Electromagnetic Induction

General aspects
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) induced in a closed contour:
magnetic flux

Lenz (1804-1865):

d
U =
dt
r r
= BdS
ind

- the induced current is in such a direction as to oppose the magnetic

flux variation causing it.

The Faradays law - a new physical phenomenon: a time varying
magnetic field generates an electric field.

- the electric field can be created not only by electric charges, but
by a varying magnetic field as well.

Electromagnet

Cu ring
S
Source
if S closed
Cu ring is moving to the... (right or left?)

Electromagnet

Cu ring
S
Source
S closed
Cu ring is moving to the... left

Electromagnet

Cu ring
S
Source
S stays closed long enough time
steady state current
then
S opened
Cu ring is moving to the... (right or left?)

Electromagnet

Cu ring
S
Source
S opened
Cu ring is moving to the... right!

Differential Form of the Electromagnetic Induction Law

r r
d r r
L Edl = dt S BdS

because

r r
= Edl

r r
= BdS
S

Using Stokes formula

r
r
B
E =
t

ind

r
r r
r r
B r
L Edl = S E dS = S t dS

- the differential form of Faradays law

The volume density of the magnetic field energy

For the entire space, the total energy of the field is

1 rr
w = HB
2
1 rr
W = HBdV
2

magnetic
flux

The Displacement Current

1864 the English theoretical physicist Clerk Maxwell recognized the
dilemma posed by the application of Amperes circuital law to a system of
accelerated charges
r
divB = 0
r
r
r (*)
B is unique determined by
rotB = B = 0 j

r
- the current density must satisfies the equation of continuity divj +
=0
t
From (*) we have
But

0
t

r
r 1
divj =
div B 0

for a system of moving charges

The solution of this dilemma was posed by Maxwell

He redefines the current density adding the displacement current

r
= divD from electrostatics

r
r
divj +
divD = 0
t

r
jtot

r
r D
= j+
t
r
j

r
r

D
=0
div j +
t

r
r 1
agrees with: divj = div B 0

- the total current density

- the conduction current density

r
D
t

- the displacement current density

Now we can write

r
r r D
H = j +
t

r
r r
E
H = j + 0
t

or

r
r
r
E
B = 0 j + 0 0
t

- the displacement current creates a magnetic field like the conduction current.
If

r
j =0

r
r
E
H = 0
t

Maxwells Equations
r
r r
E
H = j + 0 0
t
r
r
B
E =
t
r
r
E =
D =

r
B = 0
r
r r
r
D = 0E + P = E
r
r r
r
B = 0 H + Bi = H

In dielectrics:
r
r
E
H =
t

- Maxwell-Ampres circuital law

- Faradays law of the electromagnetic induction
- Gauss law for the electric flux
- Gauss law for the magnetic flux
- the materials equations

= ct. = ct.

r
r
B
E =
t

r
=0 j =0

r
E = 0

r
H = 0

Maxwells equations predict that electric and magnetic fields may

exist in regions where no electric charges or currents are present.
If the fields at one point of space vary with time, then some variation of
the fields must occur at every other point of space at some other time.
Thus changes in the electric and magnetic fields should propagate
through space. The propagation of such a disturbance is called an
electromagnetic wave (experimental proof 1884 Heinrich Hertz).

Fundamentals on e.m. waves

- the existence and features of e.m. waves were theoretically described and
predicted by James Maxwell, in 1864;
- first experimental proof of this theory was given by Heinrich Hertz in 1888, ten
years after Maxwell's death.

- Hertz used an oscillatory circuit with a capacitor made of two bowls, K1 and K2
- the "coil" was made of two straight conductors
- the bowls could be moved along the conductors
the capacitance of the circuit
could be altered, and also its resonance frequency;
- with every interruption from the battery, a high voltage was produced at the output
of the inductor, creating a spark between the narrow placed balls k1 and k2
- whenever there was a spark in the oscillator between the balls k1 and k2, a spark
would also be produced by the resonator, between balls k3 and k4.

Nikola Tesla demonstrated wireless broadcasting in 1893, at the Franklin Institute.

Tesla's idea was to produce electromagnetic waves by means of oscillatory circuits
and transmit them over an antenna. A receiver would then receive the waves with
another antenna and oscillatory circuit being in resonance with the oscillatory
circuit of the transmitter. This represented the groundwork of today's radio
communications.

