Electromagnetism Project

Diffraction, Life and Universe (and Everything)

Christian Poveda - ID 20111450
Juan Diego Bermeo - ID 201018255
Juan Rafael lvarez - ID 201115049
November 6, 2013

General Considerations

And god said:

There are a few considerations that must be taken into

A = 0 j

account for the study of diffraction

and there was light!

Abstract

2.1

The study of diffraction and interference has shown to be

Suppose that we have a wave U (x, y, z) that encounters

really useful in several disciplines such as: Astronomy,

an obstacle in the xy-plane at a distance in z between 0

Fresnel Approximation

Chemistry, Biology and Meteorology. This project at- and d. Such that
tempts to give a brief introduction to some fundamental
U (x, y, 0) = f (x, y) = exp [i (kx x + ky y)]

aspects and principles used to explain this phenomenon

and to present some aplications in the last section.

U (x, y, d) = g (x, y) = exp [i (kx x + ky y + kz d)]

Then there must be a Transfer function H (kx , ky ) such

Introduction

that the Fourier transforms of f and g

Any interference effect due to the interruption of a wave-

f (kx , ky ) =

front by obstacles is known as diffraction, in fact this

f (x, y) exp [i (kx x + kx y)] dx dy

effect is characteristic of all wave-like motions. Physi-

cally there is no distinction between diffraction and ing (kx , ky ) =

terference, however in almost every case the term inter-

g (x, y) exp [i (kx x + kx y)] dx dy

ference is used in phenomena with few waves interacting

with each other, and diffraction when we are dealing with Obbey the following relation:
many waves.
g (kx , ky ) = H (kx , ky ) f (kx , ky )

In the case of electromagnetic waves, it is reasonable

to use classical electrodynamics for studying instead

Then

of quantum electrodynamics, for the corrections of the

H (kz ) = exp [ikz d]

quantum theory do not affect the study in a significant

But there is a relationship between k and .

way at this scale. In fact diffraction is one of the few phenomena that cannot be explained under the assumption

that light is made of particles [1].

1

kx + ky + kz = k =

r
kz =

The approximation can be taken if d 2

8 

4 2
kx2 ky2
2

4 d
1
4

Therefore we can write H in terms of kx and ky

r
H (kx , ky ) = exp id

4 2
kx2 ky2
2

The inverse-Fourier transform of H (kx , ky ) is known as

the impulse-response function [2].

We can rearrange this expression as

2.2

Huygens-Fresnel Principle

The Huygens-Fresnel principle states that every unob-



q
2
2
2
H (kx , ky ) = exp id
1 (2kx ) (2ky )

structed point of a wavefront, at a given instant, serves as

a source of spherical secondary wavelets (with the same

Then if we denote :=

frequency as that of the primary wave) such that their

(2kx ) + (2ky )


H (kx , ky ) = exp id
We can do a Taylor series for

2 p
1 2

envelope generates a new wavefront at a further point.

The system impulse-response function h between z = 0

and z = d is proportional to


p
exp ik x2 + y 2 + d2
p
h (x, y)
x2 + y 2 + d2

1 2

p

1/2
4
2
+
+ ...
1 2 = 1 2
=1
2
8

Using the Fresnel approximation this function can be approximated by

if is small enough
p



x2 + y 2
h (x, y) exp ik
2d

2
1 2 1
2

Which is the inverse-Fourier transform of

Using this approximation for H it follows that

h

i
2
2
H (kx , ky ) = H0 exp id (2kx ) + (2ky )




2
2
H (kx , ky ) exp id
1

This function f (x, y) is proportional to the complex am!#

2
2
2
2 (2kx ) + (2ky )
H (kx , ky ) exp id
1

2




2
2
2
H (kx , ky ) exp id 2

(2k
)

(2k
)
x
y

2



2
2
2
H (kx , ky ) exp id

(2k
)

(2k
)
y
x
2
"

plitude at a plane z = d centered at the origin. Therefore

each point generates a new wave, being consistent with
the Huygens-Fresnel Principle [2]. Helmholtz and Kirchhoff proved the Huygens-Fresnel Principle starting from
the wave equation, which is a consequence (for electromagnetic waves) of Maxwells equations. This demonstration is important from a theoretical point of view,

This leads us to the Fresnel Approximation:

however it does not provide new information [3].

