferencebetweenthe two cycles:if it is a
monostablevalvand we trip it, one singlecyclewill be pertormed.In the caseof a bistablevalve,the cycle
will repeatcontinuously
untilwe resetit. No matterwhenwe do it, the circuitwillalwayscompletethe cycle
andthen slop.
Fig. 8.21Circuitlor the sequenceA+, B+,A-, B-
P N E U i I A T t cT E c H N o L o G Y
O P P O S I N GC O M M A N D S
Ellmlnatlon wlth a Pulse
Clamping: Pressure Control
Shorlslrokesinglactingcylindersare oftenusedtor clamping.Althoughthy can havebuilt in switches
tor electricalcontrol,thereis no secudly,ls the parl to be machinedsutficientlyclampedto withstandthe
lorcesexeriedon it duringmachining?The only reliablesignalis one that indicatessufficientpressurebehind
lhe piston.For this a "SequenceValve"is used.lt allowsthe operatorto adjustthe minimumpressurerequired
lor secureclamping.
The pressureit hasto senseis that of the clampingcylinder,so ils pilotinputhas to be connectedwitha
Tee to the cylinderport;its outputsignalwill then startthe machiningoperation,(cylinder"8").The cylinder
haslo relurnimmediatelyaftrthe operationis tinished,i,e.the end of the stroke,valve"b1" will providethis
intormation.
Herewe face a problem:B is unableto relurnas longas the clampingcylinderA is pressurized,but also il
musl not relumand un-clampbetorethe machiningdeviceis backin the rest position.We can againusethe
basiccircuitof fig 8.9 to solvelhis problemby transforming
the remainingsignalfromlhe sequencevalveinto
a pulse'The cycleis startedmanuallybut in practice,lheoperatorwill inserta componentfor machiningand
thn keepthe buttondepresseduntilthe work is completed.Seelig 8.22for clarification.
Flg. 8,22Circuitfor clampingand machining,singlerycle

Thereis howeveran imperfection:
if the operatorrelasesth buttonafterthe machininghas started,the
clampwill open.We haveto preventthat.The solutionis to "memorize"the manualstartingsignalwithth
circuitof fig. 8.16.For the tunctionol valve1 in that circuitwe useda valvetor sensingthe rst positionof
cylinderB, a valve"bo'. But that valveis operatedin the restposition,whenclampinghas beendoneand B
has to outstroke.
DO NOT COPYWTT}IOUTWRITTENPERMISSION
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PNEUMATIC TEC'II'IOLOGY
This meansthereis anotheropposingcommand,whichwe haveto get rid of -- by makinga pulseof ilr

t
t Thatresultsin the circuitof fig. 8.23:
T-I
Fig. 8.23Clampingand machiningwith addilionallocking

Cascade System
You mustadmitthatthe way in whichopposingcommandshavebeenliminatedin the previousexample
cannotbe lhe bestone.Theremustbe a morestraighttoMard
and reliablesolution.
The trusolutionis to switchoverlappingsignalsofi, nol by timingtricks,but by switchinga selectorvalve
as in the circuitFig,8.3,The problemis to knowwher6sucha valvehasto be put in and how it is to b6
switchedand connected.
Thereis a simpleproceduretor drawingsquentialcircuits,called'The CascadeSystem". The cycleis
dividedintotwo or moregroups.For furtherexplanation
we assumethatthereare onlytwo groups.Eachone
has a supplylinetromthe selectorvalve.
The divisionof the groups,tor examplecycle"A+, B+, B-, A-" is doneas follows:
Lookingat eachcommandfromlettto right,we can sub-dividethe commandsintogroups,the rule being
that you mayonly have1 commandin eachgroupbe it either + or - e.g.:
A+, B+
groupI
lB-, A-.1
groupll
The principleremainsthe samewith longercycles,whenit hasthreeor moregroups.lt is not necessary

thal the cyclestartswitha new group;the end-of-cycle
may be in the middleof a group.The "starustop"
valve
is simplyput in the lineto lhe firsl commandot the cycle.Sometimesone hasto try untilthe leastamountot
groupshasb66nfound.
Furtherrulesare explainedin the followingblockdiagram:

all turlhercommandsin groupll
all furth6rcommandsin groupl
tirstcommand
in groupI
firstcommand
in groupll
line groupI
linegroup
FirstCylinderValveto be switchedin group t .
@ All end of strokevalvesin group l, exceptthe last in sequence.