Wave Equations. General characteristics of waves

A disturbance that propagates in a given medium - wave

-one-dimensional
- two-dimensional
- three dimensional

A transverse wave

A longitudinal wave

A pulse traveling through a

string with fixed endpoints
A wave that is linearly polarized in the direction of the y-axis

The Phase
A solitary wave pulse that propagates along a horizontal taut string

y = f ( x, t )

- wave function for the pulse

The observer in a coordinate frame O that moves in the x direction with the
same velocity, v

y ' = f ( x ')

stationary pulse with a fixed shape

The connection

x = x'+ vt
y = y'

y = f ( x vt )

If the pulse is travelling in the opposite direction

u = x vt - the phase of the wave

y = g (x + vt )

The phase velocity

y = f ( x vt )
A wave pulse travels to the right with a velocity v along a taut string. The
location of the pulse is shown at times t1 and t2.
To give the same phase u0 at these instants

v=

x 2 x1
t 2 t1

- phase u0 of the pulse peak to be a constant, independent on

time

- for all phases u we must have:

du u x u
=
+
dt x t t

dx
v=
dt

u 0 = x1 vt1 = x 2 vt 2

u = x vt

du
=0
dt
u
=1
x

u
= v
t

du
dx
= 0 = 1 v
dt
dt

- any feature of the wave pulse has a coordinate location x that

moves with a velocity - phase velocity

Phase velocity and group velocity

There are two velocities that are associated with waves, the phase velocity and
the group velocity.
Phase velocity

wavelength, A - amplitude

Group velocity

The wavelenght =vT (T is time period,

T=1/) is the shortest distance over which the
wave repeats itself.

v ph =

phase velocity

The group velocity depends upon the dispersion

relation connecting and k

vgr =

d
dk

- a wave with the group velocity

and phase velocity going in
different directions.

Superposition
- principle of superposition

y = f ( x vt ) + g (x + vt )

(a) Destructive interference.

(b) Constructive interference.

The Wave Equation

2
1 2
= 2 2
2
x
v t

wave equation - waves that propagate in one dimension

(x-direction)

v wave velocity
2 2 2
1 2
+ 2 + 2 = 2 2
2
x
y
z
v t

- in a three-dimensional medium

(x,t) represents a generalized displacement from equilibrium (e.g. the

displacement of a string, a pressure variation, electric or magnetic field
variation, etc.).

Plane Waves

( x, t ) = 0 sin (t kx + )

= 2
frequency
initial phase

- solution of wave eq.; sinusoidal wave

The solution is periodic in x and t.

k=2/ - the wave number

= kv

- the angular velocity

- v wave velocity

The wavelenght =vT (T is time period, T=1/) is the shortest

distance over which the wave repeats itself.
r r
r 2 r r
r r
r
(r , t ) = 0 sin t k r + k =
n n - unit vector  direction of wave
propagation

- a 3D plane wave; each color represents a

different phase of the wave.

Spherical Waves from a Point Source

r r
r r
0
(r , t ) = sin t k r
r
1
I~ 2
r

- the wave intensity

r 2 r
k=
n

Standing waves
A standing wave, or stationary wave, is a wave that remains in a constant
position. This phenomenon can occur because the medium is moving in the
opposite direction to the wave, or it can arise in a stationary medium as a
result of interference between two waves traveling in opposite directions.

The sum of two counter-propagating waves (of equal amplitude and

frequency) creates a standing wave.

One-dimensional standing
waves; the fundamental mode
and the first 5 overtones.

Waves on strings

v=

T - tension of the string ;

- linear mass density

Acoustic waves
Acoustic or sound waves travel at speed given by

v=

v=

E Youngs modulus;
- volume mass density
- in solid media

B the adiabatic bulk modulus;

0 - volume mass density
- in fluids

Wave Equations for electric and magnetic fields

r
r
E
H =
t

For dielectric media we have

r
r
r

( H ) =
= t E

r
r
r
r
2
( H ) = H H
H = 0
r r r
r r r r r r
A B C = B AC C A B
r
r
H
But E =
t

( )
) ( ) (

In a similar way one can obtain

v2 =
c2 =

r
2
r
H
H 2 = 0
t
wave equations !

r
r
E
E 2 = 0
t
2

- the velocity of the wave propagation in the dielectric

1
0 0

0=8.8510-12 F/m and 0=410-7 H/m

c=2.99792458108 m/s

c
= n = rr
v

- the index of refraction of the medium

Plane Waves

r r
E = E 0 sin (t kx )
r
r
H = H 0 sin(t kx)

- solutions of wave eq.

k=2/ - the wave number

= 2

= kv

- the angular velocity

The wavelenght =vT is the shortest distance over which the

wave repeats itself (T is time period, T=1/).
The solutions are periodic in x and t.

