Buddhist Path To Omniscience-Naughton Dissertation 1989

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T he B u dd hist path t o om niscience

Naughton, Alexander T., Ph.D.
The University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1989
Copyright 198C by N aughton, Alexander T . A ll rights reserved.
UMI
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A dissertation entitled
THE
BUDDHIST PATH TO OMN IS CI EN CE
submitted to the Graduate School of the

University of Wisconsin-Madiscn in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
by
A l e x a n d e r T.
Degree to be awarded:
Naughton
December 1 % a _ _
May 19_____
August 19
Approved by Dissertation Readers:
r '.s
"Major Professor
/? c
/
Date of Examination
Dean# Graduate School
THE BUDDHIST PATH TO OMNISCIENCE
by
Alexander T. Naughton
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
(Buddhist Studies)
at the
University of Wisconsin- Madison
1989
copyright by#Alexander T. Naughton 1989

All Rights Reserved
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Table of Contents
C h ap ter One General Introduction................................................1
Methodology Rationale................................................................. 2
G eneral Religion
What is Religion?........................................................................5
Religious T ru th ......................................................................... 22
Purva-paksa
....................................................................... 31
Y oga........................................................................................... 35
Buddhism, Christianity,and other traditions......................... 40
Some ethical considerations.................................................... 59
Sum m siy.................................................................................... 64
C h ap ter Two
Buddhist O m niscience......................................67
Omniscience in the Indian context......................................... 68

Omniscience in Pali sources.................................................... 70
Transitional stages.................................................................... 84
Omniscience for Vasubandhu..................................................90
Omniscience in later M ahayana.............................................. 97
Summary.................................................................................. 108
Chapter Three Haribhadra and his Sphutartha............... 111

Date of the Abhisamayalamkara........................................... 112
Haribhadra................................................................................ 114
The Sphutartha...................................................................... 120
Paths and Stages...................................................................... 132
Introducing the Translation....................................................136
Translation of Haribhadra's Sphutartha................................ 142
Chapter One Overall Omniscience...................................... 165
Chapter Two Path-Omniscience........................................221
Chapter Three Knowledge of Bases................................. 247
Chapter Four Complete Realization of the Aspects
263
Chapter Five Peak Realization............................................. 326

Chapter Six Gradual Realization..........................................366
Chapter Seven Instantaneous Realization........................... 368
Bibliography.................................................................................374
iii
Chapter One
General Introduction
M ethodology
Rationale
The purpose of this study is to report on and examine certain
philosophical or theological opinions held by influential figures in
the history of Indian Mahayana Buddhism. The approach strives to
be impartial and objective, in the manner of a reporter. Personal
sympathy (if any) with these opinions is entirely irrelevant, as any
impulse to ridicule them is inappropriate. Thus it is hoped to avoid
the extremes of advocacy and denigration. Regardless o f what we
may think, people did have these ideas, and they did take them seri
ously enough to attempt to live by them. In the course o f examining
these opinions, it will be necessary to enter into the intellectual life
of Mahayana philosophy to a certain degree, but we should be wary
of any tendency to identify with this climate uncritically, or to feel
that we can or should understand this system from the inside. Indian
Mahayana has been extinct for almost a millenium, and the mindset
of those responsible for its development must always remain some
thing of a mystery to investigators from a different cultural, social,
or historical background. Nevertheless, insofar as we are dealing
with a system of thought that is primarily religious, it is vital to
recognize that these ideas were never meant to be studied in the
manner we propose. While it is true that the Buddhist tradition does
explicitly invite critical investigation, it is hardly likely that anyone
of that time could have foreseen the modes of inquiry of the late
twentieth century. We are not Indian Mahayanists, and their per
spective and their insight is something which we can know only
from their remaining records, which are themselves products or ex
pressions of that insight and perspective. These texts were produced
from the inside, and were meant to be understood from the same
standpoint. We are stuck on the outside, and whatever we glean
from these texts will be at best oniy a partial re-creation of their
original significance. Yet this need not be considered a drawback,
for the process of development of any living culture or society
inevitably involves the re-creation and reinterpretation of its own
past. Thus in exploring an unfamiliar religion, not only do we
change it in rendering it accessible to an audience for which it was
never intended, but we are simultaneously also changed by it as we
appropriate whatever insights we may uncover (even mistakenly)
into our own understanding. The challenge is to do this in a manner
which is intellectually responsible to two opposing ideals: on the
one hand, to present unfamiliar ideas as accurately as possible, while
on the other hand making them comprehensible outside their proper
context. That this is possible at all is rather remarkable, and indi
cates the underlying unity of human nature, which can be easily
forgotten in the process o f splitting hairs. The scholars responsible
for the texts we shall investigate would doubtless have as much dif
ficulty understanding us as we will trying to understand them. Our

goal is to uncover similarities, to bring out old ideas in new clothes,
to allow us not only to open a window on the past, but to assist us in
rediscovering ourselves. One hopes that this kind of openness, free
from prejudice and preconceptions, will keep distortion o f the
original to a minimum, while enabling a wide range of possible
harmonies to develop.
T raditional T ibetan Scholarship

Tibetan scholars know quite a great deal about the Buddhist
tradition and its bewildering variety of texts and doctrines, but the
difficulty for Western scholars of Buddhism in applying their
knowledge lies in the simple fact that their tradition is indeed that of
Tibetan scholarship, and not Western. Although certain basic simi
larities serve to unite the two, a sufficient number o f presupposi
tions are not shared by both sides, so that the questions and issues
that interest Tibetan scholars tend to be regarded by Westerners as
either excessively trivial or ridiculously abstract, a feature which
renders much o f Tibetan scholarship well-nigh incomprehensible to
non-natives.
General Religion
What is Religion?
Religion, in one sense, is humanitys search for m eaning.1 It is
an expression of the need for human beings to feel that their lives
have meaning and cosmic significance, which is a fundamental necessity. Yet much of the troubles in the world today seem to be ex
acerbated by religion. For example, the protracted war between Iran
and Iraq, tensions in the Middle East, and the situation in Northern
Ireland, are all due at least in part to religious differences. So it is
apparent that the term "religion" is used to refer to a rather broad
range of phenomena. At the opposite end of the scale from the vari
ous prominent war-mongering religious fanatics, there are people
such as Mother Theresa, Bishop Desmond Tutu, and the present
Dalai Lama, who exemplify a totally different side of what it means
to be religious.
The word religion has an obscure derivation. It may be from the
word religare, tn bind, or it may have some other linguistic his
tory.3 However, following Tillich, we can give a general definition
1 Howlett: 1980, p. 284: "And what is religion? It is our attemnt as human beings
to grasp the meaning of our own existence and hat of the universe in which we
dwell. To no less a degree it is our attempt to relate to other human beings, to see
that their needs are the same as ours, and to meet them in so far as we are able."
2 This idea of the necessity of religion is expressed variously by Peter Berger,
Paul Tillich, and W. Cantwell-Smith.
3 See Smith: 1978, pp. 19-50
of religion as an "ultimate concern." Yet this concern need not be

about some ultimate, however conceived.1 It can be money, family,
success, fame, a country, a career, art, beauty, truth, or one of the
established religious traditions. Non-reflective people find it easy to
settle for mundane ideals,2 but for those who wish to give this mat
ter some serious thought, it is useful to at least be acquainted with
what Buddhism has to say. Most English speaking people are simply
unaware of the richness of the Buddhist tradition, in terms of texts
alone, only a tiny fraction of which are available in English transla
tion. Whether or not one agrees with Buddhist ideas, they provide a
fascinating contrast or even an alternative for those whose interests
lead them to take organized religion seriously. By our definition,
religion is that which is taken most seriously m a persons life, and
the fact that Buddhism has been popular for so long with millions of
people deserves our attention. It is analogous to a Protestant who
appreciates Dantes poetry. While he may not personally identify
with the ideology expressed by the words, he can and does recog
nize the artistic merit present in its creation.3
To say that there is more information available today than any
one person can keep up with is simply to state the obvious. This sit
1 Real: 1983, p. 465
2 at least until something goes wrong.
3 We must keep in mind Broad's dictum (quoted by S. Mookeijee: 1960, p. 44)
that "any theories about religious experience constructed by persons who have lit
tle or none of their own should be regarded with grave suspicion."
uation has been true for some time, and it seems only to be getting
worse. However, it does entail a significant change in ones ap
proach to the world. Information has often been crucial for survival,
and highly prized by the minority who had access to it. In real
terms, it is doubtless still a numerical minority who have such
overwhelming access at present, but it is also a much higher per
centage of the world population, with increased ability to implement
their decisions. In fact, there is an overload of information, which
leads to the development of a capacity to ignore messages of one
sort or another. In this view, Buddhism is simply one among many
competing varieties of stimuli. But religion, as defined here, enables
and underlies participation in such a world.1 Therefore, any person
who is puzzled by aspects o f his or her own religious heritage, or
someone who simply wishes to be well-informed about the varietv
of products in the contemporary spiritual supermarket should inves
tigate the available alternatives. Buddhism is a comparatively lesserknown alternative, and has often been casually dismissed as pes
simistic and life-denying. The reasons for this have to do with the
general character of certain basic Buddhist doctrines. For instance,
Buddhism denies the existence of a self. This kind of assertion is ab
surdly outrageous,2 since our selves form such a fundamental part
1 Tillich: 1952 (p. 47) talks of "a meaning which gives meaning to all meanings".
2 Budvhists themselves admit this, and state quite explicitly that they picked the
self as the object of their negation because of this very character. Its supposed ex
of our common experience,1 and is all the information a busy per

son needs to dismiss Buddhism out of hand. Particularly when one
learns about the historical background o f Buddhism, there are a
number of instances where doctrines give the impression of having
been formulated as much for their shock value as their philosophical
content. There are even Western scholars who have engaged in
Buddhist studies at least partly due to a fascination with this per
verse tendency, where everything is backwards and the exact oppo
site of what one would expect.
The word religion can be applied to a very broad range of activi
ties, and it is helpful to attempt a broad classification, in order to
clarify matters somewhat. One the one hand, religion can act as a
form o f social control, legitimating the existing social system, more
or less openly. Hinduism is one of the clearest examples of this,
where one's state in the present life is considered to be the result of
one's actions in previous existences. In the Bhagavad Gita, Aijuna
is hoodwinked by Krishna into performing the unsavory act of
killing many of his own relatives by being convinced that it is his
moral and religious duty to act in accordance with his social role as
a warrior. The best one can do is to follow ones social duty, the
istence is so convincing that the realization of its non-existence will be powerfully

transformative.
1 Tillich: 1952 (p. 119): "the absolutely concrete, the individual self as we find it
in man".
equivalent of "don't rock the boat". However, Hinduism is not the

only example, and probably every existing religion has functioned
in this fashion at one time or another. Such doctrines as the divine
right o f kings in the West, and the tulku
system in Tibet, lend
themselves to misuse by those in authority whose sole interest lies in

perpetuating the status quo. Even in modem secular legal proceed
ings, it is common to take an oath while resting one's hand on a
Bible. This blending of Church and State, in the i.iosi general sense,
tends to identify the temporal authority o f the State with the ulti
mate authority of the transcendent, as represented by the Church.
We may tentatively regard religion as that which provides human
existence with a sense of meaning and purpose. It consists of an
swers to questions such as "Why am I here?" and "Who am I?" In
this broad sense, everyone has some sort of religion, since the need
for meaning and purpose is just as basic as the physical needs for
food, water, and shelter.1 Indeed, one can easily observe that many
people feel this need so acutely that they are willing to sacrifice a
great deal in order to have it fulfilled.
Adopting a strictly analytical approach, we may attempt to con
struct a satisfying intellectual framework for human existence along
the lines of classical geometry, using as few unprovable axioms as
1 A point made eloquently by Peter Berger in his book Sacred Canopy.
10
possible. Robinson's article on "Classical Indian Axiomatic"1 does a

fair job of enumerating what such basic presuppositions have been
in Indian culture. Buddhism has always made a point of questioning
presuppositions and challenging assumptions, often in a manner that
seems designed to infuriate the audience with its calculated absur
dity. Nevertheless, there are certain basic principles that even the
Buddhists question only perfunctorily if at all. To begin with, we
can assume that a life with meaning is preferable to one without.
Given the classical definition of a human being as a rational animal,
it follows that rationality, being that characteristic which seems
most exclusively human, has a very particular function with regard
to human existence. That is to say, human rationality is not merely
an accident.2 Granting the postulate of a meaning for human exis
tence, we may further assume that such a meaning is in theory dis
coverable by individual human beings. This is as much as to say that
a purpose which is not discoverable is functionally equivalent to no
purpose at all,3 which is excluded by our prior axiom.4 However,
1 exact reference in bibliography
2 Compare Tillich: 1952, p. 13: "Reason is man's true or essential nature".
However, he later says (n. 441 that "the determining causes of our existence...
cannot be logically derived". His description of the Stoics, p. 12: "Reason for the
Stoics is... the meaningful structure of .eality as a whole and of the human mind in
particular"; later (p. 1C1) he says that "the Stoic attitude... is the only serious alter
native to Christianity".
3 Reminiscent of Wittgenstein's famous beetle in the box, PI 293.
4 Similarly in Harris: 1974, p. 2: "we have to begin by assuming that human life
is not merely random or capricious".
11
the search for meaning, although possibly innate, is not always a

simple one. In order to be successful in this quest, the seeker have to
endure severe hardship and rigorous testing.1
Up to this point, we have postulated that there is a purpose to
human existence, and that individuals can discover what this pur
pose is. One of the circumstances that militate most strongly against
the assumption ot a meaningful world is the existence of injustice
and suffering. Even a casual observer of the human condition is
struck by the enormous inequity in the distribution of the world's
resources, and the incredible disparity in lifestyles of the different
regions. If we simply attribute this to an accident, we thereby un
dermine our assumption of meaning.2 Rational meaning and ran
domness are inalterably opposed. To the extent that one exists, the
other is nullified. Therefore, we must establish some principle,
1 However, we should not have to "choose between being intellectual and being
pious" (Kitagawa: 1959, p. 7).
2 A similar point was made by Einstein in protesting the theories of quantum me
chanics, saying that "God does not play dice with the universe." Yet the physicist
Stephen Hawking (quoted in Howlett: 1980, p. 219) writes: "It therefore seems
that Einstein was doubly wrong when he said, 'God does not play dice with the
world.' Consideration of particle emission from black holes would seem to sug
gest that God not only plays dice but also sometimes throws them where they
cannot be seen." This amounts to agreement with the statement in Suzuki: 1968, p.
135 that "irrationality makes up human life." To accept this point of view is to
abandon any hope for a rationally meaningful life. It is also a peculiar position for
which to argue, as in Suzuki: 1968, p. 131: "Mere logicality has no spiritual force
which will compel us to follow it. Intellectual acquiescence occupies a corner of
our surface consciousness, it does not penetrate into the seat of one's inner per
sonality." Statements that humans are not fundamentally rational are inevitably
dogmatic, since they deny the applicability of reason itself.
12
again theoretically consistent but not necessarily practically verifi

able,1 which is at least not blatantly contradictory to our other as
sumptions, and which will serve to impose some rational order upon
the chaos of contemporary civilization. In the Buddhist system, this
function is largely filled by the principle of karma, with its atten
dant doctrines of reincarnation, transm igration, and metem psy
chosis.2 For people who are not used to this principle, it is very
difficult to accept, since it involves a fundamental alteration of one's
usual pattern of understanding the world. However, it does serve the
purposes outlined above quite admirably, in line with the principle
of Occam's Razor not to invoke any more assumptions than are nec
essary to explain the relevant data.3 On the one hand, we have the
basic requirement that human existence be endowed with purpose.
Contrasted with that, there is the stark reality o f millions o f people
all over the globe whose lives seem to have very little if any pur
pose to them. The principle of karma, speaking very broadly, is
1 O f course, if it were to be practically verifiable (and Buddhists have traditionally

regarded the concept of karma and reincarnation as verifiable for anyone who
achieves a certain level of spiritual realization), it would be all the better, but veri
fiability is not a prerequisite in the same way as theoirctical consistency is.
2 Compare Keynes: 1983, p. 147: "no creature passes so utterly away that it does
not come again, nor is destroyed so utterly that it becomes nothing".
3 To give only one prominent example from Western thought, Socrates argued
eloquently for reincarnation. Incidentally, the approach known as "Occam's
Razor" goes back well before William of Occam to Ptolemy if not before, who is
quoted as saying: "In seeking to explain phenomena, we should choose the sim
plest possible hypothesis, provided it is not contradicted in any important respect
by obsen,?tion." (Howlett: 1980, p. 2M.)
13
simply an assertion that there is indeed a balance that will be found

eventually between these two disparate circumstances.1 Karma does
not necessarily imply the simplistic reductionism of "They are suf
fering, therefore they have been bad." This sort of judgemental atti
tude is a common misinterpretation, but actually all that is implied
by karma is "They are suffering, and this is caused by something."
The nature of this "something" is, in principle, unknowable by any
one save the Buddha, or some other omniscient being, which is as
much as to say that it is a mystery. However, the mere assertion that
there is indeed "something" which is the direct cause for the suffer
ing o f an individual is sufficient to uphold the principle o f a mean
ingful world.2 Of course, the corollary of the karma principle has to
do with our own reaction to this unfortunate situation, which is
much more significant for our own future. If we use a callous inter
pretation o f the karma principle to justify our own selfish tendency
1 This idea is certainly not limited to the Orient From Cicero (mcGrcgor: 1972, p.
89): "no happiness is possible without virtue: and there is no virtue without
reason;" Christian mysticism: "Just as good deeds are the way to all good, so evil
deeds are the way to all evil." (In R. Brown: 1958, p. 272.) Also in Keynes: 1983,
p. 149: "everyone has either torment or glory... according to his merits. The like
have their like." And Nakamura: 1986, p. 267: "The Buddhist doctrine of karma
which proposes that whatever a man reaps, that he himself must also have sown
appealed as strongly to Eastern ethical natures as the similar parable, *Whatsoever
a man soweth that shall he also reap' has appealed to Westerners."
2 Jaini: 1979b, p. 116, says that the doctrine of karma acts "to foster socially de
sirable behavior by placing all human actions within a context of understandable
and inevitable consequences". Also Smart: 1964, p. 162: "The great merit, of
course, of the twin ideas o f rebirth and karma is, from the religious point of view,
their mitigation of the problem of evil... The world, for all its troubles, looks a
thoroughly just place, once rebirth is accepted".
14
to ignore suffering people, that too becomes a cause for some future
state of our own existence.
Another principle we should bear in mind if we are to analyze or
construct (which are simply opposite movements along the same
axis) a religion along traditional lines is that it must embody two
separate aspects.1 On the one hand, for it to have a character tradi
tionally associated with religion, it must have reference to some
transcendent principle.2 Insofar as this principle is transcendent, it is
removed from all mundane concerns, and serves to relativize them
for the believer. 3 This will provide a stronghold for the believer
when mundane affairs are interrupted by tragedy. From the stand
point of the transcendent, nothing mundane is worth getting upset
about, and so the believer is able to prevent personal tragedy from
turning into self-destruction. However, if it is simply transcendent,
it becomes inaccessible to ordinary people, and thus there must be a
countervailing principle in virtue of which people can understand
that the transcendent does have some connection with their mundane
existence. This may be expressed as the principle of immanence.
The immanence aspect is directly accessible to all people, or at least
1 The ideas in this paragraph are derived from, if not directly traceable to. Gordon
Kaufman, and his experiments in "constructive theology".
2 W. C. Smith, in Kitagawa: 1959, p. 50fn: "every religion has to do with tran
scendent reality".
3 Friedrich Heiler, in Kitagawa: 1959, p. 156: "the greatest of all relativists is God
himself, the Absolute".
to all believers, and is generally taken to underlie all mundane ac

tivity. This aspect serves to humanize the transcendent, to make it
something that people will care about, something that will actually
make a difference for them. It has often been expressed as the
essence of each person, or of all people, something which is more
fundamental than the circumstances of their daily lives, yet which is
inalienably theirs.1 To perform this kind of doctrinal balancing act
is no simple task, as the relative scarcity of world religious tradi
tions that have been formulated throughout recorded history attests.
Religion defined as a matter of ultimate concern means that ev
ery person has some kind of religion, even if it falls outside the
scope of one of the organized traditions. Loosely defined, it is what
makes life worth living. Be it family, money, success, power, repu
tation, or whatever, every individual has a top priority. Within the
Christian tradition it has usually been known as Heaven, the
Kingdom of God, and so forth. The Reformation was (at least in
part) a protest against the Catholic monopoly on God's Kingdom.
This remains the ultimate concern for Protestants, but it need no
longer be mediated by an institution which is too often merely self
serving. The Christian Church exhibited a tendency, once it was
established, to overpower its rivals on the popular front by incorpo-
Sucii as ihe soul in Christian teachings, or the atrnar. of the UparJsads.
!6
rating their methods.1 The Church has also exhibited the inveterate
tendency of all bureaucracies to become more concerned with its
own continuity (if not growth) than with serving any outside inter
ests, such as the purposes for which that bureaucracy was originally
instituted.
Christ promised Eternal Life, yet in an Indian context, eternal
life is a fair description of the problem religious adepts have at
tempted to solve. The language is similar, but the content is quite
different, so we must be wary of superficial analyses. Yet sweeping
generalizations also have their place, as ways of establishing broad
parameters within which further refinement will be necessary. The
appeal o f Buddhist doctrines is largely intellectual, whereas
Christianity speaks more to human emotions. Every person contains
both aspects to a greater or lesser degree, and their relative strength
is a factor which contributes to the individual personality or charac
ter. There is no question of right and wrong in this context, for it is
simply a matter of individual suitability. It may be compared to
artistic sensibilities. One person likes Rembrandt, while another's
favorite ir. deKooning, or one considers the music of Beethoven to
be the best, while another gives the prize to Charlie Parker.2 It is
1 See K. Thomas: 1971.
2 This fact was brought home to me quite dramatically by a friend who had been a
Zen monk for 10 years. When I asked him if he was a Buddhist, instead of the af
firmative answer which I expected, he replied that he considered himself to be a
Christian. This meant that when he needed religious solutions to his own prob-
17
often the case that religious traditions claim to possess a monopoly

on the truth, but in the contemporary pluralistic situation, such
claims are no longer tenable without extensive reinterpretation. It
seems likely that abandoning such claims to exclusivity will prove
to be a larger hurdle for the Semitic traditions1 than for others.
We may also note that religious traditions may generally be cat
egorized in other ways. For example, there is the question of per
spective on the religious quest itself. Some doctrines hold that the
goal of religion is to be found outside of oneself, while others say
the opposite. Within any tradition, both types co-exist, but usually
one predominates.2 This is linked to the issue of whether religious
perfection is to be achieved by relying on one's own efforts or by
seeking assistance from some other source. Here again, it is not an
issue of which side is "correct", but merely one of strategy. Noting
the close relationship between religious and political institutions, it
is easy to see how a doctrine which denigrates the individual's abil
ity to make significant spiritual progress on his own can be closely
linked to totalitarian social organizations. This linkage is by no
means inevitable, but it is suggestive o f the ways in which Church
lems, Buddhist answers lacked the power to convince him, while Christian an
swers resolved his difficulties.
1 Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. My usage of "Semitic" to designate this group
is based on Smart: 1964, pp. 39,134,140,163, and 215.
L This is the axis of confrontation vs. inner realization which has been explored in
Berger: 1981.
18
and State can reinforce each others power over individual citizens
and believers.
It is usual to classify religions into different traditions, such as
Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and so forth, based on
geographical and historical considerations. However, taking our lead
from Cantwell Smith1 and Duncan Howlett,2 we may instead assert
that religion is in fact a unity, that all of the so-called different
traditions are merely socially conditioned manifestations of the same
basic process: human response to the transcendent. Furthermore,
within this process, occurring all over the globe throughout all of
recorded history, there are several different strands that appear in
each of the various traditions. Rather than classifying by way of
tradition then, we might adopt a preliminary classification based on
types of response which cuts across traditional boundaries. For ex
ample, there is the response o f faith and devotionalism, found in the
proliferation of bhakti cults in India, as the very meaning of the
word Islam, in the Pure Land sects o f China and Japan, and in a va
riety of Christian denominations in the West. O f more interest for
our topic is what can be called the critical response, exemplified in
Mahayana Buddhism by Nagarjuna and the Madhyamaka school,
and the apophatic tradition of Christian theology. That is to say that
1 perhaps most clearly expressed in his most recent work. Towards a World
Theology. Full reference in bibliography.
2 Howlett: 1980.
19
v hen humans come to express their basic religious impulses, there

are certain similar tendencies that arise in the various different reli
gious traditions, which indicate a fundamental similarity of homo
religiosos around the globe and throughout history. Thus, other re
ligious traditions are not regarded as alien or incomprehensible, but
simply as expressions developed in a different cultural context of
the same religious values that all humans share. The task of appre
ciating another religious tradition then becomes analogous to un
derstanding another culture, or learning another language. Different
religious traditions, as different languages, use their own unique
modes of expression, but while the grammar of each religious lan
guage may be distinctive, the meaning conveyed is to a large extent
quite similar.1
The topic o f this dissertation leads us to be concerned primarily
with that aspect of religious teachings which indicates the existence
and possible attainment of different states of being or awareness,
hierarchically organized to culminate in some ultimate or limiting
state, which is regarded as being of prime religious and eschatological value. The very existence of such a spiritual hierarchy has been
1 Any attempt to maintain that "all religious traditions are basically the same" is,
on the face of it, almost unbelievably presumptuous. (As in Tracy: 1987, p. 92:
"The belief that ultimately all the religious [sic] are finally one is implausible.")
However, it does seem apparent that religious values and religious expressions are
more easily converted across the boundaries of the various traditions than they are
translatable into stricdy secular terms.
20
denied by some religious teachers, such as the early Protestants and

the Materialist school in ancient India, but it forms the basis of the
Buddhist religious tradition as a whole, and is generally taken for
granted within a Buddhist context. Whether or not such stages are
accepted is another way of dividing religious traditions and religious
teachings, since this issue will result in very different ideas about
how religion is to be taught and practiced. Very generally, one who
accepts the existence of different levels of attainment will also tend
to believe in the efficacy o f individual actions in moving from one
level to another, either up or down depending on the particular ac
tions involved, whereas one who denies their existence will tend to
dismiss the significance of individual effort, either because there is
nothing to attain, or because whatever attainment there is has been
predetermined.
Given the current state o f Buddhist Studies in the West, which
is still very much in its infancy, it is hardly surprising that there
should be some confusion about the general nature of the Buddhist
religion. It is perhaps more remarkable that anyone is able to make
sense out of such a bewildering hodge-podge of ideas which go
against the grain of everything that seems natural and normal. Like
any intellectual construct, Buddhism operates within a certain frame
of reference, quite different from that of the modem West. It is not
suitable for everyone, nor is it designed to be. However, it is not as
21
perverse as it may appear from the outside. There are sufficient

similarities, particularly with certain principles of the experimental
sciences, that adoption of a specifically Buddhist worldview need
not occasion undue psychological turmoil. This appears to be
largely a matter of individual character. Certain people will be at
tracted while others are repelled. Diversity is both recognized and
encouraged within Buddhism generally, and in relations between
Buddhism and other religions. In this respect, Buddhism is some
what different from Christianity, which has tended to make a cult of
its own exclusivity. Certainly there are exceptions to this on both
sides, but the Buddhist record of inter-religious tolerance compares
favorably with that o f either Christianity or Islam .1 The Catholic
Church canonized St. Josaphat2 a long time ago, in an unwitting act
of syncretism. The recent decision to revoke that canonization is a
step backward from the vision of a religious "unified front" acting
in the world to improve conditions for all humankind. All major
world religious traditions have certain very basic similarities. For
1 H. Nakamura: 1986, p. 345: "There is no known case of conversion to
Buddhism by the use of force," and p. 378: 'The spirit of tolerance and compas
sion engendered by Buddhist ideals made deep hatred, even toward sinners, a near
non-reality. Hardly any cruel punishment existed in times when Buddhism flour
ished. Such a situation was reported by Chinese pilgrims to ancient India and this
fact also holds true in most of the Buddhist countries of Southern Asia. In Japan
of the Heian period, a time when Buddhism was actively practiced, capital pun
ishment was not practiced for a period of nearly three hundred and fifty years."
2 who was, in fact, the Buddha, or bodhisattva, whose legend had been translated
and transported from its original Indian context. See Smith: 1981, pp. 7-9. Smith's
notes give a full account of die literature relating to this fascinating tale.
22
instance, they all function as religion in the special sense being used
here. As such, they all strive against suffering, despair, and human
misery in ail its forms. In these times when political leaders are
motivated more by opinion polls than by a desire to serve their
country and their fellow creatures, religious influence can help
make the difference between survival and extinction in the years
ahead. Therefore, all people concerned for the continued existence
of life on this planet should endeavor to make use o f all the skillful
religious techniques that have been developed over the millenia.
Buddhists need to leam from the Christian heritage of service and
social welfare activities. English speaking people can in turn benefit
from the wide variety of mental training exercises developed within
Buddhism as a viable alternative solution to the dilemma of suffer
ing.
Religious Truth
Leaving aside the issue of what truth is in itself,1 we move on to
the more limited notion of religious truth. As we have defined reli
gion, this is a kind of truth that makes an existential difference. It is
certainly true that 2 + 2 = 4, but it is difficult to imagine how that
could significantly affect someones basic world view. Religious
1 defined in Tracy: 1987, p. 121 as "fundamentally an event that happens to a
subject and is not under the control of any subject;" also Einstein's view of truth
(quoted in Howlett: 1980, p. 271) as "what stands the test of experience".
23
truths (such as, "Jesus is the Son of God," or "All phenomena are
impermanent") function in certain specific ways. They may be
classed as religious either internally or externally, i.e., due to the
kind of language involved (concerning religious figures such as
Jesus or Mohammed), or due to the context in which they are used.
That is to say that the same statement, which gramatically appears to
be a universal proposition, such as the examples we have cited
above, may be true for a believer and untrue for a non-believer.
They may even be true for an individual at one time, but not at an
other. One definition of truth is as a property of propositions. Given
two propositions, P and not-P, only one is true, and so forth.
Religious truth does not fit this definition, since it is true only inso
far as it relates meaningfully to the person and situation in which it
occurs.1 Furthermore the relationship of truth to language is a diffi
cult one to establish. According to Buddhist theory, truth is not
monolithic. Depending on the form of Buddhism, there are two or
three or even more truths, aside from the well-known Four Noble
Truths. The classical Buddhist apoha theory is a good example of a
critical approach to language. A word designates a particular object
by means of excluding everything that is different from that object.
1 Buddhists (at least) were more interested in reality than truth, though they also
put a good bit of effort into examining the relationship between the two, especially
as mediated by propositions.
2 See Sharma: 1968; Matilal: 1971, pp. 39-46; H. Nakamura: 1986, p. 467; and
Tracy: 1987, pp. 53 and 56 for modem parallels.
24
In this view, language is dualistic, dealing with subject and object.

Words such as "non-dual", "ineffable", "inconceivable" and so forth
have a peculiar function, in that they attempt to describe that which
is, properly speaking, indescribable. What is true is dependent on
perspective.1 Given the "same" situ'*'^n, it is said that a human will
see a bowl of water, a god will see ambrosia, a p re ta will see a
bowl o f pus. What is in the bowl? Is the bowl even there? Even the
mere existence of the bowl is considered to be dependent on our
conscious acknowledgement of it.
As anyone can recognize, it is impossible to state "the truth, the
whole truth, and nothing but the truth" about any common object or
circumstance, since the nature of ordinary reality is that everything
is connected to everything else, simply by virtue of the fact of exist2
ing together. Thus even to describe a desk, table, or chair, com
pletely is beyond our capabilities. We make do with approxima
tions, which indeed is what words themselves are. W hat is the real
essence of this thing called "a chair", "a table", and so forth?
Ultimately it is inexpressible, since language is incommensurate
1 For a similar idea in the West, see Watts: 1988, p. 157 (translating Boethius,
from the 6th century): "Everything that is known is comprehended not according
to its own nature, but according to the ability to know of those who do the know
ing." That this is not an original idea is pointed out in a footnote on the following
page.
z There is a quote attributed to William James to the effect that even moving a
pebble changes the entire universe gravitationally. This is similar to a quote from
Rend Dubos (in Howlett: 1980, p. 262) that "The fundamental law of ecology... is
that everything is relevant to everything else."
25
with even our ordinary experience. All names for colors are gener
alities, and language cannot convey the immediacy of a particular
perceptual experience, the multifacetedness of even the simplest
shape. Truth is itself just another word, another approximation,
which we are perfectly able to use and understand in everyday sit
uations, but when we attempt a deeper analysis, it becomes increas
ingly murky and elusive. Let us take a relatively simple example:
holding a pen, and saying, "This is a pen." We use this as an in
stance of a true statement, rather trivial perhaps, but still meaning
ful, yet when we examine it a bit more carefully, what precisely is
going on? First we have "this", a word used to designate an object
which is usually in close proximity to the speaker We have stated
that the speaker is holding an object. "This"- the immediacy of a
unique pattern of shape and color, light and shadow, and perspec
tive, added to the physical sensation o f grasping the object, in this
case employing both the senses of sight and touch, is experientially
irreducible. The word "this", being uttered as it is at a particular
moment in time, with reference to a composite experience, the na
ture of which is both unique and evanescent, implies the totality of
these different factors, which can never reoccur in precisely the
same manner. Although primarily indicating both a visual and a
tactile object, the other senses are not absent, they too form a part of
the "this", the grammatical subject of the sentence, which is itself so
26
complex as to be practically incomprehensible. A description such

as this one can only hint at the intricacy of the situation, where a
variety of different factors intersect and interact. Then follows the
word "is", grammatically a simple copula, equating the subject and
predicate, and thus probably not worthy of further consideration,
yet subtly assertive in its own way, positing the categories of
"existence" and "reality" to the mysterious "this". Then finally "a
pen", the predicate, given here as an informal definition, teaching a
general name for a specific object, calling for a high degree of ab
straction from the observer. The word "pen" is a general term, the
name of a class of objects, with quite a broad meaning, yet here it is
used to specify and delineate the "this", to make it comprehensible,
to give us a conceptual handle by which to grasp the experience. So
the two parts of this sentence that are being equated, "this" and
"pen" are in fact radically different by their very natures, and
equating them in this casual way obscures the delicate machinery of
the English language. The immediacy and uniqueness of "this" be
ing translated into the vague abstraction of "pen" reveals the natural
human tendency to abhor uncertainty. Simply "this" by itself is not
merely incomprehensible, it is disturbing. The human mind is
driven to categorize and classify experience in order to reduce the
anxiety arising from a confrontation with the unknown or unknow
able. Here again we have an indication of the importance of ra
27
tionality for the human organism. W e naturally want to make every

thing rational for our own comfort, and we are profoundly dis
turbed by any impediment to this activity. Yet the mere fact of
classification or conceptualization does not really solve the problem,
it merely covers it over, like an ostrich burying its head in the sand
to avoid its enemies. Being able to refer to "this as "a pen" simpli
fies communication, which is desirable in itself, yet it does so at the
expense of distorting the real nature of "this", which is unique and
particular. O f course, we usually do not analyze our common expe
rience in this way, and indeed if we did, even the simplest tasks
would quickly become insurmountable, but this kind of examination
of a misleadingly simple example is instructive about the nature of
consciousness and its relation to language. In the realm of ordinary
discourse, "This is a pen" is perfectly fine, and can be judged either
true or false depending on the circumstances, but when we try to
examine it in greater depth, the more we attempt to understand this
apparently simple phrase, the more mysterious and elusive it be
comes. For one person, at one time, depending on what sort o f ap
proach is taken, the sentence "This is a pen" can be either true or
false.1 Upon investigation, equating "this" with "a pen" is simply
inadequate. "This" is just "this", and any further specification of it
1 We shall not even consider the case of someone who does not understand
English For that person, judgements of propositional truth and falsity are difficult
to establish.
28
distorts the nature of our own experience. Even the approach that
"This is just this" does not withstand analysis, since it posits a spe
cial reality to the experience which cannot be justified or even dis
covered when sought for. What is this? The easy way out is to say,
"I don't know" and leave it at that, yet that is no more true than any
other answer, since we do in fact know what this is. That is to say,
while we say "this", the word itself designates the content of our
consciousness, and if we do not know that, we should probably
eliminate the word "know" from our vocabulary. "Of course I know
what this is, but I cant tell you." Words tend to falsify the nature of
experience, and so one of the best ways for you to know what this is
would be for me to show you. "This!" Yet your experience and
mine will inevitably differ in certain details, so even the word "this"
becomes an abstraction. It should not be supposed that the account
we have given of the relationship between language and experience
implies any defect in our language or our use o f it. What is m is
taken is simply the model of language as a means of reporting our
experience.1 Language is the way we talk about our experiences,
and as such it exists wholly intersubjectively and socially, while our
experiences are just the reverse, logically private and accessible to
no one except the subject. We abandon the correspondence theory of
1 The view, expressed by Augustine in his Confessions, which is refuted by

Wittgenstein at the beginning of his Philosophical Investigations.
29
truth in order to get at what seems to be a more rational explana

tion. The traditional Buddhist definition o f truth or reality1 given
by Dharmakirti is akin to the pragmatist's view of truth: the truth is
what works.2 Dharmakirti expresses this same idea by the notion of
functional efficacy. The Buddhists, in common with most other
Indian religious traditions, have tended to regard this world as the
realm or even the creation of ignorance or mis-knowledge. We
think we know what the truth is, what reality is, but this opinion of
ours is inadequate to encompass the Buddhist experience of enlight
enment. A traditional metaphor commonly used in Indian philo
sophical literature has to do with a person on the road at dusk who
sees an object in his path. In reality it is merely a rope, but due to
the poor light, or whatever other cause, it is mistaken for a snake.4
The snake stands for our ordinary experience of the world, while
the rope is what that world actually is. Another more elaborate
metaphor from the Buddhist tradition concerns the situation of a
person who is gazing at the reflection of the full moon on the sur
face of a pond or lake. Without realizing that it is only a reflection,
this person believes himself to be looking at the real moon. Since it
is a reflection in the water, however, it is occasionally disturbed by
* The Sanskrit word "satya" can have either meaning.
2 Similarly for Cicero (in McGregor: 1972, pp. 140-141): "anything which is en
tirely inactive might as well not exist".
3 Sanskrit artha-kriyd.
4 See Smart: 1964, p. 98; Katz: 1982, p. 249.
30
wind on the water's surface, or ripples from some other source.

Religious teaching, such as the variety of Buddhist doctrines, serves
as a finger which prods the person out of his absorption with the
reflection and then points up at the night sky at the real moon.
Some people mistakenly fix on the finger itself, or the literal
meaning of the religious teachings, and fail to follow where it
points to the real moon. This indicates that religious truth, rather
than being merely consoling, must be transform ative, it must
eschew mundane realities in favor of the transcendent.
Another closely related issue is the epistemological one, regard
ing how we determine what reality is. Buddhist principles fly in the
face o f common sense, as has been noted above, and here too the
standard Buddhist position is that what is taken to be reality is
largely dependent upon the consciousness of the observer. A com
mon sense view is like that expressed by G. E. Moore in his essay
"Proof of an External W orld,"1 where the reality of the external
world is proved by Moore looking at his hands. This proof is cer
tainly very appealing, and the fact that Moore felt it necessary to
make it explicit indicates that philosophy in his day had lost touch
with common sense without having refuted it conclusively. Yet a
classical Buddhist meditational text, the Amitayur-dhyana-sutra, 2
1 Reprinted in Ammerman: 1965, pp. 68-84.

2 Translated by Takakusu in MUllen 1969, pp. 159-201.
31
states that one should cultivate the ability to visualize certain scenes
from the Pure Land of the Buddha Am itayus "clear and fixed just
as you see the palms of your hands."1 If perception is taken as
indicative of reality, then we will have a problem deciding between
G. E. Moore's hand and the jewelled paradise of Amitayus. Yet if
perception does not indicate reality, then it is difficult to determine
how else we may ascertain it. The Buddhist way out of this dilemma
is to affirm the reality of both, in order to loosen the grip of our
common sense on what we consider to be the only reality. Moore's
hand is just as real as Amitayus, but no more so. The visualization
exercises presented in the text consist of a method of training our
consciousness to experience another reality, which in itself is no
more preferable than the ordinary one we are familiar with, but acts
as a finger pointing away from the reflection towards the real moon.
Such a redirection of our consciousness is not easy, and it runs the
risk of degenerating into insanity, but to dismiss it as impossible is
to fail to appreciate the tremendous power of our own minds in
creating our experience of reality.
Furva-paksa
With regard to enlightenment, there are probably many people
who may think something like this: Neither I nor anyone I know of
1 ibid., p. 178.
32
personally has ever experienced anything like this so-called

"enlightenment", and what reports there are from the various crazy
mystics of the different traditions are easily explained away by other
means, such as sexual repression, hysteria, schizophrenia, and so
forth. There may or may not be a God, but if there is one, it seems
that He doesnt make any difference in the world these days, except
as a reason for people to hate each other, since their understanding
of God is different enough to be incompatible. And a powerless or
divisive God is the same as, if not worse than, no God at all. Faith
in religion is an antiquated expression o f human insecurity. The
truly rational and courageous thing to do is to face up to this fun
damental truth, that there are many things about the world that we
don't understand, many problems that we cannot solve, and so we
must simply leam to live with a certain amount of existential anxi
ety and uncertainty. This is what it means to be human, after all.
There is no such thing as absolute certainty or total clarity, and
people who claim that there is are just fooling themselves and trying
to fool others. The best we can do is to find what value and mean
ing there is wherever we can, and abandon the vain attempt to fit it
all together. Metaphysics was fine when people didnt know about
how the world really works, but now that science has taught us that
there is no heaven out in space, and no hell under the surface of the
earth, we can easily see that all the old fashioned theories about the
33
ultimate meaning of everything are just a waste of effort, suitable

for parody. Humans are limited by their natures, and to strive to
change our natures is to attempt the impossible. Evolution has re
sulted in a species which may be several steps up from the animals,
but stiM shares with them certain innate tendencies, such as aggres
sion, territoriality, sexual drives, and so forth. We cannot change
our biology, and so we must learn to live with it.
In Indian philosophical terminology, the foregoing argument is
what is know as a purva paksa, the viewpoint which one sets up at
the start of one's treatise. Naturally, one attempts to make the purva
paksa as convincing and reasonable as possible, since the aim is to
draw the audience into agreeing with the views that are expressed
therein. An absurd or wildly fantastic purva paksa, which will be
summarily dismissed by most readers, fails in this essential purpose.
Following the establishment of the purva paksa, one then proceeds
to elucidate one's own system, by way of contrast. Having drawn
the audience in by seducing them with a coherent and reasonable
purva paksa, one's later refutation and criticism of the views ex
pressed therein will have added force for the readers. It is essential
to anticipate possible objections in the course of presenting one's
own views, since the treatise itself is likely to be the only contact
between author and reader.
34
Having put forth the purva paksa above, we may now proceed
to criticize it, and set forth what we hope will be a more convincing
argument. This alternative argum ent comprises the bulk of the re
mainder of this dissertation. First, regarding the possibility of en
lightenment: "It were fruitless to maintain that nirvana does not ex
ist because it is not an object of knowledge. -Certainly, nirvana is
not known directly, as colors, sensation, etc., are known; it is not
known indirectly, through its activity, as the sense organs are
known. Yet its nature and its activity... are objects of knowledge....
The yogin enters into meditation... becomes conscious of nirvana,
of its nature, of its activity. When he emerges from contemplation,
he cries: 'Oh! nirvana, destruction, calm, excellent, escape!' Blind
men, because they do not see blue and yellow, have no right to say
that those who have sight do not see colors and that colors do not
exist."1 The lives of all the saints throughout history have a special
quality about them, something which is inspirational, mysterious,
and admirable in the highest degree. Those known as saints have
most often lived lives of service to others, enduring almost unbe
lievable hardships in their quest for the ultimate meaning of life.
And their testimony by example is unanimous that such meaning
does in fact exist, and can be realized by individuals whose motiva
1 Samghabhadra, quoted in Eliade: 1973, p. 164.
35
tion is sufficiently strong.1 Perhaps each person's opinion about who

exactly qualifies for sainthood and who doesn't will be different, but
there are some names which are likely to appear in almost any list:
St Francis of Assisi, Milarepa, St. John of the Cross, Bonaventure
and so forth. To draw on the simile given above, compared to such
spiritual exemplars, we are like blind people who, unable to distin
guish colors, blithely assert that colors do not exist, and that those
who claim to see them are deluded. There are techniques for curing
this sort of spiritual blindness, methods which have been developed
over the centuries and refined by generations of human experience.
One of the most widespread and well documented of such tech
niques is that of Yoga.2
Yoga3
1 Whether or not other factors not dependent on the individual are involved in this
process, personal motivation is certainly a ke> factor.
2 Eliade says: "the extreme suppleness of Yoga... can adapt itself to all religious
experiences and satisfy all needs" (op. cit., p. 159).
3 King: 1980, pp.13-14 (quoting E.J. Thomas, The Life of Buddha. 184-85): "All
that we know of the Yoga system is later than Buddhism, and no direct
comparison can be made about the origins, but we find it assumed in Buddhist
works that the practice of concentration was not original in Buddhism. What was
claimed as original was the true method - right concentration. A more important
cause of the resemblance between Buddhist practice and Yoga is the fact that they
developed side by side. Not only would there be comparison and imitation, but a
member of one sect might pass over to the other and take his methods with him."
36
Yoga is the quintessentially Indian manifestation of the religious

im pulse.1 To some extent it represents an anti-human trend- sus
pending respiration through pranayama, finally ceasing to breathe
altogether, concentrating the mind on one point, rejecting sensory
impressions. Buddhist rituals such as mantra practice regulate the
breathing, causing it to become regular and rhythmical, similar to
pranayam a practice in Yoga. The yogi turns away from mundane
reality in search of power, of liberation, o f one of the many
modalities of the sacred. "Magical sweating", psychic heat and so
forth, developed in conjunction with the theory of tapas, 2 where
the serious practitioner can threaten the position of the gods them
selves by the force of his austerities.3 Through samadhi, one over
comes subject-object dualism4 and comes to realize the essence of a
particular object. Yoga presents a scientific system for training one's
consciousness, in search o f realms of experience which are not nor
1 Eliade: 1973 calls yoga "a characteristic dimension of Indian spirituality" (p.
101).
2 Eliade: 1973, pp. 106ff, emphasizes the global nature of the idea represented by
tapas in Indian religion.
3 It is a common theme in Indian mythology that the king of the gods, Indra, is
threatened by any spiritual aspirant who develops enough psychic power through
his practice of austerities. Indra knows that something is wrong when his throne
starts to heat up, at which point he seeks out whomever is responsible and either
attempts to interrupt his practice and in so doing dissipate the psychic power that
has been built up, or to negotiate with him and remove the threat to his pre-emi
nence.
4 Which is, suggestively, considered to be th* root of all ignorance in later
MahSySna or Yogacara Buddhism. Tillich: 1952 (p. 185) speaks of being "bound
to the subject-object structure of reality".
37
mally accessible.1 Through pranayama, one progresses through the

stages of sleep and dreamless sleep without losing one's conscious
clarity or control. The siddhis, or magical powers, arise from the
intensive practice of concentration and meditation.
Yoga leads to the state of non-dual awareness in which the
breath is stopped completely,2 exactly similar to death except that
one comes back. The subject-object dichotomy is done away with.
This is the basis for a remarkable statement by the Tibetan Buddhist
reformer Tsongkhapa about what he calls "perceptual habits": "Ir.
regard to (phenomena) such as a sprout, there are three perceptual
habits: one holding it to be objectively existent; one holding it to be
objectively inexistent; and one holding it without qualifying it in
either way. If the distinction is clearly understood that all three of
these habit-pattems exist in the mental process of one in whom the
authentic view is generated, but that only the first and the last are
present in the mental process of one in whom no authentic view has
1 Eliade: 1973, p. 46: "We referred above to the similarity between Yoga and psy
choanalysis. And in fact the comparison can be made with certain reservations- all
of them, by the way, in favor of Yoga....The psychological and parapsychological
experience of the East in general, and of Yoga in particular, being incontestably
more extensive and better organized than the experience upon which Western the
ories of the structure of the psyche have beep, built up, it is probable that, on this
point too, Yoga is right and that- paradoxical as it may seem- the subconscious
can be known, mastered, and conquered." Also Evans-Wentz: 1960, p. 21 In
"yoga may be regarded as a system of applied psychology far more highly devel
oped than any known to Western Science."
2 Eliade: 1973, p. 17In: "Physiologically, the fourth jhana is characterized by the
arrest of respiration".
38
been generated, then one will put a stop to the following false
views: (the view) that rationality does not put a stop to all percep
tion (controlled) by the mental constructions (such as) 'this is it;
(the view) that all practices before the generation of the authentic
view, such as the cultivation of the will to enlightenment, are but
truth-habits, or sign-habits; and (the view) that after one lays claim
to having generated in mind the authentic view, there will be no intentionality in all one's acts."1 This dense little passage both requires
and rewards some detailed consideration. First we have the three
"perceptual habits", or three different ways of viewing reality.
These are not so much a matter of speculation as they are of direct
experience. The three are regarding phenomena as existing objec
tively, not existing objectively, and simply perceiving them without
thinking about whether or not they exist objectively. Tsongkhapa's
"generation of the authentic view" may be taken as a synonym for
enlightenment, or ultimate spiritual realization or liberation. Thus
the difference between the enlightened or liberated individual and
the ordinary person lies in the second perceptual habit, that of re
garding phenomena as "objectively inexistent".2 The cultivation of
this perceptual habit constitutes the path to enlightenment, and the
1 Thurman: 1984, pp. 342-343. Also see Thurman's comments on this passage on
pp. 168-172.
2 See Eliade: 1973, p. 173 (quoting the Siksa-samuccaya): "Venerable monks,
acquire the samilpatti that consists in the cessation of all conscious perception.
The bhikku who has acquired it has nothing more to do."
39
experience itself is a meditative experience in which subject and

object objectively disappear, which is what cures one of mistaken
views about phenomena and reality. This is not to be mistaken for
an experience of nothingness, which is considered one of the form
less realms in Buddhist cosmology, and as such explicitly differen
tiated from enlightenment.1 It is as if one was looking in a mirror,
and one's reflection faded to transparency and finally disappeared
altogether- then all other images in the mirror vanish, along with
the mirror itself, and one "comes to" after a while (which can be as
long as several days in some cases), in what is known as the
"illusion-like aftermath samadhi ". Having seen objective and sub
jective reality disappear, one is no longer so held in thrall by the
seeming solidity o f external objects. They appear like a mirage or a
dream- still having an appearance of objectivity, which one knows
to be false, and thus not quite as convincing, as "real", as before.
However, it is crucial to realize that the "disappearing act" referred
to is not considered to be an end in itself, but merely as the mid
point of ones spiritual journey. The final stage is to come back to
this world of delusive appearances with a transformed understanding
of the nature o f those appearances. Perhaps this same kind o f
movement is intended by the Zen saying: "Before enlightenment,
1 This realm o f nothingness may be equated with Nishitani's formulation of
"relative nothingness," which he sees as the wellspring of contemporary nihilism,
which is insufficiently critical of its own experience.
40
mountains are mountains and rivers are rivers. During enlighten

ment, mountains are not mountains and rivers are not rivers. After
enlightenment, mountains are mountains and rivers are rivers." This
kind of experience also links us with the whole constellation o f dis
course about death and rebirth within mystico-religious traditions,
which as Eliade has shown again, is a global manifestation o f the
"archaic" religious discipline known as shamanism.1 For now, we
may content ourselves with the simple but often overlooked obser
vation that a proper understanding of Indian Buddhism presupposes
a familiarity with other pre-Buddhist and non-Buddhist forms of
Indian spirituality.2
Buddhism, Christianity, and other religious traditions

In order to present the background of Buddhism and make it in
telligible, we must appreciate the Indian context in which it devel
oped. Furthermore, as regards the moral law of karma mentioned
above, other religious groups did indeed question it on various oc
casions, so the Buddhists did have to attempt to prove it logically.
Ancient India was a study in contrasts. Within the social order,
there was a religiously legitimated differentiation of groups and
1 Eliade: 1974.
2 Similarities between Buddhism and Yoga are so pronounced that H. Beckh de
clared that "Buddhism is through and through nothing but Yoga" (quoted in C. A.
F. Rhys-Davids: 1927, p. 698).
41
functions, falling into four broad classes. Despite later revisionist

Brahmin assertions, the top of the social pyramid was occupied by
the ksatriya class, comprising kings and w arriors.1 The martial
tradition in India was quite impressive in its day, reaching back to
the time of the original invasion of the Gangetic plain by the ma
rauding Aryans. As is amply shown in the Vedas, these people were
very much concerned with success in battle, calling on their various
gods to aid them in the struggle against the dark-skinned indigenous
agriculturalists. And lest it be supposed that the advent of Buddhism
and the other "world and life denying" religious movements some
how served to sap the martial vigor of the Indian people, we may
consider the case of Alexander the Great, who set off to conquer the
world, and got from Macedonia as far as the border of India, where,
after beating a succession of smaller Indian armies, his stalwart
army rebelled at the prospect of facing more of the same. Alexander
him self received his most serious wound from an Indian arrow
which penetrated his armor to lodge in his ribs.2 Only several hun
dred years later King Asoka accedes to the throne, ruler of possibly
the most powerful nation in the world at that time. Yet contrary to
the prevailing modus operandi of almost every great ruler, he for
1 see Cowell: 1981-4, p. 128n: "The Jstaka gives the Khattiyas, or Warriors,
precedence over the Brahmins." Also p. 191, listing the castes in order "Khattiya,
Brahmin, Vessa, Sudda".
2 Kosambi: 1970, p. 135.
42
sakes the way o f m ilitary conquest in favor o f "conquest by

Dharma", which turned out to be not only more powerful and more
successful, but also has endured for a much longer time than the
world-conquest oriented empires of many another Ozymandias.
Second to the ksatriyas in Indian society were the Brahmins,
the ritual specialists. As purveyors of divine favor, the position that
they occupied was of great importance, a fact which they relent
lessly exploited. During the time of the Vedas, they served merely
as intermediaries, conducting the rituals which gave proper access to
the divine realm. But as time went on, they became more and more
power-hungry, which led eventually to a situation where they ac
tually became more important than the gods themselves. The sacred
syllables of the Vedic hymns had always been considered to be ex
tremely powerful and efficacious, and under the monopoly of the
Brahmins, the only ones who were permitted to leam the Vedic
mantras, the hymns came to be regarded as essential for the proper
functioning of the universe. Thus a Brahmin engaged in a ritual was
no longer merely intoning praises and supplications to some chosen
deity, but was actually performing the vital function of maintaining
the cosmic order. If a Brahmin were to make an error in the hymn
to the Dawn (U s a s ), then the dawn would simply not be able to
take place. This type of ossification in religious experience naturally
led to resentment on the part of the other non-Brahmins who had to
subsidize this extravagance. In time, the Brahmin rituals became so

far removed from the reality of everyday life that they lost all sig
nificance except for those who made their living from them. Thus
the Brahmins, in a desperate attempt to maintain their monopolistic
stranglehold on the religious market, began to re-interpret their own
sacred texts, in order to make them relevant in a changing world.
This led to the development of the Upanisads, where the entire sac
rificial ritual is transvalued and made to take on mystical signifi
cance. In keeping with the tradition, these texts were the sole pre
serve of the Brahmins, which is sufficient indication that by that
time, many were discovering the hollowness of the existing reli
gious forms, and were experimenting with other techniques and
practices.
The third class in ancient India was the vaisyas or merchants.
They were concerned with maintaining commerce and trade be
tween regions, which of course was possible only in the absence of
military conflict or predatory thieves. Thus they were a strong in
fluence for a stable social order, putting a curb on the caprices of
the military establishment of their day. Although they could often
become quite wealthy if successful, this in itself was no guarantee of
improved social status. Insofar as the Brahmins were essentially so
cial parasites, living off contributions and giving back nothing that
44
was economically measurable, the vaisyas tended to be dissatisfied

with the existing religious institutions as well.
Fourth, and by far the largest, was the class of sudras or slaves.
These were largely drawn from conquered pre-Aryan inhabitants of
the region, and provided the necessary labor to keep the social m a
chinery running more or less smoothly. On their collective backs
rested the pyramid of Indian society. By law, they were forbidden
from listening to the sacred sounds of the Vedas being chanted, an
offense for which the punishment laid down in the law books was to
pour molten lead into the ear of the unfortunate transgressor.
A Vedic hymn compares the Indian social order with a "cosmic
person", P u ru sa . 1 In this analogy, P u r u s a 's
mouth is the
Brahmins, his shoulders are the ksatriyas, his belly is the vaisyas,
and his feet are the sudras. The organic unity and interdependence
of each separate unit is emphasized in this myth. In order to ensure
smooth functioning of the social m echanism , each part must
perform its own task in the proper manner.
Yet outside of this organic whole, ever since there are records
available in India, there is a diverse crowd of wandering holy men
or sramanas. 2 One of the most important cultural aspects in the de
1 Radhakrishnan: 1957, pp. 19-20.