@ All the commandsto the mainvalvesin group I are suppliedlrom " line group 1".
The valvesensingthe end ol the laststrokein groupt switchesthe selector;
@ the line
of groupI is exhaustedand that of groupll pressurized,
rR\
Mainvalveof the cylindermakingthe firststrokein group ll ,
\g/
@ All end-ofstrokevalvesgivingthe commandsin groupll ,excplthe lastone,

@ All end-ofstrokevatuesgivingcommandsin groupll are suppliedfrom 'line groupll".
@ The valvesensingthe laststrokein groupllswitchesthe selectorback.
lg. 8.24 BlockDiagramof the CascadeSystem
The steps of the circuit are now quite easy. The start switch is alwaysinsertdin the line to the first
commandol the cycle.ln the exampleabove,lhe cycleendsat the end ot a group;this is not alwaysthe case
and,as mentiondabovenol necessary.
This will be demonstrated
withone xample:the givencycleis: A+, B+, A-, C+, D+, IL B- Glf we dividethe sequencefrcm the trontwe get the resultas belowa 3 GroupCascade:
lA+, B+,1A-, C+, D+,1D- B- C-.
lf we dividethe sequencefrcm lhe rearwe lind lhal we now haveonly2 groups,as the movementsA+,D,B-,C-can all be performedwiththe samegroupair:
A+,1B+, A-, G+,D+,1IL B- C..
The cascadevalvewill be switchdon with al and b6 switchedbackwith dt. The start/ stopvalvewill be
in the connectiontromcOto lhe commandinputA+,
P N E U I , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y
Rememberthat bothrollerlevervalves,coded wilha zero index,haveto be drawnin the opelaledposition,

as youcan se in the diagramof fig. 8.25for the seguenceA+, B+, B-, A-.
r-ll
T-l
t#
r.
zK
Flg. 8.25 Two cylindercascade-
DO NOT COPYWTIHOUT WRITIEN PERMISSION
r-1
9K
APPENDIX
SYMBOLS
ARE
T H E S Y M B O L SF O R F L U I D P O W E RS Y S T E M SA N D C O M P O N E N T S
H
Y
D
R
A
U L I CA N D
S T A N D A B D T Z EIDN I S O 1 2 1 9 .T H E S T A N D A R DC O M B T N E S
COMPONENT
O
F
A
P N E U M A T I CC O M P O N E N T SS. Y M B O L SS H O W T H E F U N C T I O N
A
C
C O R D I N GT O
B U T D O N O T I N D I C A T ET H E C O N S T R U C T I O NA.S A N E X A M P L E :
A
C
O
N
V
E
N
T
IONAL
I N S Y M B O LB E T W E E N
I S O , T H E R EI S N O D I F F E R E N C E
A
L
T
H
O
U
G
HS O M E
D O U B L EA C T I N GC Y L I N D E RA N D A T W I N B O D C Y L I N D E R ,
F
O
F
T H E I RO W N S Y M B O L S
M A N U F A C T U R E RH
SA V E I N T R O D U C E D
CLARIFICATION.
A I R T R E A T M E N TE O U I P M E N T
The basicSymbollor Air Cleaningand Air DryingComponentsis a diamondwiththe inpuland output
drawnas a linefromthe lettand rightcorners.The specificlunctionis indicatedinsidethe diamondwith a few
furthrsymbols.The tablebelowwillxplainitself.
The basicsymbolfor pressureregulatorsis a squarewiththe inputand outputdrawnin the middleof the
leftand rieht.lide.Airflowis indicatedwithan anow,the settingspringwitha zigzag,crossedby an arrowtor
Th6 rirainsymbolsare:
adjuslirbility.
ISOSYMBOLSfor AIR TREATMENT
+
+ +
,A
\I/
Air
Heater
Heat
Exchanger
Multistage Lubricator
MicroFilter
Pressure
Reoulation
-Z-
E-
,--E_ A
Ll s fr-++tJ:
Basic
Symbol
Adiustable Pressure Regulator

