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TALL BUILDINGS
Depending on the place where the building is located and also on its height, the
action of the wind can be more or less severe than the seismic action. As a result,
one of the three requirements:
resistance;
rigidity;
ductility;
structural requirements;
MRF
EBF
CBF
MRF
CBF
EBF
The eccentrically braced frames (EBF) were created by Egor Paul Popov
(1977) at the University of California, Berkeley (died April 19, 2001). A comparison of
the main features of these three systems is presented in table 1.1.
Table 1.1. Characteristics of structural systems plans
MRF
CBF
EBF
good
good
good
Rigidity
low
very good
good
Ductility
very good
low
good
Resistance
passive
o base isolation
o dampers
o tuned mass dampers
o buckling-restrained braced frames
o the use of low yield steel
2
active
rigidity braces;
ductility dampers.
Depending on the height of the building and mainly on the ratio between the
height H and the dimension in plan B, the most commonly used structural solutions
for resisting horizontal forces are the following ones:
tube in tube
bundled tubes.
H
8
B
H
6
B
H
6
B
H
4
B
H
4
B
H
2
B
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
frames with concentric bracings (Fig. 6.2 EN 1998-1) (Fig. 6.3 EN 1998-1);
structures with concrete cores and concrete walls (Fig. 6.6 EN 1998-1);
The modern seismic design approach is based on the idea that much of the
energy induced by the earthquake in the structure is dissipated by means of plastic
mechanisms; generally, it is not efficient to resist this action only in the elastic range,
unless under very special circumstances, such as the case of nuclear power plants
etc. Current trends are to better control energy dissipation, meaning the behaviour of
the structure in the post-elastic range. The basic idea is to use a plastic mechanism
which is chosen, directed and controlled by the engineer, and to ensure conditions
so that all other elements remain essentially in the elastic range until the moment
when the mechanism has exhausted its capacity of dissipation. Subsequently to this
principle, plastic deformations are accepted only in selected areas generally located
6
Ductility
Generally, ductility is the ability of energy dissipation in the plastic range. It is
expressed as ratio between ultimate displacement and the value of the same
displacement corresponding to the yielding limit.
Plastic hinge
It is a concept that defines a cross-section of the structural member in which
the ability to resist an increasing bending moment has been exhausted. Plastic
hinges do not exist in reality; plastic deformations develop over a certain length of
the element, so they are not located in one section, as the model presumes.
Class of the cross-section
Depending on the occurrence of local buckling of the components of a crosssection that is subjected to bending moment, four classes of cross-sections are
defined in EN 1993-1-1. Depending on the class of the cross-section, the loading
state of the structural member can be determined using elastic or plastic analysis
max = fy
max = fy
max = fy
class 4
class 3
class 2
class 1
Fig. 1.10. Evolution of the stress state in a cross-section subject to bending moment
The capacity design concept tries to better manage the behaviour of the
structure in the elastic and in the plastic range till failure. The following steps are
recommended to be followed to achieve a good behaviour of the structure:
1. Chose the structural system and the model of the structure.
2. Estimate the loads in each loading case.
3. Estimate the masses. The masses are calculated corresponding to the loading
situation that contains the seismic action. They are therefore associated to the
gravitational loads that are defined by long-term factors applied to the nominal
values of the loads.
4. Pre-size structure by choosing the position of the plastic zones, implicitly the
plastic mechanism of energy dissipation. Cross-sections are proposed for all
structural members.
5. Performing a modal analysis of the structure, for determining the eigenperiods
and the distribution of equivalent static forces corresponding to each eigenmode.
6. Performing a static analysis of the structure. In this step, a number of
eigenmodes are taken into account to estimate the resulting seismic forces.
(1.1)
where:
Lext is produced by seismic force;
Lint is produced by efforts in the dissipative elements.
In the absence of a more rigorous analysis, some codes recommend penalising
values. For instance, the American code ANSI/AISC 341-10 and the Romanian
code P100-1:2013 recommend the following values for the global overstrength
factor of the structure (Tab. 1.2).