2 See Jaini in Elder 1970, pp. 41-81; Eliade: 1973, p. 103. Also Jaini: 1979b, p.
275: "iramana groups... constituted a significant force- social, political, and
economic, as well as spiritual".
45
velopment of Indian civilization is that people chose to support

these roving ascetics with voluntary contributions of food. Whether
this was done from simple human compassion or from a desire to
ward off whatever evil influences these yogis might be capable of
invoking, it is evidence of the excess wealth available in Indian so
ciety, in this case being donated to support yet another economically
useless group. Not that such donations were essential for the wan
derers to support themselves; there were vast tracts of uncultivated
forest in the Gangetic plain, harboring an impressive variety of ed
ible plants along with whatever indigenous tribal groups had not yet
been assimilated. Thus a relcuse could simply wander off into the
forest, cut him or herself off from contact with human society, and
devote him or herself full time to whatever regimen was felt to be
appropriate. There was in effect no possible way of enforcing the
religiously legitimated class distinctions. If a particular slave was
sufficiently unhappy with his or her lot in this life, the option was
always available to just drop out of society altogether, go off and
live in the forest, and possibly develop some sort of spiritual at
tainment, which was very higly regarded at all levels of the Indian
social order. There are many incidents in the Jataka tales, concern
ing the previous lives of Gautama Buddha, of even kings who, upon
seeing a gray hair from their own head, became so disconsolate that
they abandoned their kingdoms and went off to seek peace of mind
46
in the forest. Thus this "drop out" option was not merely available
to everyone, it was highly respected as a worthy undertaking. This
again is further evidence of the overwhelming value placed on spiri
tual practice by Indian culture. Yet these people were not simply
"life-denying", it was rather that they may simply have been in
tensely aware of the inherent dissatisfactions of worldly existence.
O f course, as in any culture at any time, there were many who were
not bothered by such things in the slightest, and enjoyed life to the
full. Hedonists in India generally had the resources at hand to make
their lives quite pleasurable. Such works as the Kama Sutra, the
carvings at Khajuraho, the poetry o f Kalidasa and many others, all
of this points to the fact that many (if not most) Indians were very
much enthralled by the joys of this life.
Buddhism has always been an international religion. It is not
bound to any particular geographical region, as the Western tradi
tions are, nor is it confined within any one culture, as are Hinduism,
Confucianism, or Shinto. It arose and flourished within a pluralistic
milieu, and one of its most striking features is the incredible variety
of teachings that it encompasses. Buddhist scriptures, the Word of
the Buddha, number in the hundreds, even without counting the
historically later Mahayana works. The sheer volume of texts at
tributed to the Buddha is many times the size of the Christian Bible.
Throughout his teaching career, Sakyamuni encountered thousands
47
of different people, and in each case he tailored his discourse to the

particular needs and interests of his audience. This resulted in a
bewildering variety o f statements attributed to him, which at times
are mutually contradictory. To organize this quantity of material
into a coherent framework was never a problem for Buddhists
within India. As mentioned above, this was a pluralistic environ
ment, where many different brands of religious thought coexisted.
Buddhists in one area might have particular scriptures which
Buddhists from elsewhere would never have heard. Regional spe
cialities naturally developed, with only a few places where they
would come together. When Buddhism spread from India to the rest
of Asia, whatever organic unity it may have had within India was
inevitably left behind. This left the Tibetans and the Chinese, as the
chief inheritors of the later developments in Buddhist thought, with
the unenviable task of sorting out common themes, and creating
some systematic account o f how this tradition was to be interpreted.
There were various pan chiao formulations attempted in China,1
while in Tibet the political unity of the area led to a more central
ized approach. The famous debate at Sam-ye was not merely about
the nature of enlightenment itself, whether sudden or gradual, but
also had to do with who would control the dissemination of
Buddhist teachings in Tibet, and what was the structure of this new
1 Thurman: 1984, pp. 119-122, sec also Hurvitz: 1980.
48
imported religion to be. Tibetans tend to view the situation as a

fairly straightforward two-sided struggle between the Madhyamikas
and Yogacaras, the two main interpretive branches of Mahay ana
philosophy that developed within India. Each side could point to
mutually accepted scriptures which claimed their own theories to be
nitartha, the ne plus ultra of Buddhist intellectual and spiritual
achievement. In China, the situation was more complex, there being
more than two sides to this issue, but it still amounted to which
scripture was to be accepted as the basis from which other scriptures
would be judged. Due to Chinas more turbulent political situation,
no one alternative ever became predominant. The San lun school
favored the Madhyamikas, Hsuan Tsang, the famous Buddhist pil
grim and translator, had a marked fondness for Yogacara, while
others were attracted to the multi-faceted visionary ecstasy o f the
Hua Yen or Avatam saka scripture. Chih-I, among the first to at
tempt this sort of sweeping anaylsis of Buddhist literature, opted for
the Lotus Sutra, while others felt that the Pure Land literature was
most important. One of the earliest Buddhist sects to become
widespread in Japan, the Tendai, eschewed the primacy of any one
text in favor o f an amalgamation of teachings from various sources.
This kind of eclecticism had the advantage of encouraging scholars
to read many different scriptures before picking their own personal
favorite. The danger of settling on any one text too early is graphi
49
cally represented in the fanaticism of Nichiren, the famous propaga

tor of the Lotus Sutra sect in Japan.
Yet Buddhist texts and doctrines were not solely meant for inter
nal consumption, as it were. They had to defend themselves ra
tionally in a diverse environment. Indeed, Buddhists have always
existed within a welter of conflicting ideologies, both Buddhist and
non-Buddhist.
Contemplatives are generally outside the m ainstream of
Christianity, whereas they constituted the mainstream of Buddhism.
The history of the early Christian church consists largely of a suc
cession of divisions: Arians, Pelagians, Docetists, Gnostics, etc.,
over questions such as Who is a Christian? What is the proper def
inition of being a Christian? Contemplative Christianity didn't arise
until much later, unsystematic and tightly controlled by the bureau
crats. Buddhist contemplation is much more far ranging, profound,
and better organized, as you would expect from the country that in
vented meditation. Drawing on centuries o f inner experiments, re
fining the cumulative results of thousands o f individuals, there was
a large quantity of pre-existing contemplative data from which to
construct a system. A complex psychology combined w ith a
recognition of different levels of consciousness is the hallmark of
Buddhist meditation. Meditators are specialists in altered states of
consciousness, and it was on the basis of their experimentation that
50
the Buddhist system was founded. In Christianity, theories and def

initions (all too often in the form of dogma) came first, and medi
tative experience had to conform later, not always successfully.
A uthority and obedience were trem endously im portant for
Christians, whereas Buddhists tended to be much more freewheel
ing.1
Christianity has tended to be largely concerned with external
circumstances. The early controversies over creeds pertain to defi
nitions rather than experiences. The pronounced missionary impulse
also indicates this same outer orientation. The formulation of the
official creed of the early Christian Church occasioned much con
troversy, yet it was settled by a majority vote at the Council of
Nicaea and others. In the Buddhist tradition, the opinion of a ma
jority is regarded as having little or no bearing on what constitutes a
proper belief.2
The Donatist controversy over the worthiness of priests, and
whether their state affects the efficacy of the sacrament they preside
over again contrasts with Buddhism. In Buddhism, a priest or gum
should be an exemplar of the best of the tradition. Studying with
someone who has no spiritual realization is of very limited value.
1 Milarepa is, an example of perfect obedience and submission to his teacher's

authority, but Santideva as Bhusuku is a counter-example.
2 See Jayatilleke: 1980, p. 202, for an instance where Sskyamuni rebukes some
one for relying on majority opinion.
51
Not that it is totally worthless, depending on one's own motivation,

but it can be of value only in the preliminary stages.
The fundamental problem of human existence in Christianity has
to do with the concept of sin, and the accompanying response of
guilt. Here we see a characteristic Christian emphasis on emotions.
The figure of the Crucifixion, prominently displayed in almost ev
ery Christian church, again occasions an emotional response. In
Buddhism, the emphasis is on ignorance, or mis-knowledge, for
which the cure is wisdom. The problem is defined in terms which
are largely cognitive, without much emotional content.1 Thus the
primary motivation for a typical Buddhist may be curiosity, while a
typical Christian will tend to be motivated by guilt.2 One can also
notice a difference in the basic symbolism of the two traditions. In
Christianity, images of the crucifixion predominate, yet the cruci
fixion itself is not what gives Christianity its power, but rather what
happened afterwards. Admittedly the Resurrection is harder to de
pict, but the early Buddhist tradition, along with traditional Islam,
eschewed representation in any form of their founder, preferring to
*
leave a wheel or some other symbol where Sakyamuni would

otherwise appear. When the Buddha image does make an appear
1 H. Nakamura: 1986, p. 233: "The teaching of Christ is rather non-rational and
personal, while that of the Buddha is more rationalistic".
- Use of the word "typical" here indicates that this is a general characteristic of the
respective traditions, for which there will be exceptions on both sides. However, it
does seem a bit peculiar to speak of a curious Christian or a guilt-ridden Buddhist
52
ance, its predominant form is that of Buddha after his enlighten

ment, when he has solved the riddle of existence. (And here we may
note a further difference, that according to orthodox Christian
teaching, Jesus was bom different from all other people, whereas at
least in early Buddhism, Sakyamuni started out from a privileged
class, but was not qualitatively different from other people to start
with.) Thus Christian images of the crucifixion present the means to
an end, emphasizing the suffering which Jesus endured, while most
depictions of the Buddha display the end or goal of the tradition, an
enlightened figure who has eliminated suffering.
The Confucian system consisted of observing rules of propriety
within a social setting that would eventually become embodied and
hence automatic. At that point, one's impulse would have been suf
ficiently trained so that it would correspond to what was prescribed
as proper as a matter o f course. The classical Taoist system envi
sioned a similar goal, but via a different (or opposite) direction, that
of observing natural processes intently (such as the flow of water),
and identifying with such processes to such an extent that one s in
dividual personality would decay and totally atrophy, leaving one in
accord with nature directly and automatically.
Karma and Justice are sim ilar principles. Both are concerned
with a sort of cosmic balancing act, where nothing is lost and every
thing evens out. This is prim arily a choice that people make,
53
whether or not to believe in such a regulatory concept. Without it,

or something quite similar, the meaningfulness of human existence
is seriously undermined, leading to social problems on a vast scale.
If there is justice, then the wicked will suffer and the innocent will
prosper, eventually. If there is no justice, then one confronts a bleak
and lonely nihilism, despair, and surrender to fanaticism of some
kind, simply in order to preserve some sense of life's meaning.1
Dante's Divine Comedy is about stages and levels of attainment
or altered states of consciousness if you will, but it does not present
itself as a path or a model to be emulated. His states and conditions
are, for the most part, static, with no possibility of movement from
one to another. The major exception in this regard is Purgatory, yet
even here the movement is all one way- everyone in Purgatory is
destined for Paradise eventually. Ali the souls in Purgatory are
moving upward, whereas that possibility is not open for souls in
Hell. This is a major difficulty for most Christian (or, more gen
erally, Western) theories of spiritual development. Given that hu
man life is finite, how is it that some people are able to reach the
great spiritual heights o f a St. Francis, while others who may at
tempt a similar ascent experience merely frustration? The traditional
answer to this has been the doctrine of grace, which amounts to
1 And here we should note that even the idea of meaninglessness can itself be
come iust as much of a dogma for those who hold it to be a true description of the
cosmic state of affairs.
54
saying that some people are luckier than others. Those who receive
grace will succeed, while others fail.1 But this is not a very satisfy
ing answer for anyone who believes in a rational universe insofar as
it enshrines the principal of arbitrariness or capriciousness as being
fundamental to human existence.2 Such a principal is inimical to the
belief that human life has a comprehensible meaning and purpose,
which belief, following Peter Berger, we take to be just as essential
to human existence as food, water, or shelter. The problem for
Dante, as for traditional Christian theory, is that a finite cause of
one lifetime leads to an infinite result, either in Hell or Paradise
(including all those upwardly mobile souls in Purgatory), which is
quite simply unfair. Stated in a different way, this is the theodicy
problem: given that God is both all powerful and compassionate, a)
why does evil exist at all, and b) more specifically, why do virtuous
people suffer while vicious people prosper? Given the basic as
sumptions presented above, this problem is an extremely difficult
one, and it has spawned thousands if not millions of pages of analy
sis over the centuries. Traditional Indian philosophy has avoided
1 We may note within the mystical movement in Christianity a return to the idea,
officially regarded as heredcal, that the individual can attain salvadon by his own
effort. Humility seeking grace shades over into coercing grace, which negates an
essendal feature of grace as a pure gift from God. If you make yourself reccpdve
enough, the grace is bound to appear.
2 Boethius (in Watts: 1988, p. 50) has Philosophy ask this question: "Do you be
lieve that this life consists of haphazard and chance events, or do you think it is
governed by some rational principle?" Boethius opts for the latter alternative,
which in this argument as well is the only rational choice.
55
this difficulty by the expedient of assuming the existence of more

than one lifetime for any given individual. With the added proviso
that access to the recollection of one's former lives is strictly limited
in most cases to meditative and/or spiritual professionals, it amounts
to a powerful yet easily comprehensible affirmation o f cosmic jus
tice. Thus from the point of view of design, such a hypothesis, in
herently unprovable though it may be, is an elegant means of sup
porting conventional m orality.1 Imagine a situation in which a vir
tuous person is comparing himself unfavorably with an evil person
along the following lines: "He has a lot of fun, or a lot of money, or
a lot of power. He lives a long, healthy, and comfortable life. I have
to suffer a lot, or I die young, or I get sick, or Im poor." Too often
the justification for such injustice presented to the virtuous person,
who after all does need to believe that virtue is better than wicked
ness, is similar to the answer Job got from the whirlwind: God is
powerful and mysterious, and who are you to second-guess him?
This answer implies that the meaning of human life is not compre
hensible to us mere mortals, and thus it creates more tension for the
virtuous individual, rather than resolving his problem. This is a
consistent attitude in the Old Testament, which condemns the search
1 Lafcadio Hearn refers to "the big question. Is the universe moral?" and replies
that "This is a question to which one has to believe hat the answer is Yes." And
Boethius (in Watts: 1988, p. 116) sets down the principle that "sin never goes un
punished or virtue unrewarded".
56
for wisdom and understanding.1 From Adam and Eve, expelled

from the Garden of Eden for eating the fruit of the tree of the
knowledge of good and evil, through the Tower of Babel, erected
by people who wanted to reach God, and destroyed on account of
their presumption, to the pitiful example of Job, the unwitting (and
undeserving) object of a cosmic bet, the message is clear: the quest
for knowledge is to be conducted at one's peril. The overriding
virtue in the Old Testament is obedience, following orders, and not
thinking for oneself. Anyone who tries to escape from their obliga
tions is presented with the gruesome tale of Jonah, swallowed by a
fish for attempting to get out of an unpleasant chore assigned to him
by the Lord. The Buddhist or Hindu explanation is much simpler
and more satisfying: It is all karma. The idea of karma sounds like
an explanation, but all it really means in a Buddhist context at least
is that there is a cause. In short, it represents a commitment to ra
tionality which is denied to Job. There is a reason, a cause, why that
evil guy is doing so well, just as there's a reason why you, a good
guy, arent doing so well. The reason itself cannot be specified by
anyone short of an enlightened being, of whom there are notori
ously few. This avoids the problems inherent in setting one human
to judge another. But there is a reason, the reason exists, and the
basic operative principle is that virtue leads to happiness and
1 As noted in Howlett: 1980, p. 51.
57
wickedness leads to suffering.1 This is said to be a natural principle,

a moral law of equilibrium, with no divine supervision required.
Although the presumption of a succession of lives may not be prov
able except to the spiritual elite who experience it directly, it is also
distinctly not disprovable either, just because you can never really
prove an empirical (as opposed to a logical) impossibility. To say,
"There are no former and future lives," amounts to saying, "I can't
find them," which is very different from, "They aren't there." The
cumulative Buddhist meditative tradition is testimony to the fact
that others have found them, so it would appear more logical to as
sume their existence based on testimony rather than deny them
based on prejudice. It is similar in the case o f those who say that
there is no enlightenment. How can anyone prove the nonexistence
of something in the face of others who take the contrary position? A
commitment by both sides to be bound by certain logical rules is a
prerequisite. Structurally this is similar to the situation where the
Buddhist says that the self does not exist, a statement which most
people would dispute. However, the self is a matter of common ex
perience, and when we talk of the self we seem to know what we
1 See Speyer: 1982, p. 120: "How can happiness be expected for him who
commits a wicked action, though unwitnessed? As little as for him who has taken
poison unseen." Also p. 198: "in the strongholds of vice there dwells no bliss,"
and p. 325: "it is also an impossibility that good actions should have evil as their
result." Compare Benjamin Franklin in Lemisch: 1961, p. 331: "without Virtue
Man can have no Happiness in this world".
58
mean. Enlightenment is just the opposite. It has to do with the limits

of human potential. If we fix a limit beforehand, we should not be
surprised if we cannot go beyond. However, with no prefixed limit,
it may well be that further progress is possible. It is again a question
of what is possible, not what is usual. The self considered as the
object o f refutation by conventional Buddhist analysis doesnt make
sense. Its like the idea of a round square or a cold fire- a contradic
tion in terms. Enlightenment does make sense, it makes sense of the
entire history of Buddhism. Without it, there is no Buddhism.
Denying the possibility of enlightenment is similar to saying that
God is dead. It undermines the very foundation of the religion. This
is not necessarily a bad thing in itself, but it does seem rather pre
mature to make such a sweeping statement at this stage in our
knowledge of the Buddhist tradition. The overwhelming majority of
Buddhist scriptures and commentarial literature has never been
translated. It exists in Tibetan and Chinese and constitutes one of the
greatest cultural heritages of all humanity. Before judging its overall
worth, we should at least wait until the basic research has been
done. The development of the Buddhist corpus has taken more than
two millenia, and it continues even today, so we must not be dis
mayed by the prospect of having to wait several centuries before its
riches are uncovered. It is like a vast ocean whose surface has been
measured, where increasing numbers o f small ships are venturing
59
forth, but whose depths remain to be plumbed. In this respect it may

be said to be similar to our own consciousness.
Some ethical considerations

Postulating that humans are perfectible entails the corollary that
some people are better than others. This idea may not appeal to
Americans in particular, with their heritage "that all men are created
equal,"1 but it does perhaps provide a more accurate description of
the actual state of affairs, as the history of America itself is riddled
with incidents which demonstrate that equality for all has yet to be
fully realized. Yet the difficulties o f a human hierarchy persist,
among which is the issue of ethics. For example, actions may be
allowed or even prescribed for one on a higher level which are
prohibited to those on a lower level of development. Different ethi
cal standards apply depending upon one's state of advancement.2 In
short, we are unable to judge the ethical character of someones acts
without also verifying that individual's attainment. This "indicates
that ethics is a relative, not an absolute, subject".3 The story of
Padm a Sambhava, a legendary figure who helped establish
1 W. Norman Brown: 1940, p. 38: "Showing a realistic attitude toward life, India
does not expect all human beings to be or act alike".
2 For a good analogy, see H. Nakamura: 1986, p. 559n (quoting Ninomiya
Sontoku): "We cannot discern what is good and what evil. It is like saying near
and far. Suppose you put up two stakes, one marked far and the other marked
near. Your position decides which is really far and which near."
3 W. N. Brown: 1940, p. 39.
60
Buddhism in Tibet, is full of ethical conundrums. We are told that

Padma kills women, children, and babies for no apparent reason,1
that "every woman he met he took to himself,"2 and in short that
"conventional concepts of... morality are completely ignored by
h im ."3 Now a devout Tibetan Buddhist, who typically regards
Padma as on a par with Sakyamuni himself, will recognize no other
motive for any of Padmas actions than disinterested selfless com
passion arising from an enlightened state of awareness. However,
for a non-Buddhist observer, Padmas conduct appears suspiciously
(if not dangerously) similar to that of a psychopathic murderer and
rapist. The devotee's reply of course is as above, that we have no
right to judge Padma by our standards because he has transcended
our state of realization. Therefore, we may not understand the pre
cise reasons for his actions, but we must simply abide in the pious
conviction that whatever he does is done for the benefit of all sen
tient beings. Now obviously this kind of reasoning can be used to
justify any kind of atrocity, up to and including Nazi genocide.4
Thus introducing relativism into the realms o f consciousness and
ethics causes the disintegration of the entire structure of value
judgements and moral laws.
1 Evans-Wentz: 1974, pp. 116-117.
2 ibid., p. 119.
3 ibid., p. 120n.
4 which appears to have become the stock contemporary example of Evil
61
But the situation is not so bleak. The confusion here is mistaking

the movement away from absolute standards as a rejection of all
standards. This amounts to the contention that being "a standard"
necessarily implies the idea of ultimacy, which is in fact not the case
at all. A common unit of measurement is the meter, the standard for
which used to be a metal bar stored in a vault in Paris. Yet the
length of any metal object varies according to temperature. The
"standard" meter bar will be shorter at the North Pole than it will be
at the equator. Not by much, perhaps, but enough to undermine
faith in the absolute nature of its length. And of course the Theory
of Relativity itself does much to disprove our common notions of
space and time scientifically. Yet we still use standards, and they
can function perfectly well without being absolute. It is the same
with morality. It may be that a person on a higher stage of
development can understand the consequences of actions better than
ordinary people, and thus will act in ways that seem bizarre or even
criminal based on this insight. Yet there is no way for ordinary
people to adopt a higher standard, and if they give up their own
relative standard simply because it is "only" relative, they abandon
morality altogether, which is certainly undesirable. While it may be
proper from a higher standpoint for Padma to kill women and
babies out of compassion for them, in the context of knowing that
killing them is the most effective means available to help those
62
particular sentient beings, it is no less proper for ordinary people

who witness such actions to condemn them unhesitatingly, and
demand that Padma be punished for his evil activities. There is
nothing wrong with relative standards, but for them to function as
standards, they must be adhered to without exception by those who
hold them. This side o f enlightenment we may never be sure about
the correctness of our moral judgements, but this should in no way
preclude us from making them. And of course anyone who attempts
to justify personal immoral conduct by spurious claims of spiritual
attainment merely adds one vice on top of another. Those who are
gullible enough to believe such a claim display an abominable moral
spinelessness.
If we take the basis of ethical principles to be the idea of "the
greatest good of the greatest number",1 then we find that the bodhisattva's enterprise is eminently ethical in intent. The primary mo
tivation for a bodhisattva is expressed in the idea of bodhicitta, 2
which is defined by the author of the AA3 as "the desire to achieve
enlightenment for the benefit of others". This becomes the standard
1 as it has been defined (in the West) since the late 18th century. See Passmore:
1970, p. 163.
2 bodhi meaning "enlightenment and citta meaning "mind, a literal translation is
"mind of (or for) enlightenment," but perhaps "spirit of enlightenment" is better,
insofar as it implies the kind of continuing resolve that the word "mind" does not
3 The standard abbreviation for the Abhisamaydlamkara.
63
Mahayana definition of this key concept,1 and it illustrates the twoway nature of Mahayana spirituality. Early Mahayana criticized the
Hinayana Abhidharm a practitioners for being overly concerned
with their own advancement, and insufficiently aware o f their con
nection to other beings. Thus the goal for the Mahayana becomes
the enlightenment o f all beings, and since one of the main defini
tions of enlightenment is the fulfillment of all desires, this may be
regarded as a supremely ethical goal. A bodhisattva dedicates him
self to achieve enlightenment, which is the fulfillment of all his de
sires, only in order to assist him in helping other beings achieve
their own enlightenment. Prior to enlightenment, people are af
flicted with ignorance, and thus no one short of a Buddha can know
what is the most ethical action to undertake in any particular cir
cumstance.2 When enlightenment is attained, one's own desires are
no longer a part of the picture, and one has not only the wisdom to
* Obermillenl931, p. 249: "The Cusmical Body, perfectly delivered, and its mani
festations Represent the fulfillment of one's own aim and of that of others."
Compare the description of King Alfred in Keynes: 1983, p. 44: "he continued his
quest for knowledge o f divine wisdom, both for his own sake and for the benefit
of others".
2 This is graphically illustrated in a tale from the Ch'an tradition, wherein the
Master Nan Ch'uan challenges his disciples to prove their enlightenment. This
challenge is greeted by silence (not to be confused with the silence of
Vimalakirti!), whereupon Nan Ch'uan kills a c a t I take the point of this story to be
that all actions short o f attaining enlightenment are tantamount to killing the cat,
insofar as they are performed without an accurate understanding o f their conse
quences. See Cleary: 1977, pp. 406-408. Also Jaini: 1979, p. 66, quoting a Jaina
text: "How can an ignorant person be compassionate, when he does not know
good from evil?"
64
realize other's desires, but the sensitivity to feel them as keenly as if

they were one's own. Having broken down the barriers between
subject and object (or self and other) in meditation, one naturally
acts to alleviate any kind of discomfort or suffering that impinges
on ones awareness. In a situation where all beings are relative and
interconnected, maxims such as the Golden Rule are simply a matter
of common sense, even for one who does not experience this state
of affairs directly. The principle of karma assures us that whatever
good we do or try to do, its effects will not be lost, even though the
immediate result may be less than we had hoped.
Summary
Taking Cantwell Smith seriously, we can regard the phe
nomenon of world religion as a global expression o f humanity's re
lation with the immanently transcendent (or transcendently imma
nent) which lies at core of human faith. We may also note that hu
man nature has reacted in certain patterns characteristic of religious
traditions around the world. It is no longer a set o f discrete separate
religious traditions, each conditioned by the time and location of
their genesis and subsequent development, but rather a broad spec
trum of religious experience and religious language which finds ex
pression through the media of the various traditions. There is the
importance of revealed scriptures, either directly from the source (as
65
in the Vedas) or through inspired intermediaries such as the compil

ers of the Old Testament and Mohammed. There is the development
of elaborate ritual procedures to mediate between sacred and pro
fane. Practically, there is an emphasis on ethical principles and crit
icism of selfishness expressed positively in the Golden Rule and
negatively by Confucius.1 There is salvation by faith in Jesus or
Amida. There are certain paradigmatic individuals taken to embody
the best o f the tradition, such as Jesus, Buddha, or Confucius. And
most significantly for our purposes, there is an attitude Duncan
Howlett describes as the critical way in religion, which consists of
the application of rational principles in a critical manner to tradi
tional teachings. This analysis gives us not Buddhist faith as op
posed to Christian faith, but rather the global category o f religious
faith itself, which has been expressed in various ways throughout
history and around the globe, yet without losing its essential identity
as a fundamental human religious attitude.
In the final analysis, religion is neither designed as an escape
from this world nor as an excuse for intellectual irresponsibility,
although it has been used for such purposes as well, but rather as a
way of transforming our lives within this world, to fully realize and
1 "Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you." Chan: 1969, p.
39.
act upon our fundamental human responsibility, and to actualize

full potential as reponsible and responsive human beings.
67
Chapter Two
Buddhist Omniscience
Katz: 1982, p. 255:
Omniscience, at least for one who is not himself omniscient, is
merely an opinion.
*
Chalmers: 1927, p. 70. (King Pasenadi speaking to Sakyamuni)

I asked the Lord about omniscience and he explained
omniscience to me in a manner which pleases, satisfies and gladdens
me.
68
Omniscience in the Indian context

The concept of omniscience has a long history in Indian
th o u g h t.1 The Vedas them selves do not contain the word
"omniscience," but at several points they refer to similar concepts.
The god o f fire, Agni, is one o f the most popular figures addressed
in the Vedic hymns, and a common epithet for him is "Jatavedas, "2
which means "knowing all created beings".^ However the Vedas
exhibit a characteristic known as kathenotheism,4 which consists of
the tendency to address various different gods each as supreme.
There are a bewildering variety of gods addressed in the Vedic
hymns, but no one of them is clearly pre-eminent. Instead, depend
ing upon which god the particular hymn is addressed to, that god
will be lauded with a collection of superlatives, which are addressed
to a different god in another hymn. Thus high honors for knowl
edge are not exclusive to Agni by any means. Varuna, known as
"chief of the gods of the natural and moral order,"5 is supplicated
saying: "According to his wisdom Varuna knoweth all".6 In another
passage we find: "Prajapati! thou only comprehendest all these cre
1 Best references are found in Singh: 1979.

2 As in Griffith: 1963, Vol. 1, p. 564. Also Singh: 1979, p. 58: "The term
Jawvedas is the typical name for Agni in the Vedas.
3 Monier-Williams: 1982, p. 417.
4 Sec van Buitenen in Elder, pp. 7-10.
5 Radhakrishnan: 1957, p. 17.
6 Griffith: 1963. Vol. 2, p. 394.
69
ated things, and none beside thee."1 With the development of the
Upanisads we are on firmer ground, for here the Sanskrit word for
"omniscience" does appear.2 The general tendency of the Upanisads
is to equate omniscience with knowledge of the dtman or soul,3
though there is still ascription of omniscience to the god Visnu, for
exam ple.4 The movement from the Vedas to the Upanisads thus
presents a change in the concept of omniscience. What used to be
reserved for the gods is now accessible to certain people as well,
those who seek the dtman. Yet knowledge of the dtman is not what
we normally take the word "omniscience" to mean. This indicates
that omniscience has several different meanings within Indian phi
losophy and religion, of which the literal or common meaning, of
knowing everything, is perhaps the least interesting. Thurm an5
compares "omniscience" to "omnivorous," pointing out that the lat
ter certainly does not mean that one has already eaten everything,
1 ibid., p. 567.
2 The word in Sanskrit is sarvajna, sarva meaning all, or everything and jna
the regular verbal root, cognate with our English "to know".
3 Hume: 1975, p. 100: "with the seeing of, with the hearkening to, with the
thinking of, and with the understanding of the Soul, this world-all is known."
Also p. 114: "he who knows that thread and the so-called Inner Controller knows
Brahma, he knows the worlds, he knows the gods, he knows the Vedas, he
knows created things, he knows the Soul, he knows everything." Finally, p. 146:
"in the Soul's being seen, hearkened to, thought on, understood, this world-all is
known."
4 ibid., p. 452: "Vishnu, the ultimate abode, endowed with true desires and with
omniscience".
3 in a private conversation.
70
but rather that one is prepared to eat anything that is edible, which
excludes a large number of things. Analogously, omniscience may
be regarded as a potential rather than a fa it accompli, the ability to
know everything that is knowable, without having already known it
all. And the limitation of this kind of omniscience to that which is
knowable is an important distinction, since it would exclude all fu
ture events at least,1 as well as a large proportion of past events.
This kind of omniscience we muy call a figurative or metaphorical
omniscience, as opposed to the more common literal omniscience.
The kind of omniscience that is referred to in the Upanisads as syn
onymous with knowledge of the dtman may be designated a spiri
tual omniscience, since in knowing the dtman as identical with the
fundamental nature o f reality, one knows an underlying feature of
all seemingly separate phenomena. These various different kinds of
omniscience appear within the Buddhist tradition as well.
Omniscience in Pali sources

Contemporaneous with the development of the Upanisads there
appear in India several different religious teachers who deny the ef
ficacy of the Vedas entirely.2 The most important of these figures
1 since things which do not exist cannot be known. O f course, for certain
Buddhists such as the SarvOstivadins, future phenomena do exist, but a discus
sion of their doctrines will take us too far afield at this point.
2 Since the Upanisads form part of the onhodox tradition, they uphold the au
thority of the Vedas while reinterpreting them in such a way as to render their lit
71
*
for our purposes are Sakyamuni Budda and Mahavira, who founded
the religious traditions o f Buddhism and Jainism.1 Jaina religious
eschatology maintained that the soul had an innate capacity for
knowledge, which was obscured by layers of karma, or accumulated
sinful actions. Through religious practice, largely consisting of aus
terities, these layers could be burned off, and once they were all
gone, the soul would be liberated. Having removed all obstacles to
the soul's cognition, it would naturally follow that the soul would be
omniscient. The Jains called this knowledge of the liberated soul
kevala-jnana, 2 and their insistence upon the reality of this attain
ment forms one of the hallmarks of Jaina doctrine.3 This is consis
tent both with Jaina sources themselves and with reports of Jaina
doctrines in the Pali scriptures. We find Abhaya the Licchavi saying
in the Anguttara Nikaya : "Sir, Nathas son, the Unclothed, claims
eral meaning quite unrecognizable. In this respect, the Upanisads form the con
servative branch of the religious revolution that sweeps across India at this time.
1 Both Sakyamuni and Mahavira claimed to be simply reviving or passing along
older traditions, but for our purposes we may regard them as establishing new
ones. See Smart: 1964, p. 62: "Though the last great teacher, Vardhamana (often
entitled Mahavira) was a contemporary of the Buddha's and had a not dissimilar
career, there is reason to suppose that he was merely restoring and amplifying an
existing religion; while the Buddha... was (it seems) much more of an innovator".
2 Jaini: 1979b, p. 258.
3 ibid., p. 260: "absolute omniscience is in their tradition the fundamental criterion
for liberation". Also, Jayatilleke: 1980, p. 204, quoting Jacobi's Jaina Sutras, says
that omniscience was "one o f the fundamental dogmas of the Jains". Similarly for
Bhaskar: 1976, p. 243: "The whole Jaina literature seeks to establish the fact that
Jain Tirthankaras are omniscient while denying the omniscience of any other."
Also Solomon: 1962, p. 41 n: "It was the Jainas who were most concerned with
the question of omniscience." And again on p. 69: "The Jainas were the
staunchest supporters of the doctrine of omniscience."
72
to be all-knowing, all-seeing, and to have all-comprising knowledge

and vision. He says, 'Whether I walk or stand or sleep or wake, my
knowledge and vision are always and without a break present before
m e ."'1 Similarly in the Majjhima Nikaya : "When this had been
said, monks, these Jains spoke to me thus: 'Y our reverence,
Nataputta the Jain is all-knowing, all-seeing; he claims all-embrac
ing knowledge-and-vision, saying: "W hether I am walking or
standing still or asleep or awake, knowledge-and-vision is perma
nently and continuously before m e.
2 Finally, the C u la -
Sakuludayi-Sutta contains the following less than complimentary
passage in which Udayin addresses Sakyamuni:

'"Some time ago, revered sir, one who was all-knowing, allseeing, claiming all-embracing knowledge-and-vision, said:
"Whether I am walking or standing still or asleep or awake,
knowledge-and-vision is constantly and perpetually before me."
He, on being asked a question by me concerning the past,
shelved the question by (asking) another, answered off the point
and evinced temper and ill-w ill and sulkiness... [Buddha
inquires:] 'But who was this, Udayin, that all-knowing, allseeing, claim ing all-embracing know ledge-and-vision... on
being asked a question by you... evinced temper and ill-will and
sulkiness? [Udayin replies:] 'Revered sir, it was Nataputta the
Jain.'"3
1 Woodward: 1932, p. 200.

2 Hom er 1959, p. 6; Chalmers: 1927, p. 125.
3 Homer: 1957, pp. 228-229; Chalmers: 1927, pp. 16-17.
73
There are other similar passages in the Pali suttas, 1 but to ensure
that the Buddhists are not misrepresenting this position of the Jainas,
we may turn to their own sources, where we find: "the Jaina view of
omniscience... may be now defined as an immediate and direct
knowledge of all the objects of the universe, past, present and fu
ture, subtle and remote, far and near, by a single ever-lasting act of
knowledge requiring no assistance from the senses and even mind."2
Jaini also discusses the nature of Jaina omniscience in this way:
"Such knowledge is compared to a mirror in which every one o f the
innumerable existents, in all its qualities and modes, is simultane
ously reflected. These 'knowables' are cognized without any volition
whatsoever on the part of the arhat. Furthermore, no activity of the
senses or mind is involved; there is only direct perception by the
soul."3 So this Jaina omniscience would seem to be a literal kind of
omniscience, which outside of the Jaina tradition is usually reserved
for deities. It is an automatic kind of knowledge, requiring "no vo
lition" and "no activity of the senses or mind". In fact, "omniscient
cognition and sensory cognition are held to be mutually antitheti
cal".4 This follows from the Jaina conception of the soul, which is
* For instance: Hart: 1935, p. 288; Homer: 1954, p. 122.

2 Singh: 1974, p. 18.
3 Jaini: 1979b, p. 266.
4 ibid., pp. 34-35.
74
an innately knowing entity.1 Having removed all obscurations, this

innate feature of the soul will manifest itself completely, without
any possible hindrance or limitation. So crucial is this doctrine of
omniscience to the Jaina tradition that it is used to validate all other
Jaina teachings. Jaini writes that: "The authority of the Jaina teach
ings rests ultimately on the fact that they were preached by an omni
scient being,"2 which seems very similar to the idea of revelation as
a source for religious teaching.
The Buddhist tradition from its inception has also made use of
the concept of omniscience, but in a very different manner.^ In the
*
traditional account of Sakyamuni's enlightenment, the content of his

realization is said to consist of three kinds of knowledge: of his own
previous existences, clairvoyance which sees the transmigration of
beings in accordance with their karma, and destruction of the
asravas, which are said to consist o f sensual desire, desire for exis
tence, and ignorance.4 Having attained enlightenment, Sakyamuni
decided to teach others how to achieve the same realization after
being requested by Bramha, one of the main deitfes in the Hindu
pantheon. Learning that his own former teachers were dead, he de
1 Singh: 1974, p. 87: "for Jainas, omniscience is the legitimate claim of evety
soul, as it follows from the essential nature of the soul as consciousness... omni
science is the natural culmination of consciousness".
2 Jaini: 1979b, p. 89.
3 This section parallels Kawasaki: 1985a.
4 In E. Thomas: 1975, pp. 67-68.
75
cided to give his first teaching to the group of five monks with
whom he had previously engaged in various ascetic practices. While
on his way to meet them, he encounters an ascetic named Upaka.
Upaka notices that Sakyamuni doesn't look like an ordinary fellow,
so he asks him,
"who is your teacher, or whose dhamma do you profess?' When
this had been said, I, monks, addressed Upaka, the Naked
Ascetic, in verses:
'Victorious over all, omniscient am I'"1
That is to say, on the basis of the previously mentioned three kinds
0
o f knowledge, Sakyamuni here claims omniscience for himself.

This is obviously not meant as a literal omniscience, but as a more
spiritual kind such as in the Upanisads. What is most remarkable
0
about this passage, though, is Upaka's reaction to Sakyamuni's grand

pronouncement: "Thereupon Upaka said, 'would that it might be so,
friend, shook his head, and went off on a by-path."2 That is to say,
Upaka exhibits a thoroughly skeptical attitude to Sakyamuni's claim
to omniscience, and gees off unconvinced. This reaction seems a
0
very natural one to us, and the fact that it portrays Sakyamuni in
such an uncomplimentary way directly after his enlightenment is
probably good evidence for its authenticity. No later redactor would
be likely to make up such a story. Even though Upaka recognizes
1 Homer: 1954, p. 214. Also E. Thomas: 1975, p. 83.
2 Thomas: 1975, p. 83. Also Homer: 1954, p. 215.
76
that something about Sakyamuni is special, he does not become "the

first Bu J 'ist." The connection between the three kinds of knowl
edge aiid omniscience is also mentioned in the Tevijja- Vacchagotta
Sutta, 1 where Sakyamuni meets the wanderer Vacchagotta, who
*
says that he has heard Sakyamuni described as omniscient, in the

manner of the Jaina saints. Responding to this report, Sakyamuni
replies that he has three knowledges: he can recall his past lives, he
is clairvoyant, and he has become liberated by destroying the
"cankers". These of course are the same three that constituted his
enlightenm ent.2 Responding to Abhava the Licchavi's statement
above, Ananda makes no mention of omniscience, but simply tells
him about the basic Buddhist triad of sila, samadhi, and prajfia 3 as
constituting the Buddhist path to nirvana. On another occasion,
when Sakyamuni is addressing Sandaka, he parodies the Jaina idea
in this way:
"As to this, Sandaka, some teacher, all-knowing, all-seeing,
claims all-embracing knowledge-and-vision, saying: W hether I
am walking or standing still or asleep or awake, knowledge-andvision is constantly and perpetually before me.' He enters an
empty place, and he does not obtain almsfood, and a dog bites
him, and he encounters a fierce elephant, and he encounters a
fierce horse, and he encounters a fierce bullock, and he asks a
woman and a man iheir name and clan, and he asks the name of
1 Homer: 1957, pp. 159-161; Chalmers: 1926, pp. 339-341.
2 Thomas: 1975, p. 213.
3 Compared by T. W. Rhys-Davids: 1977b, p. 86n to the triad of faith, reason,
and works in Western theology.
77
a village or a market town and the way.... Whereupon, Sandaka,

an intelligent person... goes away uninterested".1
That is to say, someone who was truly omniscient would not act in
such a way, and if he claims to be omniscient yet acts in the manner
described above, it is difficult to take his claim seriously. In
*
general, we find that Sakyamuni seems to be uninterested in claims

of omniscience, partly because they are notoriously difficult to
verify, but largely because they are not helpful for one who seeks
*
liberation. Continuing his talk to Sandaka quoted above, Sakyamuni

distinguishes four types of unsatisfactory bases for religious
teaching. The first is the example just given, of a teacher who
claims to be omniscient.2 Second is a teacher who follows tradition.
Third is a teacher who follows reason, and last is a teacher who is
stupid and confused.3 Although the context suggests that the first
type was primarily directed at the Jainas, the principle itself is
expressed without reference to any specific figure, and we know
from other sources that Mahavira was not alone in claiming to
1 H om er 1957, p. 199.
2 Katz: 1982, p. 134, points out that, "religion based on such claims as omni
science is one of the four types which are not necessarily false, but yet unsatisfac
tory, as the Buddha found that, upon analysis, some claims of those said to be
omniscient were indeed valid, but not necessarily so. Furthermore, even in such
cases where the claims were tound to be valid, their basis was unsatisfactory be
cause it relied not on the effort and direct knowledge of the practitioner, but on his
possibly faulty memory.
J From H om er 1957, pp. 199-200; Chalmers: 1926, pp. 368-369.
78
possess om niscience.1 At one point in the M aha-P arinibbanaSutta, 2 Sariputta3 addresses the Buddha thus: "Lord! such faith
have I in the Exalted One, that methinks there never has been, nor
will there be, nor is there now any other, whether wanderer or
brahmin, who is greater and wiser than the Exalted One, that is to
say, as regards the higher wisdom." This is quite a natural
+
expression of Sariputtas admiration for Sakyamuni, but Sakyamuni

takes him to task for it, inquiring whether or not Sariputta has
personally known the minds of all other sages of the past, present,
and future. Sariputta has to admit that he has not, that he has in fact
been speaking beyond his own experience. For Sariputta to
m eaningfully praise Sakyamuni as being om niscient would
necessitate that Sariputta also be omniscient to verify Sakyamuni's
realiza tio n /4 For Sakyamuni one of the root causes o f human
confusion and suffering is that people tend to speak beyond their
own experience, and it is for this reason that he rebukes Sariputta
for speaking in such a way. This rational and critical attitude of
Sakyamuni is what many people find attractive in the Pali
1 For example, in Hare: 1935, p. 287-288, two brahmins report to Sakyamuni as
follows: ' 'Master Gotama, Parana Kassapa, all-knowing, all-seeing, professes
unlimited knowledge and purview: "Whether I walk, stand, sleep or wake, al
ways, ever, knowledge and purview are present!" And he has thus declared:
"With infinite knowledge I abide knowing, seeing a finite world!...
2 Rhys-Davids: 1977b, p. 87. The same passage also found in Woodward: 1930,
pp. 138-139; and Rhys-Davids: 1921, pp. 95-96.
3 described in Woodward: 1932, p. 16, as "chief among those of great wisdom".
4 Katz: 1982. p. 101.
79
scriptures. It is certainly a far cry from such statem ents as

Tertullians famous "I believe because it is absurd."1 Sakyamuni
considers that faith which is not based on sound reasoning and per
sonal experience is a hindrance to spiritual realization. This antidogmatic attitude is exemplified in the famous goldsmith quote:
"Just as wise men (test a claim to be gold) by burning, cutting and
rubbing (on a touchstone), my statements, O monks, should be ac
cepted after examination and not out of respect for me."2 That this
attitude is still illustrative of the best of the Buddhist tradition is
demonstrated in a recent quote from the Dalai Lama: "If there's
good, strong evidence from science that such and such is the case,
and this is contrary to Buddhism, then we will change."3
It would be nice if we could leave the Pali literature at this
point, and simply report that Sakyamuni displayed a consistently
critical attitude towards claims of omniscience, whether they were
made about other teachers or addressed to himself, preferring to
limit his own claims to the three kinds of knowledge we have men
tioned. However, there are some further passages which render such
1 Quoted in Howiett: 1980, p. 191.

2 Jayatilleke: 1980, p. 391. Also see Thurman: 1984, p. 190; Jha: 1986-2, p.
1558; and Bhattacharya: 1934, p. 11, footnote 9. Jayatilleke notes that "This verse
is not found in the Nikayas but it reflects the attitude of the Buddha as often repre
sented in the Nikayas.
3 In the New York Times. October 8,1989, Section 4, p. 6.
80
an interpretation untenable. Chief among these is a passage in the

Kannakatthala Suita, which is worth quoting in extenso :
"Then King Pasenadi spoke thus to the Lord: 'I have heard this
about you, revered sir: "The recluse Gotama speaks thus: There
is neither a recluse nor a brahmin who, all-knowing, all-seeing,
can claim all-embracing knowledge-and-vision- this situation
does not exist." Revered sir, these who speak thus... I hope that
these, revered sir, speak what was spoken by the Lord, that they
do not misrepresent the Lord by what is not fact, that they ex
plain dhamma according to dhamma, and that no reasoned thesis
gives occasion for contempt?'
Those, sire, who speak thus... do not speak as I spoke but
are misrepresenting me with what is not true, with what is not
fact.'....
Then King Pasenad: spoke thus to the Lord: 'Could it be,
revered sir, that people might have transferred to quite another
topic something (originally) said by the Lord in reference to
something else? In regard to what, revered sir, does the Lord
claim to have spoken the words?'
'I, sire, claim to have spoken the words thus: There is neither
a recluse not a brahman who at one and the same time can know
all, can see all- this situation does not exist."1
Here Sakyamuni makes a distinction between two different kinds
of omniscience: one which is realized "constantly and perpetually,"
and the other which is more like a potential than a fully realized
condition. In our typology, this is a figurative or metaphorical om
niscience, as the potential to know anything that can be known,
without having actualized that potential. Given the principle stated
above, that Sakyamuni criticized all statements which go beyond
1 Homer: 1957, pp. 309-310. See also Chalmers: 1927, pp. 66-67; Thomas:
1975, p. 213.
81
personal experience, we are left with the conclusion that Sakyamuni

in this passage was claiming the more limited form of omniscience
for himself, albeit indirectly.1 The classic formulation o f this kind
of omniscience is to be found in the Milinda-paiiha, in which there
are eight separate references to Buddha's om niscience.2 King
Milinda asks: "'Revered Nagasena, was the Buddha omniscient?'
[Nagasena replies] 'Yes, sire, the Lord was omniscient, but knowl
edge-and-vision was not constantly and continuously present to the
Lord. The Lord's omniscient knowledge was dependent on the ad
verting (of his mind); when he adverted it he knew w hatever it
pleased (him to know)."3 Here Sakyamunis supposed omniscience
1 Katz: 1982, p. 137: "In the Kannakatthala Sutta, the Buddha actually denies the
possibility of omniscience as popularly understood by his contemporaries. He
says: Them is neither a recluse nor a brahmana who at one and the same time can
know all, can see all- this situation does not exist.' This, of course, is precisely the
type of omniscience of which the Jaina monks were speaking. Now the question
must be raised as to how the Buddha, who refused to allow his disciples to make
claims beyond what they could and did actually know, could make such a state
ment without being so omniscient himself, lest he be a hypocrite who has different
grounds for discourse for himself and for his disciples. The answer is that he al
lows fo> a special, Buddhist sense of omniscience to be employed and, presum
ably, since he is denying the Jaina omniscience, he must have the Buddhist sense
of omniscience. This special sense is indicated in the same Sutta when he refuses
to say: There is neither a recluse nor a brahmana who, all-knowing, all-seeing,
can claim all-embracing knowledge-and-vision- this situation docs not exist. In
refusing to deny this second possibility, and by categorically denying omniscience
in a Jaina sense, the Buddha leaves us with the task of analyzing the significant
distinctions to be found between these two omnisciences.
The Jaina omniscience means knowing everything at once, a kind of vision
which is actually permanently piesent before the tirthantika. The Buddha's omni
science is not continually present: that is to say that he could, if he wished, know
all things, but does not actually know everything at one moment."
2 See Kawasaki: 1985a, pp. 193-198, for a full discussion of all these passages.
3 H om er 1969-1, p. 142.
82
is quite clearly defined as a potential capacity, dependent upon his

intention or mental "adverting.1 Nagasena goes on to compare
Sakyamuni's purified knowledge with a sharp arrow "fitted to a
sturdy bow and shot by a strong man"2 which will easily penetrate
any clothes made of linen, silk, or wool which are in its path.
"As, sire, a man could put into one hand anything that had been
in die other, could utter a speech through his open mouth, could
swallow food that was in his m outh, opening his eyes could
close them, or closing his eyes could open them, and could
stretch out his bent arms or bend in his outstretched arms,
sooner than this, sire, more quickly the Lords omniscient
knowledge (could function), more quickly the adverting (of his
mind); when he had adverted it, he knew whatever it pleased
(him to know)."3
Sakyamuni's knowledge is of the same kind as ordinary knowledge,
but simply heightened to the n th degree. If I want to think of my
name, this requires very little effort on my part, due to extensive
practice and familiarity. For Sakyamuni, all possible objects of
knowledge are similarly familiar, and his mental training has honed
his intellect to such a degree that no obstacles remain.4 Here again,
1 The Pali word used is S v a jja n a , which may also be translated as
"concentration". Jaini: 1974, p. 83, uses "reflection" in translating this same pas
sage.
2 ibid., p. 148
3 ibid., p. 149
4 Katz: 1982, p. 138: "the Buddha's omniscience was a spiritual omniscience; he
perfected skill in discovering and teaching the Dharma, the primary characteristic
and sine qua non of what is means to be a Buddha. Insofar as mundane knowl
edge is required to present the Dharma, the Buddha must in principle know it, and
therefore it remains meaningful for a Buddhist to talk about the Buddha's omni
Re produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
83
we ncte that this concerns possible objects of knowledge, and not

things which are unknowable by their very natures.
The M ilinda-panha is a fairly late text, and one can easily dis
cern some Mahayana tendencies in its pages, but in this case it sim
ply works out the implications of the Kannakatthala Sutta's state
ment given above. While we have no sure way of dating the Pali lit
erature or separating it into different strata, based on the doctrinal
development we have noted, it is not unreasonable to suppose that
the composition of the Kannakatthala Sutta occurred at a later pe
riod than that of the other sources cited above.1 It is very possible
that Sakyamuni's disinterested attitude towards the issue of omni
science reflects his real feelings, and that later statements attributed
science in a mundane as well as a spiritual sense. As there could be no obstacle to
the Buddha's teaching the Dharma, then even mundane trivialities could not block
him. Therefore, he had to be able to know, in principle, these details. This is not to
say, as did the Jaina monks, that he actually knew them, or that he needed to know
them. Rather, the Buddhist is content to say that the Buddha knew whatever was
necessary for him to know in order to teach the Dharma in an unimpeded man
ner." Also see Mookerjee: 1960, p. 19.
1 Jayatilleke: 1980, pp. 380-381: "This attitude of not claiming omniscience for
the Buddha seems to have been maintained right up to the time when the
Vibhanga was composed for this book gives the most elaborate account of the ten
cognitive powers of the Buddha with no mention of his alleged omniscience. In
the Nikayas, we find a list of ten verses, containing no less than a hundred
epithets of the Buddha, where the epithets sabbafinu or sabba-dassavi or any of its
synonyms are conspicuous by their absence
But the Budda appears to have
been acclaimed omniscient in the Thcravada school sometime before the Pai
Canon was finally completed for we find such a claim made in the
Patisambhidamagga and the Kathavatthu... omniscience is claimed for the Buddha
by disciples far removed in time from the Buddha himself... neither did the
Buddha claim omniscience nor was omniscience claimed of the Buddha until the
very latest stratum in the Pali Canon... We cannot therefore hold that the Buddha
claimed authority for his statements on the grounds that he was omniscient"
84
to him where he appears to claim some form o f omniscience for

himself were interpolations created by disciples who felt uncomfort
able comparing their teacher with Mahavira, who had claimed a lit
eral kind of omniscience all along.1 It seems that the idea of omni
science would never have become an issue in the Buddhist tradition
(at least not at this early stage) if there had not been other forces at
work, competing with Buddhist teachings. Under pressure from ri
val sects, loyal Buddhists desired that the figure of their own
founder not be regarded as inferior, and so they naturally wished to
praise him as extravagantly as possible, after the m anner o f
Sariputta above. However, they were stuck with a pre-existing tex*
tual tradition wherein Sakyamuni displays a critical attitude towards

claims of omniscience made by his contemporaries, and so the
com pilers) of the Kannakatthala Sutta had to reinterpret the idea
of omniscience itself in order to apply it to their revered founder.
As we shall see, in so doing they initiated a controversy which was
to continue for as long as there were Buddhists in India.
Transitional stages
1 Singh: 1974, pp. 57-58: "A religion whose prophet knows everything will be
very easily accepted to be higher than another whose prophet is not so. It was this
very desire of some Buddhists which motivated them to declare Buddha to be the
knowerof everything."
85
At about the same time as the composition of the Milinda-panha

or shortly thereafter,1 the Buddhist tradition began to produce a new
set of scriptures known collectively as the Prajnaparamita 2 litera
ture. These scriptures mark the inception o f the movement that
came to be known as Mahayana Buddhism, which spread from India
through T ibet, central A sia, and China into Japan. The
Prajnaparamita Sutras
themselves come in various lengths, of
which the version in 8000 lines is generally regarded as the oldest,

dating from around the beginning of the Christian era.3 This scrip
ture continues to use the same word, sarvajna, to designate the
Buddhas omniscience, but the sense of this word has changed dra
matically. For example:
"When one trains oneself on those stages, one trains oneself
in Buddhahood, or the state of all-knowledge; and thereby in the
immeasurable and incalculable Buddha-dharmas. Thereby one
trains oneself neither for the increase of form, feeling, etc., nor
yet for their decrease; neither to appropriate form, etc., nor to
let them go. Nor does one train oneself to get hold of any other
dharma, even of all-knowledge, nor to produce one, or make
one disappear. When he trains thus, a Bodhisattva trains in all
knowledge, and he shall go forth to all-knowledge."4
"It is because the Lord has trained him self in just this per
fection of wisdom that the Tathagata has acquired and known
1 Concerning the date of the Milinda-panha, see Homer: 1969, pp. xxi-xxiii.
2 commonly abbreviated as PP.
3 Conze: 1978, p. 1
4 Conze trans, p. 100
86
full enlightenment or all-knowledge.... this all-knowledge of the

Tathagata has come forth from the perfection of wisdom."1
"'file perfection of wisdom, O Lord, is the accomplishment
o f the cognition of the all-knowing. The perfection of wisdom
is the state of all-knowledge."2
"Perfect wisdom is the source o f the all-knowledge of the
Buddhas."3
"All-knowledge is immeasurable and unlimited. What is
immeasurable and unlimited, that is not form, or any other
skandha. That is not attainment, or reunion, or getting there; not
the path or its fruit; not cognition, or consciousness; not genesis,
or destruction, or production, or passing away, or stopping, or
development, or annihilation. It has not been made by anything,
it has not come from anywhere, it does not go to anywhere, it
does not stand in any place or spot. On the contrary, it comes to
by styled immeasurable, unlimited. From the immeasurableness
o f space is the immeasurableness o f all-knowledge. But what is
immeasurableness that does not lend itself to being fully known
by anything, be it form, or any skandha, or any of the six per
fections. Because form is all-knowledge, and so are the other
skandhas, and the six perfections."4
I give such an extensive variety of quotes to demonstrate the prob
lems faced by commentators on the PP scriptures. What is stated
plainly in one place is contradicted in another, and any feeling of
"Ah, now I understand," does not last for very long. The frustrating
obscurity of this text leads one to have sympathy for Poussin, who
denounced "Indian 'philosophumena concocted by ascetics... men
exhausted by a severe diet and often stupefied by the practice of ec
1 ibid, p. 105
2 ibid., p, 135
3 ibid., p. 169
4 ibid., p. 191
87
stasy."1 Conze himself, who probably was more familiar than any
W esterner (and most Orientals) with this literature, says, "the
Prajnaparamita sutras in turn fascinate and exasperate the student, in
turn raise him to the very heights of elation, and then again reduce
him to a condition of baffled helplessness."2 However, we may
venture to make a few tentative observations, keeping in mind that
whoever wrote the P rajnaparam ita
scriptures would probably
never agree with anything we try to say about them. The first point
is linguistic, and is simply that the word here translated as "all
knowledge" is indeed sarvajnata, an abstract form o f the same
word used in the Pali literature for the omniscience o f Buddha and
Mahavira. The Buddha here retains his faculty of omniscience, but
both Buddha and omniscience are very different from what we
found in the Pali sources. Furthermore, this seems to be om ni
science in the secondary sense noted above, that is not a complete
permanent knowledge of everything, but a knowledge of perfect
wisdom, which is generally understood to imply a realization of
emptiness. This type of omniscience is thus not very different from
the spiritual or Upanisadic type, where it is regarded as the culmi
nation of intensive meditative analysis. The mere term perfect wis
dom, considered in isolation, is not a bad gloss of the literal mean
1 quoted in Joshi:1983, p. 7.
2 Conze: 1947, p. 63.
88
ing of omniscience, but in a Buddhist context, and particularly in

the Prajnaparamita scriptures, both these terms have very specific
technical senses, which the later commentators develop.
The other important version of the Prajnaparamita scriptures is
the version in 25,000 lines, which is essentially an expanded version
of the earlier one Conze dates the only surviving complete Sanskrit
version of this text to the 5th century,1 and considers it as a recast
version of an earlier original. It has been reorganized with a view to
bringing its contents more in line with the sequence o f the
Abhisam ayalam kara. It is in this iext that we first encounter the
three different kinds of omnisciences which are explained by the
Abhisam ayalamkara. Sarvajhata is demoted from its position as
the realization of the Buddha to that of Hinayana practitioners,
while the Buddha's omniscience is designated by a new term,
sarvdkarajnata, or overall omniscience. This is a rather clumsy
attempt to exalt the Buddha while denigrating Hinayana, and the
awkward English of "overall omniscience" as opposed to simply
'omniscience" sounds just as strange in Sanskrit. Between these two
is the bodhisattva, whose realization is called margajnata. However
the usage o f these terms is not fully consistent in this text.2 In this
1 in Conze: 1978b, p. 37.