h

i
2
2
H (kx , ky ) H0 exp id (2kx ) + (2ky )



Where H0 = exp id 2
. The condition of validity of

Diffraction of light

the Fresnel Aproximation can be derived from the Taylor Diffraction is defined as the deviation of light when it
series of
approaches a material medium. When setting an opaque


screen to which light will be exposed, it should not be
2 p
2
2
4
1 2 = id
+
+ ...
id
1
expected that light, because of its wave behavior, moves

2
8
2

with respect to the size of the aperture, Fresnel or Fran-

along a straight line after having passed it.

haufer diffraction will be observed. Both cases are ap-

One of the most surprising results of diffraction of light

proximations to better understand the interference pat-

is that, light, bending itself around obstacles, changes its

tern in these two cases. In general the pattern seen will

form, meaning that light does not propagate in a straight

be given by the integral:

line, and moreover, shadows created by an aperture will

not resemble the figure of the aperture if looked at a

eik(r+r1 ) da

length from it.

Because of the Huygens-Fresnel principle, it is known
that light tends to propagate in spherical waves, which
make up a new wavefront in a posterior point in the
propagation of light. There are essentially two theories
of light diffraction, each of which has a range of validity,
important results, and respective complications [2][4].

3.1

Binary aperture

An assumption that is made in diffraction is that the

incident wave, either is fully transmitted at points within
Figure 1: The slit and the screen

the aperture, or fully blocked, for points outside such an

aperture.
Such a result is expressed, if, for a wave with a complex

amplitude U (x, y), its transmitted complex amplitude is where r is the distance from the aperture to the screen,
and r is the distance from the source to the aperture.
given by:
When dealing with plane waves, by Huygens principle

f (x, y) = U (x, y) p (x, y)

there is a new source in each wave front, and so the

Where

1
p (x, y) =
0

and denotes an aperture.

distance between the source and the aperture would be

(x, y)

zero, so the integral would reduce to:

(x, y)
/

eik(r1 ) da

Another aperture, , is

placed at a given distance away from the original aperwhere

ture, . Depending on the distance from where is

r1 =

observed, it is necessary to consider different diffraction

p
(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 + R2

patterns. When we observe a diffraction pattern, we ei-

k=

ther use Fresnel diffraction, for near field patterns, or

Fraunhofer diffraction, which is used for far field patterns When the width in y is zero the equation for r1 equals a
hyperbola with an intercept on R. Now we can arrive at
[2].
different approximations in the two different scenarios.

3.2

In the case when:

Fresnel diffraction vs Fraunhofer

diffraction

R  x x0
The function is approximated by a parabola, and from

In Fresnels and Fraunhofers diffraction light goes there we obtain the Fresnel approximation as we did in
through an aperture to be observed in a screen. De- a previous section. In Fraunhofer diffraction we have
pending on the magnitude of the distance R between the

that the width of the aperture is of the same order of

screen on which the light is projected and the aperture,

magnitude as R, meaning that the hyperbola can be ap3

proximated by lines:

be done in elementary terms, then is useful to introduce

two new functions (called the Fresnel integrals).
x0  x

u2
cos

Cu1 ,u2 =

Therefore we can do the following approximation


2

u2
sin

du and Su1 ,u2 =

u1


2


u2 du

u1

r12 = x20 + y02 + R2 2 (xx0 + yy0 ) + x2 + y 2


r12 x20 + y02 + R2 2 (xx0 + yy0 )
Lets call R02 = x20 + y02 + R2 , then
r1 =

s
R02 2 (xx0 + yy0 ) = R0

12

(xx0 + yy0 )
R02

Now using the binomial approximation

r1 = R0

(xx0 + yy0 )
+ ...
R0

Lets take r0 = r1 R0 , l = x0 /R0 and m = y0 /R0 , then

the above expression can be written as follows

Figure 2: (x (t) , y (t)) = (C0,t , S0,t )

r0 = (xl + ym) ... (xl + ym)

3.3

Thus, the x integral can be reduced into

a/2

Fresnel Diffraction from a Slit

e
Suppose that the aperture is a slit with an extension

i(xx0 )2 /R

r
dx =

R
[Cu1 ,u2 iSu1 ,u2 ]
2

a/2

[a/2, a/2] in the x axis and [b/2, b/2] in the y axis where
a is small compared with b (a  b), our integral can be In analogy our integral for y is
written as
r
b/2