Table 1.2. Values for the global overstrength factor of the structure ([3] Tab. F.1)
Structural system
a) Moment frames
3,0
2,0
2,5
2,0
e) Dual frames
- moment frames + concentrically braced frames
2,0
2,5
3,0
1.3.1. Classifications
These two types of behaviour are well distinguished in the European standard EN
1998-1 [10], in the Romanian code P100-1:2013 [11] and in the American code
10
DCL (limited ductility class) [10], [11] capable to undergo minimum plastic
deformations under the effects of the seismic action; EN 1998-1 [10] accepts
them in the case of buildings without isolation of the base, only in regions with
low seismicity; in ANSI/AISC 341-10, they are called ordinary structures (OMF,
OCBF, OEBF etc.);
DCM (medium ductility class) [10], [11] capable to undergo limited plastic
deformations under the effects of the seismic action; in ANSI/AISC 341-10, they
are called intermediate structures (IMF, ICBF, IEBF etc.);
DCH (high ductility class) [10], [11] capable to undergo significant plastic
deformations under the effects of the seismic action; in ANSI/AISC 341-10, they
are called special structures (SMF, SCBF, SEBF etc.).
Table 1.3. Design concepts, structural ductility classes and upper limit reference
values of the behaviour factors ([3] Tab. 6.1)
Design concept
Structural ductility
class
Concept a)
Low dissipative structural
behaviour
1,5 - 2
DCL (Low)
Concept b)
Dissipative structural behaviour
DCM (Medium)
DCH (High)
Table 1.4. Upper limit of reference values of behaviour factors for systems regular in
elevation ([3] Tab. 6.2)
Structural type
Ductility Class
11
DCM
DCH
4,0
5u/1
4,0
4,0
- V-bracings
2,0
2,5
4,0
5u/1
d) Inverted pendulum
2,0
2u/1
4u/1
2,0
2,0
4,0
5u/1
1. The structure will follow the principle strong column weak beam to avoid
the appearance of floor mechanisms.
2. K bracings where the intersection of the diagonals is located on the column are
not accepted in seismic resistant structures (Fig. 1.11) because of the
unbalanced horizontal force that acts on the column after buckling of the
compressed diagonal. In the case of V (or inverted V) bracings, the beam
containing the intersection point of the diagonals must be continuous in that point
and sized to resist gravitational loads neglecting the presence of the braces.
3. All structural members and their connections must remain essentially in the
elastic range under the action of the seismic base shear force (Fb).
12
all lateral displacements (Fig. 1.12) must meet the "drift" requirements
given in codes;
v
all plastic deformations in the plastic zones must not exceed the ultimate
plastic deformation allowed for these zones (material and cross-section
limitations).
6. No other ultimate limit state (general instability, brittle fracture etc.) should be
reached before the formation of the plastic mechanism.
7. The acceptable plastic deformations are as follows:
at the base of the frame or at the top of the columns (Fig. 1.13b,
c) in the upper storey of multi-storey buildings after the formation of
at least 50% of the plastic hinges in the beams;
recommended
recommended
recommended
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.13. Recommended locations for plastic hinges
(c)
to have holes;
all along the columns (except for the locations at point 7);
in the joints (panel zones) of the structure (see the notes below);
Note 1:
panel zone. EN 1998-1 and P100-1:2013 do not say anything about the panel
14
10. The cross-sections of the potentially plastic zones (class 1 cross-sections) must
allow the development of plastic deformations without local buckling or other
forms of instability. Plastic deformations shall be directed to the chose potentially
plastic zones.
Generally, codes make a connection between the chosen behaviour (ductility)
factor q and the slenderness of the cross-sections of structural members. For
instance, EN 1998-1 and P100-1:2013 require the following:
Reference value of
behaviour factor q
15
DCM
DCH
1,5 < q 2
class 1, 2 or 3
2<q4
class 1 or 2
q>4
class 1
11. The joints and the connections of seismic-resistant structures should remain
essentially in the elastic range for a good plastic behaviour of the entire structure
(see notes at point 9). Local buckling of the joint is not acceptable.
12. Floor mechanisms or other partial (local) mechanisms are not accepted in multistorey buildings subjected to seismic actions.
13. The steel grades that are used must fulfil special requirements in order to provide
a good plastic behaviour of the entire structure.
16
(EN 1998-1)
(1.2)
f y max ov f y
(P100-1:2013)
(1.3)
Fye R y Fy
(ANSI/AISC 341-10)
(1.4)
Fye R t Fu
(ANSI/AISC 341-10)
(1.5)
where:
fy nominal value of the yielding limit (ex. 235N/mm2 for S235);
ov overstrength factor;
RyFy
RtFu
The values of Ry and Rt in ANSI/AISC 341-10 [4] are given in table 1.6.