2 As indicated by Powers, p. 18.
89
text as well, omniscience (or omniscience in all aspects) is generally

synonymous with enlightenment or Buddhahood.1
The best known commentator on the Prajnaparamita Sutras is
undoubtedly Nagarjuna,2 the founder of the Madhyamaka philo
sophical school, whose writings on emptiness express the direct or
explicit meaning of the Prajnaparamita texts. Nagarjuna himself
uses the term "omniscient" only once, to my knowledge, in his
salutation verse at the beginning of his Ratnavali, J but without any
attempt to define its meaning. Thus we have no clear idea o f what
"omniscience" means at this period in 3uddhist history, although we
can be fairly sure that it means neither what it meant before, for
Nagasena and his predecessors, nor does it mean what it later comes
1 Hikata: 1983, p. xx: 'This term 'Sarvajna' is frequently used in Rrajnaparamitasutras as a synonym of Buddha." Also Suzuki: 1968, p. 35n: "SarvajnatH = all
knowledge. When the Prajfia is perfected, this is attained. "All-knowledge" be
longs to Buddhahood, it is what constitutes the essential nature of the Buddha.
"All-knowledge" and "Enlightenment" (sambodhi) are interchangeable terms in
the Prajnaparamita Sutras, and also in the G andavyaha. Also p. 222:
"Supreme enlightenment is no other than all-knowiedge, sarvajnata, to which
reference is constantly made in all the Mahayana texts. All-knowledge is what
constitutes the essence of Buddhahood. It does not mean that the Buddha knows
every individual thing, but that he has grasped the fundamental principle of
existence and that he has penetrated deep down into the center of his own being."
2 for a traditional biography, see Wallesen 1923.
3 see Tucci:1934, p. 308: "Sarvadosavinirmuktam gunaih sarvair alamkrtam 1
pranamya sarvajnam aham sarvasattvaikabSndhavam II [translated as] Having paid
homage to the AU-knower, the only friend of all living beings, who is devoid of
every defect, but adorned with every good attribute". Hopkins: 1975 gives the
following translation of the same verse: "I bow down to the all-knowing, Freed
from all defects, Adorned with all virtues, The sole friend o f all beings." (Cbnze's
review of the Hopkins translation, JRAS No. 2, 1976, pp. 165-166, calls it "a
travesty of a precise and subtle original.")
90
to mean within Mahayana. The word itself remains the same, but its
meaning is undergoing a transformation.
We should mention here that there is another work attributed to
N agarjuna and extant only in Chinese, the M a h a p r a jn a paramitdpadesa-sastra (MPPS). There is mention o f both sarvajha
and sarvdkdrajna in this work, but following Hikata we may pre
sume that the presence of the latter, as well as any distinction be
tween these two terms, is probably more properly attributed to
Kumarajiva rather than Nagarjuna. Yet even in this text, although
both terms are used, there is no clear distinction between them, with
Buddha acclaimed as omniscient (sarvajna and/or sarvdkarajna ),
while such an attainment is denied to Hinayana practitioners.1 This
text is probably earlier than the Prajnaparamita Sutra in 25,000
Lines mentioned above.
Omniscience for Vasubandhu

Following this transitional phase, we next come to that landmark
of Buddhist literature, the Abhidharma-kosa. Composed around the
middle of the 4th century,2 this work represents the culmination of
earlier Buddhist practices into a sophisticated philosophical system.
Dating from after the start of the Mahayana, the Kosa is one of the
1 Powers, p. 23.
2 Anackcn 1984, pp. 16-17.
91
last great works of early Buddhism to be composed in India. Its au

thor Vasubandhu has the distinction1 of being one of the only
Buddhist authors to achieve renown in both branches of Buddhist
philosophy, the earlier Hinayana as well as the later Mahayana.
Within the Kosa itself, however, we find only scant references to
the concept of omniscience, which here retains its early form as sarvajna. The discussions of omniscience occur within the framework
of sectarian disputations among the several groups (traditionally
given as eighteen) which had arisen by this time, each with their
own special ways of interpreting Buddhist doctrine.2
W e start3 with an objection from a Vdtsiputriya
standpoint.
This sect held that there must be an underlying basis o f continuity to

the person, which they called the pudgala. This was regarded by
m ost other sects as virtually identical to the a tm a n ,
and the
Vdtsiputriya assertion of the pudgala was the object of repeated

scorn and ridicule.4 In this context the Vdtsiputriya claims that the
pudgala must have more than a momentary existence in order for
Buddha to know everything. A mere series of mental instants cannot
1 shared with Wittgenstein, whose own philosophical career embraces two dis
tinct phases.
2 For a good source on the diversity of the various Hinaylna schools, see J.
Masuda: 1925.
3 This section is based on Kawasaki: 1981, rather than my own reading of the
Abhidharma-koia.
4 Yet despite their unique interpretations of Buddhist doctrine, there is no sug
gestion that the Vmstputrtyas are heretics.
92
possibly have such knowledge. Vasubandhu replies that Buddha's

omniscience is to be considered as a potential rather than an actual
ized state, dependent upon his attention or volition. Vasubandhu
cites the example of a fire, which cannot bum everything at once,
but has the ability to bum everything sequentially. Since Buddha
has the ability to know everything, he is acknowledged to be omni
scient. Thus Buddha's knowledge is regarded as having the same
essential structure as the knowledge of ordinary people.
In opposition to this is the position of the M ahasam ghikas, 1
who held that Buddha's knowledge was qualitatively different from
that of ordinary people. In the view typical of other Hinayana
schools, consciousness exists moment by moment, flickering on and
off like a movie. By the time a second moment arises, the first mo
ment is completely gone. However, this makes it difficult to estab
lish causality operating over any space of time. The Sarvdstivadins,
whose views Vasubandhu generally upholds in the Kosa, 2 asserted
the existence o f more than one moment, indeed, they claimed that
both past and future existed just as much as the present. Their view
is as outlined above, similar to that o f the M ilinda-panha, where
Buddha's omniscience, functioning in much the same way as ordi
1 and others, such as the Dharmaguptikas and MahiSdsakas. See Masuda:

1925. pp. 20-21n, Kawasaki: 1981, p. 209.
2 at least in the verses. In the commentary he often seems to side more with the
Saiurdrtikas, as noted in Anacker: 1984, p. 17.
93
nary knowledge, is dependent upon volition for its activity. It is not

automatic. The M ahasamghikas and others claimed that Buddha's
omniscience was automatic. It was not dependent upon volition or
any other factor, but was simply a result of his extreme mental pu
rity. This assertion seems quite similar to that of the early Jainas
mentioned above. The Sarvastivadins maintained that Buddhas
omniscience occurred over a period of two instants, one to cognize
all phenomena and the other to render that cognition accessible.
M ahasamghikas rejected this, and said that since consciousness it
self is self-luminous, and there is no need of a second moment. This
position was to become standard in later Mahayana discussions of
this topic, and o f the nature o f the mind in general.
As mentioned above, Vasubandhu's career as a Buddhist
philosopher spans the division between Hinayana and Mahayana,
and so we find further discussions of omniscience in his later works.
O f particular interest in this connection is the M a h a y a n a
Sutrdlamkara (MSA), which along with the Abhisam aydlam kara
(AA) belongs to what is known as the "five texts of Maitreya". But
when we examine the MSA, we find that its use o f omniscience is
quite different from that of the AA, which by itself would cast some
serious doubt on the traditional ascription of these two texts to the
same author. Let us proceed to the relevant textual citations. For the
sake of analysis, we may divide them into two groups, first those
94
that m ention sa rx a jn a
sarvakarajiia
(sj), and second those that mention
(saj). First we find Vasubandhu's commentary on
MSA I. 15: "the path to omniscience [sj] is extremely difficult to

p en e trate ."1 Here is a typical Buddhist or U panisadic view of
omniscience as a metaphor for enlightenment. Next is MSA IX. 1-2:
"After countless hundreds of ordeals, after countless harvests of
births, and after countless destruction of blocks over irneeasurable
periods o f time, omniscience [saj] is attained, unspoiled by (the
slightest) block, like a casket of jewels thrown open, it is celebrated
as Buddhahood." And in the commentary: "Buddhahood is pre
sented from the point of view of achievement, nature, and a sim
ile... Its nature is the attainment of omniscience [saj] unspoiled by
any block."2 Here again omniscience is explicitly identified with
Buddhahood or enlightenment, as the removal of all obstacles or
blocks to knowledge. Although the word used issarv&kdrajnata,
there is little to distinguish :t from the previous sarvajna. For a fi
nal instance we may cite MSA XI. 2: "In brief, the Sutra, Vinaya,
and Abhidharma have a fourfold etymology. When he knows them
the sage obtains omniscience [saj]." And its commentary: "In brief,
Sutra, Vinaya and Abhidharma are each fourfold in etymology; the
bodhisattva who knows them obtains omniscience [sj]."3 Where the
1 Thurman: 1979, p. 12; Bagchi: 1970, p. 6.
2 Thurman: 1979, p. 75; Bagchi: 1970, p. 37.
3 Thurman: 1979, P. 114; Bagchi: 1970, p. 55.
95
verse has sarvakarajnata, Vasubandhu explains this as sarvajhata.

This is the clearest evidence we have that he makes no significant
distinction between these two key terms. And the meaning of omni
science is here reduced to a simple mastery of the traditional divi
sions of Buddhist literature. There are other quotes we could bring
out here,1 but they would not affect the main point. The distinction
at the heart of the AA between three different kinds of omniscience
is unknown to Vasubandhu (at least at the time when he wrote this
MSA commentary), and seems to be ignored by whomever com
posed the verses as well. The crucial middle term which links the
sarvajfia of the Hinayanists with the sarvakarajna of the Buddha in
the AA is the margajna of the bodhisattvas, but this term does not
occur even once in the MSA or Vasubandhus commentary.2 This is
a strong indication that the AA system was not formulated by the
same person who was responsible for the MSA, and that the tradi
tional ascription of both of these texts to Maitreya is extremely du
bious. The designation o f the "five Maitreya texts" is unknown in
1 Thurman: 1979, pp. 22-23 [saj], 145 [sj], 193-194 [saj], 273 [saj], 365 [sj], and
367 [saj]. The first citation is not extant in the Sanskrit edition, but the rest corre
spond respectively to Bagchi: 1970, pp. 70,94, 132,178, and 179. This list has
been drawn up based on Nagao: 1958.
2 Again, based on Nagao: 1958.
96
the earliest catalog of Tibetan translations from Sanskrit texts,

which was compiled in 824.1
In passing, we may also note that this distinction between differ
ent types of omniscience is also unknown in the R a tn a g o tra vibhaga, otherwise known as the Uttara-tantra, which is another
one of the texts ascribed by the Tibetans to Maitreya.2 This text has
been translated into English tv/ice, first by Obermiller3 and more
recently by Takasaki.4 Obermiller's translation was done from the
Tibetan, but in the interval the Sanskrit text has been published by
E. H. Johnston5 and Z. Nakamura.6 There are many references to
Buddha's omniscience in this text as well, and the Sanskrit text re
veals that the word used in this context is sarvajna. We shall cite
one example, RGV 11.42: "The Omniscience [sarva-jnatvah ] of the
D ivine is That which is called the state of the Buddha, The
Ultimate, Highest Nirvana, The Buddhas inconceivable introspec
tion".7 Here again omniscience is said to be functionally equivalent
1 See Hakamaya: 1982 and Yoshimura: 1950 for this date as well as the observa
tion about the absence of the Maitreya texts as such, and Lalou: 1953 for the de
tails of the catalog itself.
2 Chinese sources regard Saramati as the author, and Takasaki agrees with this
opinion rather than the Tibetan ascription. See Takasaki: 1966, pp. 9 and 62.
3 Obermiller 1931.
4 Takasaki: 1966.
5 as cited in COnze: 1982, p. 120.
6 Z. Nakamura: 1961.
7 Obermiller 1931, p. 252; Takasaki: 1966, p. 326; Z. Nakamura: 1961, p. 167.1
quote from Obermiller here because I prefer his English. Takasaki's version is:
"That which is called Buddhahood Is the Omniscience of the Self-bom, The high
97
to Buddhahood, a spiritual kind of omniscience, which is not distin

guished from the word for omniscience which was in use in the Pali
scriptures. This is further evidence that the Tibetan ascription of
these three texts (the AA, MSA, and RGV) to the same author is
highly questionable. And insofar as sarvakarajna is not found in
the RGV, it appears that the system of the AA was unknown to its
author as well.1
Omniscience in L ater M ahayana

Following Vasubandhu by a few centuries is the career o f the
Buddhist logician Dharmakirti, whose discussion of omniscience
takes place partly as a response to criticism from non-Buddhist
sources, principally that of Kumarila, a Mimamsaka. 2 In line with
the famous salutation to the Buddha by Dignaga as "the embodiment
of valid knowledge,"3 Dharmakirti's primary concern is to establish
the credibility o f Buddhas teachings. Thus he, like most other
Buddhists, is not concerned with literal omniscience, but with a
est Nirvana, and the inconceivable Arhatship, Which is realized through self-in
trospection."
1 The same statement may also be made of the DaSabhQmika Sutra, as an exami
nation of Rahder: 1928 reveals the presence of sarvajna, but not sarvdkQrajna
or margajfia.
2 This discussion has already received the attention of several scholars, such as S.
Mookeijee: 1960, E. A. Solomon: 1962, Kher: 1972, and Kawasaki: 1984. My
presentation of this material simply consists of a recapitulation of their prior work.
3 Skt. prarnQna-bhdta, Tib. tshad mar gyur pa, at the beginning of DignSga's
PramUna-samuccaya, See Hattori: 1968, pp. 23,73-74,174-175.
98
metaphorical c r spiritual type. However, first let us lay out

Kumarila's arguments as our purva-paksa. 1
Kumarila, being a M imamsaka, holds that all spiritual knowl
edge is derived from the Vedas exclusively. Thus any claims for
other sources will meet with his disapproval. He states that a belief
in an omniscient person is a mere superstition, not founded on or
provable by any logical means. There is no means for knowing
spiritual truth other than the Vedas. In the case of an expert chef,
we may praise him by saying that he is omniscient with regard to
cookery, and Kumarila will not object. Similarly in the case of
philosophical systems which classify reality into a set number of
categories. One who has studied those categories may feci that he
knows everything, in a general way. But it is impossible that anyone
could know literally everything. Even a single body has more atoms
and particles in it than can be known by one person, not to speak of
the entire universe. Furthermore, human sense organs are restricted
to their particular objects. Claims of omniscience are as absurd as
claiming that one can hear with ones nose, or see with ones ears. A
person, such as our chef above, may be an expert in his chosen
field, but this hardly implies that he knows anything at all outside of
his specialty. There are certain limits to human ability. Through
* The exact dates o f Kumarila are unclear, but whether or not he postdates
Dharmakirti, it is likely that similar arguments were current in Dhamtakini's day.
99
strenuous training, a man may be able to jump to a height of seven

or eight feet, but no matter how much he practices, he will never be
able to jum p a mile high. Spiritual truths are simply inaccessible to
human cognition without the assistance of the Vedas. Thus the
Buddhist contention that their teacher knew such truths is simply
mistaken. Any omniscient person would necessarily know a number
of repellent and disgusting things, which any sane person would
avoid. Claims of omniscience are based on testimony from the in
dividuals concerned or from their followers, but the mere assertion
does not make it so. Moreover, several different teachers have
claimed (or been claimed) to be omniscient, yet they are unable to
agree among themselves. This indicates that none of them are truly
omniscient. Only an omniscient person can verify anothers claim to
be omniscient. The wise person will remain skeptical of all such
claims. Omniscience, if it exists, is imperceptible, and cannot be
proved by a syllogism, because there is no logical sign of omni
science which could establish its existence. Inference is always de
pendent upon perception. Thus the two main types of correct
knowledge are ruled out. Nor is there anything similar to an omni
scient person, so his existence cannot be proved by analogy. Even if
there were an omniscient person, he would retain his omniscience
only as long as he was directly cognizing everything, which pre
sumably would be some kind of meditative state. Upon emerging
100
from such a trance, he would lose Iiis omniscience. Some pious

Buddhists declare that Buddha himself did not say anything, but his
teaching proceeded automatically based on the needs of his individ
ual followers, but this is quite unbelievable. The Buddha did indeed
give spiritual instructions to his followers, but his teaching may be
wrong. Further objections are attributed to Samata and Y ajnata.1
Does an omniscient person know everything simultaneously or suc
cessively? If the former, one cognition would contain a multitude of
contradictory qualities, which is impossible (or at least unprece
dented) for human cognition. If the latter, it would take a very long
time to know everything in the universe, during which such a per
son would most likely grow old and die. A knowledge of the gen
eral nature of all phenomena will not do, since it doesn't qualify as a
knowledge of every particular thing. Also, such a knowledge rould
be false, and even if it were true, it would reduce particular diver
sity to an indistinguishable unity, in which there would be no dis
tinctions such as teacher and pupil, right and wrong, etc. It may be
said that the omniscient cognition is a special case, inaccessible to
ordinary people, but this statement itself is unproven and merely
begs the question.
The foregoing arguments are to be found in the Tattvasamgraha,
a Buddhist work of the eighth century, which reports Kumarila's
1 Solomon: 1962, pp. 48-49; Mookeijee: 1960, pp. 17-18.
101
views in this case fairly and accurately.1 However, insofar as the

above assertions constitute a purva-paksa, they are incomplete
without their refutation. Dharmakirti starts, as mentioned above, by
denying literal omniscience for the Buddha. Kumarila's critique may
have some force for Jainas, but not against a more limited form of
omniscience. Claims that Buddha was omniscient mean that what he
taught is verifiably correct, and more specifically he is an expert
when it comes to attaining liberation, nirvana, or enlightenment.2
Knowledge of mundane details such as the number o f insects in the
world or the number of fish in the oceans is irrelevant.3 The power
of his physical vision is beside the point. Even if he were able to see
tiny objects miles away, this would give no indication of his abili
ties as a spiritual teacher. And if we make far-sightedness a criterion
for a good teacher, let us all go leam from the eagle! Buddha was a
perfect teacher, in that he knew all the details concerning liberation.
He had not only the personal experience of his own enlightenment
1 See Pathak: 1931. It is often the case in Indian philosophy that v/e know of cer
tain adversarial positions only from their presentations as purva-paksas in works
of their opponents. In the case of Kumarila, nis text is also preserved, and com
paring it with what is said in the Tattvasamgraha proves that the Buddhist
presentation of his views is reliable.
2 See Bhaskan 1976,243: "Dharmakirti, in the course of establishing the
Dharmajnatva in the Buddha, points out the superfluity of Jain view of
omniscience and says that the AnusthanagataenSna (a knowledge that has a
bearing on life or practice) is more important... one who knows that is to be
abandoned and what is to be accepted... what matters is whether he knows the
essential thing, that is what he ought to know."
3 One is reminded here of the description by Rabelais of "Mataeotechny- the
Home of Useless Knowledge" (in Cohen: 1978, p. 645).
102
to inform the content of his discourse, but also the compassion for
the suffering of others to provide his motivation. In this sense, then,
he is the perfect teacher, praised as omniscient. Liberation results
from the elimination of ignorance, so his teaching is accepted as
authoritative. In his capacity as the supreme teacher, Buddha must
also theoretically have access to mundane information as well, to be
used in the context of teaching as the situation demands. And while
it may not be possible to prove that such an omniscient person ac
tually exists, it is no more possible to prove that such an existence is
itself impossible. Dharmakirti held the traditional Buddhist opinion
that consciousness is luminous by nature, and that the various de
filements and impurities which diminish its capacity are not essen
tial but adventitious. Thus when consciousness is purified of all
defilements, its capacity for knowledge should become infinite.
Dharmakirti's position on this issue is recognizably similar to that of
the M ilin d a -p a fih a ,
and constitutes what has becom e the
mainstream Buddhist interpretation of Buddha's omniscience.

Santaraksita and his commentator K am ahsila give what is prob
ably the m ost famous discussion o f this problem 1 in their
Tattvasamgraha, as mentioned above. In addition to the previous
studies by
Solom on,
M ookerjee,
and others, the
entire
1 Solomon: 1962, p. 67: "the Tattvasamgraha's treatment of the concept of

sarvajna is the best that we find in the whole range of Indian philosophical
literature."
10 3
Tattvasamgraha has been translated into English,1 rendering this

discussion accessible to a much wider audience. Here we shall give
only a few of the highlights of this fascinating discussion. In gen
eral, Santaraksita says that the question of the existence of an omni
scient person is open to doubt, and cannot be conclusively proven
either way. Thus he criticizes the Mimamsaka, saying: "If you de
duce the incapacity of other persons, in regard to a certain effect,
from your own example... then you land yourself in absurdities."2
The criterion of omniscience is stated as: "One is to be recognised as
omniscient only when he has been found to satisfy all tests and all
reasons, and has been found to have the true knowledge of all
th ing s."3 This test is rather stringent, and would require omni
science on the part of the judge as well. Yet Santaraksita's main
concern is identical to that of Dharmakirti: "What is primarily and
directly understood by us is that there is a Person who knows the
means of attaining Heaven and Liberation; - but not this alone; it is
also believed that there is a Person who also knows all things."4
Thus Santaraksita goes beyond Dharmakirtis position in postulating
the existence of someone with a literal omniscience. O f course,
1 Jha: 1986.
2 ibid., p. 1521.
3 ibid., p. 1470.
4 ibid., p. 1463. Similarly p. 1541: "That one is 'Omniscient' is understood only
from the clear teaching that He impans regarding Heaven and the Highest Good:
because that bears testimony to His knowledge of the most important matters. Of
what use is the knowledge of the number of sands of the seas?"
104
Buddha's status as the perfect teacher is the main issue, and here we
find that the Buddhist doctrines are accepted as valid only after they
have been critically analyzed. In this context the goldsmith quote
occurs again.1 Thus Buddha's doctrines are said to withstand ra
tional criticism, and for this reason Buddha is hailed as omniscient.
It is otherwise in the case of teachers whose doctrines rely on their
alleged omniscience. The quality of omniscience being non-perceptible (at least to non-omniscient people), its non-apprehension is no
proof of its non-existence, it is at most an occasion for doubt.2 Yet
since Buddhist doctrines are said to be established by logical proofs,
omniscience is not regarded as the exclusive property of Sakyamuni.
if other teachers propound doctrines which agree with what has
been proven before, or can withstand logical analysis, Santaraksita
is willing to acknowledge their omniscience as well.3 Insofar as they
understand the true nature of reality, they are Buddhas. Omniscience
results from the elimination of all obscurations and hindrances to
cognition, as in Jainism. In this way omniscience is not caused as
much as it is revealed or uncovered.4 Santaraksita says that an om
1 ibid., pp. 1485,1558.

2 For example, Mookeijee: 1960, p. 13: "A person, however, reliable, cannot be
presumed to ascertain an omniscient unless he himself possesses omniscience."
And p. 22: The issue of omniscience must be left a moot question and not u
settled fact either way."
3 ibid., pp. 1471-1472.
4 ibid., p. 1490.
niscient person perceives everything directly through his m ind,1

which ordinary correlates the data from the senses, operates the
memory, and so forth. Thus his knowledge is taken to be similar to
ordinary knowledge, only carried to its limit by the repeated prac
tice of meditation.2 For Santaraksita as for Dharmakirti, conscious
ness is luminous by nature,3 and removing obscurations reveals its
luminosity and increases its potential all the way to omniscience.
"As a matter of fact, there is no limit to the knowledge of man."4 In
asserting that a "single clear appearance o f all tilings in a single
cognition is quite possible,"5 Santaraksita blurs one of the m ajor
distinctions made by (or for) Sakyamuni in the K a n n a ka tth a la
Sutta. The assertion that a "single cognition comprehends all that is
know able"6 follows the position of the M ahasam ghikas. In fact,
Santaraksita wants to have it both ways: "W hatever He wishes to
know He comes to know it without fail; - such is His power, as He
has shaken off all evil. He knows things either simultaneously or in
succession, just as He wishes," thus conflating the two kinds of
1 ibid., p. 1466.
2 ibid., p. 1504: "Through particular practices of Yoga, the mind o f the Mystics
and their Cognitions come to be o f superior order."
3 ibid., p. 1512.
4 ibid., p. 1521.
5 ibid., p. 1515.
6 ibid., p. 1516.
106
omniscience which were so carefully distinguished by Sakyamuni

for King Pasenadi above.
The problem of omniscience was a perennial concern in later
Mahayana philosophy, as evidenced in the works of Jnanasrimitra,1
Ratnaklrti,2 and Moksakaragupta,3 but their treatment of this issue
adds very little to that of Kamalasila. Two kinds of omniscience are
distinguished, first and more important a spiritual or figurative
omniscience which is equated with dharmajna, especially knowl
edge of the four truths, and only secondarily a literal kind of omni
science, which is much harder to prove, and receives only cursory
treatment. The former is regarded as the natural result of developing
one's mental function through repeated meditation. Both Ratnakirti
and Moksakaragupta use the same example, that o f the image of a
girl which clearly appears to her lover based on his intense passion
for her.4 Substituting the Buddhist four truths for the girl gives us
dieir idea of omniscience. Ratnakirti defines this kind o f figurative
omniscience as the capability of a mental function to become dis
tinct,5 following the example of his teacher Jnanasrimitra, who de
fines it as the knowledge of what is to be avoided and what is to be
* E. Stcinkellner, "Jnar.asrimitra's Sarvajnasiddih " in Lancaster 1977, pp. 383393.
2 Biihnemann: 1980.
3 Kajiyama: 1966.
4 Biihnemann: 1980, p. 2; Kajiyama: 1966, p. 135.
5 Biihnemann: 1980, p. 14.
107
obtained which functions clearly in a great variety of situations.1

This idea is a long way from literal omniscience. Literal omni
science receives scant attention from Ratnakirti, although he does
make a perfunctory effort to prove it as well. Here we will give
Moksakaragupta's proof: "Words agreeing with a proof and having a
definite object presuppose directly or indirectly the knowledge in
tuiting that object, as e. g. the words 'fire bum s; The words 'all
produced things are momentary' also agree with a proof and have
definite objects; [Therefore, the words presuppose the knowledge
intuiting all things, i. e. there must be an all-knowing person.]"2
This so-called proof is hardly convincing, and its very weakness is
an indication o f the relative unimportance it was accorded by
Buddhist philosophers.
Grandiose as the conception of literal omniscience is, it is not
yet the last word in Buddhist philosophy. In later Mahayana,3 ideas
of the Buddha become even more fabulous, such that Buddhas "eye,
ear, nose, tongue, body, and mental consciousnesses are each omni
scient. Thus, a single moment of any consciousness cognizes all
1 quoted by Ratnakirti in Biihnemann: 1980, p. 12. Also sec Steinkellner, op. cit.,
p. 387 (quoting Jfianasrimitra): "Through the force of such training it is possible
that a kind of mental function, which is characterized by matters to be obtained, to
be avoided, and their lands, becomes distinctly manifest as refening to the greatest
number of totally clear (individual) life-situtations. Only this we consider as om
niscience."
2 Kajiyama: 1966, p. 137.
3 shading over into Tantra, although Hopkins typically gives no specific source
for the following quote.
108
phenomena."1 For example, according to this idea, Buddhas knee is

able to hear, see, smell, taste, and feel all phenomena in the universe
all the time, which takes the concept of omniscience about as far as
it can go. By this time Buddha has become a god, or the god above
the gods, and his followers, conveniently overlooking his earlier
warnings, quite happily describe him in terms that far surpass their
own experience.
Sum m ary
We Fmd that the concept of omniscience in Buddhist philosophy
gives us a way c f understanding the development of Buddhism
within India. From examining the issues connected with this term
we can easily discern a tendency within Buddhism to exalt the ab
stract at the expense of the concrete. To begin with, Sakyamuni was
noticeably uncomfortable with any claims for omniscience, made
about either him or others. His concern was much more matter-offact, dealing with ordinary experience and statements that could be
made on that basis alone. However, soon after his death, we find
that statements were attributed to him which begin to open the door
for claims by later Buddhists to be following an omniscient teacher.
This is the natural outcome of early Buddhists wishing to uphold the
superiority o f their own teacher and his doctrine in the face of rival
1 Hopkins: 1983, p. 120
100
claims to omniscience which were quite specific. Yet throughout the

early period, at least, Buddha's omniscience does not go beyond the
nature of ordinary knowledge, although it does represent the devel
opment of such knowledge to its limit. With the development of the
Mahayana, the figure of the human Sakyamuni is lost, replaced by a
divinized and cosmic Buddha who is vastly superior to all other
creatures. Even Buddhas omniscience must become a super-omni
science to be worthy of this exalted being. Bridging the gap between
such an abstractly conceived super-godlike figure and the ordinary
individual is the figure of the bodhisattva. Yet throughout this de
velopment, Buddhist philosophers consistently maintain that omni
science in Buddhism is not to be understood literally, or that at least
this is not the primary sense in which Buddha is said to be omni
scient. Buddha is omniscient by virtue o f his perfect knowledge of
the methods and techniques for spiritual liberation, which find ex
pression in his teachings. That this is to be distinguished from literal
omniscience is also indicated by Tucci, Conze, Suzuki, and other
translators as well, who render "sarvajnata " not as "omniscience,"
although this is the obvious choice, but by the somewhat cumber
some "All-knowledge." This may perhaps be due to their desire to
avoid the theological overtones of "omniscience" within Christian
cultures.
110
Yet the later distinction between sarvajna and sarvakarajna can

be a useful one for classifying Buddhist scriptures. Without know
ing precisely when the latter term was first introduced, we can nev
ertheless notice which texts make use of it and which do not. This is
a task for another occasion, but here we can note that it has been
useful to us in criticizing the Tibetan tradition of the five Maitreya
texts. Since sarvakarajna is an odd term found especially in the
Prajnaparamita Sutra in 25,000 Lines and the Abhisamayalamkara,
we can at least distinguish which texts are associated with them.
1i 1
Chapter Three
Haribhadra and his Sphutartha
1 12
T he Date of the Abhisamayalamkara

As noted above, the roots verses which comprise the
Akhisamay&lamkara are attributed to Maitreya, the teacher of
Asanga. We have had some occasion to question that attribution on
the basis of terminology, and now we can carry that criticism a bit
farther. Mano, investigating the correspondence between the AA
and the various Chinese versions of the 25,000 PP, reports that the
earliest translations of the PP Sutra do not correspond to their re
spective portions in the AA. In all, he analyzes 4 different Chinese
translations,1 ranging from the late third to the mid-seventh cen
turies, and it is only the last one that matches the text of the AA.2
In addition, although Haribhadra says in his commentary that both
Asanga and Vasubandhu wrote commentaries on the AA, we have
no other evidence for the existence of such works. The earliest ex
tant commentary on the AA is by Arya Vimuktisena, available in
Tibetan translation and partly in Sanskrit as well,^ then there is an
other commentary by Bhadanta Vimuktisena, extant only in
Tibetan, following which are the works of Haribhadra. The simplest
explanation is that these three figures represent the lineage of the
AA, and since Haribhadra lived in the 8th century/* going back two
* by Dharmaraksa, Moksala, Kumarajiva, and Hsuan Tsang.
2 See Mano: 1972, p. 11.
3 Pensa: 1967.
^ See below for biographical details of Haribhadra.
1 13
generations would put the AA somewhere near the late 6th century
at the earliest. This makes Bhadanta Vimuktisena Haribhadras
teacher and the pupil of Arya Vimuktisena, and this is in faci what
Mano says in his study as well.* However, one difficulty with this
view is that Arya Vimuktisena is traditionally taken to be a pupil of
Vasubandhu.^ Since Vasubandhu (and his brother Asanga) can be
fairly definitely placed in the 4th century ,3 this leaves rather a large
gap between Arya Vimuktisena and Haribhadra. Given the current
state of our knowledge of the development c f Mahayana in India, it
is impossible to resolve this issue with any certainty. My own
opinion is that Mano's view is probably correct, placing the AA at
the end of the 6th century. A close examination of the commentaries
of the Vimuktisenas might help to determine their dates, but that is
a task that must be left to another day. Ruegg^ gives a good account
of what little is known of the two Vimuktisenas. A contemporary
Tibetan account, showing a concern for historical detail which is
quite ncn-traditional, makes Bhadanta Vimuktisena the pupil of
Arya Vimuktisena, and then interposes three other masters between
Bhadanta Vimuktisena and Haribhadra, who kept tb? lineage going
1 Mano: 1972, pp. 4,12. Unfortunately he gives no references for his statements
on this issue.
2 One of the famous four pupils of Vasubandhu, who each surpassed their
teacher in one area. See Anacken 1984, p. 2, quoting Obermiller: 1964-2, pp. 147,
149, and 155. Also sec Chattopadhyaya: 1980, pp. 188-189.
3 Anacker: 1984, p. 10, gives Vasubandhu's dates as 316-396.
^ Ruegg: 1968, pp. 305-308.
1 14
without writing anything down. If our speculations are correct,

however, it would appear that neither Asanga nor Vasubandhu knew
of the Abhisamayalamkara, which implies a rejection of the claim
that Arya Vimuktisena was Vasubandhu's pupil.
H arib h ad ra
Biographical details concerning Haribhadra are scanty, but at
that we have a better picture of him than of most other Buddhist
thinkers. Mano gives his dates as c. 730-795.1 He was from a royal
family and became a Buddhist monk. His teacners included
S a n ta ra k sita
and
V a iro c a n a b h a d ra .^
He specialized in
Prajnaparamita, and learned a special technique for worshipping

Maitreya. Going off to a nearby forest to practice this technique,
after three days he obtained a vision of Maitreya, who instructed
him to compose a commentary on the A b h isa m a y a la m k a ra .
Receiving an invitation from a nearby king,3 he obtained royal pa
tronage and proceeded to compose no less than four separate com
m entaries on the P ra jn a p a ra m ita
S u tra s in relation to the
Abhisamayalamkara. ^ His total output preserved in Tibetan trans

1 Mar.o: 1972, p. 17.
2 Chattopadhyaya: 1980, p. 277; Joshi: 1977, p. 165; Obermiller: 1964-2, p. 157;
Mano: 1972, p. 16.
3 Either MahipSla (Obermiher: 1964-2, p. 158) or DharmapSla (Chattopadhyaya:
1980, p. 277). As mentioned in the coiophon of his Aloka, his patron at that time
is DharmapSla.
^ Obermiller: 1933a, pp. 9-11.
1 15
lation corncs to m ore than 1380 double-sided folios. (The

Sphutartha which is translated below comes to 62 folios, or less
than five percent of his extant work.) The Pala dynasty which sup
ported him ruled over what is now Bihar and Bengal, and it is from
this region that Buddhism was introduced to Tibet. * Haribhadras
sometime teacher Santaraksita was instrumental in transmitting
Buddhism to Tibet, and oversaw the construction and consecration
of the first m onastery at b S a m - y a s .2
H aribhadra's patron
Dharmapala founded the Vikramasila monastery as well as building

many other centers for the study and practice of Buddhism.^ During
the time of Haribhadra, Tantric Buddhism was gaining force. His
pupil Buddhasrijnana^ wrote extensively on the Guhyasamaja, $
and Haribhadra himself quotes two Tantric sources in his Aloka, &
but his primary concern as shown in his output is with the Sutra
lite ra tu re ,
esp ecially
the
P r a jh a p a r a m ita s
and the
1 Basham: 1959, p. 70.

^ Snellgrove: 1987-2, p. 430.
3 Chattopadhyaya: 1980, p. 274: "Immediately after ascending the throne, the king
[Dharmapala] invited the teachers of Prajna-paramita. He had great reverence for
Haribhadra in particular. This king built in all about fifty centres for die Doctrine,
of wjiich thirtyfive were centres for the study of the Prajfia-paramita. He also built
die Sri Vikramasila vihara." Concerning this account, see Joshi: 1977, p. 36:
"Archaelogical finds have borne out, to a great extent, the truth of these state
ments.
4 also called Buddhajhanapada.
5 Obermiller: 1964-2, p. 159.
6 First: Tucci: 1932, p. 6; Wogihara: 1932, p. 5; Vaidya: 1960. p. 270. Second:
Tucci: 1932, p. 312; Wogihara: 1932, p. 491; Vaidya: 1960, p. 428. For these ci
tations I am indebted to my colleague John Newman.
1 16
Abhisam ayalam kara. Tibetan tradition credits him with being a

practicing T a n tr ik a ,
but finding no indications of such a
predilection in his texts, we are justified in remaining skeptical of

such claims.
Doctrinally he was the inheritor of more uian eight centuries of
Mahayana philosophy, which had split into the two main branches
o f Madhyamaka and Yogacara around the time of Vasubandhu.
Madhyamaka was the original form of Mahayana, following the
teachings o f Nagarjuna,* whose formulation o f emptiness is re
garded as the direct meaning of the Prajnaparamita Sutras, which
themselves are the earliest known Mahayana scriptures.^ Yet
Madhyamaka philosophy was so abstruse and easily mistaken for
nihilism that even several centuries after Nagarjuna, Mahayana
Buddhism was not widely accepted. Nagarjunas strictly negative
approach was too difficult for most people to comprehend, and even
today there are many who are puzzled by its implications.^ It is
largely due to the efforts of Asanga and Vasubandhu that Mahayana
* Traditional biography given in Wallesen 1923.
2 Suzuki: 1968, p. 121-122: "The doctrine of Sunyata constituting the keynote of
the Prajnaparamita is really the foundation of all the Mahayana schools of
Buddhism including even the Yogacara."
3 We need here only mention Potter: 1963, whose characterization of
Madhyamaka as a "leap theory" (pp. 113-114) betrays a misunderstanding of
Nagaijuna's method. Suzuki: 1968 seems to share this opinion, as on p. 55: "The
Prajnaparamita is a system of intuitions. Its thorough understanding requires a
leap from logic to the other shore;" p. 65: "an unsurpassable gap between philos
ophy and the teaching of the P ra jn a p a ra m ita and p. 81: "the fundamental mys
tery of human life which is too deep for the intellect to fathom".
1 17
became popular, * and they accomplished this by creating a new in

terpretation of Mahayana doctrines, known as the Yogacara or
Vijnanavada philosophy. W ithout going into too much detail, we
may simply note that Yogacara rejected the seeming nihilism of
Madhyamaka in favor o f a more positive approach. Yogacara
Buddhism can be regarded as that form of Mahayana which most
explicitly incorporates Yoga practice.^ With the advent o f the
P rajn a p a ra m ita scriptures, and their declaration that "Form is
emptiness, emptiness is form," all pre-existing forms of religious
practice were seriously undermined. For if "form," i.e., the relative,
conventional world, is equated with "emptiness," or the ultimate
realm, then there is no longer any question o f "getting from one to
the other." Indeed, the very idea that there is a "somewhere else" to
which one can escape is revealed as a basic misconception.^ This
leaves us in the situation of being stuck in form, o f realizing that
there is no emptiness other than form, so that we are thrown back
* See Chattopadhyaya: 1980, pp. 154-175, especially p. 166: "Before him

[Asanga], even during the time of the most extensive spread of the Mahayana
monks did not reach ten thousand. Even in the days of Nagaijuna, most of the
monks were [HinaySna] irdvakas. During the time of this acarya, the number of
Mahayana monks reached tens of thousands." Also see Obermillen 1964-2, pp.
136-147, esp. p. 142: "And the Mahayanistic Doctrine became greatly spread
owing to him [Asangal."
^ Anacken 1984, p. 14: "the name Yogacara, 'practice of Yoga', indicates the
primary importance of meditation for this method"; and p. 194: "Yogacara... a
therapeutic course of action rooted in meditation."
^ A typical reaction to Madhyamaka is expressed in Chang: 1983, p. 272: "What
is the use of practice, since all dharmas are empty?"
1 18
on the ultimacy of the conventional itself. Needless to say, this is a

situation which many people find baffling or even uncomfortable,
so Yogacara makes things much easier. By reintroducing the ne
cessity for actual practice, it provides security for those who are un
able to cope with the radical non-dualism of Madhyamaka and the
Prajnaparamita. By identifying the distinction of subject and ob
ject as a fundamental error, and by the elaboration of the three na
ture theory, alaya-vijnana, and so forth, it provides a conceptual
framework with which to understand the difference between where
one is now and where one, as a Buddhist, wishes to go - nirvana,
enlightenment, or whatever. Yoga practice itself has been funda
mental to Indian religious life ever since history has been recorded.
Considered as a meditational system, Yogacara led to the develop
ment of an elaborate classifcaticn of altered states of consciousness
which were accessible to a serious practitioner. Both Buddhist cosmology and the life story of Sakyamuni testify to the pervasive in
fluence of this broad religious movement. Sakyamuni's previous
teachers are described as masters of meditational techniques by
which one attains various realms - either that of nothingness, or one
regarded as beyond that, described as neither conscious nor nonc o n sc io u s.l These become the upper two of the four formless
1 See Eliade: 1973, p. 162: "Arada Kalama taught... Samkhya... and Udraka
RSmaputra expounded... Yoga". Also Obermiller: 1964-2, pp. 31-32 indicates that
KalSma's attainment consisted of what in Buddhist cosmology becomes the sphere
119
realms (though naturally, in a so-called "formless realm," there can

be no actual distinctions of higher and lower), and as such are in
corporated into Buddhist meditational practice.
Haribhadra, like many of his contemporaries, attempted to rec
oncile these two streams of Mahayana philosophy within a broader
framework. The Prajnaparamita scriptures in particular presented
a difficult problem for the Yogacara side, since their obvious literal
m eaning
had
been
virtually
m onopolized
by
the
rival
Madhyamakas. However, the AA purported to explain, not the lit

eral meaning, but the "hidden meaning" * of Prajnaparamita, and it
was here that a synthesis of Madhyamaka and Yogacara might be
effected. The Prajnaparamita
scriptures are the earliest known
Mahayana works, and their teaching of emptiness is central to all

Mahayana. However, their literal meaning having close links with
Nagaijuna, Yogacarins had to account for these ideas in their own
distinct way, and the AA afforded them an opportunity to do that.
Disregarding the literal meaning of the scriptures, they could derive
their own doctrines from the same source as their Madhyamika ri
of nothingness in the formless realms, while Udraka's corresponds to the sphere

of neither consciousness nor unconsciousness.
1 using Christian terminology, we might call it the "allegorical meaning". This
idea has been extremely useful to all religious traditions, since it enables them to
maintain the authority of certain texts even while flagrantly ignoring what these
texts actually say in favor of some more appropriate "allegorical interpretation."
Textual interpretation being what it is, we may imagine the most erudite metaphys
ical assertions being presented as the allegorical meaning of a laundry list
120
vals. People such as Haribhadra strove to reconcile conflicting

opinions within Mahayana in an ecumenical spirit that is typical of
Indian religion in general, where competing doctrines are harmo
nized rather than anathematized. (The most famous example of this
is perhaps the Hindu assertion that Buddha is an avatar or incarna
tion of Visnu, but the same trick was also used by the Buddhists in
claiming the Hindu hero Rama to be an avatar of Buddha. ^ Indeed
the early religious history of the Indian subcontinent can be under
stood as the gradual reassertion of indigenous pre-Aryan beliefs
within an Aryan Vedic framework, with many significant develop
ments occurring entirely outside of the Vedic tradition.) Due to the
particular circumstances of his life and teaching career, he had a
sizable impact on the development of Tibetan Buddhism, and we
can see the same kind of harmonizing tendency that characterized
his works displayed in the development of the lam rim literature in
Tibet, its classification and hierarchic structuring o f the different
forms and schools of Buddhist teaching.
T he Sphutartha
It has been more than ten years since Edward Conze called for a
"m uch-needed
ed itio n
and
tran slatio n
of
H arib h ad ra's
1 See Cowell: 1981-4, p. 82.
121
Sphutartha ".1 In that time Conze himself has died, leaving behind
him an impressive legacy of Prajnaparamita scholarship and vivid
memories o f a powerful personality. Professor Amano has pub
lished a series of articles consisting o f an edition o f a Sanskrit
manuscript of the Sphutartha which is complete except for the first
chapter,- and this combined with his previous edition of the Tibetan
text forms a solid basis for a translation. This Sanskrit text has been
the subject of some mystery, ever since Tucci announced its immi
nent publication in 1956.3 He died without fulfilling this promise,
and without Professor Amano's diligent scholarship it is extremely
doubtful if this text would ever have seen the light of day. The
Sphutartha is a valuable text for a number of reasons. For many
Tibetan scholars, Haribhadra is the central figure through whose
works Prajnaparamita and the Abhisam ayalamkara are studied.
The Sphutartha is otherwise known to the Tibetans as the "Short
Commentary," distinguished from Haribhadra's A loka or "Long
Commentary." The Sphutartha is compact enough to be manage
able, yet comprehensive enough to give a full picture of the con
tents of the Abhisamayalamkara, and it served as the basis for the
Tibetan commentary of rGyal Tshab Dar Ma Rin Chen, the disciple
* Conze: 1978b, p. 28.

2 Amano: 1983b, *985,1986,1987.
3 References in Amano: 1975, p. v; 1983b, p. 1. Conze: 1978b, p. 113 lists this as
"Manuscript from Nepal. (In Rome)."
122
of Tsongkhapa (1357-1419), the founder o f the Gelugpa school of

Tibetan Buddhism. Gelugpa ideology prevailed in Tibet in later
years, and so the works of Tsongkhapa and his disciples continue to
have a m ajor im pact on Tibetan scholarship even today.
Tsongkhapa's own first work consisted of a commentary on the
A b h isa m a ya h m k a ra , and it is said that rGyal Tshab wrote his
commentary at the direction of Tsongkhapa to correct some of his
more immature views. * Thus a study of Haribhadra's work gives us
a valuable perspective on Tibetan scholarship. Even within India,
Haribhadras writings on the Abhisam ayalam kara form a sizable
percentage of all known Indian works on this text which have been
preserved in Tibetan translation. The Tibetan Tanjur contains no
fewer than 21 separate commentaries on the Abhisamayalamkara, 2
comprising slightly more than 3000 folios. Haribhadra is responsi
ble for 4 of these texts, yet his work comprises a little bit more than
a third of the entire collection of material. Therefore his Sphutartha
also opens a door to a virtually unknown section o f Indian
Mahayana as well. Yet the significance of the Sphutartha is not re
stricted to its importance for Buddhist Studies alone. Dealing as it
does with the path to enlightenment in its entirety, it constitutes the
crystallization of centuries of Buddhist meditative and pedagogical
1 Thurman: 1984, p. 73.