Regulator with rlief
Setting
Spring
Units
FRL Unit.detailed
Diftrenlial Pressure
Pressure
Gauge
Regulator
FRLUnit,
simplitied
Fig. A.1 Symbolslor Air TreatmentComponentsISO 1219
P N E U t r t a r l cT E c H N o L o c Y
ACTUATORS
A linearcylinderis drawnas a simplitied
is madebetweenpistonandother
crosssection.Nodifference
typesof cylinders.
A rolaryactuatorhasitsownsymbol;herealso,it appliesforall kinds,withrackandpinion
or vantc.
SinglActingCylinder,
pushtype
t-n
t
T-T
SingleActingCylinder,
pulltype
DoubleActing
DoubleActingCylinderwith
adjustableair
DoubleActingCylinder,
withdoubleend rod
RotaryActuator,
doubleActing
Flg. A-2 ISOActuatorSymbols

VALVES
The basicsymbolfor a directionalcontrolvalveis a groupof squares.The inputand exhaust(s)are drawn
on the bottom,the outputson top. Thereis one squarelor eachfunction.As valveshavetwo or moredifferent
functions,squaresare linedup horizontally,
the ruleof thumbis thal eachfunctionis representedby a square:
mt \
Insidethe square,flowpathsare indicatedby anowsV

shut portsare shownwiththe symbolT.
\ betweenthe interconnected
ports,intemally
Externally,on the bottomot lhe square,air supplyis shownwitn6 anAexhaustswithV.

A supplyline is drawnas a solidline,
a pilotline is dashed
exhaustlinesare dottod
Symbolslor the operatoraare drawnon the endsof the doubleor triplesquare.
The followingoperatorsymbolsare shownfor th left-handside,exceptthe spring,whichis alwayson the
oppositeside of an operatoras it is a res6tmechanism,bul is technicallytermedas an oprator.ll operators
are placedon the righthandsidethey will be in reverse(flippedhorizontally).
DO NOT COPYWTHOUT WRMTEN PERMISSION
- 109-
PNEu Atlc TEcHNoLoGY
The mainopeEtorsymbolsare:
ReturnSpring(in facl not an
operator,bul a built-inelement)
BollerLever:
M
CE
general:
Manual
oPerators:
Mechanical(plunge0:
-.
one'wayFlollerLever:
qr-
Lever:
\cE
r
i--
PushButton:
Button:
Push-Pull
(F-
I
I
Delenlfor mechanicaland manualoperators(makesa monostablevalve

D&
bistable):
ni, Operationis shownby drawingthe (dashed)signalpressurelineto
rtreside of the squareithe directionof the signalllow can be indicatedby ---D--'
a trianole:
o,, oplration for pilotedoperationis shownby a rectanglewitha triangle. l-El
Thissymbolis alwayscombinedwithanotheroperator.
II
operatio
on"o solenoid
"
I
I
I
piloted
operation l7T1
solenoid
I The table A-3 below explainsho\r,,these symbollemenlsare put togetherto lom a completevalve
symbol.
fi'ffi' -d*h" s;li;l

