Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

CHAPTER 8

WASTE CHARACTERISTICS
INTRODUCTION
The waste can be liquid, solid or gas. Liquid wastes include process waste water, wash water,
cooling water, storm water, spill and upsets and sanitary wastes. In general the liquid wastes
are treated first either by physical, chemical and/or biological treatment and the residue is
disposed off. The residue out of liquid waste treatment is generally solid or semi-solid. The
term solid waste is all inclusive and encompasses all sources, composition and properties.
Bulk of solid wastes arise from industrial, commercial, mining, residential treatment plants
and agricultural activities. Gaseous waste is beyond the purview of this chapter. The initial
step in the rational development of treatment scheme, waste disposal or re-use is to
characterise the waste. Generally a waste is characterised in terms of generation rate, physical
properties, chemical composition and biological effects. The characteristics of liquid, solid
and hazardous wastes are presented in this chapter.
LIQUID WASTE CHARACTERISATION:
In the characterisation of liquid wastes, emphasis is dictated by the general nature of the
waste and the permissible discharge levels. Basic characterisation parameters are listed in
Table 1.
Sampling/Analysis:
Meaningful characterisation information only can be obtained through proper analysis of
representative samples or through the use of on-line water quality monitoring
instrumentation.
Acceptable sampling and analytical methods have been compiled by American Public Health
Association (1985) in Standard Methods for the Analysis of Water and Wastewater ; Annual
Book of ASTM Standards (1971), Part 31 Water; and USEPAs Methods for Chemical
Analysis of Water and Wastes (1978). Common sampling pitfalls include: insoluble
components not collected in proper proportion to the sample volume, peak discharges missed
by collecting grab samples instead of using compositing equipment, samples not composited
in proportion to flow rate, and samples not properly preserved.
Emphasis needs to be placed upon obtaining as complete as possible an analysis of the
components in the wastes. This was impossible from a practical viewpoint when only wetchemical analytical methods were available. Atomic absorption and emission spectroscopy
now provides means for achieving nearly complete metal analysis. Likewise,
chromatographic techniques can be used for organic identifications. After proper sample pretreatment to achieve the desired fractionation, pre-concentration, and/or matrix changes, gas
chromatography, especially interfaced with mass spectroscopy, is useful for the identification
of volatile components and liquid chromatography for the non-volatiles.
SOLID WASTE CHARACTERISATION

PVS4-1

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

Physical and chemical composition of solid wastes vary depending on sources and types of
solid wastes. The nature of the deposited waste in a landfill will affect gas and leachate
production and composition by virtue of relative proportions of degradable and nondegradeable components, the moisture content and the specific nature of the bio-degradeable
element. The waste composition will effect both the bulk gases and the trace components.
Physical Composition:
Information and data on the physical composition of solid wastes are important in the
selection and operation equipment and facilities, in assessing the feasibility and resources and
energy recovery and in the analysis and design of disposal facilities. Waste composition,
moisture content, waste particle size, waste density, temperature and pH are important as
these affect the extent and rate of degradation of waste. These are determined on components
of solid wastes.
Determination of Characteristics in the Field:
Solid wastes are complex, multiphase mixtures. Because of the heterogeneous nature of solid
wastes, determination of composition is not easy. Statistical procedures are difficult and
usually procedures based on random sampling techniques are used to determine composition.
To obtain a sample for analysis the waste is reduced to about 100 kg by coning and
quartering.
Moisture Content:
The moisture content of solid wastes usually is expressed as the weight of moisture per unit
weight of wet or dry material. In the wet-weight method of measurement, the moisture in a
sample is expressed as a percentage of the wet weight of the material; in the dry-weight
method, it is expressed as a percentage of the dry weight of the material. In equation form,
the wet-weight moisture content is expressed as follows:

a b

100

a
Moisture content (%) =
where a = initial weight of sample as delivered
b = weight of sample after drying

(1)

Typical data on the moisture content for the solid waste components are given in Table 2
(Tchobanoglous et al. (1977). For most municipal solid wastes, the moisture content will
vary from 15 to 40 percent, depending on the composition of the wastes, the season of the
year, and the humidity and weather conditions, particularly rain. Most micro-organisms
including bacteria require a minimum of approximately 12% moisture for growth. It was
shown that the log of the rate of gas production is directly proportional to the percentage of
water content of refuse (Rees, 1980).
Density:

PVS4-2

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

Density data are often needed to assess the total mass and volume of water that must be
managed. Unfortunately, there is little or no uniformity in the way solid waste densities have
been reported in the literature. Often, no distinction has been made between uncompacted or
compacted densities. Typical densities for various wastes as found in containers are reported
by source in Table 3.
Because the densities of solid wastes vary markedly with geographic location, season of the
year, the length of time in storage, great care should be used in selecting typical values.
Municipal solid wastes as delivered in compaction vehicles have been found to have a typical
value about 300 kg/m3.
Particle Size and size distribution:
The size and size distribution of the component materials in solid wastes are an important
consideration in the recovery of materials, especially with mechanical means such as trommel
screens and magnetic separators. The size of a waste component may be defined by one or
more of the following measures:
l wh
Sc

Sc l
432
l w
1
1 S

c
2
3

w
S

h
2
c
65 c
Where Sc = size of component, in (mm)
L = length, in (mm)
W = width, in (mm)
H= height, in (mm)

The major means of controlling particle size is through shredding. Shredding increases
homogeneity, increases the surface area/volume ratio and reduces the potential for
preferential liquid flow paths through the waste.
Particle size will also influence waste packing densities, and particle size reduction (by
shredding) could increase biogas production through the increased surface area available to
degradation by bacteria. But the smaller particles allow higher packing density which
decrease water movement, bacterial movement and the bacterial access to substrate.
Field Capacity
The field capacity of solid waste is the India amount of moisture that can be retained
in a waste sample subject to the downward pull of gravity. The field capacity of waste
materials is of critical importance in determining the formation of leachate in landfills. Water
in excess of the field capacity will be released as leachate. The field capacity varies with the
degree of applied pressure and the state of decomposition of the waste. A field capacity of 30
percent by volume corresponds to 30 in/100 in. The field capacity of uncompacted
commingled wastes from residential and commercial sources is in the range of 50 to 60
percent.
Chemical Composition:
PVS4-3

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

Information on the chemical composition of solid wastes is important in evaluating

alternative processing and recovery options. For example, consider the incineration process.
Typically, wastes can be thought of as a combination of semimoist combustible and noncombustible materials. If solid wastes are to be used as fuel, the four most important
properties to be known are:
1. Proximate analysis
a. Moisture (loss at 1050C for 1 h)
b. Volatile matter (additional loss on ignition at 9500C)
c. Ash (residue after burning)
d. Fixed carbon (remainder)
2. Fusing point of ash
3. Ultimate analysis, percent of C (carbon), H (hydrogen), O (oxygen), N (nitrogen), S
(Sulphur), and ash
4. Heating value.
A proximate analysis for the combustible components of municipal solid wastes as discarded
is presented in Table 4.
Fusing Point of Ash
The fusing point ash is defined as that temperature at which the ash resulting from the
burning of waste will form a solid (clinker) by fusion and agglomeration. Typical fusing
temperature for the formation of clinker from solid waste range from 2000 to 2200 oF (1100 to
1200oC).
Ultimate Analysis of Solid Waste Components
The ultimate analysis of a waste component typically involves the determination of the
percent C (carbon), H (hydrogen), O (oxygen), N (nitrogen), S (sulphur), and ash. Because of
the concern over the emission of chlorinated compounds during combustion, the
determination of halogens is often included in an ultimate analysis. The results of the ultimate
analysis are used to characterise the chemical composition of the organic matter in MSW.
They are also used to define the proper mix of waste materials to achieve suitable C/N ratios
for biological conversion processes.
Energy Content of Solid Waste Components
The energy content of the organic components in MSW can be determined (1) by using a full
scale boiler as a calorimeter, (2) by using a laboratory bomb calorimeter, and (3) by
calculation, if the elemental composition is known. Because of the difficulty in instrumenting
a full-scale boiler, most of the data on the energy content of the organic components of MSW
are based on the results of bomb calorimeter tests.
Essential Nutrients and Other Elements
Where the organic fraction of MSW is to be used as feedstock for the production of
biological conversion products such as compost, methane, and ethanol, information on the
PVS4-4

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

essential nutrients and elements in the waste materials is of importance with respect the
microbial nutrent balance and in assessing what final uses can be made of the materials
remaining after biological conversion.
Representative data on the ultimate analysis of typical municipal waste components are
presented in Table 5. If Btu values are not available, the approximate Btu value can be
determined by using Eq. 2.

1
Btu/lb = 145.5C + 620(H - 8 O) = 41S

where C = carbon, percent

H = hydrogen, percent
O = oxygen, percent
S = sulphur, percent
Chemical compositions of Municipal Solid waste dumps of three cities are summarised in
Table 6.
Future Changes in Composition
In terms of solid waste management planning, knowledge of future trends in the composition
of solid wastes is of great importance. For example, if a paper recycling program were
instituted on the basis of current distribution data and if paper production were to be
eliminated in the future, such a program would more than likely become a costly white
elephant. Although this case is extreme, it nevertheless illustrates the point that future trends
must be assessed carefully in long-term planning. Another important question is whether the
quantities are actually changing or only the reporting system has improved.
Treatment methods:
Suitability of various treatment methods depends on physical and chemical characteristics of
waste (Fig.1). The method of treatment is decided based on moisture content, organic matter
and total solids.

Biological Properties of MSW

Excluding plastic, rubber, and leather components, the organic fraction of most MSW can be
classified as follows:
1. Water-soluble constituents, such as sugars, starches, amino acids, and various organic
acids.
2. Hemicellulose, a condensation product of five- and six-carbon sugars,
3. Cellulose, a condensation product of the six-carbon sugar glucose
4. Fats, oils, and waxes which are esters of alcohols and long-chain fatty acids,
5. Lingnin, a polymeric material containing aromatic rings with methoxyl groups (-OCH 3),
the exact chemical nature of which is still not known (present in some paper products
such as newsprint and fibreboard),
PVS4-5

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

6. Lignocellulose, a combination of lignin and cellulose,

7. Proteins, which are composed of chains of aminoacids.
Perhaps the most important biological characteristic of the organic fraction of MSW is that
almost all of the organic components can be converted biologically to gases and relatively
inert organic and inorganic solids. The production of odours and the generation of flies are
also related to the putrescible nature of the organic materials found in MSW (e.g., food
wastes).
Biodegradability of Organic Waste Components
Volatile solids (VS) content, determined by ignition at 550oC, is often used as a measure of
the biodegradability of the organic fraction of MSW. The use of VS in describing the
biodegradability of the organic fraction of MSW is misleading, as some of the organic
constituents of MSW are highly volatile but low in biodegradability (e.g., newsprint and
certain plant trimmings). Alternatively, the lignin content of a waste can be used to estimate
the biodegradable fraction, using the following relationship [8]:
BF = 0.83 0.028 LC

where BF= biodegradable fraction expressed on a volatile solids (VS) basis

0.83 = empirical constant
0.028 = empirical constant
LC = lignin content of VS expressed as a percent of dry weight
As shown in Table 7, wastes with high lignin contents, such as newsprint, are significantly
less biodegradable than the other organic wastes found in MSW.
Physical, Chemical and Biological transformations of solid waste
The purpose of this section is to introduce the reader to the principal transformation processes
that can be used for the management of MSW. These transformations can occur either by the
intervention of people or by natural phenomena. Solid waste can be transformed by physical,
chemical, and biological means. One must understand the transformation processes that are
possible and the products that may result because they will affect directly the development of
integrated solid waste management plans.
Physical Transformations
The principal physical transformations that may occur in the operation of solid waste
management systems include (1) component separation, (2) mechanical volume reduction,
and (3) mechanical size reduction. Physical transformations do not involve a change in phase
(e.g., solid to gas), unlike chemical and biological transformation processes.
Chemical transformations
Chemical transformations of solid waste typically involve a change of phase (e.g., solid to
liquid, solid to gas, etc.). To reduce the volume and/or to recover conversion products, the
principal chemical processes used to transform MSW include (1) combustion (chemical
oxidation), (2) pyrolysis, and (3) gasification. All three of these processes are often classified
as thermal processes.

PVS4-6

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

Biological Transformations
The biological transformations of the organic fraction of MSW may be used to reduce the
volume and weight of the material; to produce compost, a humus-like material that can be
used as a soil conditioner; and to produce methane. The principal organisms involved in the
biological transformations of organic wastes are bacteria, fungi, yeasts and actinomycetes.
These transformations may be accomplished either aerobically or anerobically, depending on
the availability of oxygen. The principal differences between the aerobic and anaerobic
conversion reactions are the nature of the end products and the fact oxygen must be provided
to accomplish the aerobic conversion. Biological processes that have been used for the
conversion of the organic fraction of MSW include aerobic composting, anaerobic digestion,
and high-solids anaerobic digestion.
Geotechnical Properties of Wastes:
The rising cost of land especially in urban areas, has made it necessary to utilise the landfill
and development of methods for construction and assessment of the structural properties of
wastes. For sanitary landfill design, the Geotechnical criteria are necessary during landfilling
(stability of slope), and utilisation (settlements, foundation design criteria and stabilisation).
Unit Weight:
As can be expected, the unit weight of refuse varies widely because of large variations in
composition, state of decomposition, comparative effort and settlement. The drainage
condition beneath the landfill also affects the unit weight. The usual range of in-situ density
after compaction is 1.2 t/m3 to 2.1 t/m3 with extremes of 0.94 t/m3 for poor compaction and
2.8 t/m3 for best compaction.
Direct determination of the unit weight can be attempted by recovering tube samples.
Another approach is to excavate a test pit, lining it with plastic, filling it with water and
determining the unit weight knowing the volume of the pit and the weight of the excavated
refuse. Large numbers of these tests will be required to estimate a meaningful average and
can only be applicable near the surface where the pit is excavated.
The overall average bulk unit weight can indirectly be estimated if the effective consolidation
pressure and excess pore water pressure in the foundation of the landfill can be estimated
(Fig.2). This approach requires that:
a.
b.

The clay sampled be normally consolidated before the landfill is placed and,
The piezometric head in the foundation soil at the points sampled be known.

Based on this approach, the average unit weight of the landfill can be determined based on

( Pc Po) ( u)
hl

where l
Po
Pc

= Average bulk unit weight of the landfill

= Effective overburden stress prior to the placement of landfill
= Effective consolidation pressure due to consolidation under the landfill.

PVS4-7

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

Pc
u
hl

= determined from the conventional consolidation tests on the clay samples.

= Excess pore water pressure in the foundation soil at the point sampled.
= Height (Depth) of landfill.

The indicated densities may be slightly higher than actually existing and the following
conclusion are derived:
1.
2.
3.

The unit weight of the refuse material increased with increasing depth.
The wet unit weight of the newer fill was slightly higher than the wet unit weight
of
the older fill, largely because of higher moisture contents in the newer fill.
The dry unit weight of the newer fill and the older fill were approximately
equal.

The leachate buildup in a landfill affects the bulk weight of the landfill imposed on the
foundation soil. The leachate buildup (Fig.3) is a function of the percolation rate of rain
through the landfill, the permeability of the landfill and drainage conditions at the base of the
landfill. For a modern landfill with leachate collection at the base, buildup of leachate would
be minimal (New Jersey regulations restrict the buildup to 0.3m over the liner). For older
landfills with no effective drainage at the base the buildup can be determined by field
piezometers. A rough estimate can be made using Equation 4. For refuse on impervious level
base the buildup can be estimated as follows:
he
1

l
2n

r
k

10

where he = height of leachate buildup above drains along the sides of the landfill.
l = distance between drains
n = porosity of refuse
r = rate of percolation
k =coefficient of permeability of refuse
Permeability of Compacted Waste
The hydraulic conductivity of compacted wastes is an important physical property
that, to a large extent, governs the movement of liquids and gases in a landfill. The coefficient
of permeability is normally written as [11]:
11

K Cd 2 k

Where K = coefficient of permeability

C = dimensionless constant or shape factor
d = average size of pores
= specific weight of water
= dynamic viscosity of water
k = intrinsic permeability

PVS4-8

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

The term Cd2 is known as the intrinsic permeability. The intrinsic permeability depends solely
on the properties of the solid material, including pore size distribution, tortuosity, specific
surface, and porosity. Typical values for the intrinsic permeability for compacted solid waste
in a landfill are in the range between about 10 -11 and 10-12 m2 in the vertical direction and
about 10-10 m2 in the horizontal direction.
The reported range of permeability of refuse is 10-1 to 10-5 cm/sec. This range is too broad for
practical purposes. The permeability appears to correlate well with unit weight (i.e. denser
refuse is less previous) as illustrated in Table 8.
The average permeability of refuse can be indirectly estimated using equation 4. For the
landfill cited in New Jersey Hackensack Meadows, an average distance l of 1300 feet was
considered between points where leachate was observed to drain above the prevailing
groundwater, he of 10 m was measured in the field by installing piezometers in the landfill
and r of 52.5 cm/y was determined using the water balance method. With an assumed
porosity of 0.5, the back calculated permeability is 2.6 x 10-3 cm/sec. This value was applied
to a nearby landfill with an average width of 215 m. The leachate buildup was predicted to
be about 3 m which is within 0.6 m of the reported values. The agreement is remarkable
considering the crude nature of the analysis.
Strength Parameters:
The shear strength of waste is required by the design engineer to ensure overall landfill
stability, to ensure the integrity of the side slope lining system.
Several authors have presented the results of investigation into the shear strength properties
of waste, and estimates have been made using three main approaches; laboratory testing
(usually in direct shear), field testing and back calculation from failures and load tests. Due to
difficulties in measuring pore water pressure in waste it is often unclear whether effective
stress or total stress parameters are measured.
Generally, the conventional effective shear strength parameters of friction angle (') and
cohesion intercept (c') have been used to describe the strength of waste. A summary of
reported shear strengths is given in Table 9. Of particular note is the wide range of values
obtained with estimates of friction angles ranging from 15 o to 42o, and cohesion intercepts of
up to 26.5 kPa.
In assessing the stability of landfills, assessment of the strength parameters is essential. Tests
carried out at the Fritz Engineering Laboratory show that for compacted bales the friction
angle varies from 150 - 250, while the cohesion remains constant at 7 t/m2. It should be noted
that no definite failure load could be identified from these tests. The load at 15% to 20%
strain was used as a failure load.
The safe pressure on foundations on refuse is dictated by settlement. Allowable stress of 2.4
to 3.9 t/m2 is often mentioned or 12.2 t/m 2 of uniform load for well seasoned refuse fill
placed in wet areas but subject to an equivalent preload for at least one year.
The strength parameter determined in the laboratory may have some relevance to slope
stability problems. Using a friction angle of 20 degrees coupled with cohesion of 2 to 2.5 t/m 2
results in factors of safety consistent with observed behaviour of refuse on medium and soft
PVS4-9

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

clay (Oweis and Khera, 1986). In a load testing of refuse on a landfill in Southern California,
the following combination of cohesion and friction angle were considered as conservative
values for assessing the stability:
C - 4.8 t/m 2 ( - 100) = 0, C 4.8 t/m2 100 26.50
Based on pressure meter tests it was concluded that values: = 300 to 350 and C = 1-2.5 t/m2
are reasonable for a landfill in the Hackensack Meadows of New Jersey.
The parameter c and used for refuse are somewhat statistical. For soft soils loaded by
refuse, where foundation stability is critical, the shear strains required to produce failure of
the foundation soil are much smaller than those required to fail the refuse itself. For this
reason, it was suggested that the stability problem of refuse on soft soils be treated as bearing
capacity problem by considering the weight of the refuse.
Compressibility:
The settlement characteristics of waste are important to investigate and understand as
excessive or differential settlement can lead to the fracture or breakage of gas or leachate
extraction pipes, which can then lead to a dangerous build up of landfill gas or can cause
saturation of the waste mass. Differential settlement can cause dramatic changes in the
surface profiles of the finished landfill site, which are designed in the landfill licence to allow
water run-off. Excessive differential settlement can cause areas of depression that can lead to
the formation of permanent water bodies, this in turn results in additional load to the waste
and therefore increased differential settlement. The formation of a permanent water body on
the surface of the landfill site will increase the amount of water percolating into the landfill
site, resulting in larger quantities of leachate to be dealt with.
Waste composition alters with age as biodegradation takes place and the organic content of
the waste degrades into inert waste. This reaction occurs alongside other chemical reactions
to alter the composition of the waste. These changes in composition should be taken into
consideration during settlement calculations.
It is a common practice to evaluate the compressibility of refuse by employing the theory of
one-dimensional consolidation. Under a load increase p in a layer of refuse with a thickness
Hi under an existing effective po, the settlement is estimated
. CCR H i log

where
CCR
p
Po
C
t1

p
po

H i C log

t2
t1

12

= settlement of layer of refuse with a thickness Hi

= (Cc) = compression ratio, slope of stress strain curve from semi
1+Cc log plot in the virgin range.
= increase in stress at midpoint at the layer due to the applied load.
= initial effective stress at midpoint of the layer
= coefficient of secondary compression
= time for pseudo-primary (mechanical settlement) to occur, usually it is taken
as one month for a 15 feet layer of refuse.
PVS4-10

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

t2

= time for which settlement is computed, t2 t1

If no load is applied to the refuse fill, the fill would experience settlement due to many factors
including: Movement of particles into large voids; Biological decomposition of organic;
Chemical reactions, including oxidation and combustion; Dissolving of soluble substances by
percolating groundwater or leachate; Change in deformation properties with time; and Plastic
flow or creep.
Settlement of refuse fill would also occur during construction of the landfill. Consider a
projected height hl completed in time t, the average vertical effective stress va is l hl/2 where
l hl
l is the unit weight of refuse. The average constrained modulus D is 0.435C CR , and the

1
average primary settlement is 2 lhl2/D or 0.435 CCR hl. For a typical CCR of 0.25, the
mechanical settlement of the refuse would amount to 11% of the projected height prior to its
completion. The secondary settlement is given by C hl log t, where t is the average life of
the landfill. For a typical t of 120 months (10 years), and C of 0.1, the secondary
compression may amount to 21% of the height. The total settlement is about 30%
(mechanical plus secondary).
Estimates of C and CCR have been reported and some of the results presented in Fig.4 for C .
The effect of the geographic location is evident, lesser rainfall (Los Angeles) is associated
with lesser C since the climate is less conducive to decomposition. CCR values varied from
0.08 to 0.41.
From one dimensional consolidation test on waste of density of 600 kg/m 3 (initial void ratio
of 2.86), Sargunan et al (1986) have reported a compression index of 0.55 and secondary
compression coefficient varying from 0.0036 to 0.005 for a municipal dump in Madras City.

PVS4-11

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

Sampling and Analysis

Hazardous wastes can be solids, sludges, liquids, or gases. Representative samples of the
waste for the desired precision and reproducibility for analysis can be obtained by any of the
following:
Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Random Sampling is used for heterogeneous wastes with no additional information available
on chemical properties. After randomly locating all the sampling points, random number of
samples is taken from the population. In stratified random sampling, the location or strata that
are sources of non-random heterogeneity is identified. Simple random samples are then taken
from each stratum or location. Random sample from the population at a predetermined
location followed by samples at regular time intervals or fixed space intervals is the strategy
for systematic random sampling. Composite sample is obtained by combining a number of
grab samples. Samples are properly preserved, stored and prepared for subsequent analysis.
Analysis
Analysis of trace organic hazardous waste is accomplished by Gas chromatography (GC),
Liquid chromatography (LC), Mass spectrometry (MS) and Combinations such as GC/MS
and LC/MS methods. Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) method is used for qualitative and
quantitative inorganic hazardous wastes as well as organic wastes that are not gas
chromatographable. Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AA) and inductively coupled organ
plasma emission spectroscopy (ICAP) can be used to identify and quantify inorganic
constituents. AA analysis is excellent method for analysis of hearing metals X-ray
fluorescence (XRF) is a complimentary technique to AA and ICAP. Detailed account of
principles of AA spectroscopy, X-ray Fluorescence spectrometry chromatography, infrared
spectroscopy can be found in the book by Pinta et al (1978) and Pecsok et al. (1976). The
salmonella assay (Ames test) is widely used to detect genetic changes, quickly evaluating the
genotoxicity of hazardous wastes.
SUMMARY
Characterisation of waste is a very complex process. The emphasis of characterisation varies
depending on whether it is for selection of treatment scheme, disposal or reuse. For the
purpose of characterisation waste can be grouped into liquid wastes, solid wastes and
hazardous wastes. The first step in the characterisation is collection of representative
samples. Methods for analysis of wastes by physical, chemical and geotechnical parameters
are described.
REFERENCES:
American Public Health Association, New York, (1985). Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Waste Water, 16th Ed..
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, (1971). Part 31 Water, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia.

PVS4-12

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

Oweis, I.S. and Khera, R. (1986). Criteria for Geotechnical Construction of Sanitary
Landfills, Proc. International Symposium on Environmental Geotechnology Ed. H.Y.
Fang, Vol.1, pp.205-222.
Pecsok, R.L., Shields, L.D., Cairns, T., and Mcwilliam, I.G. (1976). Modern Methods of
Chemical Analysis Second Ed. John, Wiley & Sons, New York.
Pinta, M., Scott, R.M. and Krishnaswamy Rangan. Modern Methods for Trace Element
Analysis. Ann Arbor Science, Butterworth Ltd., Borough Green, Sevenoakes, Kent
(England) (1978).
Rees, J.F., (1980). The fate of carbon compounds in the landfill disposal of organic matter. J.
Chem. Tech. Biotechnol, Vol.30, pp.161-175.
Sargunan, A, Mallikarjun, N and Ranapratap, K (1986). Geotechnical Properties of refuse fill
of Modern India. Proc. of International Symposium on Environmental Geotechnology,
Ed. H.Y. Fang, Vol.1, pp.197-204.
Tchobanoglous, G, Theisen, H, and Eliassen, R (1977).Solid Waste Engineering. Principles
and Management Issues McGraw Hill Book Company, New York.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. (1978). Methods for Chemical
Analysis of Water and Wastes.

PVS4-13

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

Table 1 Basic Parameters in Wastewater Characterisation

___________________________________________________________
1. Source Information for the Individual Points of Origin
Waste components, individually or at least by classes (see below)
Rate of discharge during production run (average and maximum)
Periodic discharges due to batch operations.
Duration and frequency of production runs
Susceptibility to emergency discharges or spills
2. Chemical Composition
Organic and inorganic components by compounds or classes
Gross organic: Chemical oxygen demand (COD), total organic carbon
(TOD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD, extractable
Specific problem ions (As, Ba, Cd, Cr, CN, Hg, Pb, Sc, Ag, NO3
Specific problem organic, e.g. phenol, certain pesticides, benzidine,
polychlorinated biphenyls, certain polynuclear aromatics
Total dissolved salts
pH, acidity, alkalinity
Nitrogen and phosphorus
Oils and greases (extractables)
Oxidizing or reducing agents (e.g, sulfides)
Surfactants
Chlorine demand
3. Biological Effects
Biochemical oxygen demand
Toxicity (acquatic life, bacteria, mammals, plants)
Pathogenic bacteria
4. Physical Properties
Temperature range and distribution
Insoluble components: Colloidal, settleable, floatable
Colour
Odour
Foamability
Corrosiveness
Radioactivity
5. Flow Data for Total Discharge
Average daily flow rate
Duration and level of minimum flow rate
Maximum rate of change of flow rate
______________________________________________________________

PVS4-14

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

Table 2 Determination of Moisture Content for Solid Wastes

__________________________________________________________
Percent
Moisture content
Component
weight
percentage
__________________________________________________________
Food wastes
15
70
Paper
40
6
Cardboard
4
5
Plastics
3
2
Textiles
2
10
Rubber
0.5
2
Leather
0.5
10
Garden trimmings
12
60
Wood
2
20
Glass
8
2
Tin cans
6
3
Nonferrous metals
1
2
Ferrous metals
2
3
Dirt, ashes, brick etc.
4
8
______________________________________________________
Table 3 Typical Densities of Municipal Solid Wastes by Source
______________________________________________________
Density, Kg/m3
Source
Range
Typical
______________________________________________________
Residential (uncompacted)
Rubbish
150-300
130
Garden trimmings
100-250
100
Ashes
1,100-1,400
750
Residential (compacted)
In compactor truck
300-750
300
In landfill (normally compact)
600-850
450
In landfill (well compacted)
1,000-1,250
600
Residential (after processing)
Baled
1,000-1,800
700
Shredded, uncompacted
200-450
200
Shredded, compacted
1,100-1,800
750
Commercial-industrial (uncompacted)
Food waste (wet)
800-1,600
550
Combustion rubbish
80-300
120
Noncombustion rubbish
300-600
300
_____________________________________________________

PVS4-15

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

Table 4 Typical Proximate Analysis for

Municipal Solid Wastes
_____________________________________
Component
Value, percent
Typical
____________________________________
Mositure
20
Volatile matter
53
Fixed carbon
7
Glass, metal, ash
20
____________________________________
Table 5 Typical Data on Ultimate Analysis of the Combustible
Components in Municipal Solid Wastes
_____________________________________________________________________
Percent by weight (dry basis)
_______________________________________________
Component
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur Ash
_____________________________________________________________________
Food wastes
48.0
6.4
37.6
2.6
0.4
5.0
Paper
43.5
6.0
44.0 0.3
0.2
6.0
Cardboard
44.0
5.9
44.6 0.3
0.2
5.0
Plastic
60.0
7.2
22.8
10.0
Textiles
55.0
6.6
31.2 4.6
0.15
2.5
Rubber
78.0
10.0
2.0
10.0
Leather
60.0
8.0
11.6 10.0
0.4
10.0
Garden trimmings
47.8
6.0
38.0
3.4
0.3
4.5
Wood
49.5
6.0
42.7
0.2
0.1
1.5
Dirt, ashes,brick etc. 26.3
3.0
2.0
0.5
0.2
68.0
___________________________________________________________________
Table 6 Overall Chemical Analysis (in %)
__________________________________________________
Location
____________________________
Madras
Foreshore
Otteri
__________________________________________________
Organic matter
21.40
46.30
48.40
Carbon
12.40
26.80
28.00
Nitrogen
0.44
0.32
0.48
Phosphorus
0.24
0.87
0.74
Potash
0.19
0.15
0.22
Moisture
10.10
22.80
30.00
pH
6.90
7.10
6.90
__________________________________________________

PVS4-16

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

Table 7 Data on the biodegradable fraction of selected organic waste

components based on lignin content
Component
Food wastes
Paper
News print
Office paper
Cardboard
Yard wastes

Volatile solids (VS),

percent of total solids
(TS)
7-15

Lignin content
(LS), percent of
VS
0.4

Biodegradable
fraction (BF)

94.0
96.4
94.0
50-90

21.9
0.4
12.9
4.1

0.22
0.82
0.47
0.72

0.82

Table 8 Permeability Test Data on Compacted Waste Material

Unit Weight, T/m3
0.57
0.79
0.84
1.14

Coefficient of Permeability, k cm/sec

1.5 x 10-2
4.8 x 10-3
3.5 x 10-3
7.1 x 10-4

Table 9 Internal shear strength of waste from the literature

Reference

Jessberger (1994)
Jessberger (1994)
Jessberger (1994)
Jessberger (1994)
Jessberger (1994)
Jessberger (1994)

Shear strength
parameters
c' (kPa)
' (o)
7
38
10
15
10
17
0
30
0
40
7
42

Method

Not stated
Back analysis
Back analysis
Estimate
Estimate
Simple shear

Jessberger (1994)

28

26.5

Fassett et al (1994)

10

32

Suggested values

10
15
18
10
15.7
23.5
19
16
16
23
10
0
5

23
15
22
25
21
22
42
28
33
24
33.6
41
31

Suggested values
Suggested values
Suggested values
Back analysis
Direct shear
Direct shear
Direct shear
Direct shear
Direct shear
Direct shear
Direct shear
Direct shear
Direct shear

Fassett et al (1994)
Kolsch (1995)
Kolsch (1995)
Cowland et al (1993)
Del Greco & Oggeri (1993)
Del Greco & Oggeri (1993)
Landva & Clark (1986)
Landva & Clark (1986)
Landva & Clark (1986)
Landva & Clark (1986)
Landva & Clark (1986)
Golder Associates (1993)
Taylor (1995)

Simple shear

PVS4-17

Comments

Reporting Gay et al (1978) MSW

Reporting Spillman (1980)
Reporting Spillman (1980)
Reporting Cassina (1979)
From field observations
Reporting Gay et al (1981) 9
months old MSW
Reporting Gay et al (1981) fresh
MSW
Reporting Jessberger & Kockel
(1991)
Suggested by authors
Suggested by authors
Suggested by authors
Deep trench cut in waste
Tests on lower density baled waste
Tests on higher density baled waste
Old refuse
Old refuse
Old refuse + 1 year
Fresh, shredded waste
Wood waste/ refuse mixture
Project specific testing

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

PVS4-18

Geoenvironmental Engineering and Waste Management

PVS4-19