r
E0

r
H0

- the amplitudes of the electric and magnetic field components

r r r r
H n, E n
E

=
H

- the electromagnetic waves are transversal waves

r
n

- unit vector  direction of wave propagation

- the amplitudes of the fields are related

- complex notation; the imaginary part describes our wave

r r i (t kx )

E = E0 e
r
r i (t kx )
H = H 0e
r
r
=i
= (ik )i
x
r
= (ik ) n

- for x direction

- for an arbitrary direction of wave propagation

Applying this operator to Maxwells eqs.:

r
E = 0 in vacuum

or dielectrics

r
rr
B = ikn H = 0
r
rr
D = ikn E = 0

r r r r
We have H n , E n

The electromagnetic waves are transversal waves

r
B = 0

r
r
Now we show that: E H

r
r
r
r
B
H
i (t kx )
=
= H 0 ie
= i H
t
t
r
r
D
= iE
t

r
r
r
r
E
B
From Maxwells equations in dielectrics H =
E =
t
t
r
r
r D
r
r r
r r
r
r
H =
ikn H = iE
= kv
n H = vE =
E=
E
t

r
1
r
r
r r
B
v=
r
r r
r
r
E =
ikn E = iH

n E = vH =
H=
H
t

r
r r
H = n E

r
r
EH

- the amplitudes of the fields are related

=
H

0
E
=
H
0

r
r
EH
r r r r
H n, E n

A plane polarized, monochromatic electromagnetic wave

=
H

Electromagnetic Energy
The energy density of an electromagnetic wave

w=

1
(ED + HB ) = 1 E 2 + H 2
2
2

w = E 2 = H 2 [J/m3]

The intensity of an electromagnetic wave

S=

1 dW
[Jm-2s-1]
dA dt

dW = w dA v dt

r r
2
S=
H = EH = EH
H =

r r r
S = EH

Poyntings vector

[W/m2]

S = vw

The average intensity of this wave

r r
E = E 0 sin (t kx )
r
r
H = H 0 sin(t kx)

Using Eqs.

t x 1
S = E 0 H 0 sin 2 = E 0 H 0 = E rms H rms
T 2
2

1
t
1
2
sin
2

dt
=
because
T 0
T
2

E rms = E 2 =

1
2

E0

- the time average intensity of the wave

because both E and H behave like sine functions

The square root of the average square of the electric field strength is
called the rms field strength

(
A

r r r dW
E H dA =
dt

the flux of the Poyntings vector through the surface

Electromagnetic Momentum and Radiation Pressure

- linear momentum density

r 1 r 1
r
G = 2 S = w n , [ Js / m 4 ]
c
c

r
G

S = cw
The total wave momentum contained within a volume Act will be absorbed by
the surface
- a force F is exerted by the wave on an area A of the surface

Ft =

1
w Act
c

The force per unit area is the radiation pressure, prad

p rad =

F
= w,
A

[6 / m ]
2

- radiation pressure

COLOR

Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red

Wavelengths Range (nm)

400-450
450-500
500-550
550-600
600-650
650-700

- there are no precisely defined boundaries

between the bands of the electromagnetic
spectrum; rather they fade into each other
like the bands in a rainbow

Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum (cont.)

Boundaries
A discussion of the regions (or bands or types) of the electromagnetic spectrum
is given below. Note that there are no precisely defined boundaries between the
bands of the electromagnetic spectrum; rather they fade into each other like the
bands in a rainbow (which is the sub-spectrum of visible light). Radiation of each
frequency and wavelength (or in each band) will have a mixture of properties of
two regions of the spectrum that bound it. For example, red light resembles
infrared radiation in that it can excite and add energy to some chemical bonds
and indeed must do so to power the chemical mechanisms responsible for
photosynthesis and the working of the visual system.

Electromagnetic radiation and Matter

Electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter in different ways in different parts of the
spectrum. The types of interaction can be so different that it seems to be justified to refer
to different types of radiation. At the same time, there is a continuum containing all these
"different kinds" of electromagnetic radiation. Thus we refer to a spectrum, but divide it
up based on the different interactions with matter.
Region of the spectrum

Main interactions with matter

Radio

Collective oscillation of charge carriers in bulk material (plasma

oscillation). An example would be the oscillation of the electrons
in an antenna.

Microwave through far infrared

Plasma oscillation, molecular rotation

Near infrared

Molecular vibration, plasma oscillation (in metals only)

Visible

Molecular electron excitation (including pigment molecules found

in the human retina), plasma oscillations (in metals only)

Ultraviolet

Excitation of molecular and atomic valence electrons, including

ejection of the electrons (photoelectric effect)

X-rays

Excitation and ejection of core atomic electrons, Compton

scattering (for low atomic numbers)

Gamma rays

Energetic ejection of core electrons in heavy elements, Compton

scattering (for all atomic numbers), excitation of atomic nuclei,
including dissociation of nuclei

High energy gamma rays

Creation of particle-antiparticle pairs. At very high energies a

single photon can create a shower of high energy particles and
antiparticles upon interaction with matter.

Elements of Photometry

Blackbody Radiation

For a shiny metallic surface, the light isn't absorbed, it gets reflected.
For a black material like soot, light and heat are almost completely absorbed,
and the material gets warm.
- good absorbers of radiation are also good emitters.
Observing the Black Body Spectrum

r r r
RT =| S |= E H Poynting vector

- find how much radiant energy, RT, is being emitted

in each frequency range, say the energy between
frequency and + d is RT()d.
A cavity approximates a blackbody

Black body thermal emission intensity as a

function of wavelength for various absolute
temperatures.

P = T 4 , = 5.67x10 -8 watts / m 2 K 4
Stefan Boltzmann's Law of Radiation

max

3 106
=
[nm]; max = a kT 5.879 1010 T [Hz ]
T
h
Wien's Displacement Law

Spectral density of a blackbody at 2000, 3000, 4000 and 5000 K versus frequency
The ultraviolet catastrophe
- as we go to higher frequencies, there are
more and more possible degrees of freedom.
-the oven should be radiating huge amounts
of energy in the blue and ultraviolet
- the total power radiated

S ( )d

will be infinitely large

- the equipartition of energy isn't working!

EM radiation exhibits both wave properties and particle properties at the same time
(wave-particle duality). Both wave and particle characteristics have been confirmed in
a large number of experiments. Wave characteristics are more apparent when EM
radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances while
particle characteristics are more evident when measuring small timescales and
distances.
- when electromagnetic radiation is absorbed by matter, particle-like properties will be
more obvious.
- a contradiction between the wave theory of light on the one hand, and on the other,
observers' actual measurements of the electromagnetic spectrum that was being
emitted by thermal radiators known as black bodies
ultraviolet catastrophe
- In 1900, Max Planck developed a new theory of black-body radiation that explained
the observed spectrum.
- Planck's theory was based on the idea that black bodies emit light (and other
electromagnetic radiation) only as discrete bundles or packets of energy: quanta

8 h 3
1
(
)
u =
Js/m3
3
h / kT
c
e
1
Plancks law

h = 6.62618 10 34 J s Plancks constant

E 0 = h
J/m4

The Photo-electric Effect

The stopping potential V0

EC max = eV0

ECmax -the maximum kinetic energy

Experimental set-up to measure the photoelectric effect
1. The photoelectric current (~number of electrons emitted per second) is
proportional to the intensity of the radiation;
2. Photoelectric emission starts with no observable time lag after illumination starts,
even if the intensity is very low;
3. The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons (~V0) is independent of the
intensity of the light.

EC max = a + b
- b depends on the metal used, but the slope a does not

Dependence of photocurrent on
accelerating potential and on frequency.

Dependence of maximum energy of

photoelectron on light frequency

-1905 - Einstein gave a very simple interpretation of Lenard's results:

A.E. proposed that the quanta of light might be regarded as real particles, and
the particle of light was given the name photon, to correspond with other
particles being described around this time, such as the electron and proton. A
photon has an energy, E, proportional to its frequency, f, by:

E ph = h = p c

The Photon
- the radiation itself is quantized: an electromagnetic wave of frequency carries its
energy in packets of size h named photons
h
- particle-wave duality:
- de Broglie wavelength: =
p

The Compton Effect - Optional

1923 - Compton gives the most direct confirmation of the photon hypothesis

Experimental setup for observing the Compton scattering of X rays

' =

h
(1 cos )
mc

The Bohr Model

The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation from an excited hydrogen gas
- discreet energy levels En
m0 q 4
E n = 2 2 2 , with n = 1, 2,...
8 0 h n

As a photon is absorbed by an atom, it excites the atom, elevating an electron to a higher

energy level (on average, one that is farther from the nucleus).
When an electron in an excited molecule or atom descends to a lower energy level, it emits
a photon of light equal to the energy difference. Since the energy levels of electrons in
atoms are discrete, each element and each molecule emits and absorbs its own characteristic
frequencies.
When the emission of the photon is immediate, this phenomenon is called fluorescence, a
type of photoluminescence. An example is visible light emitted from fluorescent paints, in
response to ultraviolet (blacklight). Many other fluorescent emissions are known in spectral
bands other than visible light. When the emission of the photon is delayed, the phenomenon
is called phosphorescence.

The radiant power

P =

r r r dW
E H dA =
[W]
dt

Luminous power

= KV P [lm]
K=683 lm/W and is called photometric factor
V- spectral sensitivity of normal human eyes
V=1 for =555 nm
A typical dependence of the human eyes sensitivity

A typical 100 watt incandescent bulb has a luminous power of about 1700 lumens.

Pointance or Intensity of Light

I=

[cd]

is the solid angle

Luminance (luminous sterance ) (- for an extended source)

B=

I
S

[cd/m2]

Illumination

E=

inc
[lx]
S

inc = I

inc is the flux of light striking the surface S

S n S cos i
=
r2
r2

Sn is the surface normal to the light direction

I cos i
E=
r2
-r is the distance from the source of light
- i is the incident angle

Luminous efficiency

[lm/W]

The incandescent bulbs with nominal power P=25-1000 W have =718 lm/W
The fluorescent lamps have 50 lm/W.

The efficiency in visible

viz

- the radiated power in visible (Pvis)

Pviz
=
100 [%]
P
- the radiated power (P)

viz =34 % for incandescent bulbs

viz =20 % for fluorescent lamps
vis increases with the temperature increasing of the incandescent lamp.

Incandescent Light Bulb

Tungsten bulbs
On 13 December 1904, Hungarian Sndor
Just and Croatian Franjo Hanaman were
granted a Hungarian patent for a tungsten
(W) filament lamp that lasted longer and
gave brighter light than the carbon
filament. Tungsten filament lamps were
first marketed by the Hungarian company
Tungsram in 1904.

Original carbon-filament
bulb from Thomas Edison;
time life: 13.5 hours
Early carbon filaments had
a negative temperature
coefficient of resistance: as
they got hotter, their
electrical resistance
decreased
the lamp
sensitive to fluctuations

The bulb is filled with an inert gas

such as argon (93%) and nitrogen
(7%) to reduce evaporation of the
filament and prevent its oxidation at a
pressure of about 70 kPa (0.7 atm)
An electric current heats the filament to
typically 2000 to 3300 K, well below
tungsten's melting point of 3695 K.

Xenon halogen lamp

Fluorescent Lamp Operation

Schematic for Ballast

Starter

Typical low pressure fluorescent tube I/V characteristic

Near fields and far fields

Three-dimensional perspective of the

radiation pattern of an elementary doublet.

Radiation pattern of an elementary doublet,

shown in profile.

Microwave sources
The magnetron - the microwave radiation of microwave ovens and some radar
applications is produced by a device called a magnetron.
- a "crossed-field" device

Electrons are released at the center hot cathode by the process of thermionic emission
The axial magnetic field exerts a magnetic force on these charges - they tend to be
swept around the circle.

The electron path under the influence of

different strength of the magnetic field

The high-frequency electrical field

Rotating space-charge wheel in an twelvecavity magnetron

Interaction between a cavity resonator and

the rotating Space-Charge Wheel

Tunnel diode
A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor that is capable of very fast
operation, well into the microwave frequency region, made possible by the use of
the quantum mechanical effect called tunneling.
It was invented in August 1958 by Leo Esaki when he was with Tokyo Tsushin
Kogyo, now known as Sony. In 1973 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics, jointly
with Brian Josephson, for discovering the electron tunneling effect used in these
diodes.

IV curve similar to a tunnel diode

characteristic curve. It has negative
resistance in the shaded voltage
region, between v1 and v2.
The negative resistance region of
the tunnel diode makes oscillator action
possible. The unijunction transistor has a
similar oscillator application.

Tunnel Diode Oscillator

Resonant Tunneling Diode

The spin-torque oscillator

Geometry of a spin-torque oscillator
consisting of a 'fixed' magnetic layer, a
non-magnetic spacer and a 'free' magnetic
layer.

Guided waves
1. Ionospheric reflection
Ionospheric reflection is a bending, through a complex process involving reflection
and refraction, of electromagnetic waves propagating in the ionosphere back toward
the Earth.
The amount of bending depends on the extent of penetration (which is a function of
frequency), the angle of incidence, polarization of the wave, and ionospheric
conditions, such as the ionization density. It is negatively affected by incidents of
ionospheric absorption.

Effects of ionospheric density

on radio waves

Different incident angles of radio

waves