d:?Hfl"
+m f,'ffi'-ffik" s&ia
^t
oR
lW
tr,
AJ LI-l
T\ rr\rr Al
T i
\ \
t ry
/
|-f-l l-
,
|
\
. \
/
\
fT-T-|.
'
Exhaust
V "='z
Inpul
Mochanical conftictdto
Operation
O.rtout
-
\
/ Manuallvooerated, \ \
Open312valve,
i ,Normally
ITTFI
/
^ ^',
ffiil#,iilf';i'"";J\Jffi
wirhsprinsRetum
O --"'.-6!
lnput dosd,
OutDut
exhaustd
"--t#
^na,*ry
Rlum
Spnng
H NM
lnDut
dosd.
Input
'Ouput
Fetum
Mchanicel connctedto gxhaustedDpnng
Output
Operalion
o R =
rr|
lT\ |
Mechanically
Operated,
normallyclosed312
(non-passing)
ValvewithSpringReturn
ainsrpptv
6/
\o.,n"r.
Fig. A-3 Howto combineValveSymbols
- 110-
E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c v
ctRcurTs
B A S I CR U L E S
A circuitdiagtamis drawnin therestpositionol thecont.olled
machine,
withthesupplyunderpressure,
but
in lhecaseof mixedcircuits,
power.Allcomponents
withoutelectrical
mustbedrawnin thepositions
resulting
fromlh6seassumptions.
Flg.A- 4 illustrates
this:
fhis cylinderchamberandthe rod sideot
pistonar undsroressure:rod
Feat cylinder
chamberandthis line
are exhausted
Thisline is in connectionwith
lhe supplylhroughthe valve:
il is oressurized
In resttheE is no solenoidnergized:operator
inacliveandvalvepositiondefinsdby the spring
As springdefinesposition,
thissquareis in function
Flg. A.4 BasicRulesfor composingcircuitdiagrams

REST POSITION
Mechanically
operatedvalves,controllingthe restpositionsol the cylinderdrivenparts,are operatedin rest
and haveto be drawnaccordingly:withthe externalconnectionsdrawnto the squareon the operatorsid.In
a normallyclosed3/2 valv,the outputis then connectedwiththe supplyand theretoreunderpressure.
Equally,if the signallineto a monostabloair operatdvalveis underpressure,ii hasto be drawnin the
operatedposition.
Furtherrulesar6:
ManuallyoperatedValves
ruru
delent,mustcorrepond
wlthvalveposition
no pEssut
r-l
| |
T
| \---t_
| \
I^^,
-----6-v3/2,normallyclosed
IT
HJ
pressure
I -l.
ff. .
i/
noon,uun
o*ur"
-I_\ ]/VV
(,
3i/2,normallyopen
monoslable
valvesnevet ooerated
3il2,normally
bistablevalves:both positionspossible.
Fig. A-5 Bulesconcemingvalvepositions:ManualOperation
DO NOT COPYWTTHOUTWRITfEN PERMISSION
- 1 t 1-
P r ' I E UT , A T I C T C H N O L O G Y
operatedValves
Electrically
andpneumatically
Alr operatedvalves may be operatedIn rest
jg_ejg:s_uP_+,_
Solenoldsare never operaledIn roat

Flg.A.6Rulsfor restposilionol solenoidand air operatedvalves
Mechanically
operatedValves
No valvewlth lndex'1" ls
All valveswlth Index"0' ar
Fig. A-7 Ruleslor restpositionof mechanically

operatedvalves
C I R C U I TL A Y O U T
In a circuitdiagram,the flowof the workingenergyis drawnfromthe bottomto th top and the sequenceof
the workingcyclelrom th6 leftto the right.Consequntly,
thd air supply(FRL)Unitis situatedin the lowerleft
corner,lhe cylinderlhat pertormsthe firststrokeof the cycl,in the upperleftcomeretc.
The powervalvesare drawndirectlybelowtheircylinders;th6ytorma 'PowerUnit'thalis codedwitha
capitaffetter(seeNomenclalure).
In purelypneumaticcircuits,312rollerfiever
valves,controllingthe nd
posilionsof the cylinderdrivenmachinepartrs,
are situatdin a lowrlevel.
Betweenpowervalvesand the powerunilsthremaybe additionalvalvesto nsurethe correclsequence
(memorylunction),and,somtimes,additionalvalvesto realizecrtaininterlocksby logicalfunctions.Th6
bloc* diagramot fig. 6 explainsthis moreetfectivelythandescriptions.
- 112-
P r ' r E U M A T rTcE c H N o L o c Y
Laststrokeof th6 cycle
Firststrokeot the cycle
LOGICLevel
Memories,
AND's,OR's,
Timingsetc.
,fsrll
tI
SIGNALINPUTLevel
Codes:a9, ar ,bo ,br ,%
*{I"il"ilqil
andcl
Flg, A The basiclayoutof.apneumalic.circuit