R
i(yy0 )2 /R
2
2
0
[Cv1 ,v2 iSv1 ,v2 ]
e
dy =
eikr da = ei[(xx0 ) +(yy0 ) ]/R da
2
b/2

Which can be factorized as

y0 b/2
y0 +b/2
Where v1 =
and v2 =
. The our integral

b/2

eikr da =

ei(yy0 )

R/2

a/2
/R

ei(xx0 )

dy

b/2

/R

R/2

is expressed as
dx

eikr da =

a/2

R
[Cu1 ,u2 iSu1 ,u2 ] [Cv1 ,v2 iSv1 ,v2 ]
2

Both integrals have the same form, this is pretty conve-

3.4

nient because we only have to do one integral. Is conve2

2
0)
= u2 , then
nient to substitute (xx
R
a/2
e
a/2

i(xx0 )2 /R

Recalling the approximation r0 (lx + my), the integral for Fraunhofer diffraction is converted to:

u2
dx =

Fraunhofer Diffraction from a Slit

2
i(
2u )

du
eikR0

u1

e2i(lx+my)/ da

x0 a/2
x0 +a/2
Where u1 =
and u2 =
. Using the Euler The accompanying term, eikR0 is just an accompanying
R/2
R/2

identity, we get two integrals. These two integrals cannot

phase that does not give any contribution to amplitude.

4

Therefore, it is only necessary to focus on the integral

few waves. Thus, we can consider any application of in-

term, and calculate:

terferometry as an application of diffraction. However

when we have a great number of waves, diffraction be-

comes a problem instead of a technique.

e2i(lx+my)/ da
As in Fresnel integration, the area of integration is a

 

square aperture with extrema a2 , a2 2b , 2b , which

4.1

allows us to separate both terms and do the integrals

In the field of observational astronomy and radioastron-

independently:

omy diffraction and interference techniques are used for

Astrophysics

taking high resolution pictures (even beyond the diffrac

a/2

e2i(lx+my)/ da =

tion limit). For example the VLBI (Very Large Baseline

b/2

e2ilx/ dx
a/2

Interferometry) interferometers uses several telescopes

e2imy/ dy

located in different continents, and then the data ob-

b/2

tained from these telescopes is combined taking into ac-

eila/ eila/ eimb/ eimb/

=
2il/
2im/
=

count time delay and other variables.

sin (la/) sin (mb/)

l/
m/

The intensity of this quantity is the square of our integral:

I(x, y) =

sin2 (la/) sin2 (mb/)

2

(l/)

(m/)

Such a diffraction pattern is what we would expect

at a far field pattern, and the funcion

sin(u)
u

is called

sinc (u) and coincides with the zeroth type Bessel function, J0 (u). Then
I(x, y) = a2 b2 J02 (la/) J02 (mb/)
A function of this type has a Fraunhofer diffraction pattern like the one shown in the figure

Figure 3: Fraunhofer diffraction by a rectangular slit

Applications

Figure 4: The first image was taken with the UKs MERLIN array and the second one is the procesed image using
a particular case of diffraction when we are dealing with several arrays of a VLBI.
As we mentioned in the introduction, interference is just

References

As an historical example, in 1921 Michelson and Pease

gave the first high-precision measurement of the diameter of Betelgeuse (Alpha-Orionis) using interference tech-

[1] E. Hecht, Optics, Addison Wesley, 2002.

niques [5].

[2] B. Saleh and M. Teich, Fundamentals of

Photonics, Wiley Interscience, 1991.

4.2

[3] G.

Biology

Chartier,

Introduction

to

Optics,

Springer, 2005.
X-ray diffraction techniques (which is explained by the

[4] J. Slater and N. Frank, Electromagnetism,

Braggs law) has been used since the twentieth century

Dover, 1947.

for studying the structure of proteins and lipids, the most

famous result was the identification of the double-helix

[5] A. Michelson and F. Pease, Measurement

structure in the DNA done by Rosalind Franklin [6].

of the diameter of alpha Orionis with the

interferometer, Astrophysical Journal, 53
24959, 1921
[6] L. Elkin, Rosalind Franklin and the double
helix, Physics Today 56, 2003.

Figure 5: Interference Pattern of the DNA

As a qualitative comparison here we have the diffraction

patter of a single-helix.

Figure 6: Interference Pattern of a single-helix

6