2 Obermillen 1933a, pp. 9-11 gives a list of these texts.
123
experience. The idea of a path to enlightenment has been central to

Buddhist teachings ever since the Buddha's first sermon at the Deer
Park in Samath more than 2500 years ago. Haribhadra in his com
mentaries on the Abhisamayalamkara takes the accumulated wis
dom of the Buddhist tradition concerning this fundamental principle
and attempts to organize it all into a coherent framework. How well
he succeeds in this formidable task is for his readers to decide, but
certainly the Tibetans have been and remain convinced that his
synthesis is worthy o f close attention. Like all Mahayana sutras, the
Abhisamayalamkara is not concerned with giving a rational expla
nation of the topics it covers. That is left for the commentators.
Sutra literature in general is meant to serve a practical purpose in a
meditative context. While one is engaged in profound contempla
tion, the sutra verses serve as reminders and signposts which assist
in the organization o f one's experience and the efficient utilization
of one's psychological resources. A sutra may be regarded as sim
ply
2 22.2 r"2'''r 'r'
device, then, whic^ is internalized for use when
consulting physical texts is impractical. The content and organiza

tion of the sutra form a tool which is designed for a specific pur
pose. The instruction manual for this tool is to be found in the vari
ous commentaries. By studying H aribhadra's commentary and
memorizing the verses of the Abhisamayalamkara itself, one pre
pares to embark on the Buddhist path in an officially authorized.
124
sanctioned, and pre-tested manner. During Haribhadras time there

were relatively few people who had either the intellectual ability o*
the leisure time required for such an endeavor, but these few people
made up the core of the Buddhist religion. I am referring, of
course, to the monks. There have been wandering holy men on the
Indian subcontinent going back as far as there are records, and
probably beyond that. Sakyamuni and his contemporary Mahavira
were the first to organize ascetics and religious seekers into a struc
tured community, whose express purpose was to enable and encour
age its members to maximize their spiritual potential. Although
Mahayana Buddhism criticized the earlier monks for being overly
concerned with their own spiritual welfare and thus neglecting the
needs of the larger community, it never did away with the institu
tion of monasticism itself. In idut, under Mahayana influence, the
Buddhist monasteries in India came to be even more powerful,
centers of learning where both doctrinal and soteriological elements
were refined and tested in their practical applications. We can see in
the development of Tantric Buddhism the same kind of protest
against M ahayana m onasticism that had characterized early
Mahayana itself. That is to say, the Buddhist tradition displayed a
tendency in India to become overly concerned with intellectual sub
tlety at the expense of spiritual realization, which seems to have oc
125
curred twice in succession over the course of its development. 1

From this perspective treatises of the type that Haribhadra wrote
give part of the reason why Buddhism vanished from India alto
gether. By concentrating Buddhism only within the monasteries and
not maintaining a broad base of support among lay believers, the
monasteries themselves became easy targets for invading Turkish
Moslems. Yet for all that, as a record of and a guide to meditative
experience in the context of Buddhist spirituality, treatises such as
Haribhadra's preserve a valuable segment o f human experience
which we may well find relevant even today. Throughout this essay
it has been my contention that in order for religion to be relevant in
the modem world, the traditional Western antithesis between faith
and reason must be eliminated.^ Within the Buddhist tradition, this
antagonism was very late in developing at all, and for much of
Indian Mahayana it simply did not exist. Faith and reason were seen
* See Katz: 1982, pp. 279-280. Also Suzuki: 1968, p. 150, speaking of the rise of
MahSySna, says: "This development had run steadily toward exclusive rsceticism
on the one hand and toward the elaboration of philosophical subtleties on the
other. This meant that Buddhism, instead of being a practical, social, everyday re
ligion, had turned into a sort of mysticism which keeps its votaries on the giddy
height of unapproachable abstractions making them refuse to descend among
earthly entanglements. Such a religion may be all very well for the elite, for Arhats
and Pratyekabuddhas, but it lacks vitality and democratic usefulness when it is
kept from coming in contact with the concrete affairs of life." This same quote
could be applied to later Mahayana in India, and the Tantric reaction against it.
^ Compare Alfred North Whitehead (quoted in Howlett: 1980, p. 146): "Religion
will not regain its old power until it can face change in the same spirit as does
science. Its principles may be eternal, but the expression of those principles re
quires continual development."
126
to be complementary and mutually reinforcing. Based on a critical

examination of certain fundamental Buddhist doctrines, one would
adopt them as one's personal world view because they withstood
logical analysis. 1 This would incline one to accept further doctrines
which were not amenable to rational analysis on the strength of
their Buddhist affiliation. At every stage it is expected that one will
compare the content of one's own experience with its Buddhist for
mulation.^ The formulation itself is simply an expedient technique,
like a finger pointing at the moon, and is always open to revision or
even rejection if it fails to perform its liberative function effec
tively. The Buddhist understanding of human nature places a great
emphasis on the ability of rationality to assist in the attainment of
spiritual liberation. It is fashionable in some circles o f Western
Buddhology to speak of Buddhist (especially Zen Buddhist) decla
rations o f the ultimate futility of reason, o f reason short-circuiting
itself and somehow leaping beyond itself to enlightenment, but it is
crucial to remember that such assertions were formed in the midst
of an intensively meditative regimen, where the limit o f rationality
was directly experienced as enlightenment was achieved. And in
general, as we have indicated before, one does not arrive at a limit
* Speyer: 1982, p. 218: "In this manner a false doctrine cannot bear strong argu
ments, because it has no suppon, and is to be avoided."
^ Eliade: 1973, p. 175: "All the truths revealed by the Buddha must be tested in
the Yogic fashion".
127
simply by abandoning the search for it halfway. The limit of ra

tionality is found to coincide with the limit of suffering, the limit of
delusion, the limit of samsdra, which as Nagarjuna has pointed out,
is also exactly the limit of nirvana as well. To use a traditional
Buddhist metaphor, for someone to abandon reason while on the
path simply because reason is ultimately inadequate is like jumping
off a boat in the middle o f the ocean because one is planning to get
off anyway at the other end. No decision to abandon rationality can
be rationally justified except in rather unusual circumstances.
Buddhism as a religion deals with the limits or the underlying pre
requisites of human experience. In such extreme cases, one may
well find that ordinary rules do not apply, but such a situation pre
supposes that one has gotten to that limiting point without abandon
ing ordinary rules, and discovers their inadequacy solely by re
peated attempts to apply them. Choosing to abandon them prior to
that simply assures one of never coming to go beyond them. Conze
describes the situation thus: "The AA treats the contents of the
Prajnaparamita as statements of spiritual experiences. While gen
eral scientific propositions can be considered in the abstract, experi
ences derive their meaning and significance from the concrete cir
cumstances in which they take place, and the spiritual maturity of
the observer is a decisive factor in the situation. The spiritual world
is an essentially hierarchical structure, and the Absolute must appear
128
different on different levels of attainment. Buddhist tradition had by

350 A.D. evolved a clear and detailed picture of the Path which a
Buddhist Saint would have to traverse through countless aeons. The
AA assigns an appropriate place on that Path to each meditation
found in the Prajnaparam ita. The reader o f the AA must con
stantly bear in mind the position from which events are observed.
What at first sight seems to be a dry and scholastic treatise then be
comes a fascinating contribution to transcendental psychology." *
B uddhists
w ere experts at th is kind
o f "transcendental
p s y c h o l o g y , a n d their experience in dealing with this realm of

human awareness can be of value to all who seek to harmonize faith
and reason, or religion and science. In so doing we are not simply
appropriating elements from an alien tradition, but rediscovering
and retrieving such elements from our own cultural heritage.
Religion has throughout history been closely associated with
education, since in order to study sacred texts, one must at least be
literate. The gap that exists today between the Semitic traditions and
the scientific world view is largely the result o f a traditional re
* Conze: 1978b, p. 106.
^ and even ordinary psychology. To mention just one of the more famous exam
ples, the Oedipus complex was recognized in Tibet for a millcnium before Freud.
See Evans-Wentz: 1960, p. 179: "If [about] to be bom as a male, the feeling of it
self being a male dawneth upon the Knower, and a feeling of intense hatred to
wards the father and of jealousy and attraction towards the mother is begotten. If
[about] to be bom as a female, the feeling of itself being a female dawneth upon
the Knower, and a feeling of intense hatred towards the mother and of intense at
traction and fondness towards the father is begotten."
129
sistance to subjecting revelatorv texts to the same criteria as other

forms of knowledge. Claim ing a special, unique status for a
particular set of writings is all very w ell, but authoritative
pronouncements have never had the pow er to establish validity
within the scientific or critical tradition of human thinking. This
split is an epistemological one, and in the face of the remarkable
achievem ents of m odem science and the essentially nondemonstrable nature o f the truth of revelation, it has led to the
subjugation of religion by science. Science has proven itself more
effective in understanding the nature of the world and how to get
things done within this world. * Yet W estern science has tradi
tionally been concerned with what is external to the individual, the
principles governing the interactions of matter and energy and the
accurate measurement of time and space. Buddhism, arising from a
meditative background, concentrated on the inner realm, on psy
chological principles and the experience o f prolonged m ental
concentration. This kind of inner experimentation requires very
little by way of equipment, but just as much dedication and hard
work as any physical science. Regardless o f orientation, however,
the same principles are applied in the search for knowledge: results
must be independently reproducible, methods clarified, variables
* Howlett: 1980, p. 231: "The critical tradition has now largely replaced the ec
clesiastical tradition, not by disputing its tenets but exactly as [Cardinal] Newman
foresaw- 'by the superior worth and persuasiveness of its own."
130
minimized, techniques refined, and resuits critically analyzed in

order to assure the quality of the data which is generated. Buddhism
claims to have been generating solid data in the realm of human
religious experience, and we would be ill-advised to reject such a
claim without first investigating its basis. Haribhadra invites such
investigation of his treatise, and in so doing, he exemplifies the
Buddhist application of critical thinking to religious values. We
may not find the details of this synthesis suitable for us, but it can
perhaps serve as a model for the kind of unity that has been lacking
in the West between faith and reason. Of course, one of the major
distinctions between inner and outer sciences has to do with the idea
of objectivity, which is obviously impossible when the object of in
vestigation concerns the permutations of one's own consciousness,
but even here recent advances in the outer sciences have cast serious
doubt on the ideal of objectivity as an attainable goal. Mahayana
philosophy and meditation also clearly repudiate the ultimate valid
ity of the distinction of subject and object, especially in Yogacara.
Throughout its long history as one of the major religious traditions
in the most populous region of the world, Buddhism has preserved
an anti-dogmatic spirit which is quite similar to that o f the scientific
or critical tradition in the West.* Wide enough to encompass a va
* Compare Pierre Bayle (17th century, quoted in Howlett: 1980, p. 135):
"Dogma, not error, is the foe of truth. Error can be corrected. Dogma cannot be
cause it is declared to be true on the basis of authority. The mind is full of preju
131
riety of religious methods, yet profound enough to challenge even

the sharpest intellects, the reasons for Buddhism's success deserve
our consideration and respect. Like all religious traditions, it has its
share o f claims for exclusivity, ^ yet these have almost always been
balanced by a willingness to adapt to different circumstances and
incorporate dissimilar doctrines and practices. Thus there is no his
tory of heresy within Buddhism. Even doctrines that fly in the face
of what Sakyamuni taught are acceptable as necessary for certain
people at certain stages of development. What is o f most immediate
concern to us, however, is its critical aspect, wherein religious be
liefs are "viewed as working hypotheses, tested and validated by
e x p e r i e n c e . T h a t is to say, Buddhist doctrines are hypotheses
rather than dogmas, tools and techniques to be modified or dis
carded to suit the purpose and occasion. We may suppose that hu
man nature has changed sufficiently that what was true for Indian
and Tibetan Buddhists is no longer true for us, as there is certainly
dice. Superstition is the common enemy of both knowledge and faith." Also H.
Nakamura: 1986, p. 562: "Mahayana Buddhism... posed no opposition to science,
because [its! standpoint was flexible with regard to dogmas and found no contra
diction to scientific attempts." We would prefer to change his use of the past tense
in the foregoing to the present tense, since Mahayana Buddhism is still very much
a living tradition.
* As noted in Reat: 1983, pp. 473-474: "According to Theravada Buddhism, if
cne understands Buddhism, one becomes a Buddhist simply because one recog
nizes Buddhism as being true. If one is not a Buddhist, or. the other hand, it is
only because one has not understood Buddhism... All world religions, however,
share to some degree with Theravada Buddhism the conviction that true under
standing is tantamount to conversion."
2 Charles Townes, quoted in Howlctt: 1980, p. 255.
132
no guarantee that the practices and formulae worked out by them

will retain their transformative power in the modem world, * yet in
order to verify or falsify this premise we must make a sincere
commitment to follow their procedures as exactly as possible.
Insofar as this involves issues of individual religious belief, it goes
beyond the scope of this essay, but it serves to remind us that the
wellspring of the Buddhist religious tradition has always been the
experience of practicing Buddhists, and there is no reason in prin
ciple w'hy such an experience should be inaccessible to us today, ex
cept if we choose to make it so. Haribhadras Sphutartha
then
stands as a challenge to us, to take it seriously enough to make the

attempt to actually verify the system which it elaborates. As with
any experiment, prior predictions of success or failure are equally
unfounded until the results are in. Buddhism is not primarily a phi
losophy, but a way of life, and ali Buddhist concepts and theories
arise from and refer to a different way of being in the world.
Haribhadras writings are a record, if not of his personal experi
ences, then of how he understood the the various stages of the
Buddhist path. As such they have meaning for anyone who takes
religious experience seriously.
Paths an d Stages
* any more than there can be any guarantee that the sun will rise tomorrow.
133
The idea of a path leading to spiritual realization is, of course,

one of the major themes of the Buddhist tradition, but it also plays a
significant role in other traditions. In examining the history of
Buddhism, we notice that the standard which was to be achieved by
practitioners was elevated with the advent o f Mahayana. Prior to
0
Mahayana, Sakyamuni's enlightenment was considered by Buddhists

to be a unique event, and not accessible to others. Nirvana, the goal
of the arhat which is set forth in the early scriptures, is explicitly
distinguished from the state of B uddhahood.1 For one thing,
Buddha achieved his enlightenment by himself, finding his own
path after studying with several other teachers and ultimately reject
ing their attainment as unsatisfactory. Yet the development of the
Mahayana with its ideal being the bodhisattva^ as opposed to the
arhat indicates that Buddhahood is now regarded as the only accept
able goal o f all Buddhists. That is to say, the religious goal for
Mahayana is more exalted than in Hinayana. However in the history
of Christianity, the movement seems to have gone in the opposite
direction. Jesus states quite clearly in the New Testament: "Be ye
perfect as your Father in Heaven is perfect."^ This is probably the
1 Whether this was Sakyamuni's opinion as well (one o f the primary points made
in Katz: 1982 is that it was not) is irrelevant to the main point heir, that the early
tradition did make this distinction very clearly.
2 The word "bodhisattva" was of course not new to Buddhism, but prior to the
Mahayana it had been restricted for use concerning the previous lives of
Sakyamuni, as in the Jataka tales (see Cowell: 1981).
3 Matthew 5:48.
134
most demanding ideal one could set for a religion. Yet even during
the ministry of Paul we can notice that perfection is not regarded as
a reasonable goal.* This became the focus of the controversy be
tween Augustine and Pelagius, the former holding that human effort
was ineffectual for spiritual attainment, and the latter taking the op
posite position. Augustine won this battle,2 but the war between the
different understandings of the role of human effort was not over
by any means.2 With the Reformation, expectations were lowered
yet again, since Luther and Calin both believed that human effort
was not equal to the task of obtaining Gods blessing/* Sketching
* Paul says "I do not the good that I want, but the evil that I do not want,"
(Romans 7:19) indicating that he feels himself powerless to prevent what he
knows is wrong.
2 Howlett: 1980, pp. 82-83, notes that Augustines influence led to "the collapse
of critical thought in the West". We may speculate in passing that Augustine's the
ory of dual predestination, where some are saved and others aren't, may have had
some connection with the political situation in his day, where some were Roman
citizens, entitling them to special privileges and superior status, while the rest, be
ing non-Romans, were in an inferior position.
2 Passmore: 1970, pp. 85-86: "Most fundamental of all, however, in forming
Christian attitudes to perfectibility is that feeling which underlies so much
Christian teaching, that man is by nature guilty, sinful, in such a way and to such a
degree that not even Christ's sacrifice, although it saved man from the worst con
sequences o f his sin, could wholly perfect him." Compare Altizen 1983, p. 359:
"A full and actual use of self-consciousness first historically appears in Paul's let
ters, and here it is a negative language, indeed, a self-negating language, as the 'I'
of self-consciousness knows itself as a sinful and guilty conscience and con
sciousness, a carnal or fleshly 'I' that is wholly and totally imprisoned by sin. For
the first time in history a full and total impotence of the will is now manifest and
actual at the center of consciousness, and that impotence is the site of the dawning
voice of self-consciousness, a lacerated and self-lacerating voice which can speak
only by speaking against itself."
4 Passmore: 1970, p. 14: "Luther vehemently rejects the view that, in their earthly
life, men can achieve perfection;" and p. 134: "for orthodox Protestantism... hu
man corruption is too profound to be entirely healed". This rather dim view of
13 5
this development in very broad strokes runs the risk of oversimpli

fying this issue, and
v ,
illlCulu uCw
lM
tllV IV
W wiTv
ceptions to the general trend we have noted A
significant ex
For example, St.
Francis, who is widely regarded as among the most holy Christian

individuals,2 taught and practiced a method for attaining spiritual
realization which was taken over by Bonaventure.^ Indeed, mystics
throughout the ages have usually held that personal effort was not
entirely useless,4 although (at least within Christianity) they also
upheld the importance of the pure gift of grace in accordance with
orthodox doctrine. Yet it remains true that in general, Buddhism has
developed this idea of a path to spiritual realization more consis
tently and over a longer period of time than any other world reli
human potential is shared by Aquinas, who held that "no man can achieve perfec
tion in this life, no matter how hard he tries and however much God helps him
(quoted in Passmore: 1970, p. 103).
1 This serves to emphasize the point made earlier, that instead of considering reli
gion under the usual classification into different traditions such as Buddhism,
Christianity, and so forth, we will do better to group similar types of religion from
different traditions together, leading to faith-oriented religion, path-oriented reli
gion, mysticism, and so forth. H. Nakamura: 1986, p. 470: "one needs to be criti
cal, as Paul Tillich has said, of any disposition to present any one religious tradi
tion in narrow, static terms of a particular type".
^ R, Brown: 1958, p. 191: "St. Francis... utterly transformed himself into Jesus
through love and compassion."
3 As noted in R. Brown: 1958, p. 281: 'There are seven degrees in contemplation:
fire- unction- ecstasy- contemplation- taste- rest- glory."
4 As indicated ir a saying of Brother Giles, a companion of St. Francis (quoted in
R. Brown: 1958, p. 271): "Men fail to attain perfection because of their own neg
ligence."
136
gious tradition.* There is a voluminous literature upon this topic,2

to which I cannot hope to do justice, but its very quantity and per
sistence is sufficient testimony to the power that this idea has had
throughout recorded history for all humans everywhere. Very often
the act of going on a pilgrimage is understood and practiced as
analogous to the spiritual quest itself. Certain physical locations be
come associated with religious leaders or paradigmatic experiences,
and long after the leaders and experiences have gone the places re
tain some of their charisma. Again, this is especially evident in the
Semitic traditions, although it is by no means lacking in Buddhism
or Hinduism.
Introducing the Translation

Following is my translation o f Haribhadra's Short Commentary
on the AA. Although I have been working on this for several years,
I am not completely satisfied with it.
First and most obviously, my translation is not complete. I have
omitted the final chapter on Dharma-kaya, which is followed by a
1 With the added proviso that within contemporary Buddhism, salvation by faith
constitutes a large component of Japanese Buddhism. Debates in Japan about
jiriki and tariki have their analogue in the ongoing debate within Christianity be
tween supporters of Pelagius and Augustine respectively. See H. Nakamura:
1986, p. 370.
^ In English, everything from Piers Plowman, and Pilgrim's Progress up to the
latest self-help manuals; in Buddhism, SSntideva's BodhicH rydvatdra,
Kamalasila's Bhavanakramas, Atisa's Bodhipathapradlpa, and the lam rim
literature which developed in Tibet
137
brief summary and the colophon. My reluctance to translate the

Dharma-kaya chapter is due to several factors. For one, Dharmakaya is the result of the path, and as such it is not included in the
path itself. Since my main purpose in presenting this text is to illus
trate Haribhadra's presentation of the path per se, the Dharma-kaya
chapter is largely irrelevant to my particular concerns in this case.
For another, Haribhadras innovative interpretation of the verses of
the AA which give four Buddha bodies instead of the more usual
three is the source of a number of controversies which I am not
prepared to address at this tim e.1 Of course I expect to correct this
omission at a later date, but for now I am reasonably certain that the
portion I have translated can stand alone as a comprehensive dis
cussion of the details of the Buddhist path to enlightenment.
Secondly, the translation is not sufficiently annotated to indicate
parallel passages in other texts,2 or to take into account the full
critical apparatus that is available. This means that the translation
stands on its own more than it should, without enough indications
of the origin of the various ideas that come up in the text. By the
time this text was written, Buddhist philosophy had been developing
1 This has been recently pointed out to me quite convincingly by my colleague

John Makransky.
2 There are a number of places where Haribhadra quotes from other texts, the
sources of which I have been unable to locate. This task is rendered more difficult
by the fact that Haribhadra's citation of a particular passage (where I have been
able to locate its source) is often inaccurate.
13 8
for more than a millenium, and almost every technical term that oc
curs could be the topic for a dissertation in itself. It would be par
ticularly instructive to compare the account of the path given by
Haribhadra to that of the MSA, for example. Unfortunately my own
expertise in this field is still at a raiher low level, and so I have been
more concerned with the meaning of Haribhadra's text than with its
intellectual context. This issue also involves my own choice of
terminology in translating the various technical terms that come up.
In several cases I have taken the easy way out, and simply left them
in Sanskrit, adding plural endings as necessary. In others I have
used the same English word to translate different Sanskrit terms,
such as "nature" and "transcendence," which between them account
for at least half a dozen different Sanskrit originals. On the other
hand, I have also used different English terms to translate an identi
cal Sanskrit term in different places. This is partly due to the size of
the text itself, and the fact that it has undergone a number of revi
sions. Thus I consider this translation to be tentative at best, and in
consistent at times. However, particularly in the final revision, I
have attempted to express in fairly plain English what I take to be
the idea that Haribhadra expresses. This doubtless has resulted in
some passages that are wildly inaccurate, but I hope that my many
errors will at least stimulate others to improve on my effort.
139
In preparing this translation I have been greatly assisted by ma

terials which I received from Lama Tzong Khapa Institute in Italy.
Geshe Jampa Gyatso, who resides there, conducted a course on the
AA from October 1983 until March 1985. His lectures were taped,
and I received a full set of those tapes, along with the other materi
als developed by his assistants in that course. Most helpful for my
purpose, of course, was the draft translation of Haribhadras text
which they supplied. Although I have revised it extensively and
found a number of mistakes in their work in doing so, the experi
ence has taught me that an imperfect translation is better than none
at all, which gives me confidence to present my own work which
follows.
Interspersed with Haribhadra's text are a large number of out
lines, subject headings, and so forth. These form no part of
Haribhadras work, but are supplied from the Tibetan commentary
by rGyal Tshab Dar Ma Rin Chen. I have retained them in my
translation for two reasons. First, they provide some extra perspec
tive to the translation, an additional dimension, which illustrates
how Tibetan commentaries typically operate. Since much of Indian
M ahayana1 can be approached only through Tibetan sources, the
presence of these outlines reminds us of the continuous academic
tradition maintained up until the present day by Tibetan refugees in
1 especially in the later period in which Haribhadra was active.
140
India which offers us the most direct link to much of Mahayana

philosophy. Second, aside from the esthetic value mentioned above,
they have a practical value in helping the reader to make sense of
what Haribhadra is doing at various points in his commentary. The
Tibetan commentarial interpretation of the nuance of a particular
phrase may not always be correct, but we should at least be aware
of their way of understanding a particular passage, even if we do
not agree with their methods.
In the translation, the outlines are preceded by alternating num
bers and capital letters.1 They are also printed sm aller than
HaribhaUra's text. A lthough they do interrupt the flow o f
Haribhadra at times, I have also found them to be helpful in keep
ing track of the context in which particular remarks are made.
The verses o f the AA itself are printed in all capital letters, to
distinguish them from Haribhadra's work. A com parision with
Conzes translation of the AA2 will reveal some differences of ter
minology and interpretation, but I do not believe that my work is of
sufficient quality to supersede his. Perhaps some day it will be, but
that will come only as the result of being able to build on his great
achievements with additional materials that were not available to
1 Except for the various "parts" (measures of length) noted in rGyal Tshabs text,
retained in my translation as PART ONE, PART TWO, and so forth, concluding
with PART FIVE.
2 Conze: 1954b.
141
him. The most valuable introduction to this material in general re

mains the works of Obermiller.1 Published more than 50 years ago,
they still have much to offer a student such as myself.
1 Obermiller: 1933a and b in particular.
14 2
Chapter Four
Translation of Haribhadra's Splmtartha
T he C le a r M eaning C o m m en tary of th e T re a tise of O ral

In s tru c tio n s o f the P r a jn a p a r a m ita ,
an O rn a m e n t fo r
Abhisam ayas (by H aribhadra).
143
1 Meaning of the title

1A Actual
In
the Indian language: A b h is a m a y a la m k a r a
nam a
prajnaparamita upadesa sastra.

In the Tibetan language: She-rab pa-rol-tu-chin-pai man-ngaggi ian-cho ngon-par tog-pa'i gyan che jawa drel wa.
[In the English language: Commentary on the Treatise of Oral
Instructions o f the P r a jn a p a r a m ita ,
An O rnam ent for
Abhisamayas.]
IB Ancillaries
1B1 Enumeration of the parts
PART ONE
1B2 Translators homage
Homage to all Buddhas and bodhisattvas.

2 Meaning of the text
2A Beginning the explanation
2A1 Expression o f worship and promise to compose
I pay reverent homage to (the goddess) Prajnaparam ita, in

order to show that these verses (by Maitreya) which ornament that
(goddess as a scripture) ornament all (mothers of the Buddhas and
so forth).
2A2 Proving that (Haribhadra) is suitable to compose the commentary
144
3A2A Proving that (Haribhadra) has the outer condition: the oral instructions of
virtuous friends
2A2Ai How Arya Asanga explained thoroughly
With a deep yearning to (help) wanderers (in samsara ), Arya

A sanga,
the protector, listened to the Invincible Lord, and ex
plained the treatise thoroughly.

2A2A2 How Vasubandhu interpreted it
Vasubandhu, assisting wanderers (in samsara ), chiefly relied on

his own belief that objects of knowledge are internal, and inter
preted (the treatise).
2A2A3 How Arya Vimuktisena explained it
Also, the one included am ongst the Aryas
'l
called
"Vimuktisena", seeing that what was done by him4 was not done
(properly), uncovered (the meaning) with a mind abiding in the
middle way.
2A2A4 The way the Reverend'* Vimuktisena explained
1 Sherburne: 1983, p. 70: "Asanga is a Bodhisattva of the third level".

2 i.e., Maitreya.
~ the title Arya implies that he had attained the path of vision or dartona-marga.
* i.e., Vasubandhu.
^ Sherburne: 1983, p. 84n: "The title 'Reverend' (bstun pa, bhadanta) is especially
reserved for outstanding Discipline [VinayaJ commentators".
145
The Vimuktisena after him remained in the stage of faith6 with

out finding all the treatises, (but he) made a thorough explanation in
accordance with what he could (find).
2A2B Proving that (Haribhadra) has the inner condition: the wisdom which real
izes the meanings of the treatise
Scholars illuminated it like that. Some7 could not find all these
treatises, so that (I) found them is, accordingly, amazing.
2A2C Thereby suitable to compose the commentary
W hat this profound path is like is very difficult for such

(scholars) to find. (I) found it through the power of the Buddha,
(and it) is suitable to be analyzed by scholars.
2A3 Subduing pride and the reason for being delighted
Although 1 have not (personally) experienced all the topics, de

siring to benefit myself and others, as a way of making merit, I was
eager (to compose this commentary).
2B Positing the explanation itself
2B1 Expression of worship
2B1A The text continues^
6 i.e, the path of accumulation, thus not equalling the realization of Arya
Vimuktisena.
^ i.e., Reverend Vimuktisena.
^ Haribhadra here invites critical examination of his treatise.
9 Tib.
literally, joining the boundaries.
14 6
Arya Maitreya, demonstrating his own conformity to superior

deeds, ascertained with his introspective discriminating wisdom that
very lucid (faith) in Prajnaparamita is the principal cause of ob
taining all good things. In order to have others generate such lucid
(faith), implicitly causing them to engage in Prajnaparamita as the
source of unsurpassable and immeasurable precious qualities, he
pays her homage, preceded by expressing the nature of her qualities.
2B1B Root text
2B1B1 Interpretation I
1A Praise
1A1 Praising by means of the qualities of the thtee omnisciences11
1A2 Praising how they act as mothers of the four Aryas
IB Homage
I PAY HOMAGE TO THAT MOTHER OF THE

BUDDHAS WITH THEIR HOSTS O F S R A V A K A S
AND
BODHISATTVAS, WHO LEADS SR A V A K A S TO N IR V A N A

THROUGH
O M N IS C IE N C E ,
WHO
ENABLES
TH E
BENEFACTORS OF BEINGS TO ACHIEVE ALL PEOPLES

AIMS THROUGH PATH-OMNISCIENCE, AND POSSESSING
WHOM THE MUNIS TEACH THE VARIETIES (OF DHARMA)
IN ALL ITS ASPECTS. It is said.
111Tib.
lit the meaning of the words.
11 The three omnisciences: omniscience (sarvajiiata ), path-omniscience

(mdrgajnata), and overall omniscience (sarvakarajnata).
14 7
2B1C Commentary
2B1C1 The text continues
This verse states the greatness of the supreme essential nature of

these (mother-omnisciences).
2B1C2 The meaning of the purpose
2A Extensive explanation
2A 1 The manners of producing
2A1A Tne way in which people with dull faculties produce faith
Hearing that, some who follow faith quickly generate very lucid
(faith) without doubting these (mother-omnisciences).
2A1B The way people with sharp faculties produce faith
Those who follow Dharma also see no harm to the mother (omnisciences) with the characteristics described in the verse by
valid reasonings such as "being separate from the natures of one and
many" and so forth. Fully knowing that prajnaparamita which is
the essential nature of the three omnisciences begets the Buddhas
and so forth,12 being certain of their13 existence with the three
traditions, and realizing the non-generation of bases, paths, and
aspects,14 they produce very lucid (faith) in those (mother-omni
sciences).
12 the four kinds of Aryan persons: Buddhas, bodhisattvzs, pratyeka-buddhas,
and iravakas, divided into three classes in this case (see below).
13 the three classes of fravakas (including pratyeka-buddhas), bodhisattvas, and
Buddhas.
14 Tib.
nW , and
respectively
148
2A2 How to produce the aspiration of striving
Having very iucid (faith) in those (mother-omnisciences), both

those (followers) who strongly desire such qualities develop ex
treme respect in order to retain and so forth that {prajnaparamita )
and the scriptures which depend upon it in all ways.
2A3 How one attains the result through practice
Supreme goodness will then be attained through the stages of

producing the knowledges which arise from hearing and so forth.
2B Summary
Therefore, very lucid (faith) in the Bhagavati is the principal

cause of attaining all goodness.
3 Rejecting disputes
The three omnisciences comprise eight categories. Those (eight)

also are (called) prajnaparamita and they also fulfill all aims in a
way w hich w ill be explained.
K eeping this in m ind,
(Maitreyanatha) praised prajnaparam ita by means of the three

omnisciences.
4 Interpretation
4A Praising their individual qualities
4A1 Knowledge of bases
16
15 the three forms of knowledge: Sruta-mayi, cinta-mayl, and bhavana-mayi

prajhii. See Sakaki: 1973,1551-1553
16 This is a synonym for the Hinayana omniscience, sarvajnata.
149
The full knowledge that all bases are not produced makes those
desiring nirvana, (i.e.,) the sravakas and also included in that cate
gory are the pratyeka-buddhas (whose) emancipation is slightly su
perior, (which is) indicated by one phrase, attain the two types of
nirvana characterized as having and lacking the skandhas.
4A2 Knowledge of paths
17
The realization that all paths are not produced causes the bene
factors of wanderers (in samsara ) - the bodhisattvas - to fulfill the
desires of every wanderer as long as samsara exists.
4A3 Overall omniscience
The Buddhas, keeping in mind that all aspects are not produced,
18
foremost of the lords of yoga with perfectly trained bodies, turn
the wheels o f Dharma without exception in all aspects to cure
(deluded) behavior.
4B Having summarized, to pay homage
I pay homage to that mother who enables the accomplishment of

the Buddhas and their retinue o f sravakas and so forth.
2B2 Having shown it to persons whose belief is extensive, to explain
2B2A The meaning of the purpose of the treatise
2B2A1
Rejecting doubts that composing the treatise has no purpose, and ex
plaining the general presentation

1^ or path-omniscience, of the bodhisattvas.
18 or "disciplined", Tib.
. TripSthi: 1977, p. 5, line 18; Amano:
1975: p. 7.
150
1A
Disputes
An objection: "If this treatise, the Ornament of Abhisam ayas,

preceded by homage and praise (ornaments prajnaparamita by) in
cluding any bases, remedies, and aspects, the following is entailed:
If the first, it is meaningless (to compose it) since throughout this
(Ornament of Abhisamayas of the) prajnaparamita, no basis is set
forth which is not mentioned in the treatises of characteristics.19 If
the second, by including the completely purified properties without
including those which are defiled, one cannot recognize which is the
remedy of what.20 If the third, by including only aspects without
bases, since it is not explained at all, the meaning is not realized,
and it will be meaningless."
21
IB Responses
1B1 Actual response
It is not so. Since all abhisam ayas are included by the three
omnisciences, according to the order o f sravakas and pratyeka-bud
dhas, bodhisattvas and unexcelled Buddhas, then all three22 are
also included (and nothing is omitted).
1B2 Giving quotations which prove that
19 i.e, in the Abhidharma literature. That is to say, this treatise will merely repeat
what has been said before.
Since this treatise only includes the solutions without specifying which prob
lems they apply to.
21 Again, one cannot know which aspect apply to which bases.
22 all three: bases, remedies, and aspects
151
1B2A From the intermediate mother

1B2A1 Shown briefiy
Thus, from the Intermediate Mother of the Victors,23 (Buddha

says:) "SubhQti, omniscience is (the abhisamaya ) of the sravakas
and pratyeka-buddhas; the path-omniscience is (the abhisamaya )
of the bodhisattvas; and overall omniscience is (the abhisamaya ) of
the Tathagata Arhat Samyak Sambuddhas.
1B2A2 Explained extensively
2A I low the abhisamayas of the Sravakas and pratyeka-buddhas
are included by the knowledge of bases
(Subhuti asks:) "Bhagavan, why are the realizations of all (bases

the a b h isa m a ya s ) of the sra v a ka s and p ra ty ek a -b u d d h a s ?"
(Buddha replies:) "Subhuti, all (bases) are merely this: whatever
outer and inner phenomena there are. Besides those, sravakas and
pratyeka-buddhas also know (their sixteen aspects
25
). However,
they do not (attain liberation) by all (three) paths, nor are all aspects
(directly realized). Therefore, (the abhisam aya ) of the sravakas
and pratyeka-buddhas is said to be omniscience ."
2B
The manner in which the abhisamayas of the bodhisattvas are
included by path-omniscience
23 the 25,000 Verse Perfection o f Wisdom

24 Conze: 1975b, pp. 518-519
25 four aspects for each of the four truths.
26 Skt. sarvajhata. The explanatory value of this quote is rather obscure.
152
2B1 Question
(SubhQti asks:) "Bhagavan, why are the realizations of the

aspects o f the (three) paths, (the a b h isa m a y a s ) of the bod
hisattvas?"
2B2 Reply
2B2A
Interpretation
(Buddha replies:) "Subhuti, bodhisattvas should generate all

paths: the paths of the sravakas, the paths of the pratyeka-buddhas,
and the paths of the Buddhas; and they should know all paths. They
should also fully complete those paths, and perform the actions of
the paths. But, until they have fully accomplished their prayers,
fully developed sentient beings, and com pletely purified their
Buddha realm, they should not manifest the limit of complete pu
rity.27 Therefore, (the realization) of the bodhisattvas is called
knowledge of the aspects of the paths."
2C The manner in which the abhisamayas of the Buddhas are in
cluded by overall omniscience
2C1 Question
(Subhuti asks:) "Bhagavan, why is overall omniscience, (the

realization) of the Tathagata Arhat Samyak Sambuddhas ?"
2C2 Reply
27 in this quote, "manifest the limit of complete purity" refers to the full and final
attainment of the result of the various paths. That is to say, the bodhisattvas must
not abandon other beings for the sake of their own personal salvation.
153
(Buddha replies:) "Subhuti, phenomena are perfectly expressed

by some aspects28, some marks
Tathagatas
DO
, and some signs
DO
. The
comprehend those aspects, those marks, and those
signs. Therefore, the (realization) of the Tathagata Arhat Samyak

Sambuddhas is called overall omniscience."
2B2A1B2B From the brief mother
Similarly, it says in the condensed
11
, "also desiring to learn the
stage of sravakas..." 2C From the extensive mother
It is also stated often in the extensive (Prajhaparamita Sutra ).

2B2A1B3 Explaining the meanings of the quotations
Omniscience concerning dharmas such as form and so forth, is

based on (understanding aspects such as) impermanence and so
forth, and results in abandoning the delusion of a self.
The
knowledge of paths transcends all (three) vehicles, is based on not

manifesting thusness (at the wrong time), and results in activities
such as gathering isolated sentient beings together and so forth.
Overall omniscience is based on the non-production of all dharmas
28 T O . * * ' .
29 TO.
30 t o .
.
.
31 i.e., the 8000 verse Perfection o f Wisdom Sutra, tranlated in Conze: 1975a.
32 The realization of pudgala-nairUimya which characterizes Hinayana (at least
according to Mahayana).
154
and results in continual benefit to sentient beings throughout space,

realizing the limit of complete purity, and severing the connection
'I 'l
with the imprints.

1B4 Summarizing the meanings
Therefore, this (statement): "The Ornament of Abhisamayas is

a complete teaching of the abhisamayas since it includes all bases,
remedies, and aspects,"- is correct.
2B2A2 Having rejected the fault of repetition of the sutras, proving (that this
treatise has) a further purpose
2A Having posited a purpose, to join the boundaries
Beings of inferior intelligence may think: "Didn't the Bhagavan,

with great compassion desiring to help sentient beings who believe
in the extensive, middling, and condensed (P ra jn a p a ra m ita
Sutras ), clarify all meanings of prajnaparamita, the mother of the
victors, and the order of the eight abhisamayas in that (already)? Is
there any reason for the Bhagavan Victor over the Non-victorious
A ryas34 to show those {abhisam ayas) again?" In order to dispel
such a qualm which produces doubt about the (correct) meaning,
the categories which begin (any philosophical text) are stated: the
topics of the treatise itself, their purpose, their final purpose, and
the existence of an implicit relationship.
35
33 imprints or traces of delusions

24 an alias for Maitreya, the reputed author of the root text
35 T i b . ^ ^ ' V * ^ ' .
155
2B Root text
1-2.
THE PURPOSE OF COM POSING (THIS O R
NAMENT) IS TO ENABLE THE INTELLIGENT TO SEE THE

PATH (OF) OVERALL OM NISCIENCE THAT WAS EX
PLAINED BY THE TEACHER IN TH IS36 WHICH IS NOT
EXPERIENCED BY OTHERS. RECALLING THE MEANINGS
OF THE S U T R A S
AND THE ESSENCE OF THE TEN
DHARMA PRACTICES, THEY WILL REALIZE IT EASILY. It

is thus.
2C Commentary
2C3 The subject to be explained
The path of the Buddhas themselves, overall omniscience, is

taken as the chief topic which indicates all the abhisamayas. The
B hagavan
instructs all beings with three types o f miracles.
Therefore, whatever is shown as the topic in all three mothers of the

victors (is also the topic here). That which explains and that which
is explained are related in the manner of a technique and what is aclo
complished by that technique. Outsiders
and others separated
from attachment39 and so forth have not experienced (the topic)
36 referring to the Prajnaparamita Sutra.

37 D as:j983, p. 426
38 Tib.
, Das: 1983, p. 835, meaning non-Buddhists.
39 e.g., fravakas and pratyeka-buddhas
156
gradually with the knowledges arisen from hearing and so forth

since they have not contemplated the selflessness of all dharmas.
2C2 The essential purpose
Bodhisattvas will actualize all aspects, just by setting out to

achieve the fulfillment of their own and others' desires without de
pending upon anyone else. (They will do this by) establishing the
practices which achieve bodhicitta and generosity40 and so forth,
which are the essence of the eight abhisamayas and the complete
meaning of the Prajnaparamita Sutras, in the consciousness of
mindfulness which arises from imprints deposited by very clear ex
periences, and through the sequential realization of the Very Joyous
stage41 (and so forth) with the characteristic nature of realizing the
everpresent Dharmadbatu and so forth. Strong desire for the sake
of the aforesaid purpose and also for the purpose 2C1 Purpose
That trainees will easily realize the m eanings of the

Prajnaparamita (Sutras ): bodhicitta and the characteristics of ac
complishment and so forth. That is the purpose of composing this
treatise.
2B2B The condensed meaning
2B2B1 The text continues
40 the perfections (Skt. paramitu* ), variously six and ten

41 the first bodhisattva stage or ground, Skt. Pramudita
157
Thus having mentioned (the purpose) that trainees obtain real

izations easily, the relation and so forth, fifteen verses present the
body of prajnaparam ita,
seeing that untangling the systematic
meaning is easily explained by teaching the brief and the extensive

(meaning) o f the treatise.
2B2B2
Arranging the words appropriately
2A Briefly showing the body

2A1 Briefly showing the objects of explanation (the three mothers: small,
middling and great) and that which explains them (the eight categories)
2A1A Interpretation
3ab.
P R A JN A P A R A M IT A
IS WELL EXPLAINED IN
EIGHT CATEGORIES.
2A2 Enumerating the contents which explain that
2A2B Explaining the individual natures
2A2B1 The three omnisciences
1A Overall omniscience
IB Path-omniscience
1C Omniscience
2 The four applications
2A Application of all aspects
2B Peak realization
2C Gradual realization
2D Instantaneous realization
158
3 Dharma-kaya
3cd-4
THOSE EIGHT ARE: OVERALL OMNISCIENCE,
PA TH -O M N ISC IEN CE, THEN
O M N ISCIEN C E;
D IRECT
COMPLETE REALIZATION OF ALL ASPECTS, ATTAINING

THE PEAK, GRADUAL (REALIZATION), INSTANTANEOUS
REALIZATION, (AND) DHARMA-KAYA.
2B2B2B
Extensive explanation
2B1 Explaining the bodies of the three omnisciences

2B1A Explaining the body of overall omniscience
2B1A1 Nature of the ten features
1A The resolution42
IB Precepts showing the methods to achieve its aim
1C Achievements which accomplish the aim of the resolution
1C1 Identifying the initial attainment arising from meditation which
realizes emptiness
1C2 Presentation of the general attainments
1C2A Basis for attaining
1C2B Supported attainments (explained by means of:)
1C2B1 Referents of attaining4^
2 Motivation
3 Divisions of attaining (the four accomplishments)
42 Tib.
'< r ^ T W , (rGyal Tshab: 1980, p. 73.2).
^ T i b . l ^ 'W
^ ' , (rGyal Tshab: 1980, p. 73.20).
159
2B2B2B1A4 Joining (the brief) illustration with (the extensive) explanation
5-6.
MIND GENERATION, PRECEPTS, FOUR-FOLD
LIM BS OF DISCRIM INATION,44 THE NATURE OF THE

D H ARM AD H ATU
WHICH IS THE BASIS OF ATTAINING,
R E F E R E N T S ,45
IN TEN T,
A RM OR,
A C TIV ITIES
OF
INVOLVEMENT, COLLECTIONS AND TRANSCENDENCE,

TOGETHER
(C O M P R ISE )
THE
SA G E 'S
O V ER A LL
OMNISCIENCE.
2B2B2B1B Explaining the body of path-omniscience
2B1B 1 Indicating the eleven features of path-omniscience
1A Divisions of path-omniscience
IB Path-omniscience with its divisions
1B1 Knowledge of travaka student paths
1B2 Knowledge of pratyeka-buddha paths
1B3 Knowledge of bodhisattva paths
1B3A Mahayana path of vision
1B3B Mahayana path of meditation
1B3B1 Activity of the Mahayana path of meditation
2 Nature of the Mahayana path of meditation
2A Contaminated path of meditation
2A1 Path of meditation of faith
44 or the nirvedha-bhagiya, a synonym for the prayoga-nuirga. See Obermiller
1933a, p. 115.
45 Skt. alambana, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 4 gives "objective supports."
160
2A1A Its benefits

2A2 The path of meditation with the attitude of dedication
2A3 The path of meditation with the attitude of rejoicing
2B Uncontaminated path of meditation
2B1 Path of meditation which attains (Buddhahood)
2B2 Path of meditation which is utterly pure
2B2B2B1B2 Joining the illustration and the explanation
7-9
THE
W IS E
B O D H IS A T T V A S '
PATH-
OMNISCIENCE IS EXPLAINED AS: ECLIPSING AND SO

FORTH, THE PATHS OF PUPILS AND RHINOCEROSES,46
THE PATH OF VISION OF GREAT BENEFICIAL QUALITIES
FOR THIS AND OTHER (LIV ES), A CTIVITY , FAITH,
P R A IS E ,
JU S T IF IC A T IO N ,
AND
C O M M E N D A T IO N ,
DEDICATION, REJOICING, ATTAINING, AND W HAT IS

CALLED UTTERLY PURE.
2B2B2B1C Explaining the body of omniscience
2B1C1 Features which indicate omniscience
1A Reasoning of distant and close to an effect-mother
IB Proving that reasoning
1C Divisions of the classes of hostile states and remedies
ID Realization of omniscience
1D1 Divisions of realization of omniscience
46 the common synonym for pratyeka-buddhas. See Conze: 1954b, p. 3.
161
1D2 How to envision the realization of omniscience

1D3 Effect of realization of omniscience
2 Joining the illustration and the explanation
10-11
OMNISCIENCE ITSELF IS ASSERTED AS NOT
ABIDING IN EXISTENCE THROUGH KNOWLEDGE, NOT

ABIDING IN PEACE47 THROUGH COMPASSION, DISTANT
THROUGH NON-SKILL, NOT DISTANT THROUGH SKILL,
HOSTILE STATES AND REMEDIES, REALIZATIONS, THEIR
EQUALITY, AND THE PATH OF VISION OF S R A V A K A S
AND SO FORTH.
2B2B2B2 Explaining the bodies of the four realizations
2B2A Causes and effects which strengthen
2B2A1 Realization of all aspects
1A Features which indicate that
1A1 General presentation from the point of view of supporting roots
of virtue
1A1A Different ways of envisioning meditation upon the path (or)
prajnaparamita
1A1B Realization of samadhi
1A1C Qualities and faults of meditation on realizations
1A1D Characteristics which indicate the yoga of path (or)
prajnaparamita
47 i.e., nirjana.
162
1A2 Explicitly showing how it arises in one's continuum, from the

point of view of ripening roots of virtue
1A2A Producing the realization
1A2B Ripening the realization
1A2C People who do that
1A2D Their stages of meditation
1A2D1 Realization which equalizes existence and peace4**
1A2D2 Realization of a supreme pure realm
1A2D3 Realization of skillful technique
2B2B2B2A1B Joining the illustration and the explanation
12-13.
THE DIRECT COMPLETE REALIZATION OF ALL
ASPECTS (CONSISTS OF): ASPECTS, REA LIZA TIO N S,

Q U A L IT IE S ,
FA U LTS,
AND
C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S ,
SIMILARITIES OF ASCENDANCE AND LIBERATION, THE

ASSEMBLY OF IRREVERSIBLE LEARNERS, EQUALITY OF
EXISTENCE AND PEACE, THE SUPREME PURE REALM,
AND SKILLFUL TECHNIQUE.
2B2B2B2A2 Peak realization
2A1 Peak realization of the path of preparation
2A2 Peak realization of the path of vision
2A3 Peak realization of the path of meditation
4**i.e., samsara and nirvana.
16 3
2A4 Uninterrupted peak realization and perverse attainment

2B Joining the illustration and the explanation
ABHISAMAYA AT ITS PEAK (CONSISTS OF) ITS
14-16a.
SIGNS, INCREASE, FIRM AND COM PLETELY STABLE

MIND, THE FOUR-FOLD REMEDIES OF THE FOUR-FOLD
CONCEPTS RESPECTIVELY ON W HAT ARE CALLED THE
PATHS OF VISION AND MEDITATION, UNINTERRUPTED
SAMADHI, AND MISTAKES.
2B2B2B2B Causes and effects which stabilize
2B2B1 Gradual realization
IB Joining the illustration and the explanation
16b.
GRADUAL (REA LIZA TIO N HAS) THIRTEEN
TYPES.
2B2B2 Instantaneous realization
2B Joining the illustration and the explanation
16cd.
INSTANTANEOUS REALIZATION HAS A FOUR
FOLD CHARACTER.
2B2B2B3 Explaining the body of Dharmakaya
2B3A Features which indicate that
2B3B Joining the illustration and the explanation
164
DHARM AKAYA IS PERFECTLY EXPRESSED AS
17.
FOUR TYPES WITH ITS ACTIVITY, THE (BODIES OF)

N A TU RE
AND
EM A N ATION
CO M PLETE
EN JO Y M EN T,
(BODY) W HICH
AND
TH E
IS D IFFER EN T FROM
THEM.49
2B2B3 Having condensed, to explain
The first two verses are given in order to summarize the eight
categories. Having summarized, the following thirteen verses ex
plain extensively. Thus they make an excellent explanation, since
they (both) summarize and explain extensively.
2B2B4 The reason they are not extensively interpreted
The verses of the summarized meaning were not interpreted

thoroughly from fear of being repetitious. All the root verses such
as
"M IND GENERATIO N
IS FOR TH E
BEN EFIT O F
O TH ERS,"50 will be explained simply by composing (this) com

mentary. I intend to explain (the meaning) by explaining those
(words).
49 Obermiller: 1931, p. 93n states that this verse is similar to M ahayana

Siitrdlamkara verse IX.60. However, ar. examination of their respective contents
reveals significant differences. See Thurman: 1979, p. 97.
50 the opening words of the first verse of the following chapter
165
CHAPTER ONE OVERALL OMNISCIENCE

2B2C Interpretation
2B2C1 Extensively explaining the three omnisciences
1A Explaining overall omniscience: the object sought
1A 1 The text continues
Thus having shown the summarized meaning, since bodhisattvas

desire to attain enlightenment, which is a result, it is necessary to
attain overall omniscience.51 To start with, overall omniscience is
explained by thoroughly explaining the verses which summarize it.
1A2 Extensively explaining the ten features
1A2A Explaining the resolution: the thought which promises to attain
overall omniscience for the sake others
1A2A2 The divisions
2A Explaining the common definition and the referent
2A1 Definition
2A1A Joining the general boundaries
Mind generation, with its nature and referent 2A1B
Root text
51 which is its cause.
16 6
18ab.
MIND GENERATION IS TO DESIRE PERFECT
COM PLETE ENLIGHTENM ENT FOR THE BENEFIT OF

OTHERS.52 It is said.
2A1C Commentary
2A1C1 Interpretation
Mind generation (thinks,) "Having attained Buddhahood, I will

strive for the benefit of others in accordance with fortune." The
definition of desiring perfect complete enlightenment for the sake
of others is o f two types with the natures of wishing and involve
ment.
2A1C2 Rejecting disputes
2A Dispute
If it is said: "Isn't the very desire and striving for perfect com
plete enlightenment a mental factor of craving for virtuous quali
ties, and isn't mind generation a primary mind which arises with the
appearance of an especially holy mental object? How can that
(mental factor) turn into mind generation?" J
2B Responses
2B1 "Desiring the benefit of others"
52 For the particular place of this verse within the Tibetan tradition, see Sparham:
1987. For a fuller discussion of the place of bodhicitta within Buddhism, see
Joshi: 1971.
53 This dispute depends upon the Abhidharma distinction between primary
minds and their constituent mental factors.
167
That is true. However, in the case of the striving which is char

acteristic of the craving for virtuous qualities, the effect is indicated
by the cause as the mind (of enlightenment) is generated.54 There is
no fault by depending on imputation in order to teach that "all vir
tuous qualities of bodhisattvas who strive like that will increase."
2B2 "Desiring enlightenment"
In the other case, prayer is striving, since it is the very desire for
perfect complete enlightenment. Describing that striving in terms of
mind generation which cooperates with it teaches that "a prayerful
mind will arise in bodhisattvas."
2B2C1A2A2A2 The ways of ascertaining the referents
2A2A Questions
If it is said: "What is the nature of that mind generation? What

is perfect complete enlightenment? And what is the benefit of oth
ers?"
2A2B Responses
2A2B1 Root text
18cd.
THAT AND THAT ARE EXPRESSED BY MEANS
OF THE CONDENSED AND EXTENSIVE, IN ACCORDANCE

WITH THE SUTRA. It is said.
2A2B2 Commentary
54 That is to say, here the primary mind of enlightenment, or bouhicitta, is indi
cated by means of its cause, the mental factor of desiring and striving for virtuous
qualities.
168
2A2B2A Explaining the two referent objects
All three types of mothers of the victors55 have passages teach

ing "prajnaparamita" and "regarding all (the perfections such as)
generosity and so forth, the act o f giving, the donor and the recipi
ent, and so forth,56 are to be established without perceiving57 (them
as different)." And statements such as "in accordance with the for
tunes of all sentient beings, nirvana." and "wishing to set misers
and so forth in (the practices of) generosity and so forth, one should
accomplish this very prajnaparamita " and so forth, which are often
found, describe perfect complete enlightenment and the benefit of
others concisely and extensively without contradicting the meaning
of the sutra.
2A2B2B Its proof is indicated
Thus, one should know that mind generation has the nature of
desiring perfect complete enlightenment for the benefit of others.
2C Reason for not citing other sources
55 i.e., the three versions of the Prajnaparamita Sutra.

5^ This is an instance of what is elsewhere referred to as the "three mandalas, "
which refers to the fundamental discrimination of any action into three separate
components: the agent of the action, the action itself, and the recipient of the ac
tion. See Tracy: 1987, pp. 10 and 28 for a similar understanding of the process of
interpretation. In the Buddhist view, this distinction is ultimately invalid, and most
bodhisattva practices are to be carried out without acknowledging the inherent
reality of this division, which is referred to as the "complete purity of the three
mandalas. "
57 Skt. anupalabdhi, Tib. *rj5in|rtr
169
This topic is fully covered in the Buddhist scriptures. Although

it is indeed taught in ull of them, I did not write about those sources
for fear of prolixity.
2B2C1A2A2B
Explaining the divisions: the subsidiary topics
2B1 The text continues
Having thus expressed the referent object of mind generation to

gether with its nature, now its classification (into) 22 types in a
verse.
2B2 Root text
19-20.
(TH ERE
ARE)
TW ENTY
TW O
TYPES
(O F
B O D H IC ITT A ), NAMELY: EARTH, GOLD, MOON, FIRE,

TREA SU RE, JEW EL M INE, SEA, V A JRA , M OUNTAIN,
MEDICINE, FRIEND, WISH-GRANTING GEM, SUN, SONG,
KING, TREASURY, HIGHW AY, CARRIAGE, FOUNTAIN,
PLEASANT SOUND, RIVER, AND CLOUD.58 It is said.
2B3 Commentary
2B3A The way the 22 examples indicate 22 meanings
2B3A1 Explained extensively
58 As noted in Conze: 1978b, p. 102, this verse is similar to the M ahayana

SQtrdlamkdra IV.15-20. See Thurman: 1979, pp. 37-38. Conze further states that
these lists of varieties of bodhicitta go back to the Aksayamati-pariprcchd, for
which sec Chang: 1983, pp. 415-424. However, in Chang's translation, none of
the types or similes of bodhicitta which comprise the imagery of this verse and its
parallel in the Sutrdlamkdra are mentioned.
17 0
These explain that: 1) aspiration, 2) intention, 3) resolute inten

tion, 4) realization, 5) generosity, 6) morality, 7) tolerance, 8) en
thusiasm, 9) d h ya n a ,59 10) prajna, 11) skillful technique, 12)
prayer, 13) force, 14) jhana, 15) superknowledge, 16) merit and
wisdom, 17) dharmas which act as subsidiaries to enlightenment,60
18) compassion and penetrative insight, 19) dharanis and confi
dence, 20) epitome of Dharma, 21) the one path traveled, and 22)
possession of the Dharmakdya, are respectively like: 1) earth, 2)
fine gold, 3) the new moon, 4) fire, 5) a great treasure, 6) the ori
gin or source of what is precious, 7) a great ocean, 8) a vajra, 9) the
king o f mountains, 10) medicine, 11) a virtuous friend,61 12) a
wish-granting gem,62 13) the sun, 14) the pleasant or melodious
sound of Dharma, 15) a great king, 16) a treasury or storehouse,
17) a highway, 18) a carriage, 19) a fountain of water, 20) a pleas
ant sound, 21) a flowing river, and 22) a cloud, through 1) the basic
nature of all white (or pure) dharmas, 2) unchanging until enlight
enment, 3) increasing all virtuous dharmas, 4) burning the fuel of
obscurations of the omnisciences, 5) satisfying all sentient beings,
59 this word is most commonly translated as "meditation", "meditative concentra
tion", and so forth. It is in fact the original for the later "Zen", a Japanized pro
nunciation of the Chinese homophonic "Ch'an".
60 See Conze: 1967a, p. 302.
, often abbreviated as ge-she, used as a common term of
respect towards one's teacher in Tibetan Buddhism. Also signifies the holder of a
monastic degree.
62 Tib.
, a common Tibetan nickname for the Dalai Lama.
171
6) the basic nature of precious qualities, 7) unruffled by the occur

rence of anything undesirable, 8) unwavering faith, 9) undisturbed
by distractions, 10) thoroughly pacifying the diseases of the delu
sory and cognitive obscurations,63 11) not giving up (the attitude
of) helping sentient beings under any circumstances, 12) fulfillment
in accordance with prayers, 13) maturing the trainees,64 14) teach
ing the Dharma which motivates the trainees, 15) serving65 others
with unobstructed power, 16) like a treasury of many collections of
merit and gnosis, 17) that which all Aryas are traveling and will
travel, 18) progressing easily by not falling into either samsara or
nirvana,
19) inexhaustible through grasping heard and unheard
dharmas, 20) pleasantly preaching to those trainees who desire lib

eration, 21) not distinguishing actions which serve others, and 22)
the capability to show deeds such as abiding in Tusita, 66 according
to the enumeration.
2B2C1A2A2B3A2 Summarized meaning
Thus, through NAMELY: EARTH, GOLD, MOON, FIRE and

so forth, the twenty-two (kinds of) bodhicitta are explained.
2B3B Boundaries
2B3B1 Explaining the boundaries individually
<*kle*amijneyaavaram.
lit., those who are to be subdued.
65 lit accomplishing the benefit of..
66 first of the twelve deeds of a Buddha.
172
The first three are included on the small, middling, and great of
the beginners ground.67 The next is included on the path which en
ters the first ground.68 The following ten are included on the ten
(bodhisattva) stages, Extremely Joyous69 and so forth, and com
prise70 the paths of vision and meditation. The next five are in71
eluded on the distinguished path. The final three bodhicittas are
included on Buddha grounds in terms of preparation, essential, and
culmination.
2B3B2 Showing that all paths are included
Thus, the divisions of bodhicitta
range from the beginner's
stage until the Buddha stage.

2B2C1A2B Explaining the precepts which indicate the means of accomplishing
the aims of that resolution
1A2B1 Actual
1A The text continues
Having expressed those divisions as an aside, in order for bod

hisattvas who have generated the initial bodhicitta and so forth to
generate the (further) bodhicitta which motivates them, actualize
the qualities entailed by it, and develop (themselves) by means of
67 a synonym of the path of accumulation, sambhara-marga.