diagram.
NOMENCLATURE
Previously,pneumaticcircuitsweredrawn'topographically,
withthe roller-operated
valvespositionedon
top, drawnas beingoperatedby 'cams'on th6 cylinderrodends.This is the situationwe will haveon the
trainingkit whensimulatinga machinecontrol.In modemmoresophisticated
circuits,this leadsto a muttitud
of crossinglines.The modemand only reasonablmethodis to linethe symbolsof theseroller-operatod
valvesup, as in Fig.A-8, and posilionthemto allowverticalsignallines,straightto theirdestination.Their
placeon th machineis then indicatedwith a selt-explanatory
code.
This selFexplanation
is achievedby conslddngcertainequipmntto formone functionalset.The starting
pointis the "PowerUnit"whichis codedwith a capitallefter.This can be in alphabetical
order,in the sequence
of the workingcycle,or initialsot th operation,{or exampbrc" fur clamping;"D" for Drillingetc.
The (mentiond)lunctional sef includesthe actuator,the powervalveand the two roller/lever
valvesthat
detectthe two end positions.
The rest positionis codedwith an indexf0', the fuorkingposition"with a "1". Notethat the restpositionis
the real positionof the movingmachinepartsand not that of the pistonrod.Only in simulationwitha training
kit do we considr'rodin" as the rest Dosition.
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-113-
P N E U M A T I C T E C HN O L O G Y
valvs,and commands,signal
betweena signal,producedby lhe roller/lever
W6 haveto ditferentiate
.
I pressuresthai operatelhe powervalvesilnsimplecircuits,a signalcan be a command.Thenthe codeof the
signaldelinesthe source(thenow completedactionon the machin),and the codeof th commandtells
whichnextmovementwill be started.In morecomplicatedcircuits,a commandwill be the outpulof a valve
usedtor a logicaltunclion.
valvesoperatedin the rest positionhavean indexzero.Those
As th r6stoositionis rc', all end-of-stroke
position")
havean index"1".Fig.A-9 showsa situationwitha littingiable
(\^,ork
opratdin the opposlteend
valv
is switchedon in the threeversions:as a situationsketch,
starvstop
movingup and downas longas the
simulated
withthe trainingkil and lhe circuitdiagram'
looks
when
an imDression
of howlhe circuit
CIRCUIT
Flg. A-9 Comparisonof a situationsketchwiththe simulationset-upand the ckcuildiagram
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-114-
P EUxA'Ic TEcHNoLoGY
S A M P L ED I A G B A M S
We will lookat this in a samplediagram.DiagramA-10is the circuittor the sequenc:
"A+, B+, B-, A-".
ll is dividedintothe threlevels,the powersectionon top, the signalinputrson the bottomand in between
the 'signalprocssing'.This latlertermmeans,thatthe signalstromth machinenegdadditionalsignals
ancuorfogicalinterconnection
lo gt the rightsequsnce.In this case,a memoryisrequiredto be switchedby
the commands"M+"and "M-".Youwill rcognizethis valyeas the cascadevalvain tig. 8.25,whichis of
coursea memory,Logicalfunctionsare lhe seriesconnections(ANDfunctions)of lor examplthe start/stop
valvewiththe memory.The ellect is, that as longas the cylinderA is not backin its rest positionthe startis
not effective.Onlyafteroperationof the rollerlevervalvea6,the memorywill be resetintothe drawnposition
and supplyair to lhe startvalve.This allowsrepeatingcyclesby switchingthe starystopvalve"ON".Resetting
it intothe drawnrest positionwill causethe sequenceto stopaftercompletionof the runningcycle.
POWERLevel
<A-_CommandAI
I
co'Uand-Ll
LOGICLevel
Signal
Processing
staru$op
M-l
Signalbl
and i--CommangEEi
I
- -1
.
Siqnalao and
I CommandM+
t
lI
SIGNALLevel
Checkingthe machine
Fig. A-10 SampleDiagram
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-115-
P N E U M A T t cT E c x N o L o c Y
Industrialpneumaticswill continueto be a reliable,costetticient,and productivemeansto automate