Table 1.6. Ry and Rt for steel and steel reinforcement materials ([4] Tab. A3.1)
Application
Ry
Rt
- ASTM A36/A36M
1,5
1,2
1,3
1,1
1,1
1,1
1,2
1,1
1,2
1,2
1,1
1,2
1,4
1,3
1,6
1,2
17
1,3
1,2
1,3
1,1
1,1
1,1
1,3
1,0
1,1
1,2
1,2
1,1
1,25
1,25
ASTM A588/A588M
- ASTM A1043/1043M Gr. 50 (345)
Steel Reinforcement:
- ASTM A615, ASTM A706
4. P100-1:2013 requires:
f u f y 1,20 ;
u 20% ;
the elongation at the end of the yielding plateau must be superior to 1,5%;
Generally, codes require as basic principle the idea that joints must be able to
transfer the resistances of the elements, taking into account the possibility that the
resistance of the element is greater than its nominal value. To meet this
requirement, codes contain recommendations about conformation, calculation and
technological requirements for joints. Below are presented some of the most
important requirements:
1. The conformation of the joint detail must limit the zones where notch effects
could arise, important residual stresses could develop or where plastic
deformations could occur in the joints (Fig. 1.15).
18
No
1:5
Yes
2. In a connection with weld seams and bolts, loads shall not be shared between
these two different connecting means.
3. It is generally considered that full penetration butt welds are able to transfer the
required resistance.
4. EN 1998-1 [10] and P100-1:2013 [10] require for the resistance of joints realised
with fillet welds and bolts that:
R d 1,1 ov R fy
(1.6)
where:
Rfy the plastic resistance of the connected member, calculated based on the
nominal value of the yielding limit;
ov overstrength factor;
Rd resistance required to the joint.
5. Given that welding requires more advanced technology and more skilled workers
(the quality of welding depends primarily on these requirements), the American
and European practice is to realize the shop connections by welding and the site
connections by bolts, thus avoiding welding on site. On the contrary, in Japan,
most of the joints on the site are made by welding.
6. Given that the weld introduces residual stresses and it can be a weak point in the
structure, in the joints of a structure it is generally recommended for the column
to be continuous (Fig. 1.16a). Yet there situations where, for technical reasons, it
is accepted that the beam is continuous (Fig. 1.16b). This type of detail is not
accepted in Romania.
19
(a)
(b)
The majority of codes recommend realising the beams with three zones (Fig.
1.17):
a rigid zone (r) at each end of the beam, near the beam to column joint;
20
rp
pr
MG
ME
M rpEd the bending moment in the cross-section between the rigid zone and the
rp
rp
plastic one ( M rpEd = M Ed
,G + M Ed ,E );
M pe
Ed the bending moment in the cross-section between the plastic zone and the
pe
pe
elastic one ( M pe
Ed = M Ed ,G + M Ed ,E );
during an earthquake, the gravitational loads remain unchanged, while the effects of
the seismic action can increase.
Following this, we consider a monotonic increase of the bending moments
caused by the seismic action. Failure of the beam-column connection (cross-section
r) must be avoided ( M rEd < M rRd ). Consequently, the first cross-section fully plastic is
(rp) (on the right hand side in figure 1.17) ( Mrp = Mplrp ). If the bending moment caused
by the seismic action increases, the plastic deformations develop towards crosssection (pe). In the state when the bending moment in cross-section (pe) is equal to
the plastic resistance of the cross-section ( Mpe = Mplpe ) we have plastic stress
distribution on the entire cross-section all along zone (p), where we accepted the
development of a plastic hinge. In this loading state, cross-section (r) must still
21
There are basically two types of practical solutions to direct the formation of
the plastic hinge in the beam at a certain distance from the beam to column
connection:
strengthening the rigid zone (Fig. 1.18) relative to the rest of the beam; the
solution in figure 1.18a shows an additional risk of lamellar tearing of the material
in the flange of the column, because of the welding seams;
22
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.18. Examples of solutions for strengthening the rigid zone (FEMA 351 [4] Fig.
reducing the beam cross-section (Fig. 1.19) in zone (p); this solution is also
(b)
(c)
(a)
Fig. 1.19. Examples of solutions for the reduced beam section
23
the cross-section of the beam must be able to resist the bending moment
generated by the load combination containing amplified seismic forces;
r
r
M rEd = M Ed
,G + T M Ed ,E
((6.6) P100-1:2013)
(1.7)
r
r
M rEd = M Ed
,G + 1,1 ov M Ed ,E
((6.6) EN 1998-1)
(1.8)
where:
M rEd the total bending moment in the beam to column connection;
r
M Ed
,G the bending moment generated by gravitational loads;
r
M Ed
,E the bending moment generated by seismic loads;
T the value of the overstrength of the structural system (see Tab. 1.2);
the minimum value of the plastic reserve of all plastic hinge cross-sections;
ov the overstrength factor (of the material in the plastic hinge zones);
(1.9)
24
If the loads generated by gravitational loads are less than 30% of the
resistance of the cross-section of the beam, the American code FEMA 350 [17]
recommends the following relations.
initial
form
deformed frame
plastic
hinges
L1
L
Fig. 1.20. Moment frame with plastic hinges on the beams (FEMA 350 [4] Fig. 3.23)
If gravitational loads generate more than 30% of the loads in the beam crosssection, a plastic analysis of the structure is necessary to determine the position of
the plastic hinges. FEMA 350 [17] recommends values for the distance sh (Fig. 1.21)
for different types of details of beam to column connection. Generally, this value is
around:
sh =
hc hb
+
2
2
(1.10)
where:
hc the height of the cross-section of the column ;
hb the height of the cross-section of the beam.
25
hb
hc
L1
L
Fig. 1.21. Location of the plastic hinges
hc
+ hb
2
(1.11)
Generally, the length of the plastic hinge in steel structures beams is about half of
the beam height (hb/2) [17]. FEMA 350 [17] recommends the following values for the
dimensions in figure 1.22:
R=
4 c 2 + b2
8c
bf
c
a = (0,50...0,75) b f
(1.12)
b = (0,65...0,85) h b
(1.13)
1.4.3.2. Estimation of the probable value of the bending moment in the plastic hinge
26
c 0,25 b f
(1.14)
2. the plastic strength modulus Wpl,RBS of the reduced section (RBS) is determined;
3. the probable value of the plastic bending moment Mplpr,RBS of the reduced crosssection (RBS) is determined (Fig. 1.23); this estimation intends to manage the
possibility for the plastic bending moment in the plastic hinge cross-section to be
bigger than the nominal value;
(1.15)
where:
fy the nominal value of the yielding limit;
ov overstrength factor; the recommended value in EN 1998-1 is 1,25;
1,1 a safety variation of 10%;
M plpr,RBS = C pr R y Z e Fy
(1.16)
where:
Fy the nominal value of the yielding limit;
Ze the plastic strength modulus W pl,RBS;
Ry factor given in ANSI/AISC 341-10 [4] (see Tab. 1.6);
Cpr factor taking into account strain hardening and other phenomena
that can lead to overstrength; FEMA 350 [17] recommends the relation
Cpr =
Fy + Fu
2 Fy
27
(1.17)
M prpl,RBS + M prpl,RBS
=
VRBS
L1
M prpl,RBS + M prpl,RBS
L1
q L1
2
+
(1.18)
q L1
2
(1.18)
sh
L1
L
q
VRBS
VRBS
Mplpr,RBS
Mpr
pl,RBS
L1
28
The bending moment in the critical cross-sections M rEd at the face of the
column (Fig. 1.25a) and M cEd in the axis of the column (Fig. 1.25b) is estimated,
based on the following relations:
b
(1.19)
(1.20)
(1.21)
(1.22)
If M rEd is bigger than M plr ,Rd , c must be increased (Fig. 1.22) and return to 1.4.3.2.
a +
2
sh
M cEd
M rEd
Mplpr,RBS
Mpr
pl,RBS
VRBS
VRBS
(a)
(b)
1.4.4. Checks
29
The three zones of the beam (rigid zone, plastic zone, elastic zone) must be
checked with the following relations:
M Ed
1,00
M pl,Rd
(1.23)
N Ed
0,15
N pl,Rd
(1.24)
VEd
0,50
Vpl,Rd
(1.25)
For class 3 cross-sections, the plastic values of the resistance must be replaced by
the elastic ones. The axial force limitation (1.24) is necessary only in the plastic
zone. The values of the resistance in relations (1.23), (1.24) and (1.25) are
calculated as follows:
M pl,Rd = Wpl f y M 0 for class 1 and 2 cross-sections
(1.26a)
(1.26b)
N pl,Rd = A f y M 0
(1.27)
Vpl,Rd =
Av fy
(1.28)
M0
where:
A
(1.29)
p
N pEd = N pEd ,G + N Ed
,E
(1.30)
30
(1.31)
(1.32)
L the span of the beam; it should be the distance between the two plastic
hinges design shear force associated to the application of the plastic bending
moments with opposite signs in both plastic hinge zones (L1 in figure 1.24);
for the rigid zone (r) and for the elastic zone (e);
M Ed = M Ed ,G + T M Ed ,E
(1.33)
N Ed = N Ed ,G + T N Ed ,E
(1.34)
(1.35)
where:
E Ed ,G effort (M, N, V) caused by gravitational loads;
E Ed ,E effort (M, N, V) caused by seismic loads;
T = 1,1 ov M
(1.36)
M = min
M
Ed ,i
(1.37)
The lateral stability of the beam shall be checked presuming that a plastic
hinge occurred near the most loaded end of the beam. Both flanges of the beam
must be blocked against lateral displacements in the plastic hinge zone. Codes
generally require for these lateral supports to be able to resist a certain force; for
instance, P100-1:2013 recommends a force equal to 0,06ovfytfbf. Lateral torsional
buckling of the beam must be prevented on the entire length of the beam.
Recommendations for the maximum distance between lateral supports can be found
in EN 1993-1-1.
31
to drill holes.
2. The connection between the beam flange and the column flange (beam web in
the same plane with the column web) shall be realised by fully penetrated but
weld (Fig. 1.26).
In figure 1.26, tbf is the thickness of the flange and (FEMA 350 [4]):
1
3tbf ( 13mm);
FEMA 353 [XX] covers the requirements for fabrication details, including cutting
methods and smoothness.
Fig. 1.26. Recommended welding detail for beam flange (FEMA 350 [4] Fig. 3.5)
3. The connection between the web of the beam and the column can be realised
either by fillet weld or by butt weld. The bolted connection should be avoided (in
32
33
(tests showed that the important increase of the cross-section because of this
connection, as concrete is in compression and steel in tension, can lead to brittle
fracture in the bottom flange when the beam is subject to cyclic loading [17]). An
increased bending moment resistance of the cross-section of the beam also
increases the risk of forming a plastic hinge on the column, instead of having it
on the beam, as desired.
7. It is recommended to have stiffeners at both ends of the plastic hinge (Fig. 1.28).
The thickness of the stiffener, tst, must be at least 75% of the thickness of the
web and bigger than 10mm. It is also recommended to be bigger than bst/15,
where bst is the width of the stiffener. The stiffener width must obey the following
relation:
2 b st + t w = b st
(1.38)
tw
tr
br
bf
Fig. 1.28. Stiffeners on the plastic hinge zone
34
(a)
Fig. 1.29. Common cross-section solutions for columns
(b)
Some of the most important advantages of hollow sections are the following ones:
the geometrical characteristics of the cross-section and the stiffness about the
two main axes are comparable;
they have a much better behaviour to accidental torsion, compared to the open
ones;
In many cases, hollow sections are filled with concrete, which leads to a better
rigidity and an increased fire resistance.
The main drawback of hollow sections is related to more complicate joint details
when connecting the column to the beams, to braces or to the foundation.
The cross-sections of columns should be class 1 or class 2. In zones where
plastic deformations are accepted (near the connection to the foundation and at the
top end) the cross-section should be class 1.
The connections of columns should be placed neither in strongly loaded
zones (neighbour to joints), nor in potentially plastic ones. Generally, this
recommendation is obeyed if the connection of the column is placed in a zone
between H/5 and H/3 above the floor (where H is the storey height), which
corresponds to a distance of 0,8 1,2m.
The column connections may be either welded or bolted; bolted connections
use high strength bolts in slip connections and the transfer of loads can be realised
either through the splices or by contact between parts.
Columns should be connected at each floor in the plane normal to the frame
plane.
The cross-section of the part of column where plastic deformations are
accepted should have a shape that allows reducing the amount of stresses caused
by the axial force and the shear force, compared to stresses caused by the bending
moment. The length of the plastic zone should be limited at 1,5hc, where hc is the
35
36