68 a synonym of the path of preparation, prayoga-marga.
69 Skt. pramudiiu.
lit are possessors of the spheres of activity of..
71 usually referred to as the path of no more learning, aiaiksa marga.
173
completely safeguarding the qualities attained, there is instruction

about the precepts.
1B Explaining the meaning
1B1 General divisions
1B1A Root text
21-22.
TH E PRECEPTS72 ARE TENFOLD, (NAMELY:)
ATTAINING, THE TRUTHS, THE THREE JEW ELS (OF)

BUDDHA
AND
SO
FO R T H ,
N O N -A T T A C H M E N T ,
INDEFATIGABILITY, FULL ACCEPTANCE OF THE PATHS,

THE
F IV E
EYES,
THE
S IX
Q U A L IT IE S
OF
SUPERKNOWLEDGES, AND THE PATHS OF VISION AND

OF MEDITATION. It is said.
1B1B Commentary
1B 1B 1 Instructions about the supported attainments
1B1B1A Instructions about the entity of attaining
As for the attainment o f the fine divisions of bodhicitta which

were explained, the precept regarding (such) attainment is: "without
passing beyond the conventional and ultimate truths, one should en
gage w ithout perceving (distinctions),73 (as) distinct from the
sravakas and so forth."
IB IB IB Instructions about the referents of that (attainment)
72 Skt avavada, Tib.
73 Skt. anupalambha-yogena, Tib. &
17 4
1B2 The divisions

1B2A The truth of suffering
Concerning (the first truth of) suffering: "both the emptiness of

resultant form and so forth and prajnaparam ita (which directly
realizes that) are identical in the nature of suchness".
1B2B The truth of the origin of suffering
Concerning (the second truth of) origination: "as emptiness and

causal form and so forth arc not different, form and so forth do not
have the qualities of origination, cessation, thorough affliction or
complete purity".
1B2C The truth of the cessation of suffering
(There is instruction) concerning (the third truth of) cessation in

(statements such as) "emptiness is free from arisal and cessation,
thorough affliction and complete purity, decrease and increase, and
so forth," (and statements starting from) "form does not exist,"
"ignorance has neither arisal nor cessation," to "Buddha doesn't ex
ist, nor does enlightenment exist."
1B2D The truth of the path
(Instructions) about (the fourth truth of the) path (are such

statements as): "the perfections of generosity and so forth, oneself
or inner emptiness and so forth, outer emptiness and so forth, and
the extremes of prior and posterior, are (all) established as neither
17 5
mutually possessed nor not possessed." These statements give the

precept about the truths.
2B2C1A2B1B1B2 Instructions about the supports of attaining
2A The divisions
2A1 The Buddha jewel
Since Buddha and enlightenment have just the same nature, the
non-perceiving overall omniscience (which is) the defining charac
teristic o f what makes a Buddha is described as: "knowing the
equality of the referent object and that (subject) which refers (to it)
without fixing on form and so forth," and
2A2 The Dharma jewel
As for Dharma: since the three omnisciences include all bases,

remedies, and aspects, it is said: "all phenomena which are included
have no intrinsic nature,74" and
2A3 The Sangha jewel
As for the Sangha: except for arhats who are classified along
with the Buddha jewel, through particulars of experts
and neo
phytes76 there are seven great beings; counting pratyeka-buddhas

makes eight. Classifying the irreversible Arya bodhisattva students
74 Skt svabhava, Tib.
75 Skt. phalastha, Tib.

76 Skt pratipannaka, Tib.
t lit. (those who) abide in the result

.
17 6
by deficient77 faculty and so forth gives a full twenty. The precept

about the three jewels is taught by (the phrase) "enter into non-producticn."
2B2C1A2B1B1B3 Instructions about the distinguishing features of attaining
3A Eliminating hostile states
3A1 How to preserve attainment
Since some will become strongly attached to bodily pleasure and

so forth in practicing joyous effort and acting earnestly in accor
dance with what was explained, "the body and so forth are unreal"
teaches the precept of non-attachment.
3A2 How to increase attainment
Since timid people will become upset if they practice for a long
time without attaining their desires, the precept about lack of fa
tigue is taught as "non-attachment to (all phenomena from) form
and so forth through perfect complete enlightenment."
3A3 Not falling into the lesser vehicle
Since one's mind will become discouraged if one must receive

instructions about the meaning of each separate path from the
Buddhas who reside in the ien directions and so forth, the precept
concerning the full acceptance of the path teaches that "phenomena
are not intrinsically produced."
3B Attaining distinguished paths
77 Tjb,
17 7
3B1 The five eyes as the causes of independent attainment
The 1) fiesh eye, 2) divine eye, arisen from maturation, 3) eye

of wisdom, 4) Dharma eye, and 5) Buddha eye, respectively: 1)
ascertain things individually, 2) (see) the transmigration and birth
of sentient beings, 3) do not conceptualize any phenomenon, 4) rec
ognize all Arya persons, and 5) are completely enlightened regard
ing all aspects of all phenomena. Teaching that these (eyes) are
established as identical in suchness is the precept about the five
eyes.
3B2 Instructions about the six superknowledges as the causes of
rapid complete attainment
The superknowledges of 1) performing miracles, 2) divine ear,

3) telepathy, 4) remembering previous states (of existence), 5) di
vine eye, arisen from formative influence,78 and 6) knowing the ex
tinction of contaminations, (respectively) 1) shake the earth and so
forth, 2) hear faint and other sounds in any of the world realms, 3)
fully know others' minds as having attachment and so forth, 4) re
member many former lives of oneself and others, 5) see all (visible)
forms, and 6) eliminate delusions and cognitive obscurations. The
precept about the six superknowlcdges is taught as "one realizes
them as pacified from the beginning."
7Q
78 Skt. abhisamskara
79 Das: 1983, p. 1108
178
3C Removing the seeds of that which is to be abandoned

3C1 Remedies of intellectual objects of abandonment
The path of vision consists of sixteen instants included by the

four truths (with) the natures of dharma-patience, dharma-knowlxo
edge, subsequent patience, and subsequent knowledge. The yogi,
realizing that all phenomena lack (inherent) natures, meditates on
(those sixteen instants) as remedies of what is to be abandoned by
that (path of vision) without grasping any phenomenon, like a ma
gician.81 This is the precept about the path of vision.
3C2 Remedies for innate (objects of abandonment)
3C2A The nature of the path: the object to be meditated upon
The compounded (tme path
) and the uncompounded (true ces
sation83) are simply identical, and one cannot see any difference
between them. Referring to (that which is) not different from what
was brought forth by the path of vision which was explained, (the
paths of) vision and meditation are not different, and the definition
of the path of meditation is not established.
3C2B Rejecting disputes
80 Tib.
, lit., dharma and subsequent patience of
knowledge. Each of the four truths has these four aspects: dharma-patience,
dharma-knowledge, subsequent patience, and subsequent knowledge, thus
making 16 in all
01 As a magician creates an illusion without becoming attached to it as real, so the
yogi can meditate on phenomena without believing in their reality.
82 the fourth truth
83 the third truth
179
However, it is (established) by the dharmata of dependent aris

ing. The precept about the path of meditation is: "meditate on the
remedies of what is to be abandoned by that (path of meditation)."
2B2C1A2B1B1C Summarized meaning
These are taught in the section on precepts: 1) not perceiving

any asp ect o f attaining w hatsoever in b o d h ic itta
and
prajhapdram ita which is the nature of the dharmas entailed by

those (precepts), 2) the four holy truths which are the referents (of
the precepts), 3) the three refuges which are their support, 4) non
attachment which causes special progress, 5) utter lack of fatigue
which causes irreversible progress, 6) completely upholding the
path which prevents progress by other vehicles, 7) the five eyes
which cause independent progress, 8) the six superknowledges
which cause perfect omniscience, and (9-10) some o f the final
causes: the paths of seeing the truth and meditation. By just these
ten types of precepts all purposes will be fulfilled.
1B2 Explaining Sangha jewel in detail
1B2B The divisions
In order to clarify the section on the Sangha jewel, there are

two additional stanzas 1B2B2
Root text
180
23-24.
THERE ARE TWENTY (CATEGORIES): THOSE
WITH DULL AND SHARP FACULTIES, THOSE WHO HAVE

ATTAINED FAITH AND VISION, THOSE WHO ARE BORN
FROM FAMILY TO FAMILY, THOSE BORN WITH ONE
INTERVAL, THOSE WHO GO TO A K A N I S T H A , WITH
EFFORT AND EFFORTLESSLY, THREE WHO LEAP, THOSE
WHO GO TO THE UPPER LIMIT OF THE WORLD, THOSE
WHO DESTROY KLESAS OF THE FORM (REALM), THOSE
W HO PACIFY VISUAL PH EN O M EN A ,84 THOSE WHO
DISPLAY A BODY, AND THE RHINOCEROS.85 It is said.
1B2B3 Commentary
(1,2) Depending on the 16 instants of the path o f vision which

include path-omniscience which will be explained, followers of
faith and of Dharma approach the first result in two ways. 3) Next
are the Stream-enterers. (4, 5) Next are two types: those bom from
family to family as gods and as men. 6) Next are those of dull and
sharp faculties who approach the second result by vision and by
faith. 7) Next are the once-retumers. 8) Next are those with one
more interval. 9) Next, as before, those who approach the third re
sult by vision and by faith. Next are four types of non-returners
84 Skt. drsta-dharma-Samah, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 12:
"appeased in this very life".
8* It is extremely difficult to distinguish twenty different categories simply from
reading the words of this verse without relying on the commentary. Conze: 1957,
pp. 31-32 gives a discussion of the difficulties of this particular verse.
181
who are said to attain nirvana (after dying in this realm) 10) in the
intermediate state, 11) upon rebirth (in the form realm), 12) with
effort, and 13) without effort (following rebirth in the form realm).
Next are three more who will reach the limit o f Akanistha by 14)
leaping, 15) half-leaping, and 16) transmigration through all states
(of existence). Next are two who will reach the limit of the peak of
existence, separated from attachment to the form (realm) by 17)
pacification of visual dharmas and 18) manifesting the body. 19)
Next are those who approach the fruit of being an arhat. 20) Last
are the pratyeka-buddhas. (These are) the twenty.
2B2C1A2B2 How to produce the wisdom arising from meditadon on empdness
by meditating on the subject of the precepts
2B The divisions
2B1 Demonstrating in brief
2B1A The text continues
Since the nirvedha-bhagiya arise when beginners attain such

precepts, the nirvedha-bhagiya (are explained):
2B1B Root text
25-26.
SO
THE SLIGHT, MEDIUM, AND GREAT HEAT AND
FO R TH
OF
THE
B O D H IS A T T V A
AND
THE
PROTECTOR86 ARE DISTINGUISHED FROM THAT OF THE

SRA VA K A S
AND RHINOCEROSES BY MEANS OF THEIR
86 Buddha.
182
REFERENT, ASPECT, CAUSE, ASSISTANCE, AND THEIR

MODE OF CONNECTION WJTH TH E FOUR KINDS OF
CONCEPTS. It is said.
2B1C Commentary
2B1C1 Proving they are distinguished from the inferior path of prepa
ration
2B1C1A How they are distinguished
The four nirvedha-bhagiya which are harmonious with realiz

ing the four truths attain the acme87 ot the hearing and so forth of
the bodhisattvas after (completing) the roots of virtue of the nature
of faith and so forth which are conducive to liberation. (First is) the
root of virtue called "transformed into heai" which arises from
mundane meditation, after that, (the second:) "becomes the peak,"
after that (the third) "becomes tolerance," and after that (the fourth)
"transforms to supreme dharma". The "heat" and so forth (of the
bodhisattvas) is superior to that of the sravakas and so forth (in the
following ways:) generating "small" and so forth successively or by
distinctions of individuals having dull faculties and so forth in rela
tion to (different) bodhisattvas, (there are) slight, medium, and
great (degrees). These will be explained. The nature of the special
referent (in the verse) perceives the properties of the four truths. By
the remedies of viewing phenomena (as truly existent), one pro87 nb.
183
duces an aspect lacking strong attachment. These (four degrees)

cause the realization of all the three vehicles. One obtains assistance
from the skillful techniques of the virtuous friend. There are four
oo
types of concepts of subject and object which are abandoned by
(the paths of) vision and meditation, in connection with a method
which will be explained.
2B1CIB The reason for that
The roots of virtue of the "transformed into heat" and so forth

(of the sravakas and pratyeka-buddhas are described) in the tradi
tion as "1) perceiving the four truths which are essentially defined
as 'suitable as form' and so forth; 2) involved in the aspects of im
permanence and so forth which cure the view of a self; 3) for the
sake o f realizing only their own vehicle; 4) lack assistance; and 5)
arise without the four types of concepts".
2B1C2 Twelve modes of perception summarized as four
2A Actual
The bodhisattvas' nirvedha-bhagiya perceive properties of the

four truths as they really are through the force of skillful technique:
by means of cause for some, by means of effect for others, by
means of nature for others, and by means o f the aspects of
Dharmatd for others.
2B Perceiving by means of other aspects
8 8 T ib.,13c;-*r^-al3j-<r t ut., what is grasped and what grasps.
18 4
As before, they always perceive the four truths with other as

pects as well.
2C The reason for not actually showing that here
Wishing to mention only (the aspects of) liberation, I do not

elaborate.
2D Rejecting disputes
Since this is a different arrangement, arguments based on other

vehicles should not be mentioned at all.
2B2C1A2B2B2 Explaining extensively
2B2A Explaining the three former characteristics
2B2A1 Joining the general boundaries
(Anticipating) the question, "What are the distinctions of refer

ent89 and aspect?90" - the referents and aspects are explained by
seven more verses.
2B2A2 Explaining them individually
2A The distinct referents, aspects, and causes of heat
2A1 Root text
27-28ab.
THE REFERENTS ARE IMPERMANENCE AND
SO FORTH, BASED ON THE TRUTHS.91 THE ASPECTS

CEASE TENDENCIES AND SO FORTH, (AND THEY) CAUSE
89 Skt. alambana, Tib.
90 Skt. akara, Tib.
.
.
91 Skt. satyMhUram, Tib.

substratum of the (four) truths".
, Conze: 1954b, p. 14: "act as the
18 5
THE ATTAINMENT OF ALL THREE VEHICLES. (FURTHER

REFERENTS AND ASPECTS ARE) ACCUMULATION AND
D ISPE R SA L 92 OF FORM AND SO FORTH, STATIONARY
AND TRANSIENT 93 IMPUTATIONS AND INEXPRESSIBLE.
Thus.
2A2 Commentary
2A2A Explanation
The referents of the slight are the sixteen aspects of imperma

nence and so forth, based on the four truths o f suffering and so
forth. Its aspects are the cessation of attachment to and perception
of the traths o f suffering and so forth. That all (the n irved h a bhagiyas ) such as heat and so forth are also the real causes of at
taining the realizations of all three vehicles should be kept in mind.
The referent o f the medium is not perceiving and not seeing estab
lishment or destruction of form and so forth by attention to faith
and to thusness, according to enumerations. The aspect is the ab
sence of characteristics which join similar and dissimilar continu
ities due to the non-existence of all names. The referent of the great
is all dharmas, "from form to Buddha," symbolic dharmas which
are conventional. The aspect is the utter mexpressibility of dharmas
such as virtue.
92 Conze: 1954b, p. 14: "rise and fall".
93 Skt. Visthasthitt, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 14: "absence of an
either discontinuous or continuous existent".
186
2A2B Summary
Being a foretaste of the fire of non-conceptual gnosis,94 trans

formed to heat has three types of referents and aspects.
2B Peak
2B1 Root text
?.8cd-30.
T H E Y 95 DO NOT ABIDE IN FORM AND SO
FORTH, WHICH HAVE NO ESSENTIAL NATURE. THEY96

SHARE THE SAME NATURE. WITHOUT ABIDING IN THEIR
IM P E R M A N E N C E
AND
SO
FO R T H
TH EY
A RE
ESSENTIALLY EM PTY, AND THEY SHARE THE SAME

NATURE. WITHOUT APPREHENDING ANY DHARMA, AND
NOT SEEING SIGNS IN THEM, WISDOM INVESTIGATES
WITHOUT APPREHENDING ANYTHING. It is said.
2B2 Commentary
2B2A
Explanation
The referent of the slight is form and so forth which are devoid
of any self nature. Thus, one does not abide in form and so forth
due to emptiness of self nature. The aspect is that ultimately all
phenomena of form and so forth and emptiness are essentially the
same. Therefore "they do not abide in form and so forth as perma
nent, impermanent, and so forth since there is no impermanence and
94 Skt. nirvikalpa-jruina.
95
the practitioners.
96
dharmas and their emptiness.
187
so forth in emptiness." The referent of the medium is that since im

permanence and so forth and emptiness have no essential nature by
the nature of Dharmadhatu, impermanence and so forth and empti
ness share one (and the same) essential nature. The aspect is not
taking form and so forth as mine, by refuting (the existence of)
their nature. The referent of the great is not seeing signs of blue and
so forth in those forms and so forth due to (their) lack of a nature.
The aspect is definitely realizing that all things have no basis since
wisdom properly discerns ciharmas.
2B2B Summary
Thus the peak of variable roots of virtue has three types of ref
erents and aspects.
2C Tolerance
2C1 Root text
31-32ab.
FORM AND SO FORTH HAVE NO NATURE.
THAT NON-EXISTENCE IS THEIR NATURE. THEY DO NOT

ARISE OR GO FORTH. THEY ARE PURE. THEY ARE
SIGNLESS. THEY ARE NOT COGNIZED OR BELIEVED
WITHOUT RELYING ON THEIR SIGNS. It is said.
2C2 Commentary
2C2A Explanation
The referent of the slight is that form and so forth have no na

ture, since the nature of characteristics and the characteristics of
188
nature are identical in emptiness. The aspect is that form and so

forth (have the) nature (of) mere non-things in front of the ob
server.97 The referent of the medium is that arisal does not exist nor
does nirvana since there form and so forth do not arise by self na
ture. The aspect is that aspects (of) body and so forth (are) always
completely pure just from realizing the self nature of all dharmas.
The referent of the great is the signlessness of all phenomena since
specific and general characteristics are unacceptable. The aspect is
not believing by attention to belief, and not knowing completely by
attention to thusness, since (dharmas are) not naturally the basis of
signs of form and so forth.
2C2B Summary
By thus enduring great dharmas without going wrong, trans

formed to tolerance has three types of referents and aspects.
2D Supreme dharma
2D1 Root text
2D1A Explanation of the panicular referents and aspects of
supreme dharma
2D IB General summary
32cd-33.
(REFERENTS AND ASPECTS ARE:) S A MA D H I
AND ITS ACTIVITY, PREDICTION AND EXTINGUISHING

PRIDE, THE THREE SHARE THE SAME NATURE, AND
97 lit "in front of the being possessing observation"
189
SAMADHI DOES NOT CONCEPTUALIZE, THESE ARE THE

SLIGHT, MEDIUM, AND GREAT OF THE N I R V E D H A BHAGIYA. 98 It is said.
2D2 Commentary
2D2A Explanation
The ieferent of the slight is to meditate on the non-arisal of all

dharmas and on the samadhi of going heroically and so forth. The
aspect is to enter the activity of samadhi in all world realms spontaneously, according to fortune,
CO
by the power of one's prayers,
merit, gnosis, and the Dharmadhatu. The medium referent is that

the Buddhas say, This is D h a rm a ta ' to yogis who have properly
entered sam adhi. The aspect is the absence o f thoughts such as, 'I
will concentrate,' since all conceptualizations are unacceptable when
realizing the intrinsic nature of the bodhisattvas' samadhi. The ref
erent of the great is that the three meanings of the sam adhi, the
bodhisattva, and prajhaparam ita share the same nature due to
Dharmata. The aspect is the holy technique of the non-conceptual
samadhi since all dharmas are ncn-existent.
2D2P. Summary
98 This final phrase should be retroactively applied to the previous verses which
dealt with the four degrees of heat and so forth.
99 Tib.
, meaning something like "luck"
190
Being thus the highest of all ordinary dharmas,100 supreme

dharma has three types of referents and aspects.
7B2C1A2B2B2A3 Rejecting disputes about the manner of express;on
3A Disputes
Although special referents and aspects should be mentioned by

stating (both) their substrate101 and properties,102 they are always
m entioned by stating
(only) th eir properties except for
"REFERENTS ARE IM PERM ANENCE AND SO FORTH,

DEPENDING ON THE TRUTHS".103
3B Replies
3B1 It is correct to exclude the four truths without directly ex
pressing their reliance on substrates
Because the tradition says, "there is no special meaning in these,

except for rejecting and accepting other distinctions".104
3B2 Although not stated directly, they are implied
Although stated differently when made into poetry, because op

position to attachment and so forth will (cause a) separation from
establishment and refutation in thusness, the activities of the refer
100 Tib.
*01 Tib.
102 jib .
.
, Skt dharmin, lit, "that which possesses the dharma"
, Skt dharma
103 Verse 27ab.

104 Amano: 1975, pp 44-45 gives this as a quote from Dharmakirti's
Pramanavarttika, 3.61-62.
191
ent and aspect are included only in the truths of suffering and so
forth. The later ones should also be known like that.
2B2C1A2B2B2B The characteristics of concepts
2B2B2 1 he divisions
2A Joining the generai boundaries
An additional verse also clarifies the m eaning o f

"CONNECTION WITH THE FOUR KINDS OF CONCEPTS."105
2B Explaining them individually
2B1 Illustration
2B1A Explaining the concepts of objects
2B1A1 Root text
34.
CONCEPTS OF OBJECTS (ARE) OF TWO KINDS
CONCERNING BASES AND REMEDIES. BY PARTICULARS

(OF) CONFUSION, AGGREGATES AND SO FORTH, THEY
ARE EACH OF NINE TYPES. It is said.
2B1A2 Oommentarv
There are two kinds of concepts o f objects106 relying on the

fully deluded and on the remedies. By classifying the ignorance and
complete purity of the aggregates and so forth, (there are) nine
types (of each).
2B1B Explaining the concepts of subjects
105 in verses 25-26.

106 Tib.
, Ht. "what is grasped
192
2B1B1 Root text
35.
SUBJECTS
(ARE)
ALSO TW O -FO LD , S U B
STANTIAL AND IMPUTED. (THEY ARE FURTHER DIVIDED

INTO THOSE) BASED ON INDEPENDENT SELF AND SO
FORTH, AGGREGATES, NATURE AND SO FORTH, IN THAT
WAY. Thus.
2B1B2 Commentary
Concepts of subjects107 are also of two kinds, perceiving sub

stantially existing persons and nominally existing beings. There are
nine types of each, perceiving an independent self and the aggre
gates and so forth.
2B2 Explanation
Their condensed meaning is 2B2B Individual meanings

2B2B1 Concepts of objects
1A Concepts of fully deluded objects
Concepts of objects relying on a fully deluded basis (are:) 1) ig

norance, 2) the aggregates of form and so forth, 3) attachment to
name and form, 4) clinging to the two extremes, 5) not knowing
full delusion and complete purity, 6) not staying on the Arya path,
107 rib .
t lit "that which grasps"
193
7) the referent, 8) the self and so forth, 9) completely pure produc

tion and so forth, and
IB Concepts of objects relying on the remedies
Concepts of objects relying on the remedies are the meanings of

(the first six): 1) the aggregates, 2) coming into being,108 3) lin
eage, 4) production, 5) emptiness, 6) paramita, 7) the paths of vi
sion, 8) meditation, and 9) no more learning, and
2 Concepts of subjects
2A Concepts of substantial subjects
Concepts of subjects relying on substantially existing persons are

selves which are: 1) independent, 2) single, 3) cause, 4) seers and so
forth, 5) fully deluded, 6) separated from attachment, 7) (on the
paths of) vision, 8) meditation, and 9) based on accomplishment,
and
2B Concepts of nominal subjects
Concepts of subjects relying on nominally existing persons (are:)

1) the aggregates, 2) a y a t a n a s ,
3) d h a t u s ,
4) p r a t i t y a -
samutpada, 109 5) complete purity, 6) paths of vision, 7) medita

tion, 8) distinction, and 9) no more learning.
2B2C1A2B2B2B2C Summarized meaning
108 Skt. ayadvHra, Tib. ^ " S f , Conze: 1967a, p. 109; Edgerton: 1985, p. 101.
109
translated subsequently as "relativity."
194
According to the enumeration, all four nirvedha-bhagiya have

four such conceptions.110
2B2C1A2B2B2C Explaining assistance
2B2C1 The text continues by showing the purpose of other arrange
ments
Connecting harmoniously with the verse
111
when assistance was
taught earlier and explaining '"that which was explained will become
distinguished by the force of that," there is another verse at the end.
2 Root text
36.
(ONE IS) ALWAYS ASSISTED (BY) MIND NOT
DEPRESSED AND SO FORTH, SHOWING NON-INHERENT

EXISTENCE AND SO FORTH, AND RENOUNCING (WHAT
IS) HOSTILE TO THAT. It is said.
3 Commentary
The virtuous friend (pi^vides) assistance 1) (so that one's) mind

is not depressed or afraid due to skillful technique, 2) showing that
all things are selfless and so forth, in accordance with the intent, 3)
without hostile dharmas (such as) miserliness and so forth.
2B2C1A2C Explaining accomplishment according to the aim of the instructions
1A2C1 Bases of accomplishment
IB The divisions
110 lit, "the four conceptualizations and the four nirvedha-bhagiya according to
enumeration are possessors"
111 Again, verses 25-26.
195
1B1 Divisions of lineage

As for actual accomplishment, giving rise to the nirvedhabhagiyas which were explained and the paths of vision and so forth
will provide a basis.
IB IB Root text
37-38.
OF
LINEAGE SHOULD BE KNOWN AS THE BASIS
(T H E
FO L L O W IN G :)
TH E
SIX
DHARMAS
OF
R EA LIZA TIO N , REM ED IES, A BA N DO N M EN T, FULLY

USING T H EM ,112 WISDOM AND MERCY, NOT SHARED
WITH STUDENTS, A SERIES OF (ACTIONS FOR) THE
B E N E FIT
OF
O T H E R S,
AND
A T TA IN IN G
G N O SIS
EFFORTLESSLY. It is said.
IB 1C Commentary
1B1C1 Explanation
1A Individual natures
(1, 2, 3, 4) At first for a short time, the ordinary nirvedhabhagiyas. (5, 6) Next, the extraordinary paths of vision and medi
tation. (7, 8) Next, by the force of producing those, remedies and
hostile states (respectively) arise and cease simultaneously, like
throwing out a thief and bolting the door. 9) Next, abandoning con
112
Conze: 1954b, p. 18 has "the state of being able to overlook the difference be
tween the two (i.e. between antidotes and harmful states)". Skt. tayoh paryupayogasya.
19 6
cepts of their arisal and cessation without perceiving them. 10)

Next, by the force of previous prayers and skillful techniques, (such
as) generosity and so forth, wisdom and technique which abide in
neither samsara nor nirvana. 11) Next, producing those dharmas
which are not shared with the sravakas and so forth. 12) Next, in
accordance with one's intention, a series of (actions for) the welfare
of others, characterized by establishing (them) in the paths of the
three vehicles, deliberately explaining (the Dharma) and so forth.
13) Next, since the gnosis arises which will benefit others sponta
neously, signless as long as samsara exists.
IB The order
This is the order.

1C Definite enumeration
Also by these, the benefit of all beings will be perfected.

2 Summary
By distinctions of varying circumstances of the dharmas of ac

complishment (there are) thirteen kinds of bodhisattvas. Lineage is
taught as simply the nature of Dharmadhatu, which will be the ba
sis for the dharmas which were explained.
2B2C1A2C1B2 Rejecting disputes
1B2A Dispute
1B2A1 Former commentaries
1A Expressing the assertion
19 7
(Someone may) create doubts for foolish beings who think, "If
the Dharmadhatu, the cause for the realization of the Aryan dhar
mas, is the naturally abiding lineage of the dharmas of the supreme
Buddhas and bodhisattvas who have that as their self nature,"
IB Positing the consequence
"Then in that case, since that (Dharmadhatu ) abides generally,

it is not only (for) bodhisattvas." (To eliminate such doubts, there
is) an additional verse.
2 Root text
39ab.
SEPA RA TE
LIN EA G ES
BECAUSE D H ARM AD H ATU
ARE N O T PRO PER,
HAS NO DISTINCTIONS. It is
said.
2B2C1A2C1B2B Replies
1B2B1 The implied reply
IB Interpretation
Just as (we) perceive the stages of realization of the sravaka ve

hicle and so forth, we sim ilarly impute conventional names to
(different) lineages in presenting Dharmadhatu as the nature of a
cause because (it) acts to realize the Aryan dharmas.
2 The actual reply
19 8
Although there is such an answer, to make it easy there is another reply in ordinary language.
2B
39cd.
11 ^
Root text
TH E
D IV IS IO N S
A RE
DECLARED
BY
DISTINGUISHING THE SUPPORTED DHARMAS. It is said.

2C
Commentary
For example, bases such as jars which are made from the same
clay and baked in the same flames, differ as containers of honey,
sugar, and so forth. Likewise, the dharmas which are supported (the paths) to be realized included in the three vehicles - are de
scribed as different.
2B2C1A2C2 Referents
If asked, "What are the referents of the previously explained

bases of accomplishment?"2B Root text
2B1 Interpretation
40-41.
ARE
THE REFERENTS114 ARE ALL DHARMAS. THEY

V IR T U O U S
AND
SO
FORTH,
MUNDANE
REALIZATIONS AND THOSE DESCRIBED AS SUPRAMUNDANE, CONTAMINATED AND UNCONTAMINATED

113 Tib.
U 4 s k t alambana, Tib.
.
, Conze: 1967a, p. 112: "objective supports".
199
D H A R M A S,
DHARM A S
CO M PO UN D ED
SHARED
WITH
AND
U N CO M PO U N D ED ,
STU D EN TS
AND TH OSE
EXCLUSIVE TO THE SAGE.115 It is said.

2C Commentary
2C1 Shown in general
At first for a short time, (there is a) general (division into) vir

tuous, non-virtuous, and indeterminate, (for example) respectively
monastic (dharmas), killing and so forth, and indeterminate bodily
actions and so forth.
2C2
Explained individually
Next, the remaining, "MUNDANE" and so forth, are divided

into four pairs in order: 4) the five aggregates common to all imma
ture beings, 5) the four dhyanas 116 common to all Arya beings,
117
6) the five aggregates which are the basis o f clinging to existence
and which are not remedies of the view of a self, 7) the four appli1 o
cations of mindfulness
(which are) remedies of that view, 8) the
realms of desire and so forth, which are subject to causes and con
ditions, 9) thusness, which does not rely on causes, 10) the four
dhyanas which arise in the continua of all Arya beings, and 11) the
U 5 See Conze: 1957, p. 33 for a clarification of his translation of this verse.

116 ^ Edgerton: 1985, p. 287.
U 7 skt. upcUJttna skhanda, Edgerton: 1985, p. 145.
118 Skt. smrty-upasthSna, Edgerton: 1985, p. 614.
200
underlying ten powers which arise in the continua of fully perfected

Buddhas.
2C3 Shown to perceive the eleven referents in order
Perceiving the gradual realization of all dharmas such as those,

there are accordingly eleven types of referents.
2B2C1A2C3 Motivation
(To) the question, "What is the motivation11^ for accomplishing

such referents?", motivation (is explained next).
3B Root text
42.
TH E
M OTIVATION
OF TH E SELF-A RISEN
SHOULD BE KNOWN AS THREE KINDS OF GREATNESS:

IN T E N T IO N
TO
ELEVATE
S E N T IE N T
B E IN G S ,
ABANDONMENT, AND REALIZATION ARE THE THREE. It

is said.
3C Commentary
Bodhisattvas will become Buddhas by fully realizing overall

omniscience in all ways, influenced by 1) greatness of intention to
elevate all sentient beings to the highest state possible for sentient
beings, 2) greatness of abandonment, and 3) greatness of realiza
tion. Due to such (influence they) set about such accomplishment.
U 9 skt. samuddefa, Tib. * tVTS"tr , Conze: 1967a, p. 410: "program".
201
Having (these) three greatnesses, the motivation should be known as

three.
4 The nature of accomplishment
4A General presentation of accomplishment
4A1 Divided into two by how they are shown
4A1A Question
Having thus mentioned the basis of accomplishment and so

forth, if asked, "What is the self nature of that?" 4A1B Reply
Objects of the three omnisciences are all generally based on vir

tuous dharmas, and as for the four abhisamayas, thoroughly and
directly realizing all aspects and so forth, actions based on each ab~
hisamaya and the six paramitas are accomplishments.
4A2 Divided into four examples
4A2B Their differences
In that way, the characteristics which accomplish the natures of

the paths of preparation, vision, meditation, and distinction are ar
mor, setting out, accumulation, and transcendence.
4B Explaining their individual natures
4B1 The extensive thought: accomplishment of armor
Among them, the first, accomplishment of armor, is stated as

the nature of perseverance.
202
4B1B Root text, explaining the accomplishment of armor
43.
ACCOMPLISHMENT OF ARMOR IS EXPLAINED
AS SIX TIM ES SIX, BY THE SIXFOLD COMBINATION OF

EACH OF (THE P A R A M ITA S
OF) GENEROSITY AND SO
FORTH. Thus.
4B1C Commentary
4B1C1 Divisions
1)
Acting generously such as generosity (in the teaching) of
Dharma, 2) abandoning the attitude of sravakas and so forth, 3)

tolerating offensive talk from others, 4) producing aspiration, and
5) one-pointedness unmixed with other vehicles, and 6) dedicating
to supreme perfect complete enlightenment, are actions of armor
which respectively 1) do not perceive objects to be given and so
forth, and similarly 2) safeguard morality, 3) perfect tolerance. 4)
practice perseverance, 5) accomplish dhyana, and 6) meditate on
wisdom.
4B1C2 Summary
Thus, when each of the param itas
of generosity and so forth
combine with generosity and so forth, although with six sets of six
there are indeed thirty-six types, because of the resemblances of
generosity and so forth, accomplishment of armor is of six types.
PART TWO
4B2 The extensive application: accomplishment of setting out
203
Since one will set out120 after wearing such armor, second (is)
the accomplishment of setting out.
4B2B
44-45.
Root text
ACCOMPLISHMENT OF SETTING OUT IN (THE
FOLLOWING) SHOULD BE KNOWN AS ASCENDING THE

MAHAYANA: DHYANA, FORMLESS, GENEROSITY AND SO
FO R T H ,
PATH ,
LOVE
AND
SO
FO R TH ,
LACK IN G
P E R C E P T IO N ,121 COMPLETE PURITY (OF) THE THREE

M A N D A L A S,
MOTIVATION, SIX SUPERKNOW LEDGES,
AND THE METHOD OF OVERALL OMNISCIENCE. It is said.

4B2C Commentary
4B2C1 Individual meanings
The nine types of accomplishment of setting out are: 1) The

17?
_
_
dhyanas and formless absorptions,
2) the six paramitas of gen
erosity and so forth, 3) the paths of vision, meditation, no more
learning, and distinction, 4) the four immeasurables, 5) without
perception, 6) purity of the three mandalas in all things, 7) moti
vation, 8) the six superknowledges, and 9) the characteristic of per
120 Skt. prasthana. Tib.
121 Skt. gatopalambha-yoge, Tib.

I*1., "possessing
perception which has gone." Conze: 1954b, p. 20: "the absence of devotion to a
basis".
122 Skt. samapaiti, Tib.
.
204
fectly abiding in overall omniscience. They lead to all Mahayana

dharmas.
4B3 Accomplishment of he two extensive accumulations
4B3A Shown in general
4B3A1 The text continues
Since accumulations arise when one set outs like that, third (is)
accomplishment of accumulations.
4B3A2 Root text
46-47.
THE SERIES OF ACCOM PLISHMENT OF THE
ACCUMULATIONS SHOULD BE KNOWN AS: MERCY, THE

SIX - GENEROSITY AND SO FORTH, QUIESCENCE AND
PENETRATIVE INSIGHT, TH E PATH W HICH UNIFIES
(THEM), THAT WHICH IS SKILLFUL TECHNIQUE, GNOSIS,
M ERIT, PATH, D H A R A N !, 123 THE TEN STAGES, AND
REMEDIES. It is said.
4B3A3 Commentary
3A Individual natures
These are the accumulations: 1) great compassion, 2) generosity,

3) morality, 4) tolerance, 5) perseverance, 6) dhyana, 7) wisdom,
8) quiescence, 9) penetrative insight, 10) the path which unifies
(them), 11) skillful technique, 12) gnosis, 13) merit, 14) the paths
*23 Conze: 1954b, p. 21 gives their number as 43.
205
of seeing and so forth, 15) dharanis of words and so forth, 16) the
(bodhisattva) stages, and 17) the remedies.
3B Why they are accumulations
These, compassion and so forth, (have) the nature of perfect ac

complishment, because not perceiving them, not transcending con
ventional reality, and accomplishing the entire purpose of the
Mahayana gives rise to great enlightenment.
3C Definite enumeration
Accomplishment of accumulations has seventeen types.

2B2C1A2C4B3B Explaining three accumulations in particular
4B3B1 The accumulation of gnosis
1A Twenty emptinesses by dividing what is negated
The accumulation of gnosis (consists of) 20 particular types of

emptiness: 1) internal, 2) external, 3) both, 4) empty, 5) the great,
6) the ultimate, 7) compounded, 8) uncompounded, 9) absolute, 10)
without beginning or end, 11) non-repudiation, 12) self nature, 13)
all dharmas, 14) definitions, 15) non-perception, 16) nature of nonthings, 17) things, 18) non-things, 19) intrinsic nature, and 20) na
ture of others.124 Said here: "Internal and external, both, empty
things, directions, nirvana's path, arisal from conditions and the
other, beyond extremes, without beginning or repudiation, inher
124 See Obermillen 1933c for more information about these 20 varieties, and
their correladon to the stages of the path.
206
ence, all dharmas, arisal o f dharmas and so forth, the past and so
forth, having and the nature o f the other, space and what is called
'empty' and the nature of other dharmas: since theyre all inherently
empty, emptiness is stated as twenty."
2 The accumulation of stages
2B The divisions
2B1 Joining the general boundaries
There are 23 additional verses which teach those dharmas which

will become the complete trainings of each stage of the accumula
tion of stages.
2B2 Their individual natures
2B2A The nine causal stages
2B2A1 Tnc first stage
1A Root text
48-50.
THE FIRST STAGE WILL BE ATTAINED BY TEN
TYPES OF COMPLETE TRAINING:125 INTENTION, USEFUL

TH IN G S,
IM PA RTIA L
TOW ARD
SEN T IEN T
B EIN G S,
GIVING AWAY, SERVICE TO A FRIEND, SEEKING THE

REFER EN T
OF TH E
TRU E
D H A R M A ,126
A LW A Y S
INTENDING TRANSCENDENCE, LONGING FOR THE BODY

125 Skt. parikarma, Tib.
. See Edgerton: 1985, p. 320 preparations;
Conze: 1967a, p. 242 preparations.
126 Skt. sad-dharmdlambanaisant, Tib.
t Conze: 1954b,
p. 22: "he searches for objective support from the true Dharma".
207
OF A BUDDHA, TEACHING DHARMA, AND TRUTHFUL

SPEECH (ARE) STATED TO BE THE TEN. COM PLETE
TRAINING DOES PERCEIVE THEIR INHERENT NATURE.127
Thus.
IB Commentary
The ten dharmas in order have the characteristics of: 1) honest

intentions regarding all bases, 2) useful for the purposes of oneself
and others, 3) one attitude toward all sentient beings, 4) renouncing
all possessions, 5) pleasing the virtuous friend, 6) desiring the refer
ent of the true Dharma which belongs to (all) the three vehicles, 7)
intense dissatisfaction with staying at home, 8) desiring the body of
a supreme Buddha, 9) thoroughly teaching the true Dharma, and
10) speaking truly. They should be produced by all means. Those
complete trainings which are distinctively characterized by the spe
cial cause of complete training - not perceiving inherent nature will attain the first stage: the Extremely Joyous.
2 The second stage
2A Root text
51.
(FOR TH E
SECOND
E IG H T :)
M O R A L IT Y ,
STA G E, T H ER E
G R A T IT U D E ,
ARE
TOLERANCE,
REJOICING, GREAT COMPASSION, RESPECT, OBEDIENCE
127 Conze: 1954b, p. 23: "does not assume a basis with reference to the own-being .
_ ll
208
TO THE GURU, AND THE EIGHTH: TO PERSEVERE IN

GENEROSITY AND SO FORTH. Thus.
2B Commentary
Eight types of distinctive complete trainings will attain the sec

ond stage: the Stainless. Those (eight) complete trainings are: 1)
the morality of virtuous dharmas, altruistic actions and of restraint,
2) to remember ser/ices performed by others, 3) to be tolerant of
injuries done by others and so forth, 4) to not regret accomplishing
virtuous dharmas, 5) love for all beings, 6) to bow to the abbot and
so forth, 7) to accomplish the dharmas taught by the virtuous
friend, and 8) to delight in the six param itas of generosity and so
forth.
3 The third stage
3A Root text
52-53ab.
(THERE ARE) FIVE ESSENTIAL TYPES (FOR
THE THIRD:) INSATIABLY LISTENING, GENEROSITY (IN

TEACHING) DHARMA W ITHOUT SEEKING MATERIAL
(R E W A R D S ),128 THOROUGHLY PURIFYING A BUDDHA
FIELD, INDEFATIGABLE (WHILE) IN SA M SA R A ,
WHAT
ARE CALLED SHAME AND EM BARRASSM ENT, AND

HUMILITY. Thus.
3B Commentary
1^8 skt. niramisa. See Edgerton: 1985, p. 299.
209
Five types of complete trainings which do not see (any) nature

will realize the third stage: the Luminous. Those complete trainings
are: 1) insatiable when listening to the true Dharma, 2) teaching the
true Dharma without regard for gain and so forth, 3) thoroughly
purifying one's own basis and the supported Buddha field, 4) inde
fatigable when seeing sentient beings who were helped be disagree
able and so forth, and 5) avoiding vicious dharmas by depending
upon oneself and others.
4 The fourth stage
4A Root text
53cd-54.
(TRAININGS FOR THE FOURTH STAGE ARE:)
DWELLING IN A FOREST, FEW DESIRES, CONTENTMENT,

D E V O T IO N
TO
S T R IC T
A S C E T IC IS M ,129 N O T
ABANDONING TRAINING, CONTEM PT FOR SENSUAL

PLEA SURE,
R E L E A S E D ,130
P O S S E S S IO N S ,
R E N O U N C IN G
U N D ISC O U R A G E D ,
AND
ALL
W IT H O U T
EXPECTATIONS.131 Thus.
4B Commentary
One will ascend to the fourth stage with ten types of complete
trainings: the Radiant. They are: 1) dwelling in a wilderness, 2)
without strong desire for what one does not have, 3) without striv
!29 skt. dhuta. See Edgerton: 1985, p. 286.
130 Skt nirvrt, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 24: "disgust".
131 Skt. anapeksate. See Monier-Williams: 1982, p. 56.
210
ing for m ore of what one does have, 4) self control (through)
ascetic qualities such as begging alms and so forth, 5) not abandon
ing the accepted trainings even (at the cost of) one's life and so
forth, 6) despising the qualities of sensual pleasure by regarding
(them) as miserable.132 7) having nirvana as ones goal, as is ap
propriate for trainees, 8) renouncing all possessions, 9) not discour
aged when performing virtuous actions, and 10) without regard for
any thing.
5 The fifth stage
5A Root text
55-56.
FIFTH
WHEN THESE TEN ARE ABANDONED, THE

STA G E
W ILL
BE
PER FEC TLY
A T TA IN ED :
INTIMACY, JEALOUSY OF FAMILIES, CROWDED PLACES,

PRAISING ONESELF AND BELITTLING OTHERS, TEN
PATHS O F VICIOUS ACTIONS, CONCEIT, ARROGANCE,
DELUSION, DOUBT, AND CONSENT TO IMPURITY. Thus.
5B Commentary
One completely abandons ten dharmas with characteristics of: 1)

associating with the ordained and so forth for the sake of gain and
12^
so forth, 2) not telling (others) about lay devotees, ^ 3) inhabited
places with large populations, 4) praising oneself, 5) criticizing
1^2 sk L adtnava. See Edgerton: 1985, p. 94.

I ll
due to jealousy
21 1
others, 6) the ten paths of vicious actions, 7) not bowing to others

from pride in (one's own) learning134 and so forth, 8) insisting on
mistaking virtue and vice, 9) inferior ideas such as mistaken views
and so forth, and 10) turning toward delusions such as attachment
and so forth. The ten types of complete trainings indicated by im
plication - the opposite dharmas - will attain the fifth stage: the
Difficult to Overcome.
6 The sixth stage
6A Root text
57-58.
THE SIXTH STAGE IS PERFECTLY ATTAINED
BY COMPLETING GENEROSITY, MORALITY, TOLERANCE,

PERSEVERANCE, DHYANA, AND WISDOM, ABANDONING
THOUG H TS
OF
EN vY
ABOUT
STU D E N TS
AND
RHINOCEROSES AND (THOUGHTS OF) FEAR, FEELING

UNDISM AYED WHEN BEGGED FROM , W ITHOUT UN
H A PPIN ESS
EVEN
WHEN
ALL
PO SSESSIO N S
ARE
RENOUNCED, AND NOT ABANDONING BEGGARS EVEN

THOUGH POOR (ONESELF). Thus.
6B Commentary
Twelve complete trainings of: (1-6) fully completing the six

paramitas, abandoning thoughts of 7) desire toward sravakas and
8) pratyeka-buddhas, 9) fear of insubstantiality, 10) dismay when
134 lit "hearing", Skt Sruta.
212
solicited by beggars, 11) unwillingness1,5^ to renounce all posses

sions voluntarily, and 12) abandoning beggars although destitute
(oneself), as before, will fully realize the sixth stage: Approaching.
7 The seventh stage
7 A The twenty objects of abandonment
7A1 Root text
59-61.
THE
SEVENTH
STAGE
IS
A TTA IN ED
BY
COMPLETELY CUTTING OFF THESE TWENTY FAULTS:

G R A SPIN G
AT A
SELF,
SEN T IEN T
B E IN G S,
LIFE,
PERSO N S, N IH ILISM , ETERNALISM , SIGNS, CAUSES,

SKANDH AS,
DHATUS, AYATANAS,
RESIDING IN AND
LONGING FOR TH E THREE REALM S, D EPRESSIO N ,

INSISTENCE ON VIEW ING136 THE THREE JEWELS AND
M O R A L IT Y ,
A R G U IN G
ABOUT
E M P T IN E SS
AND
CONTRADICTING IT. Thus.

7A2 Commentary
Avoiding twenty faults, abandoning the grasping for 1) self, 2)

sentient beings, 3) life, 4) persons, 5) nihilism, 6) etemalism, 7)
signs, 8) causes, 9) skandhas, 10) dhatus, 11) ayatanas, 12) resid
ing in and 13) longing for the three realms, 14) depression, insis
tence on viewing 15) Buddha, 16) Dharma, 17) Sangha, and 18)
Skt. daurmanasya, Tib.
t lit. unhappiness.
136 Conze: 1954b, p. 26: "settling down in views on".
213
morality, 19) arguing about emptiness and 20) expressing contra

dictions, the twenty types of complete training indicated by impli
cation - the reverse dharmas - will realize the seventh stage: the
Gone Far.
7B Depending on twenty remedies
In order to teach the dharmas which are implied 7B2 Root text
62-65.
THE TWENTY (REMEDIES ARE): KNOWING
THE THREE DOORS OF LIBERATION, COMPLETE PURITY

OF THE THREE M AN D ALAS,
COMPASSION, HUMILITY,
KNOW ING THE EQUALITY OF DHARMAS AND ONE

PRINCIPLE, KNOWING NON-PRODUCTION, TOLERANCE,
TEACHING ALL DHARMAS TOGETHER,137 DESTROYING
CO N CEPTS, ABANDONING O PIN IO N S,138 VIEWS AND
DELUSIONS, MEDITATION ON QUIESCENCE, SKILL IN
P E N E T R A T IV E
IN S IG H T ,
T R A IN IN G
THE
M IN D ,
COMPLETELY UNIMPEDED GNOSIS, WITHOUT A BASIS

FOR ATTACHMENT, GOING IMPARTIALLY TO OTHER
137 Skt. dharmanam ekadherana, Tib.

, Conze: 1954b,
p. 26: "one single flow of dharmas".
138 Skt. samjnH, T ib.**^** . See Conze: 1967a, p. 396 perception; Edgerton:
1985. p. 551-2.
214
REALMS WHEREVER ONE WISHES, AND SHOWING ONES

NATURE EVERYWHERE. Thus it is said.
7B3 Commentary
These twenty types of complete training: knowing the three

doors of liberation perfectly: 1) emptiness, 2) signlessness, and 3)
wishlessness, and 4) regarding the paths of ten virtuous actions, not
perceiving an object to be killed, a killer, or killing and so forth, 5)
compassion referring to all beings, 6) not perceiving things. 7) real
izing the equality of all dharmas, 8) realizing the unity o f the
Mahayana, 9) fully realizing non-production, 10) bearing in mind
the tolerance of realizing the profound Dharma, 11) thoroughly
teaching all objects of knowledge by the Mahayana method, 12)
cutting off all concepts, 13) without concepts which grasp at signs,
rejecting the five (mistaken) beliefs in a real personality and so
forth,
abandoning delusions such as attachment and so forth, 14)
quiescent meditation, 15) enacting wisdom with a skillful technique,

16) pacifying the mind, 17) unimpeded gnosis regarding form and
so forth, 18) not being a locus of attachment, 19) going to all
Buddha realms simultaneously, just as one wishes, and 20) showing
ones body everywhere in accordance with the trainees, as before,
will realize the seventh stage.
8 The eighth stage
139 s k t satkaya-drsti. See Conze: 1967a, p. 396; Edgerton: 1985, p. 553.
215
8A Root text
66-67.
ACTIONS
(ON THE EIGHTH
STA G E) ARE
EXPLAINED AS THESE EIGHT: KNOWING ALL SENTIENT

B E IN G S
M IN D S ,
P L A Y IN G
W IT H
THE
SUPERKNOW LEDGES, CREATING AN EX C E L LE N T 140

BUDDHA FIELD, SERVING BUDDHA FOR THE SAKE OF
INVESTIGATION, KNOW ING THE SENSE FACU LTIES,
PURIFYING A CONQUERORS REALM, ABIDING LIKE AN
ILLUSION AND TAKING REBIRTH AT WILL. Thus.
8B Commentary
Eight dharmas of complete training: 1) knowing the mental be

havior of all sentient beings just as it is, 2) playing in mundane
realms with the superknowledge of magic, 3) completely transform
ing the basis of the Buddha field into the nature of gold and so
forth, 4) pleasing the Buddha by fully investigating the Dharma in
all ways, 5) generating divine sight, 6) completely purifying sen
tient beings who are the basis of the Buddha field, 7) abiding in ev
erything as an illusion, and 8) taking on a predetermined rebirth
from seeing benefit for all sentient beings, as before, will attain the
eighth stage: the Immovable.
9 The ninth stage
9A Root text
1 in
This word not in Skt.
216
68-69.
(THE
NINTH
STA G E
CO N SISTS
O F TH E)
FULFILLMENT OF: INFINITE PRAYERS, KNOWLEDGE OF

THE
L A N G U A G E S 141 OF GODS
AND SO FORTH,
CO NFIDENCE142 LIKE A RIVER, SUPREME ENTRY INTO A

W OM B,
F A M IL Y ,
L IN E A G E ,
CLAN,
R E T IN U E ,
CIRCUM STANCES OF BIRTH, RENUNCIATION, BODHI

TREE, AND QUALITIES. Thus.
9B Commentary
Twelve types of complete trainings which are characterized by

fulfillment of: 1) infinite prayers, 2) knowledge of the languages of
all sentient beings, such as the gods and so forth, 3) inexhaustible
confidence like a river, 4) entering a womb praised by all beings, 5)
living as a king and so forth, 6) descended from the sun and so
forth, 7) having kinsmen, such as mother and so forth, 8) an inde
pendent retinue, 9) a birth applauded by Indra and so forth, 10) re
quests by the Buddhas and so forth to renounce (the world), 11) a
fig tree and so forth which is like a wish-granting jewel, and 12)
fulfilling all qualities which are the nature o f Buddha and
Buddhadharma, as before, the distinctive actions of (these) com
plete trainings will produce the ninth stage: the Good Intellect.
2B2C1A2C4B3B2B2B The tenth stage: the effect stage
141 SkL ruta, Tib. SIT .

142 Skt. pratibhana, Tib. fjW V , Conze: 1954b, p. 27: "ready speech".
217
Having shown those complete trainings of the causal stages, the

characteristics of the tenth stage as the stage of the effect will sum
marize all the stages without explaining them.
2B2 Root text
70.
HAVING PASSED BEYOND THE NINE STAGES,
THE GNOSIS BY WHICH HE ABIDES ON THE BUDDHA

ST A G E
SH O U LD
BE
KNOW N
AS
THE
TE N T H
BODHISATTVA STAGE. It is said.

2B3 Commentary
2B3A Explaining the nine stages which are to be passed
The six: 1) the lineage of the sravakas and so forth, 2) those

who enter the first result, 3) stream-enterers, 4) once returners, 5)
non-returners, 6) arhats themselves, and intending to present the
three systems, 7) the three remaining enterers are included, and 8)
pratyeka-buddhas, are, respectively, the stages of 1) lineage, 2) the
eighth, 3) vision, 4) restraint, 5) separated from attachment, 6) real
izing completion, 7) sravakas, and 8) pratyeka-buddhas; and 9)
the nine types of bodhisattva stages which were explained are only
143
This sudden introduction of nine completely different stages at this point sug
gests an attempt to harmonize doctrines which were originally quite distinct. See
Dayal: 1975, pp. 270ff for a discussion of different systems of stages within
Indian MaMySna.
218
2B3B Explaining the tenth stage passed beyond those
Because (this statement) comes up: "having passed beyond these

nine stages, one should describe the bodhisattva on the tenth stage as
a mere Buddha - he is not a perfect Buddha",144 abiding on that
Buddha stage by understanding prayer should be known as the tenth
bodhisattva stage.
2B2C1A2C4B3B3 Explaining the accumulation of remedies in particular
An additional verse about the accumulation of remedies 3B3B
71.
Root text
THERE ARE EIGHT TYPES OF REMEDIES ON
THE PATHS OF VISION AND FAM ILIARIZATION,145 AND

THEY PACIFY CONCEPTS OF SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS. It
is said.
3B3C Commentary
There are two concepts of objects: based on 1) fully deluded

properties and 2) remedies, and two concepts of subjects: based on
1) substantial persons and 2) nominal beings. Since they are aban
doned one by one on the paths of vision and meditation relying on
aspects of both realities, eight types of remedies are distinguished in
the context o f only (those) two paths in order to pacify the eight
144 Quote untraced.