an eflectivewayto storeenergyand
machinesand processes.lt remains,aftera cenluryof applications,
worK.
orovroework.
orovide
,=i,=&!i:il{:?rdtfiiei*
smarterproducts;machinesthat will, on
an elementarylevel,thinkaboutwhat
lhey'redoingand respondto ever
changingcircumstances.Pneumatic
componentswill continueto providelhe
powerto buildthe dreamsof emerging
tuturetechnologies.
The sectionof a machineshownon

the left shouldserveas a reminderthat:
1 . lherewill alwaysbe a needlo
automale.....there
areso manyold
machinesand fixturesthat can be
mademorefficientand more
productive
generalrule
2. simpleris btter.....a
o.
safestis notiust th6 bestway-- it is

the ONLYway. Neverdesigna
circuit,usea product,or operatea
machinewithoutsafetyas your
primaryconc6m.
The tuturerestson the lundamentals.
To continuein this fieldot study,consultyour localSMCotficeor distributortor additionalt6rittitles,

workbooks,and courseoflerings.
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- 116-

Basic Pneumatics

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Basic Pneumatics

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Fig. 2.1 Th BasicPnumaticSystem.

THE AIR CONSUMPTION

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We will discussthesecomponenisin moredeiailin sections4 to 7, aftera lookat the theoryof

EU ATIc TEcH OLOGV

Std. cubic meters/ sc

To namunitsby powersof ln,smallerandlargerthantheabovebasicunits,a numbero( prctixeshave

Metric Unit (m)

Table 3.3aConversionof Units

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PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLocY

2.iDs r 'loi lbf

SCFi = Sd. cllitic feet per

Table3.3b Conversionof Units

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Flg. 3.4 the varioussystemsof prcssureindication

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Fig. 3.5 illustration

Thetablebelowshowsthe pressureratiofor pressuresfrom 1 to

Notethe differencebetweenrducinga volumeot atmospheric

P,.V, = P"'V" P"=-t

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PNEU ATIc TEcHtIoLoGY

bv# of its volumelor everydegree

Law ot Gay Luaaac

Exampfe2: !4 = 100ff, f 1 = 40"F,T2= AO"F,VZ= ?

Wheref is the absolutetempraturein K (Kelvin)or R (Rankine).

This law providssone of the mainthofeticalbasistor calculalionto designor selctpneumaticequipment

or,pt + | p. v't2= Fe+ L

v= 0.054Q/D'?(O is cfm, D is i.d. in inches)

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g/m (Atrnospheric) 4.98

13.04 17.69 23.76 3t.64 4 1 . 8 3 5 4 . 1 1

Tabla 3.7 WaterSaturationof Air (DewPoint)

actual water content

Erample 1: Temperature25oG,r.h.65"/0.Howmuchwateris crntainedin 1 m3?

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of 23'76g '1'44 = 34.2g (b)

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(jn (s..4r/ ,nin)

Flg, 3.9 Diagramshowingth relationship

The trianglein the lowerrightcornermarksthe rangof "sonicflowspeed".Whenthe airrlowreachesa

witha llowof ff = 50 l/minthroughan

' (pl -pa) (vmin)

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Downstreamprasauro(wrtical [nes) in psig

Flg. 3.10Air tlowcurvesfor a deMcehavinga C, of 1.0 (derivdfrom the abovetwo tormulae)

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Flg. 4.2 SingleStagePistonCompressor

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PNEU ATIc TEcH oLoGY

Flg. 4,3 Two StagePistonCompressor

The diaphragmprovidesa changein chamber

Continuoushighflow ratesin xcessof 400

Flg 4.6 Scr6wComprossorPrinciple

The mostcommonindustrialtype of air

litors/min. Th capacitymay alsob describedas displacedvolume,or 'TheoreticallntakeVolume",a

onlythe firstsiagecylindershouldbe considered.

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The specltic energy con3umptlon is a measureof.theoveralleflicienryand can be usdto stimatethe

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For induslrialplants,the rulof thumbfor the sizeof the reservoiris: