Project 1

On
Cotton & Cotton dyeing

with Reactive Dye

By Group B1

Faculty: Prof. A.B.M. Abdullah

Dept. of Textile, PAU

Course Code: TXE- 410

Cousre Title: Poject 1

Project On Cotton & Cotton Dyeing

With Reactive Dye

Group: B1
Name
Md.

Ariful

ID
Islam.

111-459-041
Faruk Hosen.
111-498-041
Md.
RayhanChawdhary.
111-526-041
Md. Masum Khan
111-550-041
Rony Paul..
111-558-041
AhmedulKabir..
111-568-041

Md.

Asaduzzaman..

111-569-041
SadiaSiddiqueTanne...
111-571-041
Md.
MonjururRahaman...
111-574-041
Md. Feroze Mahmud...
093-301-741

Content

Page

COTTON..
1-16
1 Botanical Classification of cotton.
2 History of Cotton..
3 Types of Commercial Cotton
4 Where Cotton Grown
5 Cultivation of cotton..
6 Picking.
7 Ginning
8 Sampling......................
9 Sampling Technique
10 Classification of cotton
11 Cotton Grading
12 Properties of Cotton fiber..
13 Structure of Cotton fiber
14 Chemistry of cotton fiber
15 Technical process of cotton.
16 Cotton Products..
17 The useful characteristics cotton fiber..
18 End Uses Of Cotton

1
1
2
2
2-3
3-4
4
5
5
6
7
7-8
9-11
12
12-15
15-16
16
16

PRETREATMENT17-23

19 Singing.. 17
20 Objectives & Advantages of Singeing 17
21 Types of Singeing Machines 18
22 Desizing..................................
.
18-20
23 Scouring of cotton. 20-21
24 Bleaching of cotton fabric 21-23
25 Mercerizing 23
REACTIVE DYE..24-36
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

Trade names. 24
Reactive dyeing. 25
Properties of reactive dye 25
Classification of reactive dyes. 26-27
Dyeing mechanism of reactive dye. 27-28
Dyeing conditions.. 28
Application method.. 29
Methods of reactive dye application 30-32
Knit dyeing with reactive dyes 33
Hydrolysis of Reactive Dye... 34
Influencing factors.. 34
Influence of pH in reactive dyeing ... 34-35
Dyeing problem &Prevention .. 35-36
Stripping of reactive dye 36

FINISHING( After-Treatment).37-41
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48

Calendering.37
Softener Finishes.38
Raising..38
Crease resistance.38-39
Mechanisms of Fixation Processes 39
Dye Fixation in Steam..39
Thermofixation.40
Antimicrobial finishes..40
Antimicrobial Finishing Methodologies 40-41

A report submitted on Cotton &Cotton Dyeing

with Reactive Dyeto the department of textile
engineering in partial fulfillment of the credit
requirements for awarding the Bachelor Degree in
textile engineering by Primeasia University.

Introduction
The manufacturing of textile is one of the oldest and most important industries of all.
From the dawn of civilization men use clothing to cover their body. The raw materials of
manufacturing of textiles are fibers. Fibers can be twisted together to form a thread and
then woven into cloth. Since the early days, all the hundreds of different sorts of natural
fibers have been collected and examined as potential raw materials for producing cloth
and the vegetable fibers are the most important of all textile fibers. Specially cotton fiber
has a versatile importance compare to any other fibers in textile manufacturing sector.
Cotton is the backbone of worlds textile trade. Many of our everyday textile fabrics are
made from cotton fiber. It is one kind of seed fiber. Like the other plant fibers, cotton is
essentially cellulosic fiber. But it is not produced by the plant as part of its skeleton
structure, as are the bast and leaf fibers. Cotton is attached to the seeds of plants of the
Mallow family; the fiber serves probably to accumulate moisture for germination of the
seed.
In cotton, nature has given us an all-round utility fiber that is second to none. Cotton is
inherently strong and it is stronger at wet condition than dry condition. This property
allied with cottons stability in water and alkaline solutions, endows cotton garments with
a long useful life. Cotton can withstand at repeated washings. Cotton fiber is
comparatively strong, dimensionally stable, fairly rigid & stiff. It has a great resistance to
alkali and normal cleaning solvents and is not affected unduly by moderate heat. Cotton

fabrics combine remarkable durability with attractive wearing qualities. They have a
pleasant feel or handle and they are cool in hot weather. The versatility of cotton has
made it into the most widely used of all textile fibers.
Cotton is used for an immense variety of textile application and various dyestuff are
available which will give satisfactory results under almost any conditions encountered in
practice. Direct, basic, reactive, sulphur, vat and azoic dyes are mainly used for dyeing
cotton goods. Nowadays reactive dyes are most widely used for dyeing different types of
cotton goods. Reactive dyes have a great affinity to cellulosic fiber like cotton. They are
cationic dyes and make covalent bond with cellulose of cotton fiber. They have a good
fastness properties, high leveling quality and ability to produce bright shades of wide
range.

Cotton
The word cotton is derived from the arabic language, depending upon the Arabic dialect, it is
pronounced as kutan, Qutn or Qutun.
A soft white fibrous substance surrounds the seeds of a tropical and subtropical plant that is a
member of the Hibiscus family and botanically known as Gossypiumhirsutum or barbadense is
used as textile fiber.
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule. The fiber is almost
pure cellulose. Under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will tend to increase the dispersion of
the seeds.

Botanical Classification of cotton:

There are four commercially grown species of cotton, all domesticated in antiquity:

Gossypiumhirsutum upland cotton, native to Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean

and southern Florida, (90% of world production)

Gossypiumbarbadense known as extra-long staple cotton, native to tropical South

America (8% of world production)

Gossypiumarboreum tree cotton, native to India and Pakistan (less than 2%)

Gossypiumherbaceum Levant cotton, native to southern Africa and the Arabian

Peninsula (less than 2%)

 History of Cotton:
No one knows exactly how old cotton is. Scientists searching caves in Mexico found bits of
cotton bolls and pieces of cotton cloth that proved to be at least 7,000 years old. They also found
that the cotton itself was much like that grown in America today.
In the Indus River Valley in Pakistan, cotton was being grown, spun and woven into cloth 3,000
years BC. At about the same time, natives of Egypts Nile valley were making and wearing
cotton clothing.
Arab merchants brought cotton cloth to Europe about 800 A.D. When Columbus discovered
America in 1492, he found cotton growing in the Bahama Islands. By 1500, cotton was known
generally throughout the world.
Cotton seed are believed to have been planted in Florida in 1556 and in Virginia in 1607. By
1616, colonists were growing cotton along the James River in Virginia.
Cotton was first spun by machinery in England in 1730. The industrial revolution in England and
the invention of the cotton gin in the U.S. paved the way for the important place cotton holds in
the world today.
Eli Whitney, a native of Massachusetts, secured a patent on the cotton gin in 1793, though patent
office records indicate that the first cotton gin may have been built by a machinist named Noah
Homes two years before Whitneys patent was filed. The gin, short for engine, could do the work
10 times faster than by hand.
The gin made it possible to supply large quantities of cotton fiber to the fast-growing textile
industry. Within 10 years, the value of the U.S. cotton crop rose from $150,000 to more than $8
million.

Types of Commercial Cotton:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Sea Island cotton

Egyptian Cotton
South American Cotton
American Cotton
Indian Cotton
China Cotton
Bangladeshi Cotton

Where Cotton Grown:

Cotton grows in warm climates and most of the worlds cotton is grown in the U.S., Uzbekistan, the
Peoples Republic of China and India. Other leading cotton-growing countries are Brazil, Pakistan and
Turkey.

In this country, the major cotton-producing states are: Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Georgia,
Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tenne The
yield in the U.S. averages approximately 1 1/3 bales per acres and about 1,078 pounds of seed. A U.S.
bale weighs around 500 pounds.
This yield is about twice as much as in 1950 and is due to better land use, improved plant varieties,
mechanization, fertilization and irrigation. It also is a result of much better control of disease, weeds and
insects. A major part of the credit for this progress goes to scientists working at experiment stations and in
laboratories, and to agricultural extension workers who bring the findings to farmers.see and Texas,
Florida, Kansas and Virginia.

Cultivation of cotton:
Successful cultivation of cotton requires a long frost-free period plenty of sunshine and a
moderate rainfall, usually from 600 to 1200 mm (24 to 48 inch). Sails usually need to be fairly
heavy, although the level of nutrients does not need to be exceptional.
Soil: Cotton needs a soil with an excellent water holding capacity and aeration and good
drainage as it cannot withstand excessive moisture and water logging. The major groups
of soil for cotton cultivation are the alluvial soils, block soils, and red sand loom.
Seed rate and spacing: Depending upon the variety, soils type. The cultivation on
practices and method of sawing, seed rates and spacing have been recommended. A seed
rate of 15-25kg/ha and spacing of 75-90 cm between the raw are generally recommended
for irrigated conditions.
Optimum sowing time: Sowing of crops depends upon water resources and varies from
region to region. Sowing in rows can be done either by drilling, dibbing, or placing the
seeds in furrows behind the ploughs.
Fertilizers: fertilizer application differs from country to country depending upon
available nutrients in the soil. For dry land cotton crop, 20kg of nitrogen, 18kg of
phosphorus, 78 kg of potash is economical. Nitrogen is applied in splits doses, half dose
at the time of sowing and other half as top dressing during thinning or just before
flowering. For irrigated cotton this dose can be double.
Water Requirement: Water depending upon the nature of the soil and the weather
conditions. Generally cotton crops needs 6-8 irrigations and 600-800 mm of water during
its lifetime.
Cultivation practices: Before sowing, the soil is ploughed, loosened and harrowed to
make soil suitable for cultivation.
Inter-culture: weed controlbegins 30-40 days after sowing. Thinning of cotton is a
special feature of the irrigated crop.
Diseases and pests: Cotton aphids, cotton jassids are controlled by spraying parathion
0.08%. Cotton leaf roller, spotted ball worm, pink boll worm are controlled by dusting
crop with 10% carbonyl.

 Optimum harvesting time: cotton is harvesting in three or more pickings taken suitable
intervals. The season of harvesting varies with of sowing, duration of variety. Generally
the crop is sown In June-September and September- October id harvested from
November to march to June respectively. Well dried balls are picked either manually or
through harvesters.
An average boll will contain nearly 500,000 fibers of cotton and each plant may bear up to 100
bolls. In about 140 days after planting or 45 days after bolls appear, the cotton bolls will begin to
naturally split open along the bolls segments or carpel and dry out, exposing the underlying
cotton segments called locks. these dried carpel are known as the bar, and it is the bar that will
hold the locks of cotton in place when fully dried and fluffed, ready for picking.

Picking:
Cotton is being picked up in two different and dissimilar ways; one is manual picking and
another is machine/mechanical picking.
1. Manual Picking:
Manual picking simply means hand picking. The main advantage of manual picking is that ripen
unripe cotton can be collected separated easily. But the limitation is that low productivity e.g.
100 lbs/day/worker only.
2. Machine/Mechanical picking:
Speedy process thus higher productivity e.g. 600 Ib/ day/ machine. Machine picking has got
some limitation like- it picks leaves, stalk and sometimes dust, it mixes ripen and unripe cottons
these are difficult to separate later.

Ginning:
Ginning is the process of separating the cotton fibers from the cotton seeds. Perfect ginning
operation would be performed if the separation of fibers from seed was effected without the
slightest injury to either seeds or to the fiber. A cotton gin is a machine that quickly and easily
separates the cotton fibers from the seeds, a job previously done by hand. These seeds are either
used again to grow more cotton or, if badly damaged, are disposed of. It uses a combination of a
wire screen and small wire hooks to pull the cotton through the screen, while brushes
continuously remove the loose cotton lint to prevent jams. The term "gin" is an abbreviation for
engine, and means "machine".
Types of Ginning
Previous to the introduction of Modern Machinery, ginning was performed by hand or by
machines of a primitive character such as the "Foot Roller" and its improvement the "Churka".

As the cotton industry developed, greater production than these were capable of was necessary,
and machines driven by power were introduced. Numerous forms of gins have been tried, but at
the present time only three are used to any large extent. They are
1. Knife Roller Gin / Roller Gin
2. Saw Gin
3. McCarty Gin
Three Types Of McCarty Gins
i. Single acting McCarthy Gin.
ii. Double acting McCarthy Gin
iii. Double roller McCarthy Gin
orDouble Roller Gin

Sampling:

It is not possible or desirable to test all the raw material or all the final output from a production
process because of time and cost constraints. Also many tests are destructive so that there would
not be any material left after it had been tested. Because of this, representative samples of the
material are tested. The amount of material that is actually tested can represent a very small
proportion of the total output. It is therefore important that this small sample should be truly
representative of the whole of the material. For instance if the test for cotton fibre length is
considered, this requires a 20 mg sample which may have been taken from a bale weighing
250kg. The sample represents only about one eleven-millionth of the bulk but the quality of the
whole bale is judged on the results from it.
The aim of sampling is to produce an unbiased sample in which the proportions of, for instance,
the different fibre lengths in the sample are the same as those in the bulk. Or to put it another
way, each fibre in the bale should have an equal chance of being chosen for the sample.
There are several techniques for sampling fiber. Here is given the most popular sampling
method.
Zoning Sampling Technique:
Zoning is a popular testing method of fiber that is used for selecting samples from raw cotton or
wool or other loose fibre where the properties may vary considerably from place to place. A
handful of fibres is taken at random from each of at least 40 widely spaced places (zones)
throughout the bulk of the consignment and is treated as follows.
Each handful is divided into two parts and one half of it is discarded at random; the retained half
is again divided into two and half of that discarded. This process is repeated until about nix fibres
remain in the handful (where n is the total number of fibres required in the sample and x is the

number of original handfuls). Each handful is treated in a similar manner and the fibres that
remain are placed together to give a correctly sized test sample containing n fibres. The method
is shown diagrammatically in fig. It is important that the whole of the final sample is tested.
Sample from each zone

Zoning Sampling Technique

Classification of cotton:
On the basis of maturity:

The fiber maturity relates to the development of the cell wall. In other words, maturity is the
measure of primary and secondary wall thickness. According to the maturity, cotton fiber is
classified into the following three groups:
1. Mature fiber
Well developed secondary cell wall and very small lumen size.
2. Immature fiber
Fiber with thinner secondary cell wall developed. They produce polar shade in dyeing due to
their poor adsorption capability of dyes.
3. Dead fiber
Only primary cell wall developed. They remain undyed in dyeing due to their minimum
adsorption capability of dyes and chemicals. Because of dead fibers the neps appear in fabric
surface prominently.

On the basis of length:

Commercial cotton may be classified broadly into following three classes in respect of staple
length:
1.

Short staple:
Length ranges from 3/8 inch to 1 inch.
Diameter is generally ranges from 113 to 22 microns.
Medium strength and medium luster.
Indian and Asiatic cotton.
2.

Medium staple:
Length ranges from inch to 5/6 inch.
Diameter ranges from 12 to 27 microns.
Medium strength and medium luster.

3.

Long staple:
Length ranges from 1 inch to 2.5 inch.
Diameter ranges from 10 to 12 microns.
Fine, lustrous and top quality cotton.

 Cotton Grading:
Cotton plant is cultivated in most of the countries of the world. Hundreds of varieties of cotton
are grown in different climatic condition and in all manner of soils and environments. The
characteristics of the cotton fibers are not same, it varies depending on climate, weather,
cultivating system, harvesting system and others. The grading and classification of all these
cotton
In order to grade the quality of raw cotton, the rating (in the order of excellent to poor) is done
according to the level of the staple length, strength , color, luster and the amount of impurities in
the fibers. These are divided in different ways according to the production land.
The classification of cotton fibers, based on their quality, is called grading.
Grading of US Cotton: This grading is done from upper quality to lower quality.
Middle Fair

Strict Good Middling

Good Middling

Strict Middling

Middling

Strict Low Middling

Low Middling

Strict Good Ordinary

Good Ordinary

Properties of Cotton fiber:

Like all the textile fibers, cotton has its own physical and chemical properties which are required
to know for better processing in spinning, weaving, knitting, dyeing, printing as well as
finishing. The Physical and chemical properties of cotton fiber are given below.

Physical Properties of Cotton: Physical properties of cotton fibers are given below:
1. Color: The color of cotton fiber could be white, creamy white, bluish white, yellowish
white or grey.
2. Length:The length of the individual cotton fiber varies greatly, depending upon the
variety of the plant, conditions under which it has been grown and the state of maturity of
the fiber at the time of picking. A good Sea-island fiber may be 2 inch (65mm) long,
whereas a linters fibers will be less than inch(6mm) in length.
3. Tensile Strength: Cotton is moderately strong fiber. It has a tenacity of 3-5 gm/den. The
strength is greatly affected by moisture; the wet strength of cotton is 20%, which is
higher than dry strength.
4. Fineness: In general, the cotton fiber is of fairly uniform width. At one end, it tapers to a
tip. The other end of the fiber is open and irregular.
5. Elongation at break: Cotton does not stress easily. It has an elongation at break of 510%.
6. Elastic Recovery: Cotton is relatively inelastic and rigid fiber. At 2% extension it has an
elastic recovery of 74% and at 5% extension it has an elastic recovery of 45%.
7. Specific Gravity: Specific gravity is 1.54.
8. Moisture Regain (MR%): Standard moisture regain is 8.5.
9. Effect of Heat: Cotton has an excellent resistance to degradation by heat. It begins to
turn yellow after several hours at 1200C and decomposes marked by at 1500C. As a result
of oxidation, cotton is severally damaged after few minutes at 2400C. Cotton burns in air.
10. Effect of Sun Light: There is a gradual loss of strength when cotton is exposed to sun
light and the fiber turn yellow. The degradation of cotton by oxidation is done when heat
is promoted and encouraged. By sun light much of the damage is caused by UV-light and
by the shorten weaves of visible light.
11. Effect of Age: Cotton shows a small loss of strength when stored carefully. After 50 years
of storage cotton may differ only slightly from the new fibers.
Chemical Properties of Cotton: Cotton is a natural cellulosic fiber and it has some chemical
properties. Chemical properties of the cotton fiber are given below:
1. Effect of Acids: Cotton is attacked by hot dilute acids or cold concentrated acids which it
disintegrates. It is not affected by acids.

2. Effects of Alkalis: Cotton has an excellent resistance to alkalis. It swells in caustic alkalis
( NaOH) but it does not damaged. It can be washed repeatedly in soap solution without
any problem.
3. Effect of Organic Solvent: Cotton has high resistance to normal cleaning solvents.
Cotton is dissolved by the copper complexes, such as cuprammonium hydroxide,
cupriethylenediamine and concentrated 70% H2SO4.
4. Effects of Insects: Cotton is not attacked by moth-grubs or beetles.
5. Effect of Micro Organism: Cotton is attacked by fungi and bacteria. Mildews will feed
on cotton fabric, rotting and weakling the materials. Mildews and bacteria will flourish
on cotton under hot and humid condition. They can be protected by impregnation with
certain types of chemicals. Copper Nepthenate is one of the chemical.

Structure of Cotton fiber:

Polymeric System of Cotton fiber:
Cotton is mainly crystallinefiber. It consists of about 65-70% crystalline zone and corresponding
35-30% amorphous region.The repeating unit in the cotton polymer is cellubiose which consists
of two glucose units.Its DP is about 5000-10000.It is about 5000 nm length and about 0.8 nm
thick.
Fiber Morphology:
Fiber Morphology is the study of the internal structure of fibers i.e. identification, analysis and
description of the internal structure of fiber.

The macro structure of cotton.

The micro structure of cotton.

Physical structure of cotton fiber:

There are five main parts of the physical structure of cotton: length, distinctive parts,
convolutions, fineness and color.
Length:Length is the main factor to define cotton quality, the longer length the stronger yarn
cotton will create. Length is determined by removing a sample from a bale of cotton, sorting the
fibers by length, and calculating the average staple length and the variation of length or
uniformity ratio. There are 3 groups of cotton are commercially important: upland cotton, longstaple cotton, short-staple cotton. Long-staple cotton has the best quality and is used to produce
softer, smoother and stronger products. About 97% of the US cotton is upland cotton. According

to Cotton Incorporated's information, cotton length uniformity is "the ratio between the mean
length and the upper half mean length of the fibers and is expressed as a percentage. If all of the
fibers in the bale were of the same length, the mean length and the upper half mean length would
be the same, and the uniformity index would be 100." Over 80% of uniformity will be
considered very high in uniformity, which is good quality.
Distinctive parts: Cotton fiber is made from a cuticle, primary wall, secondary wall and lumen.
The cuticle is the outset layer of cotton fiber and the lumen is the core.
Convolutions:Convolutions are ribbon-like twists that characterize cotton. When cotton fiber
matures, lumen will dry out and collapses which makes secondary wall start to twist. Long-staple
cotton has about 300 convolutions per inch; short-staple has less than 200.
Fineness: The cross-sectional shape varies with the maturity of the fiber. Every cotton boll
contains some immature fiber that can create problems in spinning and dyeing. Micronaire is a
measure of fiber fineness and maturity. An airflow instrument is used to measure the air
permeability of a constant mass of cotton fibers compressed to a fixed volume. The chart below
can be used as a guide in interpreting micronaire measurements.
Color: Most raw cotton is creamy white in color and it is highly desirable because it can be dyed
or printed to meet fashion and consumer needs. Cotton color will change if it ages, or being
moistened by rain just before harvest. Cotton breeders can color the cotton to blue, lavender and
yellow to natural cotton.

Chemical structure of cotton fiber:

Cellulose Chemistry:
After scouring and bleaching, cotton is 99% cellulose. Cellulose is a macromolecule a
polymer made up of a long chain of glucose molecules linked by C-1 to C-4 oxygen bridges with
elimination of water (glycoside bonds). The anhydroglucose units are linked together as betacellobiose; therefore, anhydro-beta-cellobiose is the repeating unit of the polymer chain. The
number of repeat units linked together to form the cellulose polymer is referred to as the degree
of polymerization.
Wood pulp, rayon and cellophane (all three
derived from wood cellulose) are also constructed
of cellulose polymers. Cotton cellulose differs
from wood cellulose primarily by having a higher
degree of polymerization and crystallinity.
Crystallinity indicates that the fiber molecules
are closely packed and parallel to one another,
shows the average degree of polymerization and
the average crystallinity of the cellulose fibers
cotton, viscose rayon and wood pulp. Higher
degree of polymerization and crystallinity are
associated with higher fiber strengths.
The cellulose chains within cotton fibers tend to be held in place by hydrogen bonding. These
hydrogen bonds occur between the hydroxyl groups of adjacent molecules and are most
prevalent between the parallel, closely packed molecules in the crystalline areas of the fiber.

The three hydroxyl groups, one primary and two secondary, in each repeating cellubiose unit of
cellulose are chemically reactive. These groups can undergo substitution reactions in procedures
designed to modify the cellulose fibers or in the application of dyes and finishes for crosslinking. The hydroxyl groups also serve as principal sorption sites for water molecules. Directly
sorbet water is firmly chemisorbed on the cellulosic hydroxyl groups by hydrogen bonding.

Chemistry of cotton fiber:

The chemical composition of cotton fibers and the quality of different constituents vary greatly
with the type of plant, soil and climate.Raw cotton fiber, after ginning is essentially composed of
94% cellulose.
Constituent

Percent

Cellulose
Protein

94.0%
1.3%

Pectin substance

1.2%

Ash

1.2%

Fat & wax

0.6%

Organic acid,Sugar & others1.7%

Technical process of cotton:

Yarn and Yarn Manufacturing:
An assemblage of fibers that is twisted or laid together so as to form a continuous strand that can
be made into a textile fabric. So a yarn is a strand of natural or man -made fibers or filaments
that have been twisted or grouped together for use in weaving ,knitting or other methods of
constructing textile fabrics. The type of yarn to be manufactured will depend on the fibers
selected the texture, or hand of the fabric to be made; and qualities such as warmth, resiliency,
softness, and durability required in the fabric's end uses.

Input - output and objects of individual section of yarn manufacturing (for cotton):
Input-output and objects of individual section of yarn manufacturing fromCotton fiber is given
below step by step
01. Section: Mixing of raw cotton:
Input: Bale of raw cotton.
Object:
a)
To mix different staple fibers properly.
b)
To minimize cost.
c)
To produce better quality of yarn at last stage(ring frame).
Output:Mixed raw cotton.

02. Section: Blow room:

Input:Mixed raw cotton.
Object:
a) To open the fibers.
b) To remove the trash.
c) To mix the fibers.
d) To make uniform lap sheet.
Output: Lap.
03. Section: Carding:
Input: Lap.
Object:
a) To remove fine trash.
b) To remove short fibers, naps, motes and foreign materials too.
c) To produce regular sliver.
Output: Carded Sliver.
04. Section: Draw frame :
Input: Sliver.
Object:
a) To parallel the fibers.
b) To blend and mix the fibers.
c) To reduce weight per unit length.
d) To make uniform sliver.
Output: Regular sliver.

05. Section: Lap former:

Input: Regular sliver
Object:

Forming the interfacing or lap, which is employed to feed the combing machine.
Output: Lap.

06. Section: Combing:

Input: Lap.
Object:
a) To remove short fibers.
b) To remove fine trash and dirt.
c) To parallel and straight the fibers.
d) To make uniform sliver.
Output: Regular/combed sliver.

07. Section: Drawing (Finisher):

Input: Regular/combed sliver.
Object:
a) To parallelize the fibers.
b) To make uniform sliver.
Output: Uniform sliver/drawn sliver.
08. Section: Simplex:
Input: Uniform sliver/drawn sliver.
Object:
a) Draft the material.
b) Insert a small amount of twist.
c) To make bobbin with roving of conical shape.
Output: Roving.
09. Section: Ring:
Input: Roving.
Object:
a) Drafting (attenuation).
b) Insertion of twist for strengthen the yarn.
c) To win the yarn on to the ring tube/bobbin.
Output: Yarn.

10. Section: Cone winding:

Input: Yarn.
Object:
a) To transfer the yarn from ring cop/tube. To a large package(weight:2-2.5 lbs)
b) To remove the faults present in the yarn.
c) To get better quality of yarn.
Output: Yarn on cone.

11. Section: Reeling:

Input: Yarn on cone
Object:

a) To clean the slubs.

b) To make hanks(1680) each.
Output: Hanks.

12. Section: Bundling:

Input: Hanks.
Object:
To make Bundle.
Output: Bundle of 10 lbs.

13. Section: Baling:

Input:Bundle.
Object:
To make a bale for marketing.
Output: Bale of 400 lbs.

Cotton Products:

Almost all parts of the cotton plant are used in some way including the lint,
cottonseed, linters, stalks and seed hulls
The fiber from one 227kg cotton bale can produce 215 pairs of jeans, 250 single bed
sheets, 1,200 t-shirts, 2,100 pairs of boxer shorts, 3,000 nappies, 4,300 pairs of socks
or 680,000 cotton balls

Products Made from Cotton Lint/Fiber:

Cotton lint is spun then woven or knitted into fabrics such as velvet, corduroy,
chambray, velour, jersey and flannel

About 60% of the worlds total cotton harvest is used to make clothing, with the rest
used in home furnishings and industrial products

Well known cotton products include denim jeans, socks, towels, t-shirts, bed sheets
and underwear

More unusual uses of cotton fiber include tents, car tire cord, fishnets and book
binding

Products Made from Cotton Seed:

Over half the weight of unprocessed cotton (seed cotton) is made up of seed

The most common uses of cottonseed are oil for cooking and feed for livestock.
Cotton seed is pressed to make cottonseed oil. Cottonseed can be made into a meal
and is a popular feed for cattle and livestock as its a great source of energy

Cottonseed oil can also be used in a range of industrial products such as soap,
margarine, emulsifiers, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, rubber, paint, water proofing and
candles

Cottonseed oil is cholesterol free, high in poly-unsaturated fats and contains high
levels of anti oxidants (vitamin E) that contribute to its long shelf life

Products Made from Cotton Linters:

Cotton linters are fine, very short fibers that remain on the cottonseed after ginning.
They are curly fibers typically less than 3mm long

Linters are used in the manufacture of paper (such as archival paper and bank notes)
and as a raw material in the manufacture of cellulose plastics

Linters are commonly used for medical supplies such as bandages, cotton buds,
cotton balls and x-rays

The useful characteristics cotton fiber:

Cotton is a non-allergenic natural fibre that doesnt irritate sensitive skin

Cottons softness makes it a preferred fabric for underwear and other garments worn
close to the skin

Cottons adaptability allows it to blend easily with most other fibres including synthetics
such as polyester and lycra and natural fibres like wool

Cotton is one of the easiest fabrics to dye, because its white in colour and very absorbent

Cotton has a high absorbency rate and holds up to 27 times its own weight in water

Cotton becomes stronger when wet

Cottons strength and absorbency make it an ideal fabric for medical and personal
hygiene products such as bandages and swabs

Cotton breathes easily as a result of its unique fiber structure. This attribute makes cotton
more comfortable to wear than artificial fibers unable to provide ventilation

Cotton keeps the body cool in summer and warm in winter because it is a good conductor
of heat

Cotton is often used in the manufacture of curtains, tents and tarpaulins as it is not easily
damaged by sunlight

Unlike synthetic fibers, cotton is a natural product and contains no chemicals

Cotton is very versatile it can be blended, coated, finished, is dry cleanable, machine
washable and easy to print on.

END USES OF COTTON:

Apparel - Wide range of wearing apparel: blouses, shirts, dresses, childrens wear, active
wear, separates, swimwear, suits, jackets, skirts, pants, sweaters, hosiery, neckwear etc.
Home Fashion - curtains, draperies, bedspreads, comforters, throws, sheets, towels, table
cloths, table mats, napkins etc

PRETREATMENT
Singing:
The verb singe literally means to burn superficially. Technically, singeing refers to the
burning-off of. Loose fibers not firmly bound into the yarn and/or fabric structure. Singeing is an
important part of pretreatment. This is the burning off of protruding fiber ends from the surface
of the fabric. If not done properly, unclear print patterns, mottled fabric surfaces,
and pilling results.

Loose yarns not firmly bound into the fabric structure

Protruding fiber ends sticking out of the textile yarns and/or fabrics

Textiles materials are most commonly singed in woven or knitted fabric form or in yarn form.

Singeing
Objectives & Advantages of Singeing:

Singeing of a fabric is done in order to obtain a clean fabric surface which allows the
structure of the fabric to be clearly seen.

Fabrics, which have been singed, soil less easily than un-singed fabrics.

The risk of pilling, especially with synthetics and their blends, is reduced in case of
singed fabrics.

Singed fabrics allow printing of fine intricate patterns with high clarity and detail.

The risk of skitter dyeing with singed articles dyed in dark shades is considerably
reduced, as randomly protruding fibres are removed in singeing which could cause
diffused reflection of light.

Types of Singeing Machines

There are three main types of singeing machines:
a) Plate singeing machine
b) Rotary cylinder singeing machine
c) Gas singeing machine
(a)Plate singing machine:
In this type of singeing machine, the cloth passes over and in contact with one or two heated
curved copper plates. The thickness of the plates ranges from 1 to 2 inches. The heating of the
plates is done by a suitable burning arrangement of gas mixed with air. The plates are heated to
bright redness and the cloth passes over and in contact with these plates at a speed ranging from
150 to 250 yards per minute. The passage of the cloth can be arranged in such a manner that one
or both sides of the fabric may pass over and in contact with the heated plate(s), in order to
accomplish singeing of one or both sides of the fabric in a single passage. In order to avoid local
cooling of a certain part of the plate(s) by constant passage of cloth over it, an automatic
traversing mechanism is fitted to the machine. This mechanism brings the cloth into contact with
a constantly changing part of the plate(s), not only to avoid local cooling but also local wearing
of the plate(s).
(b) Rotary-Cylinder Singeing Machine:
In this type of singeing machine, the cloth passes over and in contact with a heated rotary
cylinder made of copper or cast iron. The rotary cylinder has internal firing and revolves slowly
so that constantly a fresh surface of the roller comes in contact with the cloth. The direction of
rotation of the cylinder is opposite to the direction of the fabric so that the protruding fibers or
nap of the fabric is raised. This type of machine is particularly suitable for the singeing of velvets
and other pile fabrics. If the singeing of both sides of the fabric is required, then two cylinder are
employed, one for each side of the fabric.
(c)Gas singing machine:
In this type of singeing machine, the fabric passes over a burning gas flame at such a speed that
only the protruding fibers burn and the main body of the fabric is not damaged by the flame. This
is the most common type of machine used for singeing fabrics as well yarns.

Desizing:
Desizing is the process of removing the size material from the warp yarns in woven fabrics.
Sizing agents are selected on the basis of type of fabric, environmental friendliness, ease of
removal, cost considerations, effluent treatment, etc.
Desizing, irrespective of what the desizing agent is, involves impregnation of the fabric with the

desizing agent, allowing the desizing agent to degrade or solubilise the size material, and finally
to wash out the degradation products.
Desizing Process:
The major desizing processes are:
1. Enzymatic desizing of starches on cotton fabrics
2. Oxidative desizing
3. Acid desizing
4. Removal of water soluble sizes
Enzymatic Desizing
Enzymatic desizing is the classical desizing process of degrading starch size on cotton fabrics
using enzymes. Enzymes are complex organic, soluble bio-catalysts, formed by living organisms,
that catalyze chemical reaction in biological processes. Enzymes are quite specific in their action
on a particular substance. A small quantity of enzyme is able to decompose a large quantity of
the substance it acts upon. Enzymes are usually named by the kind of substance degraded in the
reaction it catalyzes. Amylases is the enzyme that hydrolyses and reduces the molecular weight
of amylase and amylopectin molecules in starch, rendering it water that is soluble enough to be
washed off by the fabric. Effective enzymatic desizing require strict control of pH, temperature,
water hardness, electrolyte addition and choice of surfactant.
Machine Parameter:
Nip pressure: 0.8 bar

Capacity of trough: 750 lit.

Chemical Recipe:
Enzyme: 5 g/l

Wetting agent: 4 g/l

Complexer : 1 to 1.5 g/l

Temperature: 85 C

pH : 6 to 9.5

Speed: 80 to 100 m/min

Enzyme used: Palkozyme Plus.

Process Sequence:
Pre-brushing unit

Singeing

Dancer Roll

Post brushing

Padding with desize (85 C)

Batch formation

Keep the batch in rotation for 8 to 12 hours

Advantages of Enzymatic Desizing:

No damage to the fibre

No usage of aggressive chemicals

Wide variety of application processes, and

High biodegradability

Disadvantages Enzymatic Desizing:

Lower additional cleaning effect towards other impurities, no effect on certain starches
(e.g. tapioca starch) and possible loss of effectiveness through enzyme poisons.
Oxidative Desizing:
In oxidative desizing, the risk of damage to the cellulose fiber is very high, and its use for
desizing is increasingly rare. Oxidative desizing uses sodium or potassium persulphates or
sodium bromide as an oxidizing agent.
Advantages of Oxidative Desizing:
Supplementary cleaning effect

Effectiveness for tapioca starches

No loss in effectiveness due to enzyme poisons.

Disadvantages of Oxidative Desizing:

Some disadvantages of oxidative desizing include possibility of fiber attack, use of

aggressive chemicals and less variety of application methods.
Acid Desizing:
Cold solutions of dilute sulfuric or hydrochloric acids are used to hydrolyze the starch, however,
this has the disadvantage of also affecting the cellulose fiber in cotton fabrics.
Removal of Water-soluble Sizes
Fabrics containing water soluble sizes can be desized by washing using hot water, perhaps
containing wetting agents and a mild alkali. The water replaces the size on the outer surface of
the fiber, and absorbs within the fiber to remove any size residue.

Scouring of cotton:
Scouring is a process by which all natural and adventitious impurities such as oil, wax, fat,
colouring material etc are remove to produce uniform hydrophilic & clean textile material
Natural fiber contain natural impuritiesoil, fats( saponifyable) and waxes(emulsifyable).

There are many types of scouring process. Scouring in j-box(continuous) is describe below.
In j-box scouring is done in open width and rope form.
General recipe for j- box scouring:
Caustic soda

: 4-6g/l

Wetting agent

: 4-5 g/l

Impregnation temp. : 70-80C

Impregnation time
Pick up

: 45-90C
: 90-100%

Storing time in j-box : 90-120mins

Temperature in j-box : 98-102C
Rinse with hot water (not less than 80C) and cold wash is done.

 Bleaching of cotton fabric:

Bleaching of Cotton with Hydrogen Peroxide:
Hydrogen peroxide is virtually the only bleaching agent available for protein fibers and it is also
used very extensively for the cellulosic fibers. Hydrogen peroxide is a colorless liquid soluble in
water in all proportions. It is reasonably stable when the pH is below 7, but tends to become
unstable as the alkalinity increases. Commercial hydrogen peroxide, therefore, is made slightly
acid so that it will not lose strength during storage. Solutions of hydrogen peroxide of more than
20 volumes cause intense irritation when they come into contact with skin and should be washed
away immediately.
Cotton is usually bleached in 1-volume liquor at the boil. The most important factor
in bleaching is to achieve the right degree of stability in the bleach liquor. If the pH were too low
no per hydroxyl ions are set free and bleaching does not take place; when the liquor is too
unstable the whole of the oxygen is liberated and escapes into the atmosphere before it has had
time to act upon the cotton.
The bleaching liquor must be made alkaline, otherwise it would be too stable, but it is virtually
impossible to adjust to the optimum pH with alkali alone and there is a marked tendency for the
liquor to is too unstable, however carefully it has made alkaline. It is, therefore, necessary to add
a stabilizer, and of all the substances, which have been, tried sodium silicate is the most
effective.
Hydrogen peroxideis a stable chemical under acidic conditions and needs the addition of an
alkali for activating it. Above pH 10, it is extremely unstable when it gets decomposed under
water and oxygen.

This liberated oxygen, however, has no bleaching action and the catalysts are therefore a cause of
loss of bleaching power. In fact, hydrogen peroxide is used bleaching under alkaline conditions
(pH 10) after stabilizing at this pH by adding sodium silicate, borax, phosphate etc. Generally
bleaching is done at 80C to 85C temperature.
Hydrogen peroxide solution at any concentration can be stable or unstable depending upon the
several factors listed below.
1. pH: Stable in acidic solution and unstable in alkaline baths.
2. Temperature: As temperature increases the solution becomes increasingly unstable.

3. Buffers: Silicates, Phosphates, Borax, Proteins and others tend to stabilize peroxide.
4. Metals: (a) Ca and Mg in the presence of silicates tend to stabilize baths; (b) other
metals, i.e., Cu, Fu, etc. tend to unstabilize bleach solutions.
5. Hard water: Depending upon the hardness of water and the metals making it hard,
peroxide is unstabilize.
It was at one time believed that the bleaching action of hydrogen peroxide was due to the
liberation of nascent oxygen but this explanation is no longer tenable. It is known that under
certain conditions, particularly with regard to pH, hydrogen peroxide will liberate hydrogen and
per hydroxyl ions in the following manner:

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a universal bleaching agent and is used extensively for the
bleaching of cotton materials. The advantages in its use are:
1. It can be employed for bleaching fibers like wool, silk and jute also.
2. It requires less manipulation of fabric and hence less labor.
3. The loss in weight in bleaching is less than that with hypochlorite bleaching
4. Less water is required with peroxide bleaching and there is no need for souring after
bleaching.
5. Peroxide bleached goods are more absorbent than hypochlorite bleached goods.
6. After yellowing of white goods bleached with peroxide or less than with hypochlorite
bleached goods.
7. Peroxide bleaching is safer in regard to chemical degradation and
8. Continuous scouring and bleaching in one operation is possible by employing peroxide.
How bleaching works:
Whitening:
Colors in most dye and pigments are produced by molecules which contain chromophores, such
as beta carotene. Chemical bleaches work in one of two ways:

An oxidizing bleach works by breaking the chemical bonds that make up the
chromophore. This changes the molecule into a different substance that either does not contain a
chromophore, or contains a chromophore that does not absorb visible light.
A reducing bleach works by converting double bonds in the chromophore into single
bonds. This eliminates the ability of the chromophore to absorb visible light.
Sunlight acts as a bleach through a process leading to similar results: high energy photons of
light, often in the violet or ultraviolet range, can disrupt the bonds in the chromophore, rendering
the resulting substance colorless. Extended exposure often leads to massive discoloration usually
reducing the colors to white and typically very faded blue spectrums.

Mercerizing:
Mercerization is physiochemical process where cotton/yarn is treated with 15-25% caustic soda
solution at a temperature of 20-30 C.
It is necessary to hold the fabric under tension and wash thoroughly.
Benefit obtained by Mercerization/Object:

Increase tensile strength.

Improved hygroscopicity.
Improved dye affinity.
Improved smoothness.
Improved luster.
Improved dimensional stability and physical compactness.
20-30C dye and chemical save while dyeing after mercerizing.

Factors affecting mercerizing condition:

Concentration of caustic soda solution.
Temperature.(Normal:15-20C;Ideal temp:>15C)
Tension.
Time.
Wash thoroughly.
Wetting agent.

Reactive dye:
Reactive dye are so called because their molecules react chemically with the fiber
polymers of some fiber to from a covalent bond between the dye molecules and fiber polymer.

Reactive dye is a class of highly colored organic substances, primarily utilized for tinting
Textiles that attach themselves to their substrates by a chemical reaction that forms a covalent
bond between the molecule of dye and that of the fiber. The dyestuff thus becomes a part of the
fiber and is much less likely to be removed by washing them are dyestuffs that adhere by
adsorption. The very first fiber-reactive dyes were designed for cellulose fibers, and are still used
mostly in this way. There are also commercially available fiber-reactive dyes for protein and
polyamide fibers. In theory, fiber-reactive dyes have been developed for other fibers, but these
are not yet practical commercially. The dyes contain a reactive group that, when applied to a
fiber in a weakly alkaline dye bath, form a chemical bond with the fiber. Reactive dyes can also
be used to dye wool and nylon, in the latter case they are applied under weakly acidic conditions.
A fiber-reactive dye will form a covalent bond with the appropriate textile functionality is
of great interest, since, once attached, they are very difficult to remove.

Figure : General structure of a fiber-reactive dye.

Trade names:
Trade name
Procion
Ciba cron
Remazol
Levafix
Reactone
Primazin
Drimarine

Manufacturer
I.C.I
Ciba
Hoechst
Bayer
Geigy
BASF
Sandoz

Country
U.K
Switzerland
Germany
Germany
Switzerland
Germany
Switzerland

Reactive dyeing:
Reactive dyeing directly links the colorant to the fiber by formation of a covalent bond. For
years, the idea of achieving high wet fastness for dyed cotton by this method was recognized, but

early attempts employed conditions so drastic that partial degradation of the fibers occurred.
Studies at a Swiss dyeing company called Ciba in the 1920s gave promising results with wool
using colorants having monochlorotriazine groups.
In 1953 British chemists Ian Rattee and William Stephen at ICI in London found that

dyes with dichlorotriazinyl groups dyed cotton under mild alkaline conditions with no fiber
degradation. Thus, a major breakthrough for the dye industry was made in 1956 when ICI
introduced their Procion MX dyesreactive dyes anchored to the fiber by covalent bonds100
years after the discovery of the first commercial synthetic dye by Perkins
The generation and subsequent bonding of these three new dyes (a yellow, a red, and a blue) with
fibers has a common basis, namely, the reactivity of chlorine on a triazine ring. It is readily
displaced by the oxygen and nitrogen of -OH and -NH2 groups. Reaction of a dye bearing an
amino group with cyanuryl chloride links the two through nitrogen to form the reactive dye. A
second chlorine is displaced (in the dyeing step) by reaction with a hydroxyl group of cotton or
an amino group in wool

Properties of reactive dye:

1) Reactive dyes are cationic dyes, which are used for dyeing cellulose, protein and polyamide
fibres.
2) Reactive dyes are found in power, liquid and print paste form.
3) During dyeing the reactive group of this dye forms covalent bond with fiber polymer and
becomes an integral part of the fiber.
4) Reactive dyes are soluble in water.
5) They have very good light fastness with rating about 6. The dyes have very stable electron
arrangement and can protect the degrading effect of ultra-violet ray.
6) Textile materials dyed with reactive dyes have very good wash fastness with rating Reactive
dye gives brighter shades and has moderate rubbing fastness.
7) Dyeing method of reactive dyes is easy. It requires less time and low temperature for dyeing.
8) Reactive dyes are comparatively cheap
9) Reactive dyes have good perspiration fastness with rating 4-5.
10) Reactive dyes have good perspiration fastness.
General structure of reactive dyes:
The general structure of reactive dye is: D-B-G-X.

Chemical structure of reactive dyes

Chemical structure of reactive dyes

Here,
D= dye part or chromogen (color producing part)
Dyes may be direct, acid, disperse, premetallised dye etc.
B = bridging part.
Bridging part may be NH- group or NR- group.
G = reactive group bearing part.
X= reactive group.

Classification of reactive dyes:

Reactive dyes may be classified in various ways as below:
1) On the basis of reactive group:
a) Halogen (commonly chlorine) derivatives of nitrogen containing heterocycle, like 3 types Triazine group
Pyridimine group
Quinoxaline dyes
Example:
Triazine derivatives: procion, cibacron.
Pyridimine derivatives: reactone
Quinoxaline derivatives: levafix.
b) Activated vinyl compound:
Vinyl sulphone

 Vinyl acrylamide
Vinyl sulphonamide.
Example:
Vinyl sulphone: remazol
Vinyl acrylamide: primazine
Vinyl sulphonamide: levafix.
2) On the basis of reactivity:
a) Lower reactive dye: here pH is maintained 12-12.5 by using NaOH in dye bath.
Example: Cibacron T
b) Medium reactive dye: here pH is maintained 11-12 by using Na2CO3 in dye bath.
Example:Levafix E, Remazol.
c) Higher reactive dye: here pH is maintained 10-11 by using NaHCO3 in dye bath.
Example:ProcionMx
3) On the basis of dyeing temperature:
a) Cold brand:
These types of dyes contain reactive group of high reactivity. So dyeing can be done in lower
temperature i.e. 320-600C.
For example: ProcionMx, Levafix E
b) Medium brand:
This type of dyes contains reactive groups of moderate reactivity. So dyeing is done in higher
temperature than that of cold brand dyes i.e. in between 600-710C temperatures.
For example, Remazol is medium brand dyes.
c) Hot brand:
This type of dye contains reactive groups of least reactivity. So high temperature is required for
dyeing i.e. 720-930 C temperature is required for dyeing.
For example Procion H, CibacronT are hot brand dyes.

Dyeing mechanism of reactive dye:

The dyeing mechanism of material with reactive dye takes place in 3 stages:1. Exhaustion of dye in presence of electrolyte or dye absorption.
2. Fixation under the influence of alkali.
3. wash-off the unfixed dye from material surface.
Now they are mentioned below:

Dye absorption:
When fiber is immersed in dye liquor, an electrolyte is added to assist the exhaustion of dye.
Here NaCl is used as the electrolyte. This electrolyte neutralize absorption. So when the textile
material is introduces to dye liquor the dye is exhausted on to the fiber.
Fixation:
Fixation of dye means the reaction of reactive group of dye with terminal OH or-NH2 group of
fiber and thus forming strong covalent bond with the fiber and thus forming strong covalent bond
with the fiber. This is an important phase, which is controlled by maintaining proper pH by
adding alkali. The alkali used for this create proper pH in dye bath and do as the dye-fixing
agent. The reaction takes place in this stage is shown below: 1. D-SO2-CH2-CH2-OSO3Na + OH-Cell = D-SO2-CH2-CH2-O-Cell + NaHSO3
2. D-SO2-CH2-CH2-OSO3Na + OH-Wool = D-SO2-CH2-CH2-O-Wool + NaHSO3

3. Wash-off:
As the dyeing is completed, a good wash must be applied to the material to remove extra and
unfixed dyes from material surface. This is necessary for level dyeing and good wash-fastness. It
is done by a series of hot wash, cold wash and soap solution wash.

Dyeing conditions:

Application method:
These are 3 application procedures available:
1. Discontinuous method:
-Conventional method
-Exhaust or constant temperature method
-High temperature method
-Hot critical method.
2. Continuous method:
-Pad-steam method
-Pad dry method
- Pad thermo fix method
3. Semi continuous method:
- Pad roll method
- Pad jig method
- Pad batch method.

Exhaust dyeing process with Reactive dye:

1. Method addition salt step by step
This method is suited for all dyeing colors and for machine in which dyeing solution do not have
circulation , for example Winch machine .
2. Method addition salt in the beginning of the process ( SALT-AT-START )
This method is more compatibly applied for dyeing color from medium to depth color and for
machine with dyeing solution circulation and its the textile material , the example jet dyeing
machine , jet flow machine.
Example of dyeing recipe for red color:
- Reactive Orange HER: 2.0 %
- Reactive Red HE-7B:

1.5 %

- Gluber salt: 70 g/l

- Soda Ash: 20 g/l
- Dispersing &sequestering agent: 1 2 g/l
- Anti crease mark agent:1 2 g/l
- Anti foam agent: 1 g/l

Liquor Ratio / vol: 1 : 10

Temperature: 80 0C
Time: 60 minute

Different methods of reactive dye application:

1. Pad-batch method.
Pad batch processes are of two typesa) Pad (alkali)-batch (cold) process.
b) Pad (alkali)-batch (warm or hot) process.
2. Pad dry method
3. Pad steam method.
1.Pad-batch method:
a)Pad (alkali)-batch (cold) process.

Figure: Pad-batch method

Steps:
1) The fabric is first padded in a padding mangle with reactive dye in presence of an alkali.
2) The padded fabric is rolled in a batch and the batches are wrapped by polyethylene sheets and
stored in wet condition for 1-24 hours at 200-300C in a room.
3) During the storage period, the rolls may be kept slowly rotating to prevent seepage of the dye
liquor.
4) After storing time is finished fabric is washed in a rope washing machine to remove the
unfixed dye from fabric surface.

b)Pad batch (hot) process:

Figure: Pad batch (hot) process

Steps:
1) The fabric is first padded in a padding mangle with reactive dye in presence of an alkali.
2) The fabric is then passed in between infrared heater to preheat the padded fabric to 500C to
900C.
3) The fabric is then batched on a large diameter roller in a hot chamber. The batching is done
under controlled conditions of temperature and humidity for a sufficient time to ensure diffusion
and fixation of the dye in the fiber. During this period the batch is kept slowly rotating to avoid
the seepage of dye liquor.
4) The cloth is then washed in a rope washing machine to remove the unfixed dyes.
2.Pad dry method:

Figure: Pad dry method

Steps:
1) Fabric is first padded in a padder with reactive dye in presence of an alkali.
2) Padded fabric is then passed through a squeezing roller into a dryer. As a dryer cylinder,
stenteretc may be used. During drying due to higher temperature fixation of dye in fiber
increases and at the same time water is removed by evaporation.
3) After drying fabric is washed in a washing machine to remove unfixed dye.

3.Pad steam method:

Figure: Pad steam method

Steps:
1) Fabric is first padded in a padder with the dye.
2) It is then passed through between two squeezing roller in a dryer. Drying should be done
slowly; otherwise precipitation of dye due to quick removal of water may take place leading to
lower color value.
3) After coming out from dryer fabric is padded in a padder containing salt and alkali. Due to salt
exhaustion of dye takes place and due to alkali fixation occurs.
4) Fabric then passed through a steamer where it is kept for 15-19 second. Due to high
temperature here fixation rate increases.
5) In this step fabric is washed in a washing machine to remove the unfixed dye.
Make up

Process Equipment
Rope

Woven and Knitted

Fabric, tufted carpet

Padding Machine for Piece

Continuous

in rope form
Pad batch (or carp- Padding Machine+ Washing
o-roll for carpet)

Open
width

Machine

Semi

Pad batch (or carp- Padding Machine+ Washing

Continuous

o-roll for carpet)

Pad -jig
Pad stream

Continuous
Pad Dry

Machine
Padding Machine+ Jigger+
Washing Machine
Padding Machine+
Steamer+ Washing Machine
Padding Machine+ Stenter
frame+ Washing Machine

Knit dyeing with reactive dyes:

Recipe:
1. Anti creasing agent = 0.3g/L
2. Sequestering agent = 0.5 g/L
3. Glauber salt or NaCl =80 g/L
4. Dye (reactive) = x%
5. Soda ash =5g/L
6. Or caustic soda =1 g/L
7. Acetic acid = 0.75 g/L
8. Soap = 0.25 g/L
9. M: L = 1:10
10. Time =60 min
11. Temperature = 600-1000C
Function of these Ingredients:
Anti creasing agent is used to remove crease mark from fabric.

Sequestering agent is used to convert hard water into soft water.

Gluber salt is used for exhaustion of dye in the fiber.

Soda ash and caustic soda are used for fixation of dye in the fiber.

Acetic acid is used for neutralizing the dyed fabric.

Soap is used for washing the dyed fiber.

Dyeing Curve:

Dyeing Curve
Dyeing Procedure:
At first fabric, required water and required anti creasing agent is added in the dye bath. Then
sequestering agent and gluber salt of required amount is added in the dye bath. Then the bath is
kept rest for 5 minutes. After that reactive dye of required amount is added in the dye bath. After
adding dye in the dye bath, the bath is kept for 30 minutes. During this period exhaustion of dye
occurs in the fabric. Then required amount of alkali is added for fixation of dye into the fabric.
After adding alkali we will wait for 50 minutes and then we will check the shade. If shade is all
right then fabric will be taken for after treatment.

Hydrolysis of Reactive Dye:

Under alkaline condition reactive dyes react with the terminal hydroxyl group of cellulose. But if
the solution of the dye is kept for long time its concentration drops. Then the dye react with the
hydroxyl group of water. This reaction of dye with water is known as hydrolysis of reactive dye.
After hydrolysis dye cannot react with fiber. So hydrolysis increases the loss of dyes.
This hydrolysis occurs in two stages. At first the concentration of dye initially increases and then
begins to decrease. Whereas the concentration of hydroxyl compound increases continuously.
Then the hydroxyl compound cannot react with dye.
i)In case of Triazinyl dyes:

Influencing factors:
Dyeing of cellulosic fiber with reactive dyes is influenced by some factor. Following factors
should consider during dyeing operation.
1. pH: Reactive dyeing is done in an alkaline conditon for this reason pH of the dyeing bath
should control. pH should be between 11.5 -11.
2. Temperature: Temperature should fix depending on the brand of reactive dyes.
3. Concentration of electrolyte: Concentration of electrolyte depends on the type of shade.
4. Time: Dyeing time should be between 60 90 minutes.
5. Liquor ratio: Huge amount of water is use during dyeing operation. Higher the liquor
ratio betters the efficiency of dyeing.

Influence of pH in reactive dyeing at every stage of dyeing:

1. In the beginning of dyeing, the water bath should be carefully adjusted to a neutral to slightly
acidic pH, as otherwise premature hydrolysis of dyestuff will take place and cause (a) uneven
dyeing and (b) lighter depths than the previous batches or in other words batch to batch
variation will occur.
2. If the fabric or yarn has not been neutralized properly the core alkali presence will adversely
affect the dyeing, forming patchy uneven dyeing. The places were alkali residue was high
have the tendency to make deeper dyeing.
3. Lower alkali dosages and hence lower pH leads to partial reaction of reactive dyes; most of
the dye may remain in water; the dyestuff that has got absorbed in to the fiber would also
have less tendency to get fixed on to it, leading to poor washing and rubbing fastness.
4. Higher dosage of alkali may cause hydrolysis of dyestuff in the water itself. Thus lower
depth of shade and poor washing and rubbing fastness.

5. After dyeing is over, when the alkali still fully remain on the fiber, if we do not neutralize the
alkali properly with adequate quantity of acid, that also leads to higher amount of dyestuff
bleeding during subsequent soaping and hot wash operations.
6. Finally after completing the dyeing, before unloading, if we do not keep the pH neutral alkaline pH will slowly hydrolyze the dyestuff in the fiber and acid pH will tender the cotton
fiber itself.
7. Every dyestuff appears in different tone under different pH conditions. Bright Lemon yellow,
if allowed dry under alkaline pH, it will turn to a dull redder yellow and similarly Turquoise
blues and royal blues will appear yellower and duller in alkaline pH and brighter and redder
in acidic pH. So make sure that the pH is exactly neutral or slightly acidic during final drying
process.
8. Final cationic fixation and cationic softening treatment if not done in acidic pH, that will
leave higher tonal changes and improper dye fixation and improper softening effect.

Dyeing problem with reactive dye and its prevention:

1. Result of piebald dyeing
Preventive :
- Dye selection truly and precisely
- Apply of dyeing standard suggested
- Apply of auxiliaries suggested
2. Repetition color, unequal dyeing results.
Preventive:
- Dye selection truly and precisely.
- Correct liquor ratio
- Control temperature and time process
3. Result of young or older dyeing from laboratory standard
Preventive:
- Liquor ratio between laboratory and production must equal
- Apply of auxiliaries which is used in production at laboratory recipe
- Dyeing recipe in laboratory must equal with production

4. Problem of crease-mark
Preventive:
- Apply anti-crease agent mark
- Heavy cloth which is dyed accommodate with machine capacities suggested.

Stripping of reactive dye:

The reactive dye cannot be satisfactory stripped from fiber due to covalent bond between dye
molecule and fiber. Stripping becomes necessary when uneven dyeing occurs.
Partial stripping:
Partial stripping is obtained by treating the dyed fabric with dilute acetic acid or formic acid.
Here temperature is raised to 70-100C and treatment is continued until shade is product of
hydrolysis. The amount of acid used is as below: Glacial acetic acid : 5-10 parts
With water :1000 parts
Or
Formic acid :2.5 to 10 parts
With water :1000 parts
Temperature : 70 - 100C
Time : until desired shade is obtained.

Finishing:
Textile finishing is the term used for a series of processes to which all bleached, dyed, printed
and certain grey fabrics are subjected before they put on the market. The object of textile
finishing is to render textile goods fit for their purpose or end-use and/or improve serviceability
of the fabric.

Finishing on fabric is carried out for both aesthetic and functional purposes to improve the
quality and look of a fabric. Fabric may receive considerable added value by applying one or
more finishing processes. Finishing processes include

Raising

Calendering

Crease resistance

Filling

Softening

Stiffening

Water repellency

Moth proofing

Mildew-proofing

Flame retardant

Anti-static

soil resistance

Calendering
Calendering is an operation carried out on a fabric to improve its aesthetics. The fabric passes
through a series of calender rollers by wrapping; the face in contact with a roller alternates from
one roller to the next. An ordinary calender consists of a series of hard and soft (resilient) bowls
(rollers) placed in a definite order. The soft roller may be compressed with either cotton or woolpaper, linen paper or flax paper. The hard metal bowl is either of chilled iron or cast iron or steel.
The calender may consist of 3, 5, 6, 7 and 10 rollers. The sequence of the rollers is that no two
hard rollers are in contact with each other. Pressure may be applied by compound levers and
weights, or hydraulic pressure may be used as an alternative. The pressure and heat applied in
calendering depend on the type of the finish required.

The purposes of calendering are to upgrade the fabric hand and to impart a smooth, silky touch to
the fabric, to compress the fabric and reduce its thickness, to improve the opacity of the fabric, to
reduce the air permeability of the fabric by changing its porosity, to impart different degree of
luster of the fabric, and to reduce the yarn slippage.

Softener Finishes:
Fabric softener (also called fabric conditioner) is a conditioner used to prevent static cling and
make fabric softer. It is available as a liquid, crystals, and dryer sheets.
Fabric softeners work by coating the surface of the cloth fibers with a thin layer of chemicals;
these chemicals have lubricant properties and are electrically conductive, thus making the fibers
feel smoother and preventing buildup of static electricity. Other functions are improvements of
iron glide during ironing, increased resistance to stains, and reduction of wrinkling and pilling.
Cationic softeners bind by electrostatic attraction to the negatively charged groups on the surface
of the fibers and neutralize their charge; the long aliphatic chains are then oriented towards the
outside of the fiber, imparting lubricity. Vinegar works on some materials in a similar way, as the
hydrogen ions bind to the anionic groups on the fibers.
Most good quality all-cotton towels do not need to be treated with fabric softener and with
repeated washings and dryings, they become softer naturally.

Raising
An important and oldest textile finishing is brushing or raising. Using this process a wide variety
of fabrics including blankets, flannelettes and industrial fabrics can be produced. The process of
raising consists of lifting from the body of the fabric a layer of fibers which stands out from the
surface which is termed as "pile". The formation of pile on a fabric results in a "lofty" handle and
may also subdue the weave or pattern and color of the cloth.
There are to types of raising machine; Teasel machine and Card-wire machine. The speed of the
card-wire raising machine varies from 12-15 yards per minute, which is 20-30% higher than that
of teasel-raising. That is why the card-wire raising machine is widely used.

Crease resistance
Crease formation in woven or knitted fabric composed of cellulose during washing or folding is
the main drawback of cotton fabrics. The molecular chains of the cotton fibers are attached with
each other by weak hydrogen bonds. During washing or folding, the hydrogen bonds break easily
and after drying new hydrogen bonds form with the chains in their new position and the crease
are stabilized. If crosslink between the polymer chains can be introduce

by crosslinking chemicals, then it reinforce the cotton fibers and prevent the permanent
displacement of the polymer chains when the fibers are stressed. It is therefore much more
difficult for creases to form or for the fabric to shrink on washing.
In crease-resist finishing of cotton, following steps are followed
1. Padding the material with a solution containing a condensation polymer precursor and a
suitable polymerization catalyst.
2. Drying and curing in a stenter frame to form crosslink between the polymer chain and
adjacent polymer chain.
The catalyst allows the reaction to be carried out 130-180 degree temperature range usually
employed in the textile industry and within the usual curing time(within 3 minutes, maximum).
Mainly three classes of catalysts are commonly used now a day.

Ammonium salts, e.g.Ammonium chloride, sulphate and nitrate.

Metal salts e.g. Magnesium chloride, Zinc nitrate, Zinc chloride.

Catalyst mixture e.g. magnesium chloride with added organic and inorganic acids or acid
donors.

The purpose of the additives is to offset or counterbalance partly or completely the adverse effect
of the crosslinking agent. Thus softening and smoothing agents are applied not only to improve
the handle, but also to compensate as much as possible for losses in tear strength and abrasion
resistance. Every resin finish recipe contains surfactants as emulsifiers, wetting agents and
stabilizers. these surface-active substances are necessary to ensure that the fabric is wet rapidly
and thoroughly during padding and the components are stable in the liquor
Mechanisms of Fixation Processes:
Is a stimulating review of dye-fixation processes, has pointed out that when buying and running
process machines we must not forget that the fundamental requirement is the efficiency of the
molecular processes. This is a necessary reminder when considering the mechanism of steaming
processes, where we find easily overlooked, but significant, molecular phenomena. It is
desirable, in the first place, to understand the properties of steam itself.
Dye Fixation in Steam:
Steam can be a convenient source of both water and heat as both are transferred rapidly and
uniformly over the surface areas of printed fabric entering a steam chamber. As we have seen,
however, steam may be wet or dry, saturated or superheated, and the conditions of use must be
chosen and maintained.

The essential requirements in all print fixation processes using steam are:
1. The pick-up of enough water to swell the thickener film, but not so much as to cause the
print to spread.
2. Dispersion and solution of the dye, and production of a liquid medium through which the
dye can diffuse to the fibre surface.
3. Absorption of water by fibres such as cotton, nylon and wool, which must be swollen to
allow penetration of dye.
4. Raising the temperature to a level that accelerates the processes of diffusion,especially
into the fibre.
Thermofixation:
The features of this method of dye fixation are mentioned below:
1. No steam is used.
2. Dye is fixed by subjecting the print to hot air at 210C for 1 minute.
3. The fixation is carried out in a backing oven or in a stenter where heat setting can also be done
simultaneously.
4. The process productivity is high.
5. The dye which have good sublimation fastness are subjected to this thermofixation process.
6. There is 10-15% loss of colour in thermofixation, so the shade becomes dull.
7. It is a continuous process of dye fixation which gives high production.

Antimicrobial finishes:
Antimicrobials do not all work the same. The vast majority of antimicrobials work by
leaching or moving from the surface on which they are applied. This is the mechanism used
by leaching antimicrobials to poison a microorganism. Such chemicals have been used for
decades in agricultural applications with mixed results. Besides affecting durability and useful
life, leaching technologies have the potential to cause a variety of other problems when used
in garments. These include their negative effects because, they can contact the skin and
potentially effect the normal skin bacteria, cross the skin barrier, and/or have the potential to
cause rashes and other skin irritations.
A more serious problem with leaching technologies has to do with their allowing for the
adaptation of microorganisms. An antimicrobial with a completely different mode of action
than the leaching technologies is a molecularly bonded unconventional technology. The
bound unconventional antimicrobial technology, an organofunctionalsilane, has a mode of
action that relies on the technology remaining affixed to the substrate killing microorganisms
as they contact the surface to which it is applied. Effective levels of this technology do not
leach or diminish over time. When applied, the technology actually polymerizes with the

substrate making the surface antimicrobial. This type of antimicrobial technology is used in
textiles that are likely to have human contact or where durability is of value.

Antimicrobial Finishing Methodologies

The antimicrobial agents can be ap
lied to the textile substrates by exhaust, pad-dry-cure, coating, spray and foam techniques. The
substances can also be applied by directly adding into the fibre spinning dope. It is claimed that
the commercial agents can be applied online during the dyeing and finishing operations. Various
methods for improving the durability of the finish include:
Insolubilisation of the active substances in/on the fibre
Treating the fibre with resin, condensates or cross linking agents
Micro encapsulation of the antimicrobial agents with the fibre matrix
Coating the fibre surface
Chemical modification of the fibre by covalent bond formation
Use of graft polymers, homo polymers and/or co polymerization on to the fibre