145 i.c., the path of meditation
219
concepts of subjects and objects by classifying the hostile states

which are manifested.
2B2C1A2C4B4 The accomplishment of transcendence pioduces overall omni
science
Since (there is) transcendence when collecting such accumula

tions, the fourth (is) the accomplishment o f transcendence 4B4B Root text
72-73.
THE ACCOMPLISHMENT OF TRANSCENDENCE
SHOULD BE KNOWN BY THESE EIGHT ESSEN TIA L

TYPES: MOTIVATION, EQUALITY, HELPING SENTIENT
B E IN G S,
EFFO RTLESS,
EX TREM ES,
TR A N SC EN D EN CE
TRA N SCEND EN CE
C H A R A C T E R IS T IC
OF
BEYOND
W H IC H
A T T A IN M E N T ,
IS
OVERALL
OMNISCIENCE, AND TRANSCENDENCE WHICH IS THE

RANGE OF THE PATH. It is said.
4B4C Commentary
Accomplishment of transcendence is of eight types: 1) the moti

vation which was explained, 2) the equality of all dharmas, 3)
helping sentient beings, 4) spontaneous, through doing everything
without signs, 5) distinguished in the context of the nature which is
separated from etemalism and nihilism, 6) attaining all purposes of
the three vehicles, 7) overall omniscience, which was explained, and
220
8) its distinguished path. As there are no other Aryan dharmas dis

tinguished from these sorts of bases v.'hich will transcend, transcen
dence without perceiving anything is of eight types.
2B2C1A3 Finishing the chapter
The commentary of the first chapter of the Treatise of Oral

Instructions of Prajnaparamita called the Ornament of Abhisamayas.
221
CHAPTER TWO
PATH-OMNISCIENCE
2B2C1B Explaining path-omniscience which leads to overall omniscience
1B1 The text continues by giving the commentary
Since there is no realization of overall omniscience without fully

understanding path-omniscience,146 path-omniscience 1B2 Showing that path-omniscience is indicated by eleven features
1B2A The divisions of path-omniscience
1B2A1 Root text
1.
(P A T H -O M N IS C IE N C E
C O N S IS T S
OF)
E C L IP S IN G 147 THE GODS BY LIGHT TO MAKE (THEM)

SUITABLE, DEFINITE OBJECT, PERVASION, INHERENT
NATURE, AND ITS ACTIVITY. It is said.
1B2A2 Commentary
2A The support separate from hindrances
In order to make (them) suitable to produce the path-omni

science, the natural lights of the Tathagata eclipse the matured
lights of the gods and so forth. That is done to teach that
"realizations arise only in continua which have overcome pride".
Therefore the basis is expressed implicitly.
146 Skt. marga-jnatct, Tib.
147 Skt. dhydmikarana, Tib.
.
. See Edgerton: 1985, p. 287.
222
2B Simultaneously acting condition
Furthermore, since it is just the production of bodhicitta, the

object is different in each case.148
2C Showing that lineage pervades it
Since "it is not characteristic to present the three vehicles with

an ulterior m otive,"149 comes from the tradition, all beings ulti
mately have supreme perfect complete enlightenment. Therefore,
those who are separated from attachment and other yogis as well
will attain Buddhahood. Hence path-omniscience is pervaded by
being an object of meditation (for all).
2D Its inherent nature
2D1 Interpretation
Since producing bodhicitta means setting out to benefit sen

tient beings for as long as samsara (exists), its inherent nature is to
not totally abandon delusions.
2E Function
Next, actions which have such an inherent nature do not mani

fest the limit of reality, and they gather sentient beings who are dis
persed and so forth with wisdom and skillful techniques.
2B2C1B2B The inherent nature of path-omniscience
2B1 Knowing the inherent nature of the path of the Sravakas
1^8 Skt. pratiniyama, Tib.
14
. See Monier-Williams: 1982, p. 666.
Skt. tri-ydna-vyavasthanam abhiprdyikah na laksanikam, source not traced.
223
2B1A The nature of path-omniscience

Having thus stated the basis and so forth, as all paths must be
completed under the heading of path-omniscience, (we start with)
the path of the sravakas.
2B1A2 Root text
2.
THIS PATH OF THE SR A V A K A S
SHOULD BE
KNOW N IN THE M ANNER OF PATH-OM N ISCIEN CE

W ITHOUT PERCEIVING THE ASPECTS OF THE FOUR
HOLY TRUTHS. It is said.
2B1A3 Commentary
1A3 A The path which is to be known
1A3A1 Aspects of the truths of suffering and origination
1A3A1A Their individual aspects
3A1A1 Suffering
In order (from the beginning, the first is) the truth of suffering.
(The sravaka path) pacifies the characteristics of these four aspects:
1) impermanence, 2) suffering, 3) empty, and 4) selfless, and
3A1A2 Origin
The natures of 1) cause, 2) origination, 3) production, and 4)

condition of the truth of origin, and the aspects of 1) disease, 2) ex
crescence, 3) irritant, and 4) misfortune, and
3A1B Their common aspects
224
Since it is said that "practice is due to aversion, to become indif

ferent to attachment150 and cessation," the characteristics of aver
sion of the individual truths of suffering and origination have the
aspects of dharmas which are i) other and 2) subject to destruction,
and the natures of objects of indifference; aspects of 3) movement
and 4) destruction, and the inherent nature of cessation; and the
aspects of 5) fear, 6) plague,151 and 7) violence.
3A2 Aspects of the truth of cessation
The truth of cessation has the aspects of (being): 1) empty, 2)

signless, 3) wishless, and 4) without accomplishment, and the inher
ent nature o f cessation is characterized as 1) isolated, and 2) tran
scendent, with the aspects of 1) selflessness, 2) peace, and 3) excel
lence.
3A3 Aspects of the truth of the path
The aspects of the truth of the path are: 1) path, 2) method, 3)

accomplishment, and 4) transcendent.
3B How it is known
In the case of path-omniscience, the bodhisattvas should know

the path of the sravakas in just that way, without perceiving inher
ent natures.
2B2C1B2B1B The cause of path-omniscience: the rurvedha-bhdgiya
150 "attachment" not in Skt.
151 Tib.
, Skt. upasarga. Tripathi: 1977, p. 51, line 5; Amano: 1975, p.
84
225
Since understanding the four truths is preceded by realizing the

nirved h a -b h a g iya ,
having mentioned the path, the nirved h a -
bhagiya.
2B1B2 Root text
3-5.
REG A RD ING
THE
PATH
(O F) THE ARYA
SRAVAK AS : HEAT (IS) BECAUSE FORM AND SO FORTH

(ARE) EMPTY AND BECAUSE (THEY ARE) INSEPARABLE
FROM EMPTINESS; PEAK IS PROPERLY STATED BY NOT
PERCEIVING THEM ;152 TOLERANCE BECAUSE ABIDING
IN THEM AS IF THEY WERE PERMANENT AND SO FORTH
IS DENIED; AND SUPREME DHARMA IS EXPLAINED BY
TEACHING IN DETAIL THAT ONE SETS OUT ON THE TEN
STAGES W ITHOUT ABIDING (ON THEM ). IF "WHY" IS
ASKED, (IT IS) BECAUSE THE BUDDHA IN HIS WISDOM153
DOES NOT SEE ANY DHARMAS. It is said.
2B1B3 Commentary
The nirvedha-bhagiya are said to arise as the referents of the

truths respectively: "1) because the skandhas of form and so forth
I r
are empty by their inherent nature, different sorts o f emptinesses

152 Conze: 1954b, p. 32: "not taking them as a basis".
153 Skt. buddhena buddhva, Tib.
"when he has known enlightenment".
15^ lit, "mutually different emptinesses"
, Conze: 1954b, p. 32:
226
do not exist. 2) as before, without perceiving form and so forth, 3)

similarly, abidance in perception155 is denied since form and so
forth are neither permanent nor im perm anent. 4) W hy? The
Tathagata, having (attained) complete Buddhahood in enlighten
ment, does not see (any) dharmas since the aspects which were
taught extensively do not abide in the Extremely Joyous stage and
so forth. This is the sufficient reason of non-perception by the em
bodiment of valid cognition.156
2B2C1B2B2 Knowing the nature of the path of the self-conqueror
2B2B The the divisions
2B2B1 The distinction of support
2B2B1A Actual characteristics
2B2B1A1 The text continues
Following the path of the sravakas, it is indeed proper to men

tion the path of the pratyeka-buddhas ; but how are they distin
guished from the sravakas, and what makes their path different? In
order to answer (such) qualms, there is some presentation o f (their)
differences.
1A2 Root text
155 Skt. upalambha-yogenavasthanan, Tib.
156 Skt. pran&na-pwrusa, Tib. <5'w^ *r S , reminiscent of Dignaga's famous

description of the Buddha.
227
6.
SELF ARISEN DUE TO SELF REALIZATION,
NOT REQUIRING INSTRUCTION FROM OTHERS (AND)

GNOSIS LIKE A RHINOCEROS (ARE) CLEAR EXPRESSIONS
OF THE PROFUNDITY (OF THE PATH OF THE PRATYEKABUDDHAS ). It is said.
1A3 Commentary
1A3 A Difference of progressing on the path
From the scriptures:157 "the sravakas, depending on instruction

from others, will realize their own enlightenment. Others also will
158
spread virtue having been taught the verbal Dharma."
The
pratyeka-buddhas, from their prior efforts at listening and so forth,
will realize their own enlightenment by themselves without relying
on being taught by others. "Therefore, it is not necessary for them
to be taught by Buddha and so forth" is one difference.
1A3B Difference of teaching the Dharma
When an audience understands the mental skill of the speaker

from (his) verbal Dharma teaching, those (pratyeka-buddhas) will
spread the ten virtues and so forth by teaching the Dharma without
words by the force of their own gnosis and so forth. Therefore,
their gnosis which is unrealized159 is the second difference.
157 Skt. agama, Tib. fJF .
158
Skt. fravakah paropadefa-sapeksdh svabodhim budhyante parahd ca
salllpa-dharma-defanayd kirfale pravariayanti. Source not traced.
1 Q
by others
228
IB Rejecting disputes
1B 1 The text continues
To answer qualms which wonder how to teach the Dharma

without words,
1B2 Root text
7.
FOR ANYONE WISHING TO HEAR ANYTHING,
SUCH A THING WILL APPEAR TO THEM EVEN WITHOUT

WORDS. It is said.
1B3 Commentary
Words are not spoken without investigation or analysis - hence

verbalization is a distraction. Furthermore, since it disturbs the con
tinuum, a bodhisattva prays to be able to teach the Dharma without
words after becoming a Buddha. Therefore, also in the case of
pratyeka-buddhas. similar to Buddhas, by the force of prayers and
so forth just the (right) subject and aspect will appear in the con
sciousness of one who desires to listen to some subject in any aspect
even without words. This is called "teaching the Dharma without
words." The meaning of the term "to teach the Dharma" is this: "to
produce and increase the Dharma which is expressed like this in the
consciousness of the listener."
2B2C1B2B2B2 How one knows the path
229
Having mentioned such differences, since their path diffeis in

being only (slightly) superior, (we explain) the path of the normal
pratyeka-buddhas.
2B2B Root text
2B2B1 Interpretation
8.
THE RHINOCEROS-LIKE PATH IS COMPLETELY
SUMMARIZED BY ABANDONING IMAGINARY OBJECTS

W ITHOUT ABANDONING SUBJECTS AND KNOWING ITS
BASIS. It is said.
2B2C Commentary
This is the path of the pratyeka-buddhas. Bodhisattvas should

know that meditating only on the truths which were explained, and
meditating precisely on relativity, respectively 1) abandons and 2)
does not abandon concepts of the meaning of objects and subjects;
and 3) (they should) realize the distinctive Dharma which is the ba
sis of the pratyeka-buddha's vehicle. It is not (necessary) to know
all its aspects.
2B3 Explaining its cause: the nirvedha-bhagiya
Since the path which was explained arises when the nirvedhabhagiya is attained, (there is a verse on) the nirvedha-bhagiya.
2B3B Root text
230
9-10.
THE ASPECT WHICH SHOWS THAT NOMINAL
(E X IS T E N C E )
AND
C O N T R A D IC T O R Y
IS
DH ARM AT A
ARE
T R A N SFO R M E D
TO
NON
HEAT.
TRANSFORM ED TO THE PEAK IS DISTINGUISHED BY

NON-DECREASE AND SO FORTH OF FORM AND SO
FORTH. NOT GRASPING FORM AND SO FORTH DUE TO
INNER EMPTINESS AND SO FORTH IS TOLERANCE. FORM
AND SO FORTH WITH THE ASPECT OF NON-PRODUCTION
AND SO FORTH IS SUPREME DHARMA. It is said.
2B3C Commentary
The nirvedha-bhagiya will arise with these aspects as the refer

ents o f the four truths respectively: 1) "teaching that nominally
(existent) conventional dharmas, such as form and so forth, do not
contradict Dharmata, 2) training to (realize) the ultimate non-exis
tence of the decrease and increase and so forth of form and so forth,
3) not grasping form and so forth because of internal and external
emptinesses, due to emptiness by nature, and 4) (realizing) the non
existence o f production and cessation with respect to form and so
forth."
2B2C1B2B3 Explaining the nature of the path-omniscience of bodhisattvas
2B3A Joining the general boundaries
After the path of the pratyeka-buddhas is the path of the bod

hisattvas.
231
2B3B Individual natures

2B3B1 The path of vision
2B3B1B The divisions
3B1B 1 Briefly showing the moments
3B1B1A Root text
11.
FOUR PARTS: THE INSTANTS OF TOLERANCE
AND KNOWLEDGE REGARDING EACH OF THE TRUTHS160

EXPLAIN THE PATH OF VISION AND ITS ADVANTAGES161
IN (THE CONTEXT OF) PATH-OMNISCIENCE. It is said.
3B1B1B Commentary
In the case of path-omniscience, bodhisattvas should meditate on

1) tolerance of dharma knowledge, 2) dharma-knowledge, 3) toler
ance of subsequent knowledge, and 4) subsequent knowledge. These
four instants of tolerance and knowledge are connected with each of
the truths of suffering and so forth, (and) have qualities of (both)
this world and the world to come.162 (This is) called "the great ad
vantage of the path of vision."
3B1B2 Explaining extensively how to meditate on the aspects
3B1B2A The text continues
If asked, "What sort of aspects should be meditated on?"
160 m "regarding truth and truth"

161 Tib.
, Skt. anidahsa.
162
aihikdmutrika, Tib.
232
3B1B2B Root text
12-16.
THE INSTANTS OF PATH-OMNISCIENCE (ARE
DESCRIBED AS): 1) THUSNESS AND BUDDHA MUTUALLY

DO NOT ALLOW SPECIFICATION DUE TO THE NON
EXISTENCE OF SUPPORTER AND SUPPORTED, 2) GREAT,
AND 3) INVALID, 4) IM M EASURABLE, 5) W ITH OU T
EXTREM ES, 6) ASCERTAINM ENT OF FORM AND SO
FORTH EXISTING THERE AS BUDDHAHOOD, 7) NONACCEPTANCE, NON-REJECTION, AND SO FORTH, 8) LOVE
AND
SO
FO R TH ,
BUDDHAHOOD,
9)
11)
E M PTIN ESS,
A CQ U IR IN G
10)
ALL
A TTA IN IN G
(K IN D S
OF)
COMPLETE PURITY, 12) REMOVING ALL ANXIETY AND

SICKNESS, 13) PACIFYING THE GRASPING FOR NIRVANA,
14) PROTECTED AND SO FORTH BY THE BUDDHAS, 15)
ABIDING O N ESELF IN THE MANNER O F OVERALL
OM NISCIENCE, NOT KILLING AND SO FORTH LEADS
(O TH ER)
SEN T IEN T
BEINGS
(TO
T H A T ),
AND
16)
GENEROSITY AND SO FORTH DEDICATED TO COMPLETE

ENLIGHTENMENT. It is said.
3B1B2C Commentary
1B2C1 Extensive explanation
1B2C1A The aspects of (the truth of) suffering
233
These are the aspects of the truth of suffering: 1) ultimately,

properties of supporter and supported do not exist regarding thusness and Buddha so one cannot accept them as different
(phenomena), 2) greatness of form and so forth by the nature of the
Dharmadhatu, 3) similarly, valid cognition of them does not exist,
and 4) as before, they are immeasurable, as space is immeasurable.
1B2C1B The aspects of (the truth of) origin
These are the aspects of the truth of origin: 1) since there is no

nature in form and so forth, the extremes of etemalism and nihilism
and so forth do not exist, 2) abiding in prajnaparamita and ascer
taining form and so forth as the Tathagata him self with the nature
of the Dharmadhatu, 3) similarly, remaining there164 and meditat
ing without acceptance or rejection and so forth on all dharmas, and
4) meditating on the four immeasurables which are the preliminar
ies of natureless faith.165
1B2C1C The aspects of the truth of cessation
These are the aspects of the truth of cessation: 1) emptiness by

inherent nature is the innate nature of form and so forth, 2) attain
ing the state of a Tathagata (as) the result of roots of virtue equal
to the D h a r m a d h a tu ,
3) the remedies are all included in
165 Skt. paramparah paryayenavasthiter, Tib.

literally "not abiding as mutually specified".
1^4 i.c, in prajnaparamita.
165 Skt. nihsvabhOvddhimoksa, Tib.
234
prajnaparamita, and 4) pacifying internal and external misfortune

by that {prajnaparamita).
1B2C1D The aspects of the truth of the path
These are are the aspects of the truth of the path: 1) pacifying
craving for form and so forth and nirvana by meditating on the ab
sence of inherent nature, 2) the Buddhas will protect, guard, and
hide (one who is) engaged in wisdom and skillful technique, 3) by
strongly desiring Buddhahood oneself and abiding in (accordance
with) overall omniscience, such as abandoning killing and so forth,
establishing others in (such practices), and 4) desiring to make gen
erosity and so forth inexhaustible, one dedicates (them) to perfect
enlighteriment.
1B2C2 Summarized meaning
Those are the instants of path-omniscience.

1B3 Refuting the claim that the aspects were not taught
1B3A The claim
Someone says, "The section which was supposed to explain the

meaning o f the verses here did not explain the meaning of the
aspects. It gave (only) a simple explanation of the 16 instants of the
path of vision. And in the verses about the nirvedha-bhagiya and so
forth as well, what was and was not explained should be seen in that
(same) way."
1B3B Refutation
235
Others say, "Because those (verses) did not teach the stages of
meditation and so forth, they did not teach the stages of abhisamaya
at all.166 Furthermore, how do you interpret the verses referent and
aspect'167 and so forth?"168
2B2C1B2B3B2 The path of meditation
3B2A Joining the general boundaries
Following the path of vision, the topic is path of meditation.

3B2B Explaining them individually
3B2B1 Activity of the path of meditation
Its activity is (stated) briefly for the progress of trainees who are
headed for the result and since there are (only) a few topics.
3B2B1B Root text
17.
(ITS ACTIVITY CONSISTS OF:) THOROUGH
CONTROL, BOWING TO ALL, VICTORY OVER DELUSIONS,

NOT
B E IN G
A FFECTED
BY
I N J U R I E S ,1 6 9
ENLIGHTENMENT, AND WORSHIPPING THE BASIS. It is

said.
3B2B1C Commentary
166 lit., "even a little"

167 not traced.
tro
It is unclear how this passage is supposed to refute the previous objection.
169 Conze: 1954b, p. 37: "no occasion for attacks".
236
The six types of activities (of the path of meditation) are: 1) to

make the mind completely self-disciplined, 2) to bow to all beings
such as the virtuous friend and so forth, 3) to overcome attachment
and so forth, 4) not (in) the range of other's violence,170 5) to ac
complish perfect complete enlightenment, and 6) to provide a foun
dation for worship.
3B2B2 The path of meditation which has those activities
After the (six types of) activity is the path of meditation. It has
two aspects, specified as being and not being contaminated.
3B2B2B Their individual natures
3B2B2B1 The contaminated path of meditation
3B2B2B1A The text continues by dividing
The contaminated path of meditation consists of what are called

"attitudes of faith, dedication, and rejoicing."
3B2B2B1B Explaining them individually
2B1B1 Faith
2B1B1A Actual
The first (part of the contaminated) path of meditation (is char

acterized by) "the attitude of faith."
2B1B1A2 Root text
lit "not being an object of the accomplishment of injuries by others"
237
18-19.
FAITH IS KNOWN AS HAVING THREE-FOLD
(MENTAL CONTENT): FOR SELF INTEREST, FOR MUTUAL

INTEREST, AND FOR OTHER INTEREST. FURTHER, EACH
IS CLAIMED AS SLIGHT, MEDIUM, AND GREAT. UPON
FURTHER DIVISION INTO THREE (EACH): SLIGHT OF THE
SLIGHT AND SO FORTH, TWENTY SEVEN ASPECTS ARE
STATED. It is said.
2B1B1A3 Commentary
Although it is the basis for virtuous dharmas which are realized

according to (one's) intention, the objectives of faith are ones own,
mutual, and others' benefit. In terms of being a path of meditation,
these three are not immediately apparent. Also each of those three
types is specified as slight and so forth. Furthermore, each (of those
three specifications) are divided into a further three types: slight of
the slight and so forth individually. Thus with three sets of nine,
(there are) twenty-seven types of faith (-oriented contaminated path
of meditation).
2B1B1B Beneficial qualities
2B1B1B1 The text continues
There are praises, justifications, and recommendations because

Buddhas and others praise and so forth such faith in order to make a
bodhisattva who meditates on that enthusiastic.
2B1B1B2 Root text
238
IN CASES OF FAITH IN PRAJNAPARAM ITA, TO
20.
PRAISE, JUSTIFY, AND COM M END171 ARE STATED TO

HAVE THREE SETS OF NINE. It is said.
2B1B1B3 Commentary
The first, second, and third stages of attitudes of faith in

prajnaparamita whose character is a dharma which is realized in
accordance with (the degree of) faith, become higher and higher in
each of nine occasions. Those nine forms (each apply to) the three
stages called praises, justifications, and commendations becoming
more and more delighted in order. Thus these praises and so forth
have the characteristic of understanding things just as they truly are.
They do not have the nature of insincere flattery.
2B1B2 Dedication
Since there will be dedication of such faith, the second is called

"the attitude of dedication."
2B1B2B Root text
21-23.
ITS
SUPREM E ACTIVITY
IS D ISTIN C TIV E
DEDICATION. IT HAS THE ASPECT OF NON-PERCEPTION,

(AND) A NON-M ISTAKEN CH ARACTERISTIC. (IT IS)
ISOLATED, AND HAS A RANGE WHICH RECALLS THE
171 Skt. stutih stobhah praJamsS, Tib.

1954b, p. 39: "praise, eulogy, glorification".
^ Conze:
239
INHERENT NATURE OF BUDDHA'S ACCUMULATION OF

M ERIT. DEDICATION HAS TECHNIQUE, IS SIGNLESS,
APPROVED BY THE BUDDHA, NOT INCLUDED IN THE
THREE REALMS, AND ANOTHER (WHOSE) NATURE GIVES
RISE TO THREE TYPES OF GREAT M ERIT: SLIGHT,
MEDIUM, AND GREAT. It is said.
2B1B2C Commentary
(Dedication means:) 1) having the special faith which was ex

plained, 2) lacking perception, 3) unmistaken, 4) isolated, 5) recall
ing the inherent nature of the Tathagota's accumulation of roots of
virtue, 6) possessing skillful technique, 7) signless, 8) authorized by
the Buddha, 9) not included in the three realms, 10) slight, 11)
medium, and 12) great, giving rise to great merit. The attitudes
given such names refer to: 1) supreme enlightenment, 2) the skandhas of morality and so forth, 3) the mind which dedicates, 4) the
properties of having a self and so forth, 5) the virtues of the
Buddhas of the three tim es,172 6) generosity, 7) signs, 8) all paths,
9) the realms of desire and so forth, 10) the paths o f the ten virtu
ous actions, 11) stream enterers and so forth, and 12) abiding in
supreme enlightenment, respectively, without perceiving them.
Having the nature and activity of a cause which teaches the path to
sentient beings who are to be trained by the three vehicles, they
172 the three times = the past, the present, and the future
240
make (these) twelve types of dedication to supreme perfect com

plete enlightenment for the inexhaustible benefit of all sentient be
ings.
2B1B3 Rejoicing
Since the properties which are well dedicated should be in

creased, the third is called "the attitude of rejoicing."
2B1B3B Root text
24.
REJOICING IN THE ROOTS OF VIRTUE WITH
TECHNIQUE AND NON-PERCEPTION, ARE THE (PATH OF)

MEDITATION WITH THE ATTITUDE OF REJOICING. It is
said.
2B1B3C Commentary
There should be rejoicing with a joyful mind referring to con

ventional roots of virtue and techniques without perceiving (them)
ultimately.
2B1C Summary
To summarize: an attitude of faith produces merit like lumps of

gold from a mine; an attitude of dedication makes the limbs of per
fect complete enlightenment like a goldsmith (makes) ornaments;
and an attitude of rejoicing will equalize the merits of oneself and
others.
2B2 The uncontaminated path of meditation
241
2B2A The text continues by dividing
After the contaminated, the path of meditation without contami

nation is also of two types.
2B2B Their individual natures
2B2B1 Path of meditation of attainment
First is the path of meditation with the characteristic of attain

ment.
2B1B Root text
25.
(IT IS DIVIDED INTO :) ITS NATURE AND
SU PREM A CY, NOT A CCOM PLISHING
A N Y T H IN G ,173
BESTOW AL (OF) DHARM AS W ITHOUT PERCEIVIN G

(THEM, AND) THE GREAT PURPOSE. It is said.
2B1C Commentary
1) It has the nature of seeing form and so forth unmistakenly. 2)

It is supreme (since) others will not attain Buddhahood. 3) It does
not accomplish anything (because one) endeavors to realize the dis
tinctive birthlessness of all dharmas. 4) It is bestowal without per
ceiving dharmas (since) a path which has such a nature and so forth
arises in the continuum of a yogi. 5) It has a great purpose by pro
ducing the great purpose (which is) Buddhahood.
1^3 Skt. sarvasyQnabhisamskrtih, related by Obermiller: 1931, p. 253n to

Ratnagotra-vibiulga II.51.
242
2B2 Utterly pure path of meditation

2B2A Differences of causes
Next, dispelling doubts about the causes of the production and

non-production of this (utterly pure path of meditation), which will
be attained by upholding some and forsaking others, second (is) the
characteristics of the utterly pure (path of meditation).
2B2A2 Root text
26-27.
SERVING BUDDHA, GENEROSITY AND SO
FORTH, AND SKILLFUL TECHNIQUE ARE THE CAUSES OF

FAITH H ERE. THE CAUSES OF BEING
BEREFT OF
DHARMA ARE THE BLESSING174 OF M ARA, NO FAITH IN

THE PROFOUND
SKANDHAS,
DHARM A, ATTACHM ENT TO TH E
AND BEING TAKEN HOLD OF BY A BAD
FRIEND. It is said.
2B2A3 Commentary
It is produced by: 1) pleasing the Buddhas, 2) fulfilling the

paramitas of generosity and so forth, and 3) skill in quiescence. It
is prevented by: 1) mischief caused by Mara, 2) lacking faith in the
profound Dharma, 3) grasping at things, and 4) befriending vicious
companions.
174 Skt. adhisthSna, Tib. has

t "being oppressed by the dark
ness". Conze: 1954b, p. 42 gives "being under the influence of Mara".
243
2B2B Objects
Having thus explained the causes of attaining and not attaining

(it), now for complete purity in general.
2B2B2 Root text
28.
THE PURITY OF THE RESULT (IS) THE PURITY
OF FORM AND SO FORTH. WHY? SINCE THE TW O ARE

NOT DIFFERENT, ARE NOT SEPARATE, (IT IS) CALLED
PURITY. It is said.
2B2B3 Commentary
The result of the ascetic methods of an Arya person is com

pletely pure due to separation from all hostile states and is the
complete purity (of) form and so forth. The complete purity of that
result and of form and so forth is distinctive because it is not at
tached and so forth to form and so forth as a self. W hy is their
complete purity not separate, not different? Their specific and gen
eral characteristics ate not different. Therefore complete purity is
stated in that way.
2B2C Effect
Having mentioned complete purity in general, (next are its)

specifics.
2B2C2 Root text
244
29.
THE PURITY OF STUDENTS, RHINOCEROSES,
AND SONS O F THE CONQUEROR (RESU LTS FROM)

FORSAKING DELUSIONS, OBJECTS OF KNOWLEDGE, AND
TH E THREE PATHS. (THE PURITY OF) BUDDHA IS
ENDLESS IN EVERY RESPECT. It is said.
2B2C3 Commentary
The purities of 1) the sriivakas, 2) pratyeka-buddhas, and 3)

bodhisattvas result from abandoning 1) the delusions of attachment
and so forth, 2) those and one part of the cognitive obscurations, the
concepts of objective things, and 3) the three obscurations of the
paths of the three vehicles, respectively. By completely abandoning
delusions, cognitive obscurations, and their latencies, the infinite
complete purity which comes from the Dharmadhatu is stated to be
(that) of the supreme Buddha.
2B2D Different natures
2B2D1 Being or not being infinitely completely pure
2B2DIA Question
In addition to mentioning complete purity in the case of the

path-omniscience, (it also mentions) the complete purity of the
Buddhas and sravakas and so forth. If asked, "How do you explain
endless and the other (characteristics)?"
2B2D1B Reply
2B2D1B1 Root text
245
30.
ON THE NINE STAGES, REMEDIES OF TH E
GREAT OF THE GREAT AND SO FORTH STAINS ARE THE

PURITIES (OF) THE SLIGHT OF THE SLIGHT AND SO
FORTH PATHS. It is said.
2B2D1B2 Commentary
On the nine stages (i.e.,) the desire realm, the (four) dhyanas,
and the (four) formless absorptions, the natures of the remedies of
the nine types of the great of the great and so forth hostile states
(are) respectively the nine types of the slight of the slight and so
forth paths. Because they completely purify all types and the
other,175 they are called endless complete purity and the other.
2B2D2 Accomplishing the infinite complete purity of Buddha
2B2D2A The text continues
If asked, "What is the endless?"

2B2D2B Root text
31.
BY REJECTING AN OBJECTION TO THAT, THE
PATH IS STATED TO BE THE REMEDY OF THE THREE

REALMS BY THE EQUALITY OF WHAT MEASURES AND
WHAT IS MEASURED. It is said.
2B2D2C Commentary
175 This appears to refer to the other division of the uncontaminated path of medi
tation, that of attainment.
246
The objection is that: "The great of the great and so forth reme
dies are suitable for the small of the small and so forth discordant
states."176 It is rejected with the example of a washerpersons effort
for a long time to clean a subtle stain in a cloth. What is taught
(about) the endless path of meditation is the same because not per
ceiving consciousness and the objects of knowledge with the aspects
of the three realms is the very nature of all remedies. Thus the
complete purity of the Buddha is presented as endless.
2B2C1B3 Finishing the chapter
The commentary of the second chapter of a Treatise of Oral

Instructions of the Prajnaparam ita called The Ornament of A b hisamayas.
17f%
And thus the purity of Buddha will not be endless.
247
CHAPTER THREE
THE KNOWLEDGE OF BASES
2B2C1C Explaining the knower of bases
1C1 The text continues by giving the commentary
Since there is no full understanding of the path without fully

knowing all bases, (next we explain) omniscience.
1C2 Explaining the text of the chapter
1C2A The nature of the knower of bases
1C2A1 Explaining the close and distant paths
IC2A1A The reasoning of close and distant paths
1C2A1A1 Root text
1.
NOT ON THE EXTREME OF THIS SHORE (OR)
THE FURTHER SHORE, (AND) NOT ABIDING BETWEEN

THEM, IT IS STATED AS PRAJNAPARAMITA BY KNOWING
THE EQUALITY OF THE (THREE) TIMES. It is said.
1A2 Commentary
1A2A The path which refutes the extremes of existence and peace
Through realizing the equality of the dharmas of the three times

in their aspect of non-production, prajiiaparam ita is said to be
close to the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Not abiding on the extreme
of this shore (or) samsara or the extreme o f the further shore (or)
nirvana, characterized as etemalism and nihilism, due to wisdom
248
and compassion respectively, nor between them, it does not abide in

(either) existence or peace.
1A2B The paths of the Srdvakas and pratyeka-huddhas are implied to
be otherwise
Since the opposite is taught in the case of omniscience, the

sravakas and so forth don't have the knowledge of the equality of
the three tim es, and (they) are far away
from
perfect
prajnaparamita. The prajnaparamita which is realized by them

lacks wisdom and compassion by perceiving things and non-things.
Thus they abide in samsara and nirvana.
2B2C1C2A1B Proving that
2A1B1 Dispute
(Someone) may say "Because the tradition says that Whatever is

relativity, that is itself asserted to be empty,177 the knowledge of
the equality of the three times is simply the realization of bases.
Furthermore, doesnt that exist for all? If so, how do sravakas and
bodhisattvas become distant and otherwise from the perfect
prajnaparamita ?"
2A1B2 Reply
2A1B2A Root text
177 NagSijuna, MQla-Madhyamako-KHrika, 24.18ab: Yah pratityasamutpUdah

SunyatOm tOm pracaksmahe, in Kalupahana: 1986, p. 339.
249
2.
TH A T IS DISTANT SINCE IT IS N O T THE
TECHNIQUE (AND IT) PERCEIVES SIGNS. BY SKILLFUL

TECHNIQUE, THAT IS EXPLAINED AS CLOSE TO PER
FECTION. It is said.
2A1B2B Commentary
With regard to illusions created by a magician, (there is) attach

ment (to them) as (real) things by not knowing their intrinsic na
ture. They do not appear to lack a nature. Similarly, being separated
from the skillful technique of a virtuous friend and so forth, and
realizing things with signs, the sravakas and so forth do not have
the gnosis of equality, being ignorant of the nature of things.
Therefore, the mother of the conquerors is far away from them.
The bodhisaltvas, having served the virtuous friend perfectly for a
long time, have correct teachings. Through the skillful technique
which produces the knowledges (arisen from) hearing and so forth
which are based on the two realities, they clear away the mistaken
signs of attachment to things. Fully knowing the dharmas of form
and so forth is itself to fully know their equality. Therefore, they
are close to this perfection.
2A1B2C Summary
(They are) far away by lacking technique, and close due to

(proper) technique.
2B2C1C2A1C The divisions of hostile states and remedies
250
2A1C1 Things to be abandoned and remedies of grasping at signs re

garding the basis and path
2AJCIA Things to be abandoned
2A1Cl A 1 The text continues
Thus, the accomplishment which is far away from the mother of

the sravakas and so forth is a hostile state.
2A1C1A2 Root text
3.
H OSTILE
STATES
(ARE):
TH E
IDEAS
OF
A TTA IN M ENT178 CONCERNING THE EMPTINESS OF THE

SKANDHAS
OF FORM AND SO FORTH, THE DHARMAS
INCLUDED IN THE THREE TIM ES, AND THE WINGS OF

ENLIGHTENM ENT WHICH ARE GENEROSITY AND SO
FORTH. It is said.
2A1C1A3 Commentary
Hostile states perceive dharmas o f the three times such as form

and so forth as things which are both contaminated and uncontami
nated, they view the self which is designated by others as empty,
and they conceive of the attainment of the subsidiaries of enlight
enment such as generosity and so forth. Although they are reme
dies,179 they should be abandoned due to (their) mistaken involve
ment.
178 Skt caryS-samjnd, Tib.
about the practice".
179.in one respect
t Conze: 1954b, p. 44: "false notions
251
2A1C1B Remedies
1C1B1 The text continues
Their opposites are the antidotes of the bodhisattvas.

1C1B2 Root text
4abc.
(THEIR
REM EDIES
ARE:)
NOT GRASPING
GENEROSITY AND SO FORTH AS MINE, URGING OTHERS

TO (DO) THAT, CEASING THE LIMITS OF ATTACHMENT,
AND SUBTLE ATTACHMENT TO THE CONQUERORS AND
SO FORTH. It is said.
1C1B3 Commentary
By completely purifying the three mandalas oneself, and realiz

ing the selflessness of generosity and so forth, (one) urges others (to
do the same). Since they should be accepted due to (their) perfect
involvement which puts an end to all remaining accumulations of
attachment, they are remedies in all ways.
1C2 Things to be abandoned and remedies of grasping at signs in re
sults
1C2A Nature of grasping at signs in results
1C2A1 Root text180
4d.
(SUBTLE ATTACHMENT TO THE CONQUERORS
AND SO FORTH.)
1C2A2 Commentary
180
repeating the last phrase of the previous verse
252
Although prostration and so forth to the Tathagatas and so forth

is indeed a remedy since it causes the accumulation of merit, it (can
also) be a hostile state with the nature of subtle attachment. It is not
(a remedy) in all ways.
PART THREE
1C2B The remedies
1C2B1 Reason for being a hostile state
1C2B1A Question
Further, if asked, "How is subtle attachment a hostile state?"

1C2B1B Reply
1C2B1B1 Root text
5ab.
THE PATH OF DHARMA IS PROFOUND SINCE IT
IS ISOLATED BY ITS ESSENTIAL NATURE. It is said.

1C2B1B2 Commentary
Why? Since (all) classes of dharmas are empty by nature, they

themselves are profound. Therefore, even perceiving the Tathagata
is a hostile state.
1C2B2 Remedies which abandon
1C2B2A Question
If asked, "Well then, how (is it) abandoned?"

1C2B2B Reply
1C2B2B1 Root text
253
5cd.
(O N E )
ABANDONS
ATTACHM ENT
BY
KNOWING THE SINGLE ESSENTIAL NATURE OF (ALL)

DHARMAS. It is taught.
1C2B2B2 Commentary
All dharmas (such as) form and so forth have only one essential
nature. That is, "(they) lack an inherent nature." One abandons at
tachment by fully understanding the unity and equality of knowl
edge and objects of knowledge.
1C2C Supplementary topics
1C2C1 Reasoning of the profound
1C2C1A Question
Further, if asked, "How is the inherent nature of dharmas pro

found?"
1C2C1B Reply
1C2C1B1 Root text
6ab.
IT
U N DERSTA ND
IS
E X PL A IN E D
AS
DUE TO CEA SIN G
D IF F IC U L T
TO
SEEING AND SO
FORTH.181 It is said.
1C2C1B2 Commentary
181 Conze: 1954b, p. 45: "hand to understand because (its intuition is reached by)
the annulment of sight-objects (and of all other objects of empirical conscious
ness)".
254
Its nature is described as difficult to understand since one clears

away all the objects of consciousness. Therefore, that itself is pro
found.
1C2C2 Reasoning of the difficult to understand
1C2C2A Question
Further, if asked, "What is that (which is) difficult to understand

like?"
1C2C2B Reply
1C2C2B1 Root text
6cd.
IT IS STATED TO BE INCONCEIVABLE BY NOT
COGNIZING FORM AND SO FORTH. It is said.

1C2C2B2 Commentary
It is difficult to understand since the inherent natures o f (all

dharmas, from) form and so forth through the aspects of the special
Buddha dharmas are not comprehended. Thus it is said to surpass
conception.
1C3 Final summary
1C3A The text continues
Having thus expressed the hostile states and so forth, (there is) a
final summary.
1C3B Root text
255
7.
ALL DISTINCTIONS OF REMEDY AND HOSTILE
STATE ARE EXPLAINED IN THIS WAY IN THE SYSTEM OF

OMNISCIENCE. It is said.
1C3C Commentary
The distinctions of the hostile state and remedies of the sravakas

and bodhisattvas should be known since they have been explained
just as they are in the context of omniscience.
2B2C1C2A2 Application of the knowledge of bases
2A2A Divisions
2A2A1 The text continues
Having thus stated the hostile states and so forth, if asked,

"What is the application182 which develops183 those?" (next is)
application.
2A2A2 Root text
8-10ab.
THE
R E G A R D IN G
A P P L IC A T IO N
FO R M
IM PE R M A N E N C E
AND
AND
SO
C E A SE S
SO
A C T IV IT Y
FORTH,
FORTH,
T H E IR
T H E IR
NON
COMPLETION AND COMPLETION, NON-ATTACHMENT TO

THEM, UNCHANGING, LACK OF AN AGENT, AND THE
APPLICATION OF THE THREE KINDS OF DIFFICULT ACTS.
THERE ARE (ALSO THREE) RESULTS (W HICH ARE)
182 S k t prayoga, Tib.
183 Skt. vibhOvanii, Tib. aprW*j3j*rr .
2 56
A T T A IN E D
A C C O R D IN G
TO
C IR C U M S T A N C E ,184
INDEPENDENT OF OTHERS, MAKE KNOWN THE SEVEN

TYPES OF APPEARANCE. It is said.
2A2A3 Commentary
2A2A3A Shown directly
There are ten kinds of bodhisattva applications which reject the

full knowledge of the activities of: 1) all phenomena (such as) form
and so forth, 2) their impermanence and emptiness and so forth, 3)
their individual non-completion and completion, 4) non-attachment.
5) not becoming otherwise, 6) lacking an agent, 7) the difficulty of
the motivation, the application, and the activity, which are respec
tively the essences o f the three omnisciences, 8) non-emptiness by
attaining the result according to circumstances, 9) not progressing
conditioned by others, and seven appearances to consciousness: 10a)
complete transformation,185 b) collected together,186 c) contradic
to ry ,187 d) conditions,188 e) not transferring,189 0 without a ba
sis,190 and g) not being agents.191
184 Skt. yathabhavyam, Tib.

t Conze: 1954b, p. 46: "which cor
responds to the merits (acquired by the meditator)".
like a dream
!86 like an illusion
18? like a mirage
188 like an echo
like a reflection
*90 like a city of gandharvas
1^ 1 like emanations
257
2A2A3B Applications of Sravakas and pratyeka-buddhas arc implied
Having shown (the bodhisattvas' applications) in that way, the

applications of the sravakas and so forth are implied as their op
posites.
2A2B Nature
2A2B1 The text continues
As it is necessary to meditate on the applications as equal,

equality follows the applications.
2A2B2 Root text
lOcd.
EQUALITY (IS) OF FOUR TYPES W ITHOUT
THOUGHTS192 OF FORM AND SO FORTH. It is said.

2A2B3 Commentary
Equality is entirely free from perceiving thoughts of 1) attach

ment to form and so forth, 2) the marks o f blue and so forth, 3)
mental constructions, and 4) realizations, since the applications are
equal.
2A3 The results of meditating on the applications
2A3A The instants shown in brief
As it is necessary to meditate on the path of vision after realiz

ing the equality of all the applications, (next is) the path of vision.
192 skt. amananQ, Tib.

. Conze: 1967a, p. 312 gives preconception;
also sec Edgerton: 1985, p. 417; and Monier-Williams; 1982, p. 783.
258
3A2 Root text
11.
THE PATH OF VISION IN THE CA SE OF
OM NISCIENCE HAS THE ESSENCE O F MOMENTS OF

DHARMA KNOW LEDGE, SUBSEQUENT KNOW LEDGE,
TO LERA N CE, (AND) KNOW LEDGE REGARDING THE
TRUTHS OF SUFFERING AND SO FORTH. It is said.
3A3 Commentary
(The moments are) the patience of dharma knowledge and

dharma knowledge, the patience of subsequent knowledge and sub
sequent knowledge regarding each truth. Thus, the essence o f six
teen instants is the path of vision in the context o f omniscience.
3B Extensive explanation of the aspects
3B1 Question
If asked, "What are the aspects of the truths?"

3B2 Reply
3B2A Root text
12-15.
THE INSTANTS OF OMNISCIENCE ARE: FORM
IS NEITHER PERMANENT NOR IMPERMANENT, BEYOND

EXTREMES, PURIFIED, NOT PRODUCED OR STOPPED AND
SO FO RTH , LIKE SPA CE, W ITH O U T C O V E R IN G ,193
LIBERATED FROM ACQUISITION, INEXPRESSIBLE BY
193 Skt. lepa-varjitam, Tib.

^ Conzc; 1954 b, p. 47: "without (any)
pollution". See Edgerton: 1985, p. 463; Monier-Williams: 1982, p. 902.
259
NATURE, AND THEREFORE THIS MEANING CANNOT BE

CONVEYED TO OTHERS BY WORDS, ACTION WITHOUT
PERCEPTION, ABSOLUTELY PURE, DISEASES DO NOT
A R ISE ,
LOW ER
R E B IR T H S 194 ARE STOPPED, NON
CONCEPTUALIZATION IN REGARD TO MANIFESTING THE

RESULT,
NOT
CONNECTED
W ITH
S IG N S ,
AND
PRODUCING NO CONSCIOUSNESS OF EITHER THINGS OR

NAM ES.195 It is said.
3B2B Commentary
3B2B1 Path of vision shown directly
3B2B1A Explained individually
3B2B1A1 The aspects of the tolerance and knowledge of (the truth of)
suffering
The aspects of the truth of suffering are that form and so forth
are: 1) neither permanent nor impermanent because (they) lack na
tures, 2) separate from the extremes of etemalism and nihilism by
being separate from suffering and non-suffering, 3) completely pure
by being separate from empty and non-empty, and 4) lacking both
full delusion and complete purity as the nature of self or selfless is
neither produced nor ceased, and so forth.
19^ Skt apSya, Tib.
. Edgcrton: 1985, p. 46.
195 Conze: 1954b, p. 48: "non-genesis of the cognition of entities and their verbal
expressions as two separate items."
260
origin
(The aspects of) the truth of origin are: 1) like space because of
ate irrelevance196 of cause and non-cause, 2) without delusions and
im p u rities197 by lacking origin and non-origin, 3) free from ac
quisition since not related to production and non-production, and 4)
inexpressible by inherent nature due to complete freedom from con
ditions and non-conditions.
3B2B1 A3 The aspects of the tolerance and knowledge of (the truth of)
cessation
(The aspects of) the truth of cessation are: 1) unrelated to cessa

tion and non-cessation so the meaning of the truth o f cessation can
not be conveyed to the continua of others verbally, 2) actions with
out perceiving the non-existence of peace and non-peace, 3) beyond
the two extremes and completely pure being separate from excel
lence198 and non-excellence, and 4) without diseases because salvation
1QQ
and non-salvation also do not exist.

the path
196 skt. tucchatva, Tib.

.
197 Skt. upakleia. Edgerton: 1985, p. 134.
198 Skt. pranlta. Edgerton: 1985, p. 360.
199 Skt. nihsarana. Edgerton: 985, p. 310.
261
(The aspects of) the truth of the path: 1) stop lower rebirths due
to separation from path and non-path, 2) do not conceptualize the
technique with the aim of manifesting the result by non-involve
ment with proper and improper, 3) do not contact the marks of any
dharma by freedom from accomplishment and non-accomplishment,
and 4) without the arisal of consciousness regarding either the ob
ject of knowledge or the word since neither transcendent nor non
transcendent characteristics of the natures of the topic and language
exist.
3B2B1B Summary
Those instants of omniscience with such aspects are the path of

vision of the bodhisattvas.
3B2B2 The implied path of vision
The path of vision of the sravakas is the opposite, with the

aspects of impermanence and so forth.
3B2B3 Reason for not teaching the path of meditation
3B2B3A Interpretation
Bodhisattvas should fully know the sravaka path in omni

science, but since it should not be manifested, the (sravaka ) path of
meditation is not taught.
2B2C1C2B Final cu.rjnary of the three omnisciences
262
Having thus taught extensively, a final summary o f the three

omnisciences summarizes every meaning.
2B2 Root text
16.
THUS, THERE IS THIS AND ALSO THIS AND
ALSO TH IS. THESE THREE ~
ES CONCLUDE THE
TEACHING OF THE THREE CHAPTERS. It is said.

2B3 Commentary
In the manner just explained, THIS overall omniscience AND

THIS path-omniscience AND THIS omniscience, (these) three
types complete the (first) three chapters.
2B2C1C3 Finishing the chapter
The commentary o f the third chapter of a Treatise o f Oral

Instructions on P r a jn a p a r a m ita
called The O rnam ent of
Abhisamayas.
263
CHAPTER FOUR
COMPLETE REALIZATION OF THE ASPECTS
2B2C2 Extensive explanation of the four applications
2B2C2A The strengthening causes and effects
2B2C2A1 AH aspects of causes which strengthen
2A1A Joining the boundary by giving the relation
Since one meditates on the three omnisciences which include the

knowledge o f bases, paths, and all aspects for the sake of fully un
derstanding and mastering them, one will fully realize all aspects.
2A1B Explaining the text of the chapter
2A1B1 General presentation of the instantaneous realization of the aspects
2A1B1A Nature of the instantaneous realization of the aspects
2 A 1B 1A 1 Knowing the remedies of all the hostile states
1A1A Shown in brief
1A1A1 Root text
1.
THE PARTICULARS OF THE KNOWLEDGE OF
BASES ARE CALLED ASPECTS. THERE ARE SAID TO BE

TH REE TY PES, BECAUSE THE OM N ISCIENCES ARE
THREE TYPES. It is said.
1A1A2 Commentary
The natures of the dharmas which cure hostile states (such as)
grasping (the skandhas ) as permanent and so forth are the varieties
264
of gnosis which perceive impermanence and so forth, which are

presented as the aspects. That is the mark. Furthermore, there are
said to be just three types, by the varieties of the three omni
sciences.
1A1B Extensive explanation
1A 1B 1 Aspects of the knowledge of bases
1A1B1A The text continues
Having taught the aspects in general, now in particular.

1A1B1B Root text
2.
(TH ER E ARE)
(E X C E PT
PA T H ).
FOR
FOUR
THE
FOR EACH
PATH
TRU TH
FIFT EE N
ARE
REMEMBERED, FROM THE ASPECT OF NON-EXISTENCE

THROUGH THE ASPECT OF THE UNSHAKEABLE. It is said.
1A1B1C Commentary
1A1B1C1 Aspects of the first three truths
(These) twelve aspects are respectively the characteristics of im

permanence and so forth of the three truths of suffering and so forth
in the chapter on omniscience: 1) non-existent, 2) not produced, 3)
isolated, 4) not oppressed, 5) not abiding, 6) space, 7) inexpressible,
8) nameless, 9) without progress, 10) not appropriated, 11) inexhaustible, and 12) not produced.
200
1A 1B1C2 Aspects of the truth of the path
2fi0
Skt. for 2 is anutpdda, for 12 anutpatti.
265
1A1B1C2A Divisions of the truth of the path shown briefly
One uncontaminated path cures the delusory obscurations, and

since pratyeka-buddhas are also included in (the chapter on) omni
science, there are two remedies of the cognitive obscurations: the
contaminated path o f meditation and the uncontaminated, (making)
three types of path.
1A 1B 1C2B Extensive explanation
1A1B1C2B1 Dividing the remedies of delusory obscurations into
four
For the first, the four aspects of 1) non-agent, 2) non-knowl

edge, 3) non-transference, and 4) non-training are respectively the
characteristics of path and so forth.
1A1B1C2B2 Contaminated remedies of cognitive obscurations
For the second, the five aspects of 1) dream, 2) echo, 3) replica,

4) mirage, and 5) illusion are respectively the characteristics of 1)
naturelessness, 2) not produced, 3) not stopped, 4) pacified from the
beginning, and 5) nirvana by inherent nature, (which) will cure
general cognitive obscurations.
1A1B1C2B3 Uncontaminated remedies of cognitive obscurations
For the third, the six aspects o f 1) not fully deluded, 2) not
completely pure, 3) not covered, 4) without mental construction, 5)
without pride, and 6) unshakeable are respectively the remedies as
signed to the cognitive obscurations which conceptualize: 1) full
266
delusion, 2) complete purity, 3) the latencies of delusions, 4) mental

constructions of form and so forth, 5) one's own understanding, and
6) loss.
1A1B1C2C Summary
Thus, (there are) fifteen aspects regarding the truth of the path
1A1B1C3 Summary of the enumeration
In general there are twenty-seven aspects of omniscience.

1A1B2 Aspects of path-omniscience
1A1B2A The text continues
Next are the aspects of path-omniscience.

1A1B2B Root text
3.
EIGHT, SEV EN , FIVE, AND SIX TEEN ARE
PROCLAIMED REGARDING CAUSE, PATH, SUFFERING,

AND CESSATION, RESPECTIVELY. It is said.
1A1B2C Commentary
1A1B2C1 Shown in general
It is implied that the truths of origin and path are causes depend
ing on full delusion and the other side,201 and the truths of suffer
ing and cessation are (their) results. One should bear in mind the
"eight aspects" and so forth regarding the truths of origin, path, suf
fering, and cessation, as they are counted (above).
1A1B2C2 Explained individually
201
i.e., complete purity.
267
1A1B2C2A Showing the remedies and abandonments of the truth of

origin
Among the aspects of: 1) separate from attachment, 2) not

abiding, 3) pacified, 4) non-attachment, 5) non-hatred, 6) non-con
fusion, 7) non-delusion, and 8) non-existence of (self existent) sen
tient beings respectively, those which are cause (are): 1) desire, 2)
attachment, 3) joy; those which are origination (are): 4) attachment,
5) hatred, and 6) confusion; that which is production (is): 7) imagi
nation;202 and that which is condition (is). 8) attachment to sentient
beings. Three and three and one and one (of the former group) will
be their remedies. Thus there are eight aspects of the truih of the
cause.
1A1B2C2B Shown by means of promising the truth of the path
The aspects of: 1) limitless, 2) not connected with the two ex

tremes, 3) not different, 4) not taken as the best, 5) not conceptual
izing, 6) not measurable, and 7) non-attachment are respectively: 1)
the path which gives the opportunity (for liberation) to all sentient
beings, 2) how it gives that opportunity to all sentient beings, 3)
that which is standard, 4) how it is standard, 5) that which is ac
complishment, 6) how it is accomplishment, and 7) that which is
transcendence. Their natures (are): two, two, two, and one. Thus
there are seven aspects of the truth of the path.
202 Skt. parikalpa.
1A1B2C2C Explained by means of the specific and general character

istics of suffering
Aspects of: 1) impermanence, 2) suffering, 3) empty, 4) selfless,

and 5) the fifth, the nature of the aspect which lacks a characteris
tic,203 are the five aspects of the truth of suffering.
1A1B2C2D Explained by the beneficial qualities of cessation
2C2D1 Aspects of cessation
The nature of the aspects of cessation which stop things which

are: 1) internal, 2) external, and 3) both, are the three aspects of
emptiness of: 1) internal, 2) external, and 3) both, and
2C2D2 Aspects of peace
The nature of the aspects of peace which stop attachment to: 1)

^ n i
the emptiness of the nominal self, 2) the inanimate world,
3) the
ultimate, 4) compounded, 5) non-compounded, 6) the extremes o f

etemalism and nihilism, 7) samsara (which is) without beginning
or end, and 8) dharmas of realization without rejection, are the
eight aspects of emptiness of: 1) empty, 2) great, 3) ultimate, 4)
compounded, 5) uncompounded, 6) absolute, 7) without beginning
or end, and 8) non-repudiation, and
2C2D3 Aspect of excellence
203
Skt. alaksar. dkilra -svabhava.

204 skt. bhdjana-loka. See Edgerton: 1985, p. 408. It refers to the world apart
from sentient beings.
269
The aspect of excellence stops the agent which is imagined by

others (which is) the aspect of inherent emptiness and
2C2D4 Aspects of transcendence
The aspects of transcendence stop: 1) mistaken imputations of an

essence to objects, 2) characteristics, and 3) mistakes regarding
time, which are the three aspects of the emptiness of: 1) all dharmas, 2) definitions, and 3) non-perception; and 4) just the aspect of
transcendence, and 5) one aspect of the emptiness of the nature of
non-things. Thus, there are sixteen aspects of the truth of cessation.
2C3 General summary
In general, (there) are thirty-six aspects of path-omniscience.

2B2C2A1B1A1B3 Aspects of overall omniscience
1B3A Shown briefly
Next are the aspects of overall omniscience.

1B3A2 Root text
4-5.
FROM THE FOUNDATIONS OF MINDFULNESS
TO THE A SPECTS OF BU D D HAHOOD, THERE
ARE
TH IR TY -SEV EN , TH IRTY -FO U R, (AND) TH IRTY -N IN E

WITH RESPECT TO THE TRUTH OF THE PATH, DIVIDED
AM ONG
THE
STU D EN TS,
TH R EE
O M N IS C IE N C E S ,
BO D H ISA TTV A S,
AND
TH E
FOR
TH E
BUDDHAS
RESPECTIVELY. It is said.
270
1B3A3 Commentary
According to the enumeration, there are thirty-seven aspects for

the sravakas, thirty-four for bodhisattvas, and thirty-nine for Bud
dhas. All Arya persons are included in overall omniscience, since
the path includes the three omnisciences. The aspects range from the
foundations of mindfulness to the aspects of Buddha.
20S
1B3B Extensive explanation

1B3B1 Aspects of knowledge of bases for the Sravakas
1B3B1AI Foundations of mindfulness
Starting with omniscience, there are four aspects of foundations

of mindfulness of body, sensation, mind, and dharma examining
their specific and general characteristics by which the path which
conceptualizes things enters the four truths.
1B3B1A2 Four perfect abandonments
Next, perseverance in comprehension results in the four aspects

of perfect abandonment206 which persevere in perfectly: 1) aban
doning 2) not producing, 3) increasing, and 4) producing produced
and non-produced vice and virtue respectively, in the path which
comes from effort.207
205 SkL Buddhahood.

