Energy Analysis

Heat, Work & Mass

Ng Tin Yau (PhD)

Department of Mechanical Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Jan 2013

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 1/20

Heat and Work Transfer

Energy can cross the boundary of a system by means of heat and work. It
is important to distinguish between these two forms of energy.
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transfered between two
systems by virtue of a temperature difference. That is, an energy
interaction is heat only if it takes places because of a temperature
difference. A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an
adiabatic process.
Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system and its
surroundings. In thermodynamics analysis, we normally decompose the
total work into reversible work and irreversible work (or dissipative work).
That is, for a given process the total amount of work is given by
Wtot = Wrev + Wirrev

(1)

The amount of heat and work done transferred during the process between
two states (states 1 & 2) is denoted by Q12 and W12 , respectively.
By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 2/20

Heat and Work Sign Convention

Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus the complete
description of a heat or work interaction requires the specification of both
the magnitude and direction. One way of doing that is to adopt a sign
convention.

Formal Sign Convention

Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive; heat
transfer from a system and work done on a system are negative.
Heat and work are energy transfer mechanisms between a system and its
surroundings, and there are many similarities between them:
Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as they cross the
boundaries. That is, both heat and work are boundary phenomena.
Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
Both are associated with a process, not a state.
Both are path functions (i.e. their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states.).
By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 3/20

Path and Point Functions

Path functions have inexact differentials designated by the symbol .
Therefore, a differential amount of heat or work is represented by Q or
W , respectively. For instance, the total work done during process 1 2
is
Z
2

W12 =

(2)

Properties, however, are point functions, and they have exact differentials
designated by the symbol d. For example, a small change in volume is
represented by dV and the total volume change during a process between
states 1 and 2 is
Z
2

V = V2 V1 =

dV

(3)

Clearly, we have
I
dV = 0

(4)

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 4/20

The First Law & Internal Energy

The First Law (Joule)
For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of a closed system,
the net work done is the same regardless of the nature of the closed
system and the details of the process.
In the case where only microscropic energy is involved, then we have
ad
W12
= U1 U2 = U

(5)

Since only heat and work can cross the boundary of a closed system,
therefore, one can define the heat transfer into the system Q12 as
ad
Q12 = W12 W12

(6)

Q12 W12 = U

(7)

which yields
This is the common mathematical form of the first law of thermodynamics.
By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 5/20

A Direct Consequence of the First Law

Consider the differential form of the first law:

Q12 W12 = dU
(8)
H
Since internal energy is a property, therefore, dU = 0 and hence, for a
cycle, we have
I
I
Q12 =

W12

(9)

H
H
Recall from our sign convention, if both the quantities Q12 and W12
are positive, the result represents the net heat transfer to the system and
net work done by the system, respectively. In other words, for a closed
system the net amount of heat transfer into the system is equal to the net
amount of work done by the system.

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 6/20

Free Expansion of Gases

An insulated rigid tank is divided into two compartments with different
equal volumes. Initially, side 1 is filled up with gas, then the wall
separating the two compartments is removed and the gas is free to expand
until the gas is equally distributed on both sides.

During this process, Q12 = W12 = 0, hence U = 0. Note that in this

case V 6= 0 and pressure is not necessary zero but the total work done of
the process is zero. This situation is called gas free expansion.

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 7/20

Moving Boundary Work

Consider a closed system subjected to a quasi-static volume change from
V1 and V2 , then the work done due to this volume is given by
Z 2
Wb =
PdV
(10)
1

This work done is called moving boundary work. An example of moving

boundary work is the piston-cyclinder device.

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 8/20

Boundary Work for a Polytropic Process

For a polytropic process PV = C where , C R. For 6= 1, the
boundary work is given by



Z 2
C
V 1 2
V2
V1
P2 V2 P1 V1

=
CV dV = C
=


1 1 1 V2
1
V1
1
For = 1 we have
2

CV


dV = P1 V1 ln

V2
V1

In summary
(P
Wb =

2 V2 P1 V1

6= 1

Pi Vi ln

V2
V1

= 1 and i = 1 or 2

(11)

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 9/20

Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity or just specific heat is defined as the heat
energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by
1 degree and is denoted as c.
q
(12)
c,
T
Consider a fixed mass in a stationary closed system undergoing a constant
volume process, then dv = 0 and q = du, hence


u
cv =
(13)
T v
which is known as constant volume specific heat. Since the differential
of enthalpy dh is du + Pdv + vdP and for constant presure, dP = 0 which
implies q = dh. Hence, the constant pressure specific heat is


h
cp =
(14)
T p
By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 10/20

Configuration (Reversible) Work

Up to this point we have encountered two types of reversible work, namely,
the adiabatic work and moving boundary work. In general, one may divide
the work into two types: reversible and irreversible work. In this case, we
have
X
Wrev =
yi dZi
(15)
where yi and Zi are intensive and extensive properties, respectively. An
example of y and Z are pressure P and volume V , respectively. Then
according to the first law, we have
X
Q12 = dU +
yi dZi
(16)
which further implies that Q12 must be reversible. The extensive
properties Zi are said to determine
the configuration of the system and
P
hence, the reversible work
yi dZi is also called configuration work.
Finally, irreversible work is somtimes called dissipative work.
By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 11/20

An Example of Dissipative Work Electrical Work

The electrical work is the work needed to maintain an electric current I in
a resistor of resistance R. According to Ohms law V = IR we have the
work done on the resistor
Z 2
Z 2
e dt =
W
VIdt
(17)
We =
1

where V and I are the potential difference and current, respectively.

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 12/20

Conservation of Energy Principle

We now arrive at the conservation of energy principle.

Conservation of Energy Principle

The net change in the total energy of the system during a process is equal
to the difference between the total energy entering and the total energy
leaving the system during that process.
Mathematically, we have
Ein Eout = Esys

(18)

The term Ein Eout is refer to the energy transfer between surrounding
and system during the process. On the other hand, Esys is the net
change of energy between the beginning and the end of the process.

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 13/20

A Break Down of Terms in Energy Balance Equation

Energy transfer involves heat, work and mass, that is
Ein Eout = (Qin + Win + Emass in ) (Qout + Wout + Emass out )

(19)

Rewrite it as
Ein Eout = Qnet in Wnet out + (Emass in Emass out )

(20)

where Qin Qout Qnet in and Wout Win Wnet out .

In the case of simple compressible system, we assume
Esys = U + KE + PE

(21)

~ V)
~ where V
~ is the velocity of
The kinetic energy is given by KE = 12 m(V
the system. The potential energy is written as PE = mgz where z is the
elevation of the center of gravity of a system relative to some arbitrarily
selected reference level.
By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 14/20

Flow Work

Unlike closed systems, control volumes involve

mass flow across their boundaries, and some
work is required to push the mass into or out
of the control volume. This work is known as
the flow work or flow energy and is necessary
for maintaining a continuous flow through a
control volume. Mathematically, we have
Wflow = PV

(22)

or in a unit-mass basis
wflow =

Wflow
= Pv
m

(23)

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 15/20

Mass Transfer
Generally speaking, for open system, one must include the flow energy into
the energy term. As a result, the total energy of a flowing fluid on a
unit-mass basis, denoted by is given by
Pv + u + ke + pe = h + ke + pe

(24)

In this case, the energy transfer due to mass transport is given by

Emass = m. Hence, the total energy transported by mass through the
boundary is obtained by integration:
Z
Emass = m
(25)
In the case of uniform properties1 , that is, is constant throughout the
boundary surface, and hence,
Z
Emass = m = m
(26)
1

Uniform means no change with location over a specificed region.

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 16/20

Unsteady-Flow Analysis

Many processes of interest, however, involve changes within the control

volume with time. Such processes are called unsteady-flow processes.
Unlike steady-flow processes, unsteady-flow processes start and end over
some finite time period instead of continuing indefinitely.
Most unsteady-flow processes, however, can be represented reasonably well
by the uniform-flow process, which involves the following idealization:

Uniform-Flow Approximation
The fluid flow at any inlet or exit is uniform and steady, and thus the fluid
properties do not change with time or position over the cross section of an
inlet or exit. If they do, they are averaged and treated as constants for the
entire process.

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 17/20

General Analysis for Multi-Inlet-Outlet Systems

In general unsteady-flow analysis, conservation of mass principle gives
X
X
m
m = msys
(27)
out

in

and the energy balance is given by

X
X
Qnet,in Wnet,out +
m
m = Esys
in

In the case of a closed system,

X
X
m=
m = 0 msys = 0
in

(28)

out

(29)

out

Similarly, we have
Qnet,in Wnet,out = Esys

(30)
By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 18/20

An Example
Consider a uniform-flow system which involves
electrical, shaft and boundary work with one
inlet. Suppose that the kinetic and potential
changes associated with the control volume
and fluid stream are negligible, then the mass
balance equation becomes
mi = m2 m1

(31)

where the subscript i represents the inlet of

the system.
On the other hand, the energy balance equation is given by
Z 2
Z 2
Qnet,in +
VIdt + Wsh
PdV + mi i = (m2 u2 m1 u1 )sys
1

(32)

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 19/20

Steady Flow Analysis

In the case of steady flow, we have msys = 0 and Esys = 0.

Equations for Steady Flow Analysis

X

m=

(33)

out

in

and
Qnet,in Wnet,out +

X
in

m = 0

(34)

out

By Ng Tin Yau (PhD) 20/20