206 s k t samyak-prahana.
207 to express this more simply, one abandons vice which has been produced,
does not produce any further vice which is not yet produced, increases what virtue
271
1B3B1A3 The four aspects of elements of supernatural power
Since perseverance makes the mind capable, four aspects of ele

ments of supernatural power208 are conditions209 for abandoning
(defects in) sa m a d h i: 1) desire, 2) perseverance, 3) mind, and 4)
analysis, in the path of complete training in samadhi.
1B3B1A4 Five aspects of sense faculties
Since the applications of heat and peak arise (after) completely

training the mind, there are five aspects o f sense faculties of: 1)
faith, 2) perseverance, 3) mindfulness, 4) samadhi, and 5) wisdom
with the natures of heat and peak in the path of application to abhisamaya.
1P3B1A5 The aspects of strengths
Since tolerance and supreme dharma arise (after) attaining heat

and so forth, there are Five aspects of powers of: 1) faith, 2) perse
verance, 3) mindfulness, 4) samadhi, and 5) wisdom with the na
tures of tolerance and supreme dharma in the path which is joined
with abhisamaya.
1B3B1A6 The aspects of subsidiaries of enlightenment
Since the path of seeing the truth arises (after) realizing the four
(degrees of) heat and so forth, there are seven aspects of subsidiaries
has already been produced, and produces virtue which has not already been pro
duced.
208 skt. rddhipoda. Edgerton: 1985, p. 151-2; Conze; 1967a, p. 137.
209 Skt, samskara.
272
of perfect enlightenment:
ot n
1) mindfulness, 2) analysis of dharma,

211
3) perseverance, 4) joy, 5) pliancy,
6) samadhi, and 71 equa
nimity, in the path of abhisamaya.

1B3B1A7 Divisions of the Arya path
As the path of meditation arises (after) completely understand

ing the vision o f the truth, there are eight aspects of the eightlimbed holy path: perfect 1) view, 2) thought, 3) speech, 4) activ
ity, 5) livelihood, 6) exercise, 7) mindfulness, and 8) samadhi, in
the path c f completely pure transcendence.
1B3B1B Summary
Thus, there are thirty-seven aspects based on the path of omni

science for students.
1B3B2 Aspects of path-omniscience for bodhisattvas
1B3B2A1 The path of remedies
The path of remedies in path-omniscience (comprises): 1)

remedies produced by opinions, 2) remedies of concepts of their
signs, and 3) remedies of longing for the three realms. Their natures
are, respectively: 1) the nature of the aspects of empty and selfless
is the first door of liberation, 2) the nature of the aspects of the
truths of cessation and the path is the second, and 3) the nature of
210 SkL bodhyahga. Edgerton: 1985, p. 403; Conze: 1967a, p. 303.

211 Skt.prafrabdhi, Tib.
***. Also "suppleness.
273
the aspects of impermanence, suffering, and the truth of origin is

the third. These are the three aspects of the three doors of libera
tion.
1B3B2A2 Paths of emanation
Two complete liberations in the path of emanation:
212
^ being 1)
not free from and 2) free from discrimination of form, one views
internal and external forms respectively 1) with form and 2) with
out form. These two liberations cure emanated obscurations, and
one abides with a body after manifesting and fulfilling the attractive
door of complete liberation, regarding the emanation of attractive
and unattractive form as remedies for the delusions of pleasure and
displeasure respectively. These are the three aspects of complete lib
eration.
1B3B2A3 Paths abiding in bliss in visual phenomena
The path which abides in bliss in visible dharmas has the inher
ent nature of a path which abides in accordance with liberation, and
it has four aspects of the four formless absorptions and one aspect
with the inherent nature of a path which abides in peace which
ceases thought and sensation. Thus (there are) five aspects.
1B3B2A4 Supramundane paths
The supramundane path has the aspects of the four dhyanas and
the formless and cessational absorptions, (making) nine.
212 Skt. nirmUna, Tib. fj0^ . Edgerton: 1985, p. 302; Conze: 1967a, p. 229.
274
1B3B2A5 Paths of abandonment
The path of abandonment has four aspects of the uninterrupted

path without delusions included in the four truths.
1B3B2A6 Paths of Buddhas
The path of Buddhahood has ten aspects (of) the param itas of
generosity and so forth.
1B3B2B Summary
There are 34 aspects based on the path of path-omniscience for

the bodhisattvas.
1B3B3 Aspects of the special overall omniscience
1B3B3A Shown briefly
The aspects of overall omniscience are a unique path because it

is unsurpassed.
1B3B3B Extensive explanation
1B3B3B1 Divisions of qualities
1B3B3B1A The ten strengths
Ten aspects of the strength of gnosis (concerning): 1) possibili

ties and impossibilities,213 2) ripening of karma, 3) varieties of
faith, 4) the many mundane elements, 5) superior and inferior sense
faculties, 6) paths which go everywhere, 7) full delusion and com
plete purity, 8) memory of former lives, 9) death and rebirth, and
10) exhaustion of contaminations.
213 SkL sthanasthana, Tib.
<r . Edgeiton: 1985, p. 610.
275
3B1B The four fearlessnesses
Four aspects of fearlessness: 1) oneself saying "I am Buddha,"

2) stating that attachment and so forth cause obstruction, 3) fully
teaching that the paths of omniscience and so forth are transcendent,
and 4) claiming that one's own contaminations are exhausted, since
there is no opponent.
3B1C Four kinds of analytical knowledge
Four aspects of analytical knowledge214 regarding the objects

of: 1) enumerations, 2) characteristics of dharmas, 3) human lan
guages, and 4) distinctions of dharmas, (which know) 1) dharmas,
2) meaning, 3) etymology, and 4) insight respectively.
3B1D Eighteen special Buddha dharmas
Six aspects without 1) mistakes, 2) chatter,215 3) forgetfulness,

4) distraction, 5) thoughts of distinction, 6) inconsiderate equanim
ity, and six aspects of constant 7) desire, 8) perseverance, 9) mind
fulness, 10) samadhi,
11) wisdom, and 12) liberation, and three
aspects of 13) bodily, 14) verbal, and 15) mental actions being pre
ceded and followed by gnosis, and three aspects of unimpeded,
unobstructed gnosis regarding the arisal of the 16) past, 17) future,
and 18) present. These are the eighteen aspects of special Buddha
dharmas.
214 s k t pratisamvid. Edgerton: 1985, p. 370; Conze: 1967a, p. 278.

215 Skt. ravita, Tib.
.
276
3B2 Nature
Three aspects of Buddhahood: the thusness explained by all

Buddhas,
3B3 Support
The self arisen which controls aii dharmas, and

3B4 Motivation
Complete perfect enlightenment in aii aspects.

3C Summary
There are thirty-nine aspects based on the path o f the Buddhas'

overall omniscience.
2B2C2A1B1A1C Summary
1A1C1 Summary of the nature
The aspects of omniscience are uncontaminated and contami

nated, by the varieties of the sravakas and bodhisattvas respec
tively. The aspects of path-omniscience are only contaminated, be
cause bodhisattvas have not abandoned delusions completely. The
aspects of the path of overall omniscience are only uncontaminated,
because perfectly enlightened Buddhas control all dharmas through
having completely abandoned delusory and cognitive obscurations
and their imprints.
1A1C2 Summary of the enumeration
If the aspects are combined, there are one hundred and seventy
three.
277
1A2 Identifying the applications which actually destroy true grasping

1A2A The support for collecting roots of virtue
Those aspects must be meditated on with speciai applications,

which cannot be explained without (also explaining) those who ap
ply (them). Those who apply them (are) vessels who listen and so
forth.
1A2A2 Root text
6-7.
VESSELS216 WHO WILL LISTEN TO THIS HAVE
SERVED THE BUDDHAS, PRODUCED ROOTS OF VIRTUE

TOWARD THEM , (AND) ARE PROTECTED BY VIRTUOUS
F R IE N D S .217 THE HOLY ARE CONSIDERED TO BE
VESSELS FOR COMPREHENDING AND RETAINING IT AND
SO FORTH
BECAUSE TH EY
HAVE HONORED TH E
BUDDHAS, QUESTIONED (THEM), AND BEHAVED WITH

GENEROSITY, MORALITY, AND SO FORTH. It is said.
1A2A3 Commentary
The Buddhas and so forth consider (them) to be vessels who,

having planted and trained roots o f virtue in general toward the
Buddhas who have arisen in the past and present, pleased the
T athagatas
by bodily veneration and so forth, questioned the
21 f%
i.e., worthy recipients of this teaching.

217 Obermiller: 1931, p. 147n connects this verse with Ratnagotra-vibhaga 1.22.
278
doubtful topics, practiced the ten param itas, generosity and so

forth, and been blessed by the virtuous friends, (are worthy to): 1)
listen to these mother scriptures which are characterized by the
aspects sequentially, 2) comprehend them, 3) not forget the mean
ing, and 4) pay proper attention.
1A2B The actual applications
1A2B1 The text continues
Having thus shown those who apply, (next are) the applications. 718
1A2B2 Root text
8-11.
(APPLICATIONS) WITHOUT ABIDING IN FORM
AND SO FORTH,219 STOPPING APPLICATION TO THAT,

WHOSE SUCHNESS IS PROFOUND, ARE DIFFICULT TO
FATHOM, ARE IMMEASURABLE, ARE REALIZED (WITH)
GREAT
D IFFIC U LTY
(O V E R )
LO N G
T IM E,
OF
PREDICTION, IRREVERSIBILITY AND TRANSCENDENCE,

WITHOUT INTERRUPTION, CLOSE TO ENLIGHTENMENT,
SWIFT, BENEFIT OF OTHERS, WITHOUT INCREASE OR
DECREASE, DO NOT SEE DHARMAS OR NON-DHARMAS
AND SO FORTH, DO NOT SEE INCONCEIVABLE FORM
218 s k t prayoga, Tib.
. Conze: 1967a, p. 286 gives exertion, endeavour.
219 Skt m pM svanavasthanm, Tib.

p. 50: "One does not insist on the reality of the skandhas."
, Conze: 1954b,
279
AND SO FORTH OR THE MARKS OF THOSE FORMS AND

SO
FORTH
W HOSE
NATURES
ARE
NOT
CONCEPTUALIZED, BESTOW THE PRECIOUS RESULT,

ARE PURE, AND LIMITED. It is said.
1A2B3 Commentary
The twenty applications (comprise) realizations of: 1) not abid

ing in form and so forth because they are natureless, 2) non-appli
cation to them is the application, 3) form and so forth are them
selves profound because of the nature of thusness, 4) are difficult to
fathom, and 5) immeasurable; corresponding to five applications: 1)
not abiding in form and so forth, 2) not applying, 3) profound, 4)
difficult to fathom, and 5) immeasurable; and the fifteen aspects: 6)
afraid and 7) unafraid of prajnaparamita, 8) grasping perfectly, 9)
abandoning dharmas which interrupt, 10) always meditating on the
Dharma, 11) the basis o f new uncontaminated dharmas, 12) ac
complishing the resultant Dharmakaya, 13) turning the wheel of
Dharma, 14) not seeing increase nor decrease, 15) not perceiving
the desire realm, 16) without opinions regarding the inconceivable
aspects of form and so forth, 17) not conceiving of form, its marks,
or its nature, 18) seeing the first result, 19) completely pure form,
and 20) not rejecting striving for years. Those with such accom
plishments will respectively: 6) become a perfect Buddha with great
difficulty after a long time, 7) attain prediction, 8) become irre-
280
versiblc, 9) transcend, 10) be uninterrupted, 11) be close to perfect

complete enlightenment, 12) swiftly become completely enlight
ened, 13) benefit others, 14) not have increase or decrease, 15) not
perceive dharmas and non-dharmas and so forth, 16) stop the incon
ceivable aspects of form and so forth, 17) not conceive the proper
ties of form and so forth, 18) bestow the precious result, 19) be
completely pure, and 20) limited.
220
2B2C2A1B 1B Qualities and faults of meditating on the applications

1B1B1 Qualities
IB IB 1A The text continues
After applications (are) their qualities, because familiarization

with the applications is preceded by seeing their qualities.
1B1B1B Root text
12ab.
(T H E R E
ARE)
FOURTEEN
TY PES
OF
QUALITIES: ESCAPING FROM M A R A S POWER AND SO

FORTH. It is said.
1BIB 1C Commentary
Qualities which: 1) resist M aras power, 2) the Buddhas pay at

tention to and know, 3) are directly perceivable by the Buddhas, 4)
are close to perfect enlightenment, 5) have greatness of purpose and
so forth, 6) analyze the country, 7) fulfill all uncontaminated quali22ft
Conze: 1954b, p. 52, says about this last point: "the Bodhisattva fixes a cer
tain time, such as a month, or a year, which he will devote to the study of the
Prajnaparamita .
281
ties, 8) are a speaker, 9) arc not separated, 10) produce uncommon

roots of virtue, 11) accomplish the intended aims accordingly, 12)
acquire the exalted
991
result, 13) help sentient beings, and 14) defi
nitely attain; are respectively: 1) blessed by the Buddhas, 2) noticed,

3) seen by gnosis, 4) close, 5) greatly advantageous, 6) effective, 7)
able to fulfill the remedial dharmas, 8) able to talk about222 overall
omniscience, 9) befriended, 10) sources of exalted joy, 11) de
lighted by words which promise that, 12) strong desires for pro
found dharmas, 13) helpful to sentient beings, and 14) able to find
the entire prajnapcram ita. Since such non-mistaken applications
will be attained with pleasure, there are fourteen qualities.
1B1B2 Hindrances
Next, since some things are also abandoned, if asked, "What are
some faults which interrupt the applications which apply the objects
of meditation?" The faults which will interrupt them are stated.
1B1B2B Root text
12cd.
FAULTS SHOULD BE RECOGNIZED AS SIX
WITH FOUR SETS OF TEN. It is said.

1B1B2C Commentary
1B2C1 Explained individually
221 Skt. udara, Tib. S

222 Skt. katha-kathana, Tib.
282
1B2C1A Twenty contradictory conditions dependent on oneself
The first set of ten are: 1) attainment with great difficulty, 2)

sudden self confidence, 3) bodily depravity,223 4) mental depravity,
5) recitations which are made improperly and so forth, 6) having
reasons for turning away, 7) harming desire for the cause,
8)
harming enjoyment of the excellent taste, 9) harming full loyalty

to225 the supreme vehicle, and 10) harming the constant motivation.
The second set of ten are: 11) harming the relation of cause and ef
fect, 12) harming the supreme, 13) having self confidence which
conceives objects in many aspects, 14) attached to writing the let
ters, 15) attached to non-existent things, 16) attached to the letters,
17) attached to non-letters, 18) interested in places and so forth, 19)
relishing gain, honor, and verses (of praise), and 20) seeking skill
ful technique outside the path.
1B2C1B Twcniy-threc incomplete cooperative conditions dependent
upon either oneself or others
1B2C1B1 Dependent upon the master
The third set of ten is for those who are listeners and explainers,
former and latter, (who) respectively: 1) are harmed by aspiration
and indolence, 2) are harmed by difference of desired places, 3) are
harmed by small and non-small desires, 4) have and lack the quali
223 Skt. dauxthulya, Tib. I 3!**
224 skt. hetu-bfuramia.

225 M
fun loyalty to" from Tib., not in Skt.
283
ties of training,226 5) have virtuous and non-virtuous characters,227

6) give away and are miserly, 7) are generous and do not accept
(gifts), 8) understand by a condensed statement and by detailed ex
planations, 9) know the dharma of the sutras and so forth well and
poorly, 10) have and lack the six paramitas. The fourth set o f ten
(has) four (more) in the same way (who): 11) have skillful and non
skillful technique, 12) obtain and do not obtain dharanis, 13) wish
and do not wish to write the letters, 14) are separated and not sepa
rated from lustful desires.
1B2C1B2 Dependent upon oneself
Two more: 15) avoiding inferior rebirths, and 16) pleased by

good rebirths.
1B2C !B3 Dependent upon both
And those who are explainers and listeners, former and latter re
spectively (who): 17) delight in solitude and in company, 18) do
not give
opportunity and desire a connection, 19) desire only a
few material possessions and do not wish to donate them, and 20)
go where there will and will not be an obstruction
to life. Also
three more, (who): 21) go and do not go where there is famine, 22)
226 Skt. dhOta-guna.

227 skt. dharmatd, Tib. ^ 9 5 .
228 i,c> danger
284
go and do not go where there is trouble from thieves and so forth,

and 23) are displeased by noticing families.
229
1B2C1C Three contradictory conditions dependent upon others
Three more: 24) M ara
tries to separate (people from the
Dharma), 25) brings about a counterfeit, and 26) is envious of an

improper object.
1B2C2 Summary
There are forty-six faults (in all).
2B2C2A1B1C Characteristics of the applications
1B1C2 The divisions
1B1C2A Joining the general boundaries
The applications should be meditated on by accepting and reject

ing the qualities and the faults respectively. Since they are preceded
by knowing the characteristics, after the faults (are) the characteris
tics of those (applications).
1B1C2B Explaining them individually
1B1C2B1 Shown briefly
1B1C2B1A Root text
13.
WHATEVER INDICATES SHOULD BE KNOWN
AS A CHARACTERISTIC. (THEY ARE OF) THREE TYPES:
229
that is to say, the teacher ("explainer") pays attention to lay disciples, which
makes his pupil (die "listener") jealous.
285
KNOW LED G E, V ARIETY, AND A CTIVITY . W HAT IS

CHARACTERIZED IS THE NATURE. It is said.
1B1C2B1B Commentary
The characteristics should be known as four types since they

indicate the applications by fixing (their) activity: 1) knowledge, 2)
variety, and 3) activity; and since they are indicated by fixing their
karma: 4) the characteristic of nature.
1B1C2B2 Extensive explanation
2B2A Characteristics of knowledge
2B2A1 Characteristics of the application of the knowledge of bases
2B2A1A The text continues - general and particular
Now the characteristics of knowledge are divided by the divi

sions of the three omnisciences. Starting from omniscience:
2B2A1B Root text
14-17.
IN
TH E
CA SE
OF
TH E
CHARACTERISTICS OF KNOWLEDGE INCLUDE: ARISAL

OF THE T A T H A G A T A ,
THE W ORLD IS ESSENTIALLY
INDESTRUCTIBLE, (KNOWING) THE MENTAL ACTIVITY

OF SENTIENT BEINGS, WHICH (IS) COLLECTED AND
DISPERSED, THE INEXHAUSTIBLE ASPECT, PASSIONATE
AND
SO
FORTH,
EXALTED,
BECOM E
GREAT,
IMMEASURABLE, CONSCIOUSNESS IS NOT SHOWN, MIND
286
(IS) IMPERCEPTIBLE, THOUGHTS OF OPENING230 AND SO

FORTH, AND DIFFERENT FROM THAT, THOSE KNOWN AS
THE ASPECT OF THUSNESS, AND THE REALIZATION OF
THUSNESS BY THE MUNI TAUGHT TO OTHERS. It is said.
2B2A1C Commentary
These sixteen varieties of the aspects o f knowledge indicate the

applications o f omniscience as they are: 1) the arisal o f the
Tathagata, 2) the world is not destroyed, 3) the mental activity of
sentient beings, 4) collected thoughts, 5) distracted thoughts, 6) the
aspect of inexhaustible thought, 7) minds with attachment and so
forth, 8) minds separated from attachment included by the phrase
"and so forth,"231 9) exalted mind, 10) mind which has become
great, 11) immeasurable mind, 12) mind is not shown, 13) mind is
imperceptible, 14) thoughts o f opening and so forth, 15) opening
and so forth with the aspect of thusness, and 16) the realization of
thusness by the Tathagata
(which is) designated and taught to
others. These are the characteristics of knowledge included by om

niscience.
2B2A2 Characteristics of the application of path-omniscience
2B2A2A The text continues
Next is path-omniscience.
230 Conze: 1954b, p. 58: "affirmations".

231
from the verse.
287
2B2A2B Root text
18-19.
IN THE CASE OF PATH-OM NISCIENCE THE
CHARACTERISTICS OF KNOWLEDGE ARE STATED AS:

EM PTINESS, TOGETHER WITH SIGNLESS, COM PLETE
REJECTION OF PLANS. WITHOUT PRODUCTION OR CES
SATION AND SO FORTH, DHARMATA
U N D IS T U R B E D ,
(IS) COMPLETELY
U N CO M PO U N D ED ,
NOT
CONCEPTUALIZED, ANALYZED, AND WITHOUT CHARAC

TERISTICS. It is said.
2B2A2C Commentary
These sixteen different aspects of knowledge indicate the appli

cations o f path-omniscience as they are: 1) empty, 2) signless, 3)
wishless, 4) not produced, 5) not stopped, and included by the
phrase "and so forth,"232 the six: 6) without full delusion, 7) with
out complete purity, 8) without properties, 9) nature, 10) without
basis, 11) the characteristic of space, and 12) Dharmata completely
undisturbed, 13) uncompounded, 14) not conceptualized, 15) ana
lyzed, and 16) without characteristics. These are the characteristics
of knowledge included by path-omniscience.
2B2A3 Characteristics of the applications of overall omniscience
Next is overall omniscience.

232
again, from die verse.
288
2B2A3B Root text
20-22.
(THIS) EXPLAINS THE CHARACTERISTICS OF
K NOW LEDGE
IN
TH E
RANGE
OF
OVERALL
OMNISCIENCE: ABIDING THROUGH DEPENDING UPON

JU S T
TH A T
VENERATED,
D H ARM A ,
IT
H O N O R ED ,
IS
TO
BE
R ESPEC TED ,
W O R SH IPPE D ,
A C T I V I T Y , 233
A LL
P E R V A S IV E
D EM O N STR A TES
TH E
U N SEEN ,
W ITH O U T
KNOW LEDGE,
THE
A SPE C T
OF
EM PTIN ESS OF TH E W ORLD, REVEALING, MAKING

KNOW N, M ANIFESTING, TEACHING THE INCONCEIV
ABLE, PACIFICATION, CESSATION OF THE WORLD, AND
THOUGHT. It is said.
2B2A3C Commentary
These sixteen varieties of aspects of knowledge indicate the ap

plications of overall omniscience as they are: 1) the Tathagata
abides relying on that very dharma, 2) is to be respected, 3) vener
ated, 4) honored, 5) worshipped, 6) without activity, 7) goes ev
erywhere, 8) shows things which cannot be seen, 9) the aspect of
the emptiness of the world, 10) revealing the world as emptiness,
11) to make the emptiness of the world known, 12) to display the
emptiness o f the world, 13) to show (what is) inconceivable, 14) to
233 Skt. akrtakatvayoh, Tib.

not been made by an agent".
, Conze: 1954b, p. 60: "(all dharmas) have
289
show pacification, 15) stopping the world, and 16) stopping

thought. These arc the characteristics of knowledge included by
overall omniscience.
2B2B The characteristics of variety
Those nine verses have mentioned the general nature of the

characteristics of knowledge. Since the varieties which are deter
mined by (those) aspects of knowledge should be known, following
the characteristics of knowledge (are) the characteristics of variety
with an additional verse
2B2B2 Shown briefly
2B2B2A Root text
23.
THE CHARACTERISTIC VARIETIES ARE EX
PLAINED BY THE SIXTEEN MOMENTS WHOSE DOMAIN IS

TH E TRU TH S, AND ARE
D ISTIN G U ISH ED
BY THE
VARIETIES OF INCONCEIVABLE AND SO FORTH. It is said.

2B2B2B Commentary
The sixteen characteristics of tolerance and knowledge o f

dharma and subsequent knowledge whose domain is the truths of
suffering and so forth which are distinguished by the varieties of in
conceivable, unequal, and so forth, indicate the applications of pathomniscience and so forth, (and they) are the characteristics of vari
ety.
290
2B2B3 Extensive explanation

If asked, "What are the varieties of inconceivable and so forth?"

there are three additional verses.
2B2B3B Root text
24-26.
TH E
D IST IN C TIO N S
(BY )
W HICH
(T H IS)
DISTINGUISHED PATH IS DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHERS

SH O U L D
BE
KNOW N
IN C O N C E IV A B L E ,
AS
S IX T E E N
U N E Q U A LL E D ,
E SS E N C E S:
T R A N SC E N D IN G
MEASUREMENT AND ENUMERATION, INCLUDING EVERY

HOLY
(Q U A LITY ), TO
BE KNOWN
BY THE W ISE,
UNCOMMON KNOWLEDGE, QUICK KNOW LEDGE, NOT

D IM IN ISH ED OR INCREASED, ACCOM PLISH M EN T,234
ATTAINMENT, SUPPORT, HAVING A BASIS, COMPLETE,
ASSISTANCE, (AND) WITHOUT RELISHING. It is said.
2B2B3C Commentary
2B2B3C1 Extensive explanation
The sixteen essences: 1) are inconceivable by the force of the

wisdom which is well acquired by the perfectly enlightened
Buddhas and so forth, 2) are unequalled, 3) transcend measurement,
4) transcend enumeration, 5) include all holy persons, 6) are to be
known by the wise, 7) fully know properties which are not the do
234 Skt. pratipat, Tib.Sj*1*, Conze: 1954b, p. 61: "progress".
291
main of the sravakas and so forth, 8) are very quick knowledge,

(i.e.,) intuition which relies on one's own system, 9) have the nature
of non-decrease and non-increase (regarding) all dharmas which de
pend upon the conventional and ultimate realities, 10) accomplish
the six param itas of generosity and so forth through completely
purifying the three mandalas, 11) fulfill merit and gnosis achieved
over many aeons by perfect application, 12) perceive all dharmas
without conceiving (them), 13) are the nature of the Dharmadhatu,
the support of a bodhisattva, 14) are the accumulation of causes
which fulfill the paramitas of prayer and so forth, 15) are assisted
by the techniques of the virtuous friend, and 16) do not relish at
tachment. They are respectively the distinctions of the instants of
the truths of suffering and so forth, by which the two path-omnisciences of the bodhisattvas and so forth, being distinguished pathr.,
are distinguished from the paths of the sravakas and so forth.
2B2B3C2 Why the objects distinguished from those are not shown
directly
Therefore, their (paths) are not explained because (they are)

easy to understand from the characteristics of producing attachment
and so forth, which are other than the aforesaid distinctions.
2B2C Characteristics of activity
292
If asked, "What is the activity of those which are set apart by the
characteristics of variety?" the characteristics of activity (are taught)
with two additional verses.
2B2C2 Root text
27-28.
TH ESE
A C T IV IT Y :
ARE
BEN EFIT,
TH E
C H A R A C TE R IST IC S
H A PPIN E SS,
PR O TEC TIO N ,
OF
A
REFUGE FOR HUM ANS,235 RESTING PLACE, GOAL,236

ISLAND, KNOWN AS A LEADER,237 EFFORTLESS, NOT
MANIFESTING THE RESULTS OF THE THREE VEHICLES,
(AND) FINALLY, THE ACTIVITY OF SUPPORT.238 It is said.
2B2C3 Commentary
There are three activities of omniscience of benefit and so forth,

with the aim of providing: 1) future benefit, 2) happiness in this
life, and 3) the non-matured Dharmata which is without suffering.
Then there are seven activities of path-omniscience of refuge and so
forth with the aim of providing (the following) at exactly the right
time: 1) perpetual benefit, 2) the opposite of the cause of suffering,
233 Tib. thus, Skt. takes "humans" to go with "goal" or "resting place," layanam
nrnQm parbyanam.
236 SkL parayanam, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 61: "final relief'.
232 Skt. yafcimam gati-karitram, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 62:
"finally there is the activity of being a means (or route) to salvation." Obermiller:
1931, p. 200n connects this verse with Ratnagotra-vibhUga 1.70 (numbered by
Obermiller as 1.67. See Takasaki: 1966, p. 253 and Z. Nakamura: 1961, p. 101).
238 Obermiller: 1931, p. 198n, connects this verse with the commentary on
Ratnagotra-vibhnga 1.68 (numbered by Obermiller as 1.65. See Takasaki, op. cit.,
p. 251 and Nakamura, op. cit., p. 97).
293
3) realizing the equality of samsara and nirvana, 4) the nature of a

support which benefits oneself and other*, 5) helping others, 6) ef
fortlessly benefitting sentient beings, and 7) not manifesting the
transcendent result of the three vehicles. Concerning overall omni
science, there is one activity of support with the aim of providing
instruction (about) the dharmas of overall omniscience. Thus, the
aspects of activity are the characteristics of activity, since they indi
cate the applications of the three omnisciences as they are.
2B2D Characteristics of nature
2B2D1 The text continues
If asked, "What are the natures which are taught by the charac
teristics o f activity?" the characteristics o f nature (are taught) with
three more verses.
2B2D2 Root text
29-31.
THE SIXTEEN
ESSEN TIA L NATURES ARE
ACCEPTED AS THE FOURTH CHARACTERISTIC SINCE

(THEY) ARE INTENDED AS CHARACTERISTICS. (THEY
ARE:) SEPARATE (FROM) DELUSIONS, SIGNS, MARKS,
H O S T IL E
STA T E S
AND
R E M E D IE S ,
D IF F IC U L T ,
EXCLUSIVE, MOTIVATED, NOT PERCEIVING,239 PREVENT

ATTACHM ENT, KNOWN AS REFERENTS, CONTRARY,
239 Skt. anupalambhakah, Tib.

basis.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 62: "it offers no
294
UNOBSTRUCTED, BASELESS, MOTIONLESS,240 UNBORN,

AND NOT REFERRING TO THUSNESS. It is said.
2B2D3 Commentary
2B2D3A Explained individually
(There are) four natures o f omniscience which are isolated by

emptiness: 1) delusions such as attachment and so forth, 2) bodily
depravity (which is) its sign, 3) its marks, improper attitude and so
forth, and 4) the hostile states and (their) remedies: attachment,
non-attachment and so forth. (There are) five natures of path-omniscience: 1) difficult for sentient beings who are not ultimately exis
tent to enter nirvana, 2) exclusive, with the characteristic o f not
falling into other vehicles, 3) the supreme motivation which should
be achieved over a long time, 4) not perceiving meditation, what is
meditated, and one who meditates, and 5) preventing attachment to
all things. (There are) seven natures of overall omniscience: 1) re
ferring to a variety of things included by omniscience and pathomniscience, 2) opposed to grasping the existence of the world and
so forth by teaching the opposite, 3) knowing that form and so forth
are unobstructed, 4) baseless without perceiving objects o f knowl
edge or knowledge, 5) motionless due to thusness, 6) unborn by the
naturelessness of form and so forth, and 7) not perceiving the thus
ness of the three natures (of) things, non-things, and so forth.
240 Skt agati, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 63: "without a resort".
295
2B2D3B Summarized meaning
The fourth is accepted as the characteristic of nature since the

sixteen natures indicate the applications of the three omnisciences
with their characteristics just as they are.
2C Summarizing the enumeration in general
Thus in general, if added together, there are ninety-one charac

teristics.
2B2C2A1B2 How they are produced in one's continuum, beginning from the
aids to liberation
1B2A Identifying the trainees of the Ornament by explaining the begin
ning of the path to become a Buddha over three countless aeons
1B2A1 General characteristics of the path
Since only those who have the roots of virtue of the aids to lib
eration241 will fully know the previously explained applications,
(next are) the aids to liberation.
1B2A1B Root text
32.
SKILL IN PERFECT ACCOM PLISHM ENT (OF
THE) SIGNLESS, GREAT GENEROSITY AND SO FORTH

ARE REGARDED AS AIDS TO LIBERATION IN THIS
REALIZATION OF ALL ASPECTS. It is said.
1B2A1C Commentary
241 Skt. moksa-bhUgiya. Conze: 1967a, p. 326.
296
Skill in producing in one's own continuum (qualities ranging)

from the paramitas of generosity and so forth up to overall omni
science with the aspect of knowledge which perceives (them as)
signless, is regarded as the aid to liberation in this (context of) real
izing all aspects.
1B2A2 Identification of trainees who are skilled in that by summarizing
the five bindings of the path
If asked, "What is that skill?" it is shown by more verses.

1B2A2B Root text
2A2B1 The measure of skill in the bindings of the general path
2A2B1A Shown through mind production: the door of entry to the
Mahayana
2A2B1A 1 The special MahSySna refuge
2A2B1A2 The actual meaning
2A2B1B How to train in the activities
2A2B1B1 Training in the general activities
2A2B1B2 Training in the final paramitas
2A2B1B2A The paramita of dhyUna
2A2B1B2B The paramita of wisdom
2A2B2 Identification of trainees of the Ornament who are skilled in
that
297
33-34.
(THERE ARE) FIVE TYPES: FAITH BASED ON
BUDDHA AND SO FORTH, PERSEVERANCE IN THE

DOMAIN OF GENEROSITY AND SO FORTH, MINDFULNESS
WHICH FULFILLS THE INTENTION, NON-CONCEPTUAL
SAMADHI, AND WISDOM WHICH KNOWS ALL DHARMAS
IN
A LL
W A Y S.
C O M PL E TE
EN LIG H TE N M E N T
IS
ACCEPTED AS EASY TO REALIZE BY THE SHARP, DIFFI

CULT TO REALIZE BY THE DULL. It is said.
2A2C Commentary
2A2C1 Differences of skill in the five objects
Distinctive 1) faith, 2) perseverance, 3) mindfulness, 4)

sam adhi, and 5) wisdom, are not the nature of the sense powers.
Respectively they are skilled in five kinds of objects: 1) Buddha, 2)
generosity, 3) fulfillment of intention, 4) non-conceptual, and 5)
complete knowledge of all dharmas in all aspects.
2A2C2 How those of sharp and dull faculties progress on the path
Although (they are) indeed like that, not all attain supreme en
lightenment, since the Dharmata is like this: supreme perfect en
lightenment is easy to realize by the sharp who have great faith and
so forth. It is difficult to realize for the dull.
2A2C3 Implied meaning
298
It is implied that the medium realize the enlightenment of

p ra ty e k a -b u d d h a s
and the dull realize the enlightenment of
sravakas.
2B How to produce the path which ripens the continuum
2B1 Actual meaning
Since the nirvedha-bhagiya arise for one who is able to produce

the aids to liberation, (they are now explained).
2B1B Root text
35-37.
THE
R E FER E N TS
OF
H EA T
A RE
HERE
RECOM MENDED TO BE ALL SENTIENT BEINGS. THE

ASPECTS ARE EXPLAINED AS TEN: EVEN-MINDED AND
SO FORTH. THE PEAK (IS) ONESELF TURNING AWAY
FROM EVIL, ABIDING IN GENEROSITY AND SO FORTH,
URGING OTHERS TO (PRACTICE) THEM , PRAISING
(THEM), AND CONFORMING. TOLERANCE IS TO KNOW
THE TRUTHS BASED ON SELF AND OTHERS,242 AND
SUPREME DHARMA SHOULD BE KNOWN AS MATURING
SENTIENT BEINGS AND SO FORTH. It is said.
2B1C Commentary
242 Skt. sva-parUdhHram satya-jhanam tatta ksamP, Tib.

, Conze: 1954b, p. 66: "Patience when he establishes both
himself and others in the cognition of the (four holy) Truths".
299
2B1C1 Explained individually

2B1C1A Heat
Heat during the complete realization of all aspects perceives sen

tient beings with five mental aspects of: 1) equality, 2) love, 3)
benefit, 4) non-anger, and 5) non-injury, and five more mental
aspects of: 6) mother and father, 7) brother and sister, 8) son and
daughter, 9) friend and companion, and 10) relative and kinsman.
2B1C1B Peak
Briefly, by rejecting and accepting vice and virtue respectively,

with the essences of ceasing and remaining, there are two aspects
which involve others in ceasing vice and remaining virtuous, and
two (more) aspects praising others who behave like that themselves,
and conforming (to such behavior). Perceiving sentient beings with
these "infinite aspects" by analyzing dharma is the peak.
2B1C1C Tolerance
Perceiving the truths of suffering and so forth which are the

basis of (the division into) self and other is tolerance. Referents and
aspects are divided on the basis of self and other with the aspects of
involvement, praise, and conformity, as in the peak.
2B1C1D Supreme dharma
Perceiving sentient beings based on (the distinction of) self and

others with the aspects of maturation, liberation, and so forth, as be
fore, is supreme dharma.
300
2B1C2 Summary
These are the nirvedha-bhagiya.

2B2 Negating mistakes concerning the order of the six abhisamayas
2B2B Presenting the proper position
Dividing meditation on all aspects, paths, and bases, sequentially

into the three abhisamayas
(of) overall omniscience and so forth,
the realization of the worldly nirved h a -b h a g iya
precedes the
supramundane paths of seeing and meditation. The uncontaminated

gnosis of all aspects which is included in the distinguished path will
be produced in the (three) degrees of slight, medium, and great in
the three abhisamayas of the complete realization of all aspects and
so forth, distinguished as the occasions of higher and higher medi
tation. To avoid producing (them) all at once, they are called the
nirvedha-bhagiya and so forth.
2C How to produce the distinguished abhisamayas in one's contin
uum based on that
2C1 Explaining the signs of irreversibility from supreme enlighten
ment
2C1B The divisions
2C1B1 Shown briefly
2C1B1A Joining the general boundaries
301
As the previously explained nirvedha-bhagiya arise in the irre

versible bodhisattva sangha, the characteristics of the irreversible
bodhisattva sangha (are stated).
2C1B1B Root text
38.
TH OSE
BODHISATTVAS W HO
ABIDE (ON
STAGES) FROM THE SUBSIDIARIES OF INSIGHT TO THE

PATHS OF VISION AND FAMILIARIZATION ARE HERE
THE IRREVERSIBLE ASSEMBLY. It is said.
2C1B1C Commentary
Heroes who abide in the four nirvedha-bhagiya, the path of vi

sion, and the path of meditation, which will be explained, with the
manner of realizing this and that, constitute the sangha of irre
versible student bodhisattvas.
PART FOUR
2B2C2A1B2C1B2 Explaining extensively
1B2A Signs of ineversibility of the path of preparation
1B2A1 Shown briefly
If asked, "What are their special characteristics?" starting with

the characteristics o f those who abide in the nirvedha-bhagiya,
there is one additional verse.
1B2A1B Root text
302
39.
(THERE ARE) TWENTY CHARACTERISTICS OF
IRREV ERSIB ILITY O F TH OSE WHO ABIDE ON THE

SUBSIDIARIES OF INSIGHT, STATED (AS) THE MARKS OF
TURNING AWAY AND SO FORTH FROM FORM AND SO
FORTH. It is said.
1B2A1C Commentary
The characteristics of irreversibility of those abiding in the

nirvedha-bhagiya have twenty aspects, turning away from form
and so forth and non-doubt and so forth.
1B2A2 Explaining extensively
Further, if asked, "What are those characteristics of irreversibil

ity and so forth?" they are taught with six more verses.
1B2A2B Root text
40-45.
T H O SE
TOLERANCE,
W HO
AND
A B ID E
SUPREM E
ON
HEAT,
PEA K ,
DHARMA
ARE
IR R EV ER SIB LE FROM COM PLETE EN LIG H TEN M EN T

WITH THESE TWENTY MARKS: TURNING AWAY FROM
FORM AND SO FORTH, EXHAUSTING DOUBT AND
UNFAVORABLE CONDITIONS,243 ONESELF ABIDING IN
VIRTUE AND INVOLVING OTHERS IN THAT, GENEROSITY
243
ksana, Tib. 5nr . Edgerton: 1985, p. 198. Conze: 1954b, p. 66:
"inauspicious rebirth".
303
AND
SO
FORTH
BA SED
ON
O T H E R S,
W IT H O U T
HESITATION244 ABOUT EVEN THE PROFOUND MEANING,

LOVING BODY AND SO FORTH, NOT ASSOCIATED WITH
THE FIVE-FOLD OBSCURATIONS,245 DESTROYING ALL
PROPENSITIES, MINDFUL AND ALERT, ROBES AND SO
FORTH ARE CLEAN, WORMS DO NOT ARISE IN THE
BO D Y ,
M IND
T R A IN IN G S ,
NOT C R O O K E D ,246
NOT
M IS E R L Y
A CCEPTIN G
AND
SO
PROGRESSING TOWARD TRUE D H A R M A TA ,
THE
FORTH,
SEEKING
HELL FOR THE BENEFIT OF OTHERS, CANNOT BE LED BY

OTHERS, REALIZING THE MARA WHO TEACHES OTHER
PATHS AS "MARA, " AND ACTIVITY WHICH PLEASES THE
BUDDHAS. It is said.
1B2A2C Commentary
Bodhisattvas who abide on heat, peak, tolerance, and supreme

dharma respectively with these twenty signs should be known as
being irreversible from supreme enlightenment: 1) turning away
from dharmas of form and so forth due to (their) naturelessness, 2)
exhausting doubt through attaining faith from having understood, 3)
having fulfilled prayers one exhausts eight unfavorable conditions,
namely: birth a) with mistaken views, b) in hells, c) as a hungry
244 Skt. akdnksana.
245 Conze: 1954b, p. 67: "he does not meet with any of the five hindrances".
246 ibid., p. 67: "no crookedness in his heart".
304
ghost, d) as an animal, e) not hearing Buddha's speech, 0 in a bar

baric country, g) with incomplete sense faculties, being stupid and
mute, and h) as a long-lived god, 4) involving oneself and others
with virtuous dharmas through compassion, 5) dedicated to gen
erosity and so forth which have other sentient beings as their objects
through exchanging self and others, 6) not hesitating regarding the
profound meaning through completely realizing dharmas, 7) loving
bodily, physical, and verbal actions by engaging in the benefit of
others, 8) not associated with the five hindrances:247 a) lust, b) mal
ice, c) sleep and lethargy, d) frivolity and regret, and e) doubt, by
fulfilling the application, 9) destroying all (evil) propensities by
cultivating the remedies, 10) mindful and alert w ith constant
equipoise, and 11) robes and so forth clean and usable with con
stantly24 pure behavior - eleven aspects (for heat), and 12) the
eighty thousand24^ families of worms do not arise in the body by
roots of virtue which have risen above the world, 13) mind not
crooked by purifying the roots of virtue, 14) undertaking the ascetic
qualities250 of wearing rags from the rubbish and so forth through
disregard for gain and honor and so forth, 15) without miserliness,
247 skt. nivarana, Tib.
. Edgerton: 1985, p. 311.
248 this word not in Skt.

249 skt. simply sahasra, one thousand. Conze: 1954b, p. 67 gives
80,000 in parentheses.
250 skt. dhuta-guna, Tib.
. Edgerton: 1985, p. 286.
305
wickedness and such contrary (qualities) by special practice of gen

erosity and so forth, 16) progressing with the p ra jn a p a ra m ita
which does not contradict Dharmata by collecting all dharmas, 17)
desiring hell for the sake of others by making the world one's own six aspects (for peak), and 18) cannot be led by others by the dhar
mata of confidence in the realizations, and 19) to realize the Mara
who teaches a counterfeit path as M ara by skill in knowing the
techniques of Buddhahood - the aforesaid two aspects (for toler
ance), and 20) pleasing Buddha in all (one's) behavior by purifying
the three m a n d a la s
- the aforesaid one aspect (for supreme
dharma).
2B2C2A1B2C1B2B Signs of irreversibility of the path of vision
1B2B1 Shown briefly
After the characteristics of irreversibility of the nirvedhabhagiya, the characteristics of irreversibility o f the path of vision
are stated with one additional verse.
1B2B1B Root text
46.
SIXTEEN INSTANTS OF TO LERA N CE AND
KNOW LEDGE ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

IRREVERSIBLE BODHISATTVAS ON THE PATH OF VISION.
It is said.
1B2B1C Commentary
The sixteen instants of tolerance and knowledge of dharma and

subsequent knowledge of die truths of suffering and so forth, are
the characteristics of irreversibility of the bodhisattvas abiding on
the path of vision.
1B232 Explaining extensively
If asked, "What kind of aspects of the instants are the character

istics?" they are stated by five additional verses.
1B2B2B Root text
47-51.
THESE SIXTEEN INSTANTS ARE THE SIGNS OF
IRREVERSIBILITY OF THE STEADFAST WHO ABIDE ON

THE PATH OF VISION: RETREATING FROM THOUGHTS OF
FORM AND SO FORTH, STABLE MIND, TURNING AWAY
FROM LESSER VEHICLES, COMPLETELY EXHAUSTING
THE SUBSIDIARIES OF THE DHYANAS AND SO FORTH,251
LIGHTNESS OF BODY AND MIND, SKILLFUL TECHNIQUE
IN USING DESIRE,252 ALWAYS CHASTE, LIVELIHOOD
CO M PLETELY
PURE,
PR EV EN TIN G
A T TA C H M EN T
AND
A D D IC T IO N 253
A B ID A N CE
IN
CO N C ER N IN G
251 Conze: 1954b, p. 68: "masteiy over the limbs of the (four) trances".
252 Skt. kama-sevabhyupdyiki, Tib.
t Conze: 1954b, p.
69: "circumspect in the use of pleasant things".
253 skt. yogdnuyoga, Tib.
. Conze: 1954b, p. 6S:
"occupied or preoccupied".
307
SKANDHAS
AND
SO
FORTH,
H IN D R A N C E S ,
ACCUM ULATIONS, STRU GG LING W ITH THE SEN SE

FACULTIES AND SO FORTH, AND MISERLINESS AND SO
FO R TH ,
NOT
PER C E IV IN G
EV EN
AN
ATOM
OF
DHARM AS,254 SURE OF ONES OWN STAGE, ABIDING ON

THE THREE STAGES, AND RENOUNCING LIFE FOR THE
SAKE OF DHARMA. It is said.
1B2B2C Commentary
1B2B2C1 Explaining extensively
1B2B2C1A Aspects of the instants of the truth of suffering
The four aspects of suffering are: 1) retreating from the percep

tion of dharmas of form and so forth by the emptiness of inherent
characteristics, 2) stability o f the mind of supreme enlightenment by
blessings from Buddha and so forth, 3) turning (ones) mind away
from the vehicles of the sravakas and pratyeka-buddhas by prac
ticing the special Mahayana dharmas, and 4) perfectly and com
pletely exhausting the subsidiaries of birth in the dhydnas and
formless absorptions by the power of analyzing dharmas.
1B2B2C1B Aspects of the instants of the truth of origin
The four aspects of origin are: 5) light body and mind by sepa
ration from vice, 6) enjoying desire without attachment by the force
254 Skt. dharmasy&nor alabdhata,

1954b, p. 69: "docs not grasp at even the least dharma".
, Conze:
308
of skillful techniques of training sentient beings, 7) always chaste

by seeing the shortcomings of objects, and 8) necessities of life are
perfectly (and) completely pure by the dkarmata of a good person.
1B2B2C1C Aspects of the instants of the truth of cessation
The four aspects of cessation are: 9) not attached or addicted to

the skandhas, entrances, and elements by abiding in emptiness, thus
preventing abidance in attachment and addiction, 10) as before, pre
venting abidance in attachment and addiction to dharmas which in
terrupt the realizations by eliminating their hostile states, 11) as be
fore, preventing abidance in talk of attachment or addiction to gen
erosity and so forth, (which are) the accumulations of enlighten
ment, by fully knowing the faults of concepts, and 12) as before,
preventing abidance in attachment and addiction to struggling with
lust255 and so forth based on the sense faculties by abandoning sub
jects and objects.
1B2B2C1D Aspects of the instants of the truth of the path
The four aspects of the path are: 13) preventing abidance of at

tachment and addiction to miserliness, wickedness and so forth by
realizing the varieties of generosity and so forth, 14) the dharmas of
realization do not perceive even an atom since all dharmas are the
nature of the three doors of liberation, 15) abiding with certainty in
^ Skt. rSgUdi. Tib. here (Tripathi: 1977, p. 109 linel6; Amano: 1975, p. 183)
has ^ 3 * . meaning "city, town."
309
one's three stages as they are the essences of the three omnisciences
by attaining complete confidence, and 16) forsaking (ones) life for
the sake of the dharmas of overall omniscience and so forth by
heading in (only) one direction.
1B2B2C2 Eliminating qualms
Thus, these instants of tolerance and knowledge include the six

teen aspects. Their perfect attainment comprises a pure mundane
subsequent mind with an aspect of non-attachment to subjects and
objects as results of a similar character to producing thoughts which
retreat from form and so forth. They are the characteristics of irre
versible bodhisattvas who abide on the path of vision. They are
stated figuratively in order to suggest that the convention o f yogis is
completely similar to these realizations except for the power of the
intention to train sentient beings; otherwise, how would the instants
which are known personally in the continuum of a yogi be charac
teristics which produce confidence in others?
1B2C Signs of irreversibility o f the path of meditation
1B2C1 Explaining the Mahayana path of meditation extensively
1B2C1A Varieties of the path of meditation
1B2C1A1 The text continues
Next are the characteristics of irreversibility of those who abide

on the path o f meditation, but because the tradition says that
"without apprehending the varieties, there is no awareness of that
310
which varies,"256 (we) begin with the varieties of the path of medi
tation.
1B2C1A2 Root text
52.
THE PATH OF MEDITATION IS PROFOUND
SINCE EMPTINESS AND SO FORTH ARE PROFOUND. THAT

PRO FU N D ITY
IS
FREE
FROM
TH E
EXTREM ES
OF
SUPERIMPOSITION AND REPUDIATION.257 It is said.

1B2C1A3 Commentary
Since form does not exist in emptiness and so forth, and form is
not other than emptiness and so forth, which are respectively free
from the extremes of superimposition and repudiation regarding
emptiness and so forth, that (freedom) is profound since it is empti
ness and so forth and, by having profundity, the path of meditation
is (also) profound.
1B2C1B The basis of variety of the path of meditation
1B2C1B1 The text continues
Having thus taught the variety, there is the basis of that variety.
1B2C1B2 Root text
53.
TH E PATH OF MEDITATION REPEATEDLY
CONSIDERS, ASSESSES, AND CONTEMPLATES (WHAT

WAS REALIZED) ON THE SUBSIDIARIES OF INSIGHT, THE
Skt. ndgrhita-vLfeSand viiesye buddhir utpadyate, source not traced.
257 Skt. samOropUpavMa, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 70:
"attribution and negation".
311
PATH OF VISION, AND THE PATH OF MEDITATION. It is

said.
1B2C1B3 Commentary
The continuous path of meditation repeatedly considers,

assesses, and contemplates the meanings which were beheld on the
three (paths) - the subsidiaries of insight and so forth - with the
wisdoms arisen from hearing, consideration, and meditation, or the
wisdoms arisen from the applied, fundamental, and subsequent
samadhis, respectively.
1B2C1C Divisions of the path of meditation
1B2C1C1 Actual divisions
1B2C1C1A Question
If asked, "How many kinds are there?"

1B2C1C1B Reply
1B2C1C1B1 Root text
54.
BEING CONTINUOUS, IT IS STATED AS NINE
FOLD WITH THE KINDS OF SLIGHT, MEDIUM, AND

GREAT, DIVIDED INTO SLIGHT OF THE SLIGHT AND SO
FORTH. It is said.
1B2C1C1B2 Commentary
Because it is said that "concepts are the bodhisattvas delu

sions,"258 with the example "very great darkness is dispelled by
258
S k t vikalpa-klefa bodhisattva, source not traced.
312
small illumination and the small is dispelled by the great,
OCQ
due to
the distinctions of each concept (as) great, medium, and slight with
particulars of great, medium, and slight, their remedies also are
each slight, medium, and great with particulars of slight, medium,
and great. These nine kinds arise as a continuity in the nine stages
of the desire realm and so forth from the divisions of the remedies
of concepts in order and are ultimately characterized by emptiness.
(They constitute) the path of meditation.
1B2C1C2 Rejecting disputes
1B2C1C2A About definite enumeration
1B2C1C2A1 Dispute
If asked, "Why are there (only) nine aspects and not many other
aspects, since here and there in the mother of the conquerors it says
that countless, incomprehensible and immeasurable merits o f all
kinds are produced?"
1B2C1C2A2 Reply
2A2A Root text
55.
TEACHINGS OF COUNTLESS AND SO FORTH
ARE NOT ULTIM ATELY ADEQUATE. THE M U N I 260

259
Skt. auddrikan tamah suksmenalokena sUksman cadhimatrena hanyata,

source not traced.
2^ Skt. krpa-nisyanda-bhuids te samvnydbhimatd muneh, Tib.
t Conze: 1954b, p. 71: "In a conventional sense,
(however), they are admitted as proper outpourings of the Sages pity".
313
STATED THEM CONVENTIONALLY AS SIMILAR TO THE

CAUSE OF MERCY. It is said.
2A2B Commentary
2A2B1 The sign is not ultimately established
Ultimately, the natures expressed in words teaching: countless,

incomprehensible and immeasurable, rely on contraries applied to
one object, (i.e.,) the path of meditation, which has those stated
characteristics, and are not fit to be considered separately produced
natures.
2A2B2 The pervasion is not established conventionally
Conventionally, those natures of the stated dharmas teach the

production of great results to childish beings as (they are) explained
and taught, and are stated by the Tathagata to be similar to the
Dharmadhatu, with the nature of non-referential compassion.261 It
does not follow that there are many.
2B Rejecting disputes about activity
2B1 A dispute relying on the ultimate
2B1A Dispute
Now to answer qualms from beings of inferior intelligence who

think, "Isn't it the case that cultivation cannot be perfected with the
261 Skt. analambana-mahakarwui-svabh&va-dharmadhatu, Tib.
314
characteristic o f emptiness? Therefore, (it need) not (be) done at

all."
2B1A2 Root text
56.
D ECREA SE
SU IT A B L E
FOR
AND
IN C R E A SE
IN E X P R E S S IB L E
A RE
T H IN G S .
NOT
WHAT
DIMINISHES AND WHAT GAINS BY THE PATH WHICH IS

CALLED MEDITATION? It is said.
2B1A3 Commentary
(To the objection) that, "The property of the path (of medita
tion) is said to be the inherent nature of Dharm ata, which is actu
ally inexpressible as itself, another, both, and neither, through naturelessness, and thus, since meditation cannot be perfected, the
hostile states and the remedies do not go away or arise respectively.
In that case, what nature of the hostile states is forsaken by the path
called meditation? What complete purity will be gained? Since it is
not made (clear) at all, it is doubtful."
2B1B Reply
It is not like that. (It is) like this:

2B1B2 Root text
57.
EX A C TLY
LIK E
E N L IG H T E N M E N T ,
TH IS
ACCOMPLISHES THE DESIRED PURPOSE. BO D H I (HAS)

THE CHARACTERISTIC OF THUSNESS, W HICH IS ALSO
315
CONSIDERED AS THE CHARACTERISTIC OF THAT (PATH

OF MEDITATION). It is said.
2B1B3 Commentary
2B1B3A Conventionally, the pervasion is not established
2B1B3A1 Proving the example
Just as enlightenment, with the characteristic o f incomparable

thusness, the essence of non-conceptual gnosis, and the Buddha with
the inherent nature of Dharmakaya and so forth, accomplish their
desired purposes by mere mastery, in just that same way producing
a mind which appears as the special purpose in accordance with the
merits and gnosis of the trainees
2B1B3A2 Applying the meaning
actualizes the path by removing adventitious stains with medita

tion. This (path), also characterized by thusness, conventionally ac
complishes its desired purpose.
2B1B3B Accepted ultimately
Ultimately there is no fault in the way of refuting decrease and

increase, since non-application is the application at that time.
2B2 Conventional disputes
2B2A Dispute
316
Now to answer a qualm such as, "That may be, but purposeful
action
is unsuitable even conventionally."

2B2A2 Root text
58ab.
M IN D
IS
NOT
CONNECTED
TO
ENLIGHTENMENT BY THE FORMER OR LATTER.263 It is

said.
2B2A3 Commentary
(To the objection) that: "Because all objects of overall omni

science and so forth, which accomplish the enlightenment of a
Buddha, do not appear in each mind whether former or latter, none
of those (minds) are connected to enlightenment. Also, many minds
which appear to accomplish the desired purpose do not arise simul
taneously, because it is impossible, since (the scriptures) say,
a
'Sentient beings are each a continuum o f consciousness.

(Dharmas from) the foundations of mindfulness and so forth to the
eighteen unique Buddha dharmas, whose inherent natures will be
realized successively to accomplish the supreme enlightenment of a
Buddha, also will not arise in former or latter minds, since as soon
as one arises the former immediately disintegrates and thus there is
262 Skt artha-kriya, Tib.
263 skt. reverses the order, "enlightenment is not connected to mind..."

Skt. eka-vijnana-samtatayah sattva, source not traced.
317
no mutual relation. Therefoie, how is there purposeful action by

producing a mind which appears as the special purpose?"
2B2B Reply
That is not correct.

2B2B2
58cd.
Root text
PROFOUND DH ARM A T A HAS EIGHT ASPECTS,
AS IN THE EXAMPLE OF A LAMP. It is said.

2B2B3 Commentary
2B2B3A Actual reply
2B2B3A1 Proving the example
2B2B3A1A Not burning without reliance
2B2B3A1A1 The first instant does not bum without reliance
As in the first instant of contact of the flame and wick,
(the
two) are mutually conditioned due simultaneous contact, no distinc

tion arises. Without the second instant the characteristics of cause
and effect - what bums and what is burned - do not exist.
2B2B3A1A2 The second instant doei r.ot bum without re
liance
Similarly, although in the second instant a distinction of flame

and wick arises, without the first instant there will be the fault of
permanent existence and so forth. Thus the characteristics of cause
265 s k t varti, Tib.
. Monier-Williams: 1982, p. 925.
318
and effect, what bums and what is burned, do not exist even con
ventionally.
2B2B3A1B Having relied, to bum
For that reason, the nature of relativity is sheer conditional

ity,266 with the power of connecting cause and effect arbitrarily
without analysis. Relying on the first distinct instant of mutual
contact, if there is a second distinct instant and so forth which has a
special ability in addition to that, then despite disintegrating cause
lessly, what bums and what is burned exist by referring to simulta
neous production and destruction, which are respectively cause and
effect.
2B2B3A2 Applying the example to the meaning
Therefore, the wick is not burned by the first instant without

relying upon the second instant o f the flame, nor is the wick burned
by the second instant without relying upon the first instant of the
flame. Thus the reasoning of the example of a lamp further teaches
the application o f both former and latter instants to one object. The
former instant, depending on a former consciousness, appears as a
certain quantity of accomplishing enlightenment, and produces a
latter consciousness which appears as the distinctive holy meaning
separate from the meaning which appeared to that (former instant,
and is) thus connected to attaining enlightenment.
266 Skt. idampratyaya, Tib.
. Edgerton: 1985, p. 114.
319
2B2B3B The way that also indicates others
Those eight aspects of profound Dharmata should also be kept

in mind with the example which was just mentioned.
2B2C2A1B2C1B2C2 Explaining the ditfcrent signs of irreversibility
2C2A Hie text continues
If asked, "In what objects are those eight profound aspects the
characteristics of the irreversible bodhisattvas who abide on the path
of meditation?"
2C2B Root text
59.
(T H E R E
IS )
P R O FU N D IT Y
R E G A R D IN G
PRODUCTION, CESSATION, THUSNESS, WHAT IS KNOWN,

KNOW LEDGE,
A C T IV IT Y ,267
N O N -D U A L ITY ,
AND
SKILLFUL TECHNIQUE. It is said.

2C2C Commentary
2C2C1 The profound nature
(The eight are:) 1) the distinctive holy meaning realized through

meditation is produced without either former or latter instants, or
(their) naturelessness: relativity. 2) All things arise inherently natureless, but still are destroyed conventionally: cessation. 3)
Although familiar with thusness in all situations, not actualizing
that: thusness. 4) Practicing many kinds o f generosity and so forth
concerning all dharmas whose inherent nature is thusness: what is
267 Skt. caryU, Tib. 2j5*, Conze: 1954b, p. 72: "the practice".
320
known. 5) Seeing is not seeing by the nature of thusness: knowing.

6) Activity is always non-activity by D h a rm a ta : activity. 7)
Always acting with a non-dual nature: non-duai. 8) Not attaining
Buddhahood which is the result of fulfilling all accumulations:
skillful technique.
2C2C2 The way its realization is a sign
Profundity is due to accomplishing mutually contradictory

meanings by way of attaining the inconceivable liberation.
2B2C2A1B2C1B3 Summary
That is the assembly of irreversible students and their character

istics.268
2C2 Explaining the special paths which achieve the three holy bodies
2C2A The cause of Dharmakaya : the application of the equality of
samsara and nirvQna
2C2A1 The text continues
Having attained the dharmas of the assembly of students, effort

(is necessary) in order to attain Buddhahood. The way of attaining
Buddhahood is the equality of samsara and nirvana.
2C2A2 Root text
2C2A2A Actual meaning
2C2A2B Rejecting arguments
268 "and their characteristics" not in Skt.
321
60.
NOT
E X IS T E N C E
C O N C E IV IN G
AND
PEA C E
ANY
DHARMA
B E C A U SE
TH EY
AS
ARE
DREAMLIKE. THE REPLY TO CRITICISM OF THE NON

EXISTENCE OF KARMA AND SO FORTH IS STATED (IN
THE SCRIPTURE). It is said.
2C2A3 Commentary
2C2A3A Actual meaning
By realizing that samsara and complete purity - hostile states

and remedies - are like dreams with the nature o f reflections, one
does not think of samsara and nirvana as different, which is equal
ity.
2C2A3B Rejecting disputes
2C2A3B1 Disputes
There may be criticism (such as): "If they are just like dreams,
then the ten vices and generosity and so forth do not exist, so wont
being awake be like sleeping?"
2C2A3B2 Reply
3B2A Indefinite pervasion
3B2A1 Giving an example the indefinite pervasion which is ac
cepted by the iravakas themselves
3B2A1A They accept that the object to be killed and the killer are
not established for an ultimate mind
322
The answer is: in the system of (those who) propound (the real
ity of) external objects, there is cr.useless destruction due to momen
tariness, due to the axiom that: "The various worlds arise from
karm a."269 Ultimately there is no killing, killer, or victim, nor is
there not killing; Lhere is no one who is robbed, no robbery, and no
robber, nor is there non-robbery.
3B2A1B Yet they accept their establishment as objects of a con
ventional mind
In the aforesaid position, producing something which contradicts

the continuum of behavior, presents murder and such vices with a
superficial attitude270 such as clinging to a killer and so forth.
3B2A2 That is similar to the Madhyamikas
Similarly, although things are like dreams, there is attachment to

things and their corresponding meanings without breaking all m is
taken bonds.271 Such replies are stated here and there with other ex
amples. They should be recognized.
3B2B The example is not established
3B2B1 For Madhyamika
269 skt. karma-jam loka-vaicitryam, Abhidharma-koSa 4.1.

270 skt.ayvnito-manaskdra, Tib.
271 alternatively, "mistaken ties that bind"
323
Furthermore, because "dream mind is weakened by sleep, there

fore effects are not the same,"272 the example is not established.
3B2B2 For proponents of objects
There is virtuous and vicious behavior in dreams as well. When

one wakes up, if one rejoices that "Oh! It was done, it was well
done!" by nourishing attachment with a subsequent mind, that (type
of behavior) is also nourished.
3C The meaning is proved
Since the example is not established, samsara and nirvana are

equal.
2B2C2A1B2C2B The cause of sambhoga-kOya: application of a pure field
2C2B1 The text continues
Since by meditating on the equality of (those) two, one will be

come a Buddha in ones own Buddha field, next is the completely
pure Buddha field.
2C2B2 Root text
61.
THE WORLD OF SENTIENT BEINGS IS IMPURE
AND SO IS THE INANIMATE WORLD. A BUDDHA REALM

IS PURIFIED BY ATTAINING THEIR PURITY. It is said.
2C2B3 Commentary
272 Skt. middhenopahatah cittam svapne tenasamam phalam. Vimiatika

18b. Sec Anacken 1984, pp. 172,419.
324
There are impurities of hunger and thirst, and stones and thorns
and so forth respectively in the world of sentient beings and the
inanimate world which are the two types of Buddha fields. Their
remedies produce the purity of the divine pleasures and sections of
the ground made of gold and so forth Such complete purity is the
completely pure Buddha field.
2C2C The cause of nimulna-kaya : the application of skillful technique
2C2C1 The text continues
Having achieved the complete purity of ones own Buddha field,

it is necessary to perform the deeds of a Buddha as they are appro
priate with skillful technique, and so (the next topic is) skillful
technique.
2C2C2 Root text
62-63.
TH E
O B JE C T
AND
ITS
A P P L IC A T IO N S
(CONSTITUTE) TEN TYPES OF SKILLFUL TECHNIQUE:

SURPASSING HOSTILITIES,273 NOT ABIDING, ACCORDING
TO
POW ER,
UNCOM M ON
A TTACHM ENT,
NOT
C H A R A C TE R IST IC ,
NON
P E R C E IV IN G ,274 SIG N S AND
PRAYERS EXHAUSTED, ITS SIGNS, AND IMMEASURABLE.

It is said.
2C2C3 Commentary
273 Skt. fiurav'diulm atikramah, Tib. S
3
75: "overcoming a multitude of enemies".
274 Conze: 1954b, p. 76: "without a basis".
"
Conze: 1954b, p.
325
The application which knows the proper and improper time to

manifest (these) ten kinds of objects of prajiiaparamita (is) skillful
technique: 1) surpassing the divine Maras and so forth by perfectly
surpassing impeding dharmas, 2) abiding without abidance by medi
tating on the equality of all dharmas, 3) propelled by the power of
previous altruism by accomplishing prayer, 4) uncommon due to
familiarization with all difficult activities, 5) not grasping any
dharma by the completely pure white dharmas, 6) not perceiving
(any dharma) by the emptiness door of liberation, 7) signless by the
signlessness door of liberation, 8) wishless by the wishlessness door
of liberation, 9) the sign of irreversibility by expressing the irre
versible dharmas as previously requested, and 10) immeasurable
with the knowledge of all objects.
2B2C2A1C Finishing the chapter
The commentary of the fourth chapter of the Treatise of Oral

Instructions of the P ra jiia p a ra m ita
called the Ornament of
Abhisamayas,
326
CHAPTER FIVE
PEAK REALIZATION
2B2C2A2 Peak realization: the result which is strengthened
2A2A The text continues
The attainment of fully realizing all aspects is a realization

which attains the limit of excellence. The abhisamaya o f the peak
is preceded by stating the signs and so forth for ease of realization
2A2B Explaining the text of the chapter
2A2B1 Peak realization of the path of preparation
2A2B1A Individual natures
2A2B1A1 Peak realization of heat
2A2B1A1A Root text
1.
THERE ARE SAID TO BE TW ELVE SIGNS OF
Y O G A 275 WHICH HAS ATTAINED THE PEAK: TO LOOK

UPON ALL DHARMAS AS DREAMS EVEN IN DREAMS,
AND SO FORTH. It is said.
1A1B Commentary
These twelve types are the special signs when one attains the
peak abhisamaya : 1) regarding all dharmas as like dreams and so
forth even while dreaming because of thorough familiarization, 2)
not producing thoughts of longing for the stages of the sravakas
275 m
g*.
327
and so forth, 3) seeing the Tathagata and so forth, 4) observing

Buddha's magical miracles, 5) resolving to teach the holy
27fi
Dharma, 6) mindful of abandoning lower rebirths in ones own

Buddha field from having seen sentient beings in the hells and so
forth, 7) endowed with the blessing of truth277 which quenches
burning cities and so forth, 8) fulfillment of truthful speech which
drives away demons and so forth,
27R
9) serving the heroic
279
virtu
ous friend with ones own superknowledge, 10) training in all kinds
of prajiiaparamita, 11) without any sort2**of attachment, and 12)
approaching the enlightenment of a Buddha.
1A2 Peak realization of peak
If asked, "What kinds of increase are indicated by such signs?"

(the next is) increase.
1A2B Root text
2.
SIXTEEN
ESSENCES OF INCREASE
MAKE
ASSORTED ANALOGIES (WITH) THE VIRTUE OF THE
276 this word not in Skt. Tib.

, jn Tripathi: 1977, p. 121, it is noted
that this word also does not occur in the Derge version of this text.
277 on this and the next item see W. N. Brown: 1940.
278 skt. yaksMy-amanusya. Edgerton: 1985, p. 62.
279 skt. pardkrama, Tib. * * * ,
Tibetan mistranslation.
280 Skt. sarvatra, Tib.
328
NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN JAMBUDVlPA WORSHIPPING THE

BUDDHA AND SO FORTH. It is said.
1A2C Commentary
There are sixteen essential states o f increase, distinguished as

superior to the virtue of worshipping the Buddha with flowers and
so forth. They are eight kinds of merit: 1) exceeding worship of the
Tathagatas (by) the sentient beings of the three thousand world
systems of Jambudvipa and so forth, 2) paying particular attention
to prajhaparam ita,
3) attaining the tolerance of non-produced
dharmas, 4) not perceiving any dharmas as what is enlightened and

what enlightens, 5) distinguished by attaining the ten virtues and so
forth and the formless absorptions, 6) all classes of gods approach,
7) overcoming all Maras by splendor,281 and 8) the same condition
as people who are like the founder; and eight more kinds of merit:
9) pure training with all kinds of skillful techniques, 10) having the
lineage of a Buddha, 11) the reason for attaining the result of
Buddhahood, 12) not producing thoughts which are opposed to the
param itas, 13) not allowing282 realizations associated with form
and so forth, 14) gnosis which includes the paramitas, 15) attaining
all fulfillments, and 16) approaching perfect supreme enlighten
ment.
281 "by splendor" not in Skt.

282
aprasarga. Monier-Williams: 1982, p. 698.
329
i A3 Peak realization of tolerance

Since the final characteristics which are habitually283 increased

by means of such increase are stable, (next is) stability.
1A3B Root text
3.
SUPREME FULFILLMENT OF THE DHARMAS
OF THE THREE OMNISCIENCES WITHOUT FORSAKING

TH E
B E N E FIT
OF
SEN TIEN T
BEINGS
IS
CALLED
'STABILITY. It is said.
1A3C Commentary
Thus, a non-conceptual realization with the characteristic of not

forsaking the benefit of sentient beings through the force of perfect
skillful technique, the nature of manifesting great compassion, and
the supreme fulfillment of the dharmas of the three omnisciences
which were explained before as producing the thought and so forth
mentioned above, (constitutes) stability.
1A4 Peak realization of supreme dharma
Having thus produced stability, since the characteristic which

becomes stable is the unvarying mind, (next is) unvarying mind.
1A4B Root text
283 skt. satmibhSva. Monier-Williams: 1982, p. 1200.
330
4.
SAMADHI
IS SAID TO HAVE MUCH MERIT,
COMPARED WITH FOUR CONTINENTS, A THOUSAND,

TWO THOUSAND, AND THREE THOUSAND. It is said.
1A4C Commentary
It is possible to measure (the continents) with weights, such a

measure exists. Comparing the merit and gnosis of the sam adhi
(with) the nature of all the param itas and so forth with the beings
who reside in284 the 3000 world systems, (each consisting of) four
continents and so forth by means of (the above quoted) principle,
the characteristic nature of that sam adhi is stated to be distin
guished and surpassing that measure in terms of quantity of merit.
(This) is the unvarying mind.
IB Summary
Those marks and so forth should be recognized respectively as

the natures of the four nirvedha-bhagiya of heat and so forth.
2B2C2A2B2 Peak realization of the path of vision
Following the nirvedha-bhagiya is the path of vision.

2B2B Explaining the individual abandonments and remedies
2B1 Concepts: things to be abandoned
2B1A Shown briefly
2B1A1 Concepts of objects
284 skt. lokadhmu-stha-sattva.
3 31
There are four kinds of hostile states and remedies. Starting with
the hostile states, there are two concepts285 of objects:
2B1A1B Root text
5.
AS
CONCEPTS OF OBJECTS SHOULD BE KNOWN

NOT
A CC O R D IN G
W ITH
(T H E IR )
E SSE N T IA L
O B J E C T S .286 (DIVIDED) INTO PARTICIPA TIO N AND

WITHDRAWAL, THEY ARE EACH NINE-FOLD. It is said.
2B1A1C Commentary
Objects in the sense of accepting and rejecting the dharmas of

the bodhisattvas and sravakas and so forth are the concepts of ob
jects. Participation and withdrawal are respectively the natures of
perceiving and not perceiving. There is a mistaken appearance be
cause those (concepts) do not correspond to their objects; so (their)
natures do not accord with their objects. Dividing the objects, they
are each nine-fold. They should be known as hostile states because
they are deluded.287
285 Skt. vikalpa, Tib.
Skt. grdhyau vikalpau xijneyav ayatha-xisayatmakau, Tib.

^ ^ ' 3 * , Conze: 1954b, p. 81: "The two (false)
discriminations of the object cause objects within their range to appear different
from what they are in reality."
287 translation of this passage follows the Sanskrit, and is tentative. The
Tibetan has something like this:
Objects in the sense of accepting and rejecting the dharmas of bod
hisattvas and fritxakas and so forth. Participation and withdrawal with the
332
2B1A2 Concepts of subjects

Having shown the two alternatives of concepts of objects in that

way, (next are) the two concepts of subjects.
2B1A2B Root text
6-7.
THE TWO CONCEPTS OF SUBJECTS ARE OF
SUBSTANTIAL AND NOMINALLY EXISTENT BEINGS. THE

FORM ER APPLIES TO ORDINARY PEOPLE AND THE
LATTER TO ARYAS. EACH IS NINE-FOLD. IF OBJECTS
ARE NOT AS (THEY ARE CONCEIVED), WHAT IS THE
OBJECT OF THESE (CONCEPTS OF SUBJECTS)?288 THUS
DUE
TO
TH E
NATURE
OF
S U B JE C T S ,
T H E IR
CHARACTERISTIC IS EMPTINESS. It is said.

2B1A2C Commentary
Concepts of subjects based on substantial and nominally existent

persons (apply) respectively to ordinary and Arya persons. They
nature of referring and not referring respectively. Dividing concepts of
objects into (those whose) objects are deluded hostile states, they are each
of nine types. Since they do not correspond with the thing, there is a mis
taken appearance. Thus it should be known that their essences do not ac
cord with their objects.
288 Skt. grahyau cen na tathd sto'rthau kasya tau grdhakau matau, Tib.
The Dcrgc version of this text (as
noted in TripathI: 1977, p. 124) has
. Cbnze: 1954b, p. 81: "If the
objective reality (of objects) is not so (as it appears to the discriminating mind),
then the two (discriminations; of the subject cannot be considered as related to
anything."
333
each have nine types by dividing their scopes (and they are) hostile
states because (they) are impediments. When the things which are
their scope are objects to be grasped which do not exist in the way
in which they are grasped, then what are those subjects? Therefore
since the nature of those subjects is a mistaken appearance with a
separate nature, their inherent nature does not match their scope.
289
2B1B Explaining extensively

2B1B 1 Explaining concepts of objects extensively
2B1B1A Concepts of participating objects
(In answer) to the question, "What are the nine kinds of the first
concept of objects based on participation?"
2B1B1A2 Root text
8-9.
TH ERE ARE NINE CONCEPTS
P A R T IC IP A T IO N :
N A TU R E,
L IN E A G E ,
BASED ON
PER FEC TLY
ACCOM PLISHING THE PATH,290 NOT CONFUSING THE

REFERENTS OF COGNITION,291 HOSTILE STATES AND
REMEDIES, PERSONAL REALIZATION, AGENT, ACTIVITY,
AND RESULT. It is said.
I A3 Commentary
289 translation tentative.

290 Conze: 1954b, p. 81: "the progress (which leads^to) full attainment".
2 9 1 Skt. jfianasyalambanabhrantau, Tib.
,
Conze: 1954b, p. 82: "one is not deceived about the object of cognition".
334
1A3A General objects of a bodhisattvas participation

1A3B Particular (objects of a bodhisattva's participation)
1A3B1 Cause of the path
1A3B2 Natures
1A382A Actual path
1A3B2B Referents of the path
1A3B2C Ability to destroy what should be abandoned
1A3B3 Results
1A3B3A One's own benefit
1A3B3B Others benefit
1A3B3B1 Agent who benefits others
1A3B3B2 Activity
1A3B3B3 Results
These nine types of concepts of objects based on participation

should be abandoned during292 the application of the path of vision:
!) the nature of not realizing a distinct separation,
2) fixed in the
Buddha lineage by entering the Immovable stage
and so forth, 3)
perfectly accomplishing the paths of vision and so forth with an il

lusory realization,295 4) not confusing the referents since (they are)
merely reflections, 5) having already seen the qualities and faults of
292 skt. avastha.
293 skt. vivikterta viviktdnavabodha.
294
the eighth bodhisattva stage.
295
or realization o f the illusory.
335
the remedies and hostile states which should be acquired and

avoided (respectively), 6) personal realization since the omnipresent
and so forth have gone away,296 7) shunning the stages o f the
sravakas and so forth due to (their) lack of excellence, 8) acting to
benefit sentient beings with emanations according to (their) expec
tations, and 9) accomplishing the result of establishing all beings in
nirvana with perfect skillful technique. One should participate with
utterly faultless selectivity.
297
2B2C2A2B2B1B1B Concepts of withdrawn objects

(In answer) to the question, "What are the nine types of the sec
ond concepts of objects based on withdrawal?"
1B2 Root text
10-12.
THESE
N IN E
CON CEPTS
B A SE D
ON
WITHDRAWAL ARISE IN THE MINDS OF SRAVAKAS AND

SO FORTH: DEFICIENT REALIZATION DUE TO FALLING
INTO EXISTENCE AND PEACE,298 WITHOUT ASSISTANCE,
IMPERFECT PROGRESS ON THE WAY, PROGRESSING BY
29^ translation follows Skt., sarvatragadi-gatatvena, Tib. has
, "because of separation from all impurities."
297 "selectivity" translates Skt. upddeyatva. Monier-Williams: 1982, p.
213.
298 Skt. bhava -idnti-prapdtitvan nyunatve'dhigamasya, Tib.
9 T , Conze: 1954b, p. 82: "the deficiency in (spiritual)
achievement which results when one allows becoming and quietude fo fall apart".
336
OTHER
C O N D IT IO N S ,299
M ISTAKEN
M O TIV A TIO N ,
RESTRICTED, VARIETY, CONFUSED ABOUT REMAINING

AND SETTING OUT, AND FOLLOWING AFTER. It is said.
1B3 Commentary
1B3A Deficient realizations: the result of the paths of Sravakas
and pratyeka-buddhas
1B3B Without assistance: the dominant condition
1B3C Inferior means of attaining the two purposes
1B3C1 The purposes of others
1B3C2 Ones own purpose
1B3C3 Both purposes
1B3D Falling away from special abandonments and realizations
1B3D1 Inferior abandonments
1B3D2 Inferior realizations
1B3E Falling away by not attaining special paths and results
1B3E1 Special paths
1B3E2 Special results
The second nine types o f concepts o f objects based on with

drawal arise as things to be accepted in the continua of sravakas
and pratyeka-buddhas when engaging the minds and mental factors
of the bodhisattva's path of vision: 1) deficient realization falling
299 Skt. para-pratyaya-gamitve, Tib.

, Conze: 1954b, p. 83:
'the fact that one goes for help (and instruction) to outsiders".
337
into either nirvana or samsara, 2) without assistance due to sepa

ration from the virtuous friend (and) skillful technique, 3) an im
perfect way or path300 which is not a remedy for all cognitive ob
scurations, 4) progressing by other conditions relying on the in
structions of the Tathagatas and so forth, 5) mistaken motivation
by not developing the supreme greatness of mind
am
of all sentient
beings and so forth, 6) the activity of a restricted path with the

remedies of delusory obscurations, 7) various realizations such as
the first result and so forth by having a referent, 8) not understand
ing remaining and going since not all the propensities o f ignorance
have been abandoned, and 9) approaching overall omniscience at
the end of ail nirvana 302 which includes the whole Mahayana. One
should withdraw without objectifying them since they are defective.
2B2C2A2B2B1B2 Explaining concepts of subjects extensively
1B2A Concepts of substantial subjects
(In answer) to the question, "What are the first nine kinds of
concepts of subjects based on ordinary peoples (idea of) substan
tially existing beings?"
1B2A2 Root text
300 Skt. pratipan-marga, Tib. Jjj'T W 'fW .

301 "of mind" in Tib. only
302 s kt sarva-nirvana-paScad. Tib. t
338
13-14.
THE FIRST (CONCEPTS OF) SUBJECTS SHOULD
BE KNOWN AS
SEIZURE AND RELEASE, ATTITUDE,
CLINGING TO THE THREE DHATUS, STAYING, ATTACH

MENT, DESIGNATING THE QUALITIES OF DHARMAS,303
CLINGING, REMEDIES, AND IMPEDING (PROGRESS TO)
THE DESIRED DESTINATION. It is said.
1B2A3 Commentary
2A3A Falling away from the cause c f overall omniscience
2A3A1 Attached to activities
2A3A1A Acceptance and rejection
2A3A1B Attention to their motivation as true
2A3A1C Its fault
2A3A2 Attached to objects of knowledge
2A3A2A True properties
2A3A2B What is not true
2A3A2C Designation
2A3A3 Attached to hostile states and remedies
2A3A3A Hostile states
2A3A3B Remedies
2A3B Falling away from the result of overall omniscience
303 Skt. prajnaptau dharma-vastunah, Tib.

1954b, p. 84: "the concept of dharmas as (real) entities".
, Conze:
339
Attachment (to the following) as ultimate qualities (are) the first

nine kinds of concepts of subjects which are to be abandoned during
the application of the path of vision: 1) seizing and relinquishing as
conventionally illusory, 2) attention without attention to perfection,
3) clinging to any of the three realms of Dharmata, 4) remaining
in remainderless emptiness, 5) attached to everything without at
tachment to qualities, 6) designating dharmas as substantially exis
tent,304 7) clinging which precedes non-attachment without the at
tachment of knowing thusness, 8) a remedy with the remedy of
meditating on equality, and 9) impeding desired progress by not
knowing prajhaparamita perfectly.
2B2C2A2B2B1B2B Concepts of nominal subjects
(In answer) to the question, "What are the nine types of the sec
ond concepts of subjects based on nominally existent beings?"
1B2B2 Root text
15-16.
TH E OTHER CONCEPTS O F SUBJECTS ARE:
NOT TRANSCENDING AS INTENDED, ASCERTAINING

PATH AND NON-PATH, ARISAL AND CESSATION, HAVING
AND LACKING QUALITIES, REMAINING, DESTROYING
304 Skt. dravya-sadbhdvena dharma-prajnaptau, Tib.

. Their meaning is opposite, and my translation follows the
Sanskrit.
340
THE LINEAGE, WITHOUT DESIRE, WITHOUT CAUSE, AND

NOT PERCEIVING OPPONENTS. It is said.
1B2B3 Commentary
1B2B3A Not attaining the desired results
1B2B3B Attached to distortions
1B2B3B1 Distorted path
1B2B3B2 Distorted objects of knowledge
3B2A Grasping negative and positive as true
3B2B Grasping having and lacking qualities as true
3B2C Grasping the meaning of the natural state as true
1B2B3C Contradicting with the perfect path
1B2B3C1 Falling away from the inferior lineage
1B2B3C2 Incomplete cooperative conditions
3C2A Not striving for the distinguished result
3C2B Caused by lacking prajnaparamita
3C3 Held by contradictory conditions
The second nine kinds of concepts of subjects, since they are at

tached to nominal things (as real), are to be abandoned when engag
ing the minds and mental factors of the path of vision: 1) not tran
scending in accordance with the motivation with the transcendence
of the sravakas and so forth, 2) ascertaining another path as not a
path since one's desired path does not exist, 3) arisal and cessation
with the nature of conventional cause and effect, 4) having and
341
one
lacking all things which appear without interrupting each other, J

5) residing amidst form and so forth as a bird lives in the sky, 6)
destroying the lineage of sravakas and so forth by producing bodhicitta and so forth, 7) desireless since no dharma is more special
than thusness, 8) causeless by relying upon ultimate truth, and 9)
perceiving adverse qualities of the M aras and so forth through the
Dharmata of familiarization with miserliness.
2B2C2A2B2B1C Summary
Therefore, according to (the previous) nine verses, there are

nine kinds o f hostile states on the path of vision, and each has four
types. One should recall also the four kinds of remedies which
eliminate those, which are similarly divided.
2B2C2A2B2B2 Their remedies
2B2A The cause of the peak realization of the path of vision
Having thus taught the hostile states and remedies on the path of
vision, one more verse (teaches) that path of vision and the causes
of accomplishing great enlightenment.
2B2A2 Root text
17.
(T H E R E
ARE
T H R E E :)
S H O W IN G
EN LIG H TEN M EN T TO OTHERS, BESTOW AL OF ITS

305 skt. nirantaretara-pratibhasatvena, Tib.
342
C A U SE ,
AND
TH E
U N IN TER R U PTED
CAU SE
FOR
ATTAINING THAT IS CHARACTERIZED BY ABUNDANT

MERIT. It is said.
2B2A3 Commentary
2B2A3A Displaying enlightenment
First: others are led to enlightenment, which has characteristics

which will be explained, by teaching the path of vision and so forth.
2B2A3B Showing its cause
Second: leading them to prajnaparamita with perfect words and

meaning306 as the sole trait of enlightenment.
2B2A3C Meditation: the cause of ones own unintemiption
Third: the uninterrupted cause for attaining enlightenment is

characterized by the abundant merit of ones own meditation and so
forth on prajnaparamita.
2B2B Great enlightenment: the result of peak realization of the path of
vision
2B2B1 Identification of great enlightenment in our own tradition
(In answer) to the question, "What is this great enlightenment

which is said to (result from) the path of vision and such causes?
What is its meaning?" (there is) another verse (about) great enlight
enment.
306 Skt. adds "and so forth" (Sdi)
343
2B2B1B Root text
18.
GNOSIS OF TH E ELIM INATION AND N O N
P R O D U C T IO N
OF
S T A IN S
IS
CALLED
"ENLIGHTENMENT." THOSE (TWO) SHOULD BE KNOWN

AS DUE TO NON-ELIMINATION AND NON-PRODUCTION
RESPECTIVELY. It is said.
2B2B1C Commentary
The knowledges of the elimination and non-production of stains

are characterized as the undistorted realization o f all dharmas and
similar to the Dharmakaya respectively. (They are) said to be great
enlightenment. The stains of the delusory and cognitive obscura
tions are regarded as produced and not produced, because they nei
ther arise nor cease, like the natures of Dharmadhatu or space, be
cause "A dharma which is not included in the Dharmadhatu does
not exist."307 Since there is no (single) thing which has the nature
of one and many and the marks of cause and effect and so forth,
like a flower in the sky, they neither arise nor cease.
2B2B2 Incorrect to accept true properties
2B2B2A Refuting through contradiction with reason
Therefore it is like that. (There are) some who say with regard
to elimination, thinking of the destruction of a thing, that the
307 MadhyHnta-Vibkdga V.19. Anacker: 1984, pp. 263,457.
344
knowledge which thinks, "It is eliminated", and (who say) with re

gard to non-production, by thinking of not producing a thing, that
the knowledge which thinks, "It is not produced", are the knowl
edges of elimination and non-production and (who further state
that) enlightenment (consists of) such knowledges of elimination
and non-production.308 But since such knowledges of elimination
and non-production are not acceptable (as enlightenment), there is
another verse.
2B2B2A2 Root text
19.
THE PRIMORDIAL NATURE IS NOT STOPPED
BY THE WAY CALLED VISION. WHAT THAT IS BORN309

OF CONCEPTION IS ELIMINATED? OR HOW COULD IT
COME TO BE NON-PRODUCED? It is thus.
2B2B2A3 Commentary
This is the intention. If the natural state of thusness is ultimately

separate from cessation which has the characteristic of annihilating
the elimination and production of what is produced and not pro
duced respectively, then what produced natures such as concepts and
so forth are eliminated or what unproduced productionless substrate
is produced by the force of the path of vision? Since there is no
30 from "who further state" to here not in Skt.

309 Skt Jala, Tib.
. My translation follows the Sanskrit.
345
-51A
mistaken attachment to things at all, only our position
should be
accepted.
2B2B2B Refuting through contradiction with the acceptance
2B2B2B1 The text continues
It is not like that. If we accept that dharmas (already) exist per

fectly, then the Bhagavan's complete abandonment of the delusory
and cognitive obscurations and concepts occasions great surprise.
This is taught by an additional verse.
2B2B2B2 Root text
20.
(THE
DHARM AS
FA C T)
IN D E E D
TH A T
E X IST ,
O THERS
Y ET
THE
SA Y
TH A T
TEACHER
ELIM INATED OBSCURATIONS REGARDING W HAT IS

KNOWABLE IS AMAZING TO ME! Thus.
2B2B2B3 Commentary
2B3B Interpretation
2B3B1 Stages of meditation upon the essential meaning
2B3B1A Grounds of the yoga which realizes personal selfless
ness
2B3B1A1 Reasoning
2B3B1A2 Yoga
2B3B1A3 The result of meditation
310 skt. m att, T i b . ^ W .
346
1) With regard to that, because (it is) empty c f production and

destruction, 2) meditating that, "There is no self', 3) having given
up attachment to a self, observing perfectly the substrate of produc
tion and destruction, which is produced dependently, such as the
skandhas and so forth which are isolated from that (self) 2B3B1B Grounds of the yoga which realizes objects and subjects
to be empty of other substances
2B3B1B1 The stages of meditation in equipoise, depending upon
reasoning arisen from contemplation,
2B3B1B1A Reasoning arisen from contemplation
2B3B1B1B Yoga arisen from meditation
2B3B1B1C The result of meditation
1) (And) because blue and its cognition are invariably observed

together, 2) the attitude that: "This (blue) is merely mental, there
are no external objects," 3) abandons attachment to external objects
without completely doing away with attachment to the mind which
has the aspect of a subject 2B3B1B2 The mind of mental attention in post attainment
By determining that: if objects do not exist, subjects do not exist

- having dispelled even that mere cognition with the characteristic
form of a subject, resolving that: "This non-dual gnosis is the only
thing which truly exists," -
347
2B3B1C Grounds of the yoga which realizes that all dharmas are
empty of truth
1C1 Reasoning
1C2 Yoga
1C3 The result of meditation
1) Furthermore, even that (gnosis) is illusory and without

essence because it is produced dependently, hence 2) meditating:
"Acmally, it is wholly separated from the nature of judgement as a
thing or non-thing and so forth," 3) when the strength of meditation
is accomplished, like one who knows jewels, silver, and so forth, all
mistaken marks are abandoned. When the non-conceptual awareness
with the appearance of an illusory nature arises as a personal real
ization, the yogi will abandon cognitive obscurations.
2B3B2 Explaining the meaning of the root words
2B3B2A There are no truly existing obscurations
It is not so. (There is) always the memory of the nature of mere
insubstantial space, remembering an inherent nature which is neither
produced nor abandoned. If the natures of the knowledge of mo
mentary dharmas and the characteristics of what is known were to
ultimately exist, then meditating on the remedies would not do
anything at all, just like space.
2B3B2B Accepting that contradicts the ability to abandon the
seeds of cognitive obscurations
348
Therefore, since ethers do not turn away from mistaken attach

ment to things, that the Bhagavan completely abandoned the cog
nitive obscurations and yet dharmas are also accepted as existing;
that acceptance of mutual contradiction is amazing to me.
2B2C2A2B2B2B3 Wanting to attain final great enlightenment, it is necessary to
accept all dharmas as empty of truth
Having thus rejected the position of existence, by confirming the

position of naturelessness, those desiring liberation should accept
only this. Thus an additional verse (teaches our) firm position.
2B3B Root text
2B3B1 Abiding state of basic properties
2B3B2 The view which realizes that
2B3B3 Result of familiarization with the view
21.
TH ERE
IS
N O TH ING
TO
BE
R EM O V ED ,
NOTHING TO BE ADDED. IT IS TO BE SEEN AS IT REALLY

IS. ONE WHO SEES IT IS LIBERATED.311 It is said.
2B3C Commentary
3 H This verse is almost identical with Ratnagotra-vibhUga 1.154. See

Obermiller: 1931, p. 235 (who numbers it as 1.152) and Z. Nakamura:
1961, pp. 147-148. Takasaki: 1966, p. 300 calls it "one of the most fa
mous verses in Mahayanistic literature and cites nine other places in
which it is found. Conze: 1978b, p. 102 notes that this verse was first
elaborated by ASvaghosa, then adopted and transformed by NSgSijuna,
and in that form frequently quoted in Madhymika and Vijfianavadin
works."
349
Since liberation resulting from attachment to things is unaccept

able, all dharmas conventionally arise dependently, neither dimin
ished nor augmented with the natures o f repudiation and superim
position, (but) their true nature should be investigated as the nature
of the non-inherent existence and so forth of form and so forth. By
turning away from errors in that way, like an illusory elephant con
quering another illusory elephant, one will be completely liberated
in seeing thusness.
2B2C2A2B2B2C The self nature of peak realization of the path of vision
2B2C1 Actuai
2B2C1A The text continues
Having thus stated the consequences (in verse), the real path of
vision (follows).
2B2C1B Root text
22.
TH OSE W HICH
ARE INCLUDED
IN EACH
( P A R A M I T A ) OF GENEROSITY AND SO FORTH ARE

INCLUDED IN THE TOLERANCE OF THE FIRST INSTANT
AND ARE HERE THE PATH OF VISION. It is said.
2B2C1C Commentary
2B2C1C1 Actual
Each of the six param itas of generosity and so forth are mutu
ally included as before, in each nature of generosity and so forth
(and they are all) included by the first instant o f tolerance of
350
dharma knowledge regarding suffering. Strengthened by the com

plete purity of the three m andalas and produced with thirty-six
aspects, they are the path of vision here, during the peak afthisamaya.
2B2C1C2 Its activity
One hundred and eight concepts of subjects and objects, by the

divisions of desire, form, and formless realms, (each) with nine
aspects for each of the four concepts, are eliminated when that is
produced. The one hundred and eight latent delusions which give
rise to the concepts and are included in them will be eliminated by
attaining the Dharmata of dependent arising.
2B2C2 Strengthening the abandonments
2B2C2A The text continues
Repeated meditation upon that itself will master it, as taught by

an additional verse.
2B2C2B Root text
23.
SURVEY THE REGULAR AND IRREGULAR
ORDER OF DEPENDENT ARISING AFTER ATTAINING THE

SAMADHl OF THE YAWNING LION. It is thus.
2B2C2C Commentary
2B2C2C1 Peak realization of the path of vision in sanuidhi
351
Because there is no fear of the delusory or cognitive obscura

tions for the yogi who has attained the path of vision, he attains the
yawning lion312 samadhi 2B2C2C2 Seen directly by wisdom which is attained subsequent to
that, the peak realization of the path of vision is to be passed
Later, with regard to relativity, he reflects upon the regular order thus: "(Karmic) formations
'i\'i
are conditioned by ignorance,"
and the irregular order thus: "By removing birth, aging and death
are removed."
2B2C2A2B3 Peak realization of the path of meditation
2B3A The remedy: the path of meditation
Having thus stated the path of vision, since abandoning the hos
tile states and so forth is easy to understand if the oasis has been ac
complished beforehand, that basis is the path o f meditation.
2B3A2 Root text
2B3A2B Interpretation
24-25.
(MEDITATIONS) COMING AND GOING IN TV/O
W A Y S 314 THROUGH NINE ABSORPTIONS INCLUDING

CESSATION, (ARE) BOUNDED BY UNCONCENTRATED
312 Skt sim ha-vijrm bhita. This sam adhi

GandavyOha, according to Suzuki: 1968, p. 157.
313 Skt. samskura.
314 "jn two ways" not in Skt.
is also found in the
352
CONSCIOUSNESS W HICH BELONGS TO THE DESIRE

(REALM). PASSING OVER ONE, TWO, THREE, FOUR, FIVE,
S IX ,
SEV EN ,
AND
E IG H T ,
S U R P A S S IN G
TH E
A BSO RPTIO NS, (ONE) PROCEEDS W ITH OU T EQUAL

UNTIL CESSATION. It is said.
2B3A3 Commentary
2B3A3A Preparation
(In his meditation, the yogi) goes from the first dhyana to ces
sation, and then returns from cessation to the first dhyana, thus
going and coming back both forward and backward through the
nine absorptions characterized by the four dhyanas, the four form
less (realms), and (the absorption of) cessation.
2B3A3B Actual
Again (the yogi) enters the first dhyana and then rises to cessa
tion. Similarly, (starting) from the stage without discrimination or
non-discrimination, (he) enters cessation, then rises to support the
adjoining absorption. Then (he) enters the consciousness dwelling in
the desire realm with the nature of a limit and rises by the strength
of (his) skillful technique to unconcentrated consciousness. Having
actualized that, (he) next (enters) cessation. Then (he goes back to)
unconcentrated (consciousness). Then leaving behind a single cessa
tion, (he enters) the stage without discrimination or non-discrimina
tion. Then (he goes back to) unconcentrated (consciousness). Then
353
leaving two behind, (he enters) the stage of nothingness. Then un

concentrated (consciousness). Leaving (the stages) behind in this
way until (he reaches) eight (he enters) the first dhyana. Then (he
goes back to) unconcentrated (consciousness).
2B3A3C Summary
Having thus left behind one and so forth up to the absorption

of
cessation, and (also) going backwards, the bodhisattva (-yogi)
actualizes the characteristic of mastery of leaping over and surpass

ing the absorptions. This unequalled procedure is the path of medi
tation.
2B3B The concepts to be abandoned:
2B3B1 Joining the general boundaries
Having thus stated the path of meditation, it is necessary to state

the four kinds of hostile states in order to abandon (what is to be
abandoned) there.
2B3B2 Their individual natures
2B3B2A Concepts of objects
2B3B2A1 Participating objects
2B3B2A1A The text continues
Now for the first concepts of objects.

2B3B2A1B Root text
315 "Up t0 the absorption o f not in Skt.
354
26-27ab.
THIS FIRST CONCEPT OF OBJECTS RANGES
OVER THE ASPECTS OF APPLICATION WITH REGARD TO:

CONDENSED, EXTENSIVE, NOT RECEIVING BUDDHA'S
ASSISTANCE, QUALITIES OF THE THREE TIMES DO NOT
EXIST, AND THE EXCELLENT THREE-FOLD PATH. It is
said.
2B3B2A1C Commentary
The first concepts of objects are nine-fold. The things to be

abandoned in this case, in the context of the application of the path
of meditation, are: 1) the condensed Dharma which fosters sentient
beings who like the condensed, 2) the extensive Dharma which fos
ters sentient beings who like the extensive, 3) not receiving
Buddha's assistance by not following the meaning as it was ex
plained, 4) lacking qualities of the path of preparation by eliminat
ing arisal, 5) lacking qualities of the path of vision by not having
the cause of perfect production, 6) lacking qualities of the path of
meditation since the future does not exist, 7) the path of preparing
for nirvana by averting errors and so forth, 8) the path of vision by
the realization of emptiness, and 9) the path of meditation by medi
tating upon lack of intrinsic reality.
2B3B2A2 Concepts of withdrawn objects
355
Having thus shown the first, (next are) the second concepts of
objects.
2A2B Root text
27cd-29.
THE SECOND CONCEPTS ON THE PATH OF
MEDITATION HAVE OBJECTS OF THE ENGAGING MINDS

AND MENTAL FACTORS,316 (I.E.,) MIND NOT PRODUCED,
N O N -A T T E N T IO N
TO
E N L IG H T E N M E N T ,
A T T E N T IO N
HiNAYANAS,
THE
E S S E N C E 317
TO
N O N -A T T E N T IO N
THE
TO
OF
(TW O )
PERFECT
EN LIG H TEN M EN T, M EDITATION, N O N -M ED ITA TIO N ,

TH EIR
O PPO SITE, AND N O T ACCORD IN G
TO TH E
MEANING.318 It is said.
2A2C Commentary
The second concepts of objects are nine-fold. The things to be

abandoned in this case when engaging the minds and mental factors
of the path of meditation are: 1) not producing bodhicitta due to
separation from the virtuous friend and so forth, 2) non-attention to
the essence of enlightenment by lacking the special merit of per
316 Skt citta-caittanam pravrtti-visayo. Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 87: "has the proceeding of thought and its constituents for
its range".
317 Skt. bodhi-manda, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 88: "the terrace of
enlightenment".
318 Skt ayaihSrtka, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b, p. 88: "(its) objective
reality is not considered as it really is".
356
ceiving Buddha, 3) by having the lineage of a sravaka, attention to

that vehicle, 4) by having the lineage of a pratyeka-buddha, actual
izing that vehicle, 5) non-attention to perfect enlightenment by not
having attained prajnaparamita, 6) meditation with perception, 7)
without meditation since there is no perception, 8) without medita
tion and also not without meditation by lacking both perception and
also non-perception, and 9) not according to the meaning due to
mistaken attachment.
2B Concepts of subjects
2B1 Substantial subjects
Having thus shown the second, (next are) the first concepts of
subjects.
2B1B Root text
30-31.
ONE
SHO U LD
KNOW
TH A T
TH E
FIR ST
(CONCEPTS OF) SUBJECTS RANGES OVER NOM INAL

SENTIENT BEINGS, CONSISTING OF NOMINAL DHARMAS,
NON-EMPTINESS, ATTACHMENT, AND ANALYSIS. IT IS
ALSO KNOWN WITH REGARD TO ACTIVITY TOWARD
T H IN G S,319 THE THREE VEHICLES, IMPURE GIFTS, AND
DISTURBED BEHAVIOR. It is said.
319 Skt. krtena vastuno, Tib.

of (the exposition of) entities".
, Conze: 1954b, p. 88: "the effecting
357
2B1C Commentary
As before, the first concepts of subjects are nine-fold. The

things (to be abandoned) during the application of the path of medi
tation are: 1) nominal sentient beings since there is no substantially
existent production, 2) nominal dharmas because they are mere ap
pearances, 3) dharmas such as overall omniscience are not empty
due to omnipresence, 4) attached to dharmas by not completely
abandoning attachment, 5) analyzing dharmas due to realizing lack
of inherent nature, 6) making the motivation be things by not making the (proper?
) motivation, 7) transcending the three vehicles
by not perceiving form and so forth, 8) gifts are impure since they
are not perfectly obtained,321 and 9) disturbed behavior by acting
while perceiving generosity and so forth.
PART FIVE
2B2 Concepts of nominal subjects
2B2A Shown briefly
Having thus shown the first, (next are) the second concepts of
subjects.
2B2A2 Root text
320TripathI: 1977, p. 139 line 18; Amano: 1975, p. 239; Amano: 1985, p.
133.
321 Skt. pratipanna, Tib.
. Monier-Williams; 1982, p. 667.
Might also be translated as "offered."
358
32.
NINE MORE KINDS WHOSE OBJECTS ARE
N O M IN A L
SEN TIEN T
BEINGS
AND TH EIR
CAUSE.
HO STILE STATES CONNECTED WITH THE PATH OF

MEDITATION ARE DESTROYED BY THAT. It is said.
2B2A3 Commentary
The second concepts of subjects are of nine kinds. The objects

are nominal sentient beings and mere appearance, the cause which
establishes that. Since they are to be perfectly abandoned by the
path of meditation they are hostile states connected with that.
2B2B Explained extensively
(In answer) to the question, "What are the nine kinds?" (they arc) stated in two
more verses.
2B2B2 Root text
33-34.
FIN A L
B EW IL D E R M E N T
C O N C EPTS
ARE
C O N CER N IN G :
R EG A R D ED
TH E
AS
T H R E E FO L D
COVERING OF EACH OF THE THREE OMNISCIENCES, THE

PATH
OF
P A C IF IC A T IO N ,
C O N JU N C T IO N
AND
DISJUNCTION WITH THUSNESS AND SO FORTH, IN

EQUALITY,322 SUFFERING AND SO FORTH, THE NATURE
OF DELUSIONS, AND NON-DUALITY. It is thus.
2B2B3 Commentary
322 Conze: 1954b, p. 89: "the absence of a state of sameness".
359
As before, the final concepts of subjects are regarded as nine

kinds (which are abandoned) when engaging the minds and mental
factors of the path of meditation. They are bewildered about: 1) the
obscurations of overall omniscience by not fully knowing all
aspects, 2) the obscurations of path-omniscience by not fully
knowing all paths, 3) the obscurations of omniscience by not fully
knowing all things, 4) the path which purifies all (obscurations) by
not fully knowing prajnaparamita, 5) conjunction and disjunction
with thusness and so forth by not fully knowing thusness and ob
jects of knowledge such as form and so forth, 6) inequality by not
fully knowing the nature of Mara and so forth, 7) the truths of suf
fering and so forth by grasping the meaning in accordance with the
sound, 8) the nature of delusions and so forth by not fully knowing
the nature of passion and so forth, and 9) non-duality by not fully
knowing the characteristics of subjects and objects.
2B2C2A2B3B3 Summary
One should recall that, "For abandoning those four kinds of

hostile states on the path of meditation, there are also four separate
kinds of remedies divided like that."
2B2C2A2B3C The beneficial qualities
2B2C2A2B3C! The text continues
As before, when the 108 concepts ate abandoned, the 108 delu
sions included by them are also abandoned. The fulfillment of all
360
the qualities depends upon the bodhisattva remaining on the path of

meditation. This is taught by an additional verse.
2B2C2A2B3C2 Root text
35-36.
TH E
C O N SU M M A TIO N
OF
E X C E L LE N C E
BRINGS ABOUT THE HAPPINESS O F BEINGS IN ALL

RESPECTS, LIKE SICK PEOPLE RECOVERING AFTER A
LONG TIME AT THE END OF AN EPIDEMIC. EVERYTHING
SUSTAINS THAT GREAT BEING WHO IS ENRICHED WITH
THE SUPREME FRUITION AS ALL THINGS COME TO HIM,
LIKE RIVERS (FLOW DOWN) TO THE GREAT OCEAN. It is
thus.
2B2C2A2B3C3 Commentary
Eliminating those four types of concepts which cause trouble

(like) contagious diseases by familiarity with the path o f meditation
is like joyfully regaining ones health, since hindrances are weak.
323
The fulfillment of all the qualities included in the three vehicles

(and) the skills which help beings in all ways depends on compas
sion, which comes to a bodhisattva abiding on the path of medita
tion who is brilliant with the excellent results of the final realization
which he has confronted, as rivers (go to) the great ocean.
2B2C2A2B4 Uninterrupted samadhi
323 Skt. samnirodfia vaikalyena, Tib.

meaning, this translation follows the Skt.
. Tib. conveys a stronger
361
2B2C2A2B4A Actual
2B2C2A2B4A1 Indicated by much merit
2B2C2A2B4A1A The text continues
Since the uninterrupted path is after the path of meditation, the

uninterrupted samadhi (is next).
2B2C2A2B4A1B Root text
37-38.
TH E
U N IN TERRU PTED
SAMADHI
WHICH
CONTINUES UNTIL THE ATTAINMENT OF BUDDHAHOOD

AND IS OVERALL OMNISCIENCE HAS MORE MERIT THAN
THE VIRTUE OF ESTABLISHING PEOPLE OF THE 3,000
W O RLD S IN THE PERFECT REA LIZA TIO N
O F THE
SRAVAKAS AND RHINOCEROSES, AND IN THE DISCIPLINE

OF A BODHISATTVA. It is said.
2B2C2A2B4A1C Commentary
Compared to the merit which results from someone setting the

sentient beings of the great trichiliocosm324 in the enlightenment
of325 sravakas, pratyeka-buddhas, and the entrance to32** the dis
cipline of a bodhisattva, there is even more merit in the sam adhi
which is not interrupted until the attainment of Buddhahood, which
is overall omniscience, here called the uninterrupted samadhi.
324 Skt. tri-s&hasra-mahU-sahasra-loka-dhdtu. Conze: 1967a, p. 194. This may
also indicate, instead of simply "three thousand," "one thousand to the third
power," or one billion.
325 "ti,c enlightenment o f' not in lib .
326 "the entrance to" not in Tib.
362
2B2C2A2B4A2 Explanation of the referent and aspect

2B2C2A2B4A2A Question
(In answer) to the question, "What is the referent of that and so

forth?"; the referent and so forth are stated in an additional verse.
2B2C2A2B4A2B Response
2B2C2A2B4A2B1 Root text
39.
ITS
REFEREN T
IS
N O N -E X ISTE N C E .
THE
DOMINANT FACTOR IS REGARDED AS MINDFULNESS,

(AN D )
TH E
A SPE C T
IS
P A C IFIC A T IO N .
TH E
CHATTERERS DECLARE...327 It is thus.

2B2C2A2B4A2B2 Commentary
2B2C2A2B4A2B2A The actual
The referent condition of this uninterrupted samadhi is to per

ceive all dharmas as non-existent. The dominant condition is mind
fulness. The aspect is pacification by nature.
2B2C2A2B4A2B2B Showing that it is profound
Because it is difficult to understand this situation, controversies

continually arise from those who do not know skillful technique.
Skillful technique will drive them away. This is an indication of its
profundity.
2B2C2A2B4B Dispelling mistakes
327 this phrase goes with the following verse
363
(In answer) to llie question, "What mistakes will be eliminated

in producing (that) samadhi by those who have a wealth of under
standing?" After samadhi are the mistakes.
2P2C2A2B4B1 Root text
40-42.
THE SUPPORTERS OF OVERALL OMNISCIENCE
REGARD TH E MISTAKES OF THE DISPUTA N TS AS

SIX TEEN :
TH E
A PPR O PR IA TE
R E F E R E N T 328 AND
DETERMINING ITS NATURE, THE GNOSIS OF OVERALL

U L T IM A T E
AND
S U P E R F IC IA L ,
APPLICATION, THE THREE JEWELS, TECHNIQUE, THE

SAGES REALIZATION, MISTAKES, TOGETHER WITH THE
PATH,
R E M E D IE S
AND
H O S T IL E
STA TES,
CHARACTERISTICS, AND MEDITATION. Thus.

2B2C2A2B4B2 Commentary
2B2C2A2B4B2A The mistakes to be dispelled
The sixteen mistakes of all disputants who do not know the

skillful techniques of a bodhisattva are of doubtful nature due to the
unsuitability o f establishing propositions
which are mutually
contradictory, and are the basis of overall omniscience whose ob

jects are as mentioned. (They consist of mistakes about:) 1) the ap
328 Skt. Ulambanopapattau, Tib.
nesis of the objective support".

32^ Skt. bhasHrtha, Tib. simply
, Conze: 1954b, p. 92: "the ge

.
364
propriate referent since compounded and non-compounded elements

are non-existent, 2) determining the nature o f the referent because
there is no inherent nature at all, 3) the gnosis of overall omni
science by not perceiving existence and non-existence, 4) the two
realities of ultimate and superficial with the nature of thusness, 5)
application by not perceiving generosity and so forth, 6) the Buddha
jewel since there is nothing to be realized, 7) the Dharma jewel
since it is merely a name, 8) the Sangha jew el since perceiving
form and so forth is negated, 9) skillful technique by not perceiving
generosity and so forth, 10) the abhisamaya of a Tathagata since
realizing the nature of existence, non-existence, and both, is
negated, 11) errors regarding permanence and so forth with the im
permanence and so forth which establishes mental construction, 12)
the path by not actualizing the result of the path which is developed,
13 & 14) hostile states and remedies since rejection and acceptance
do not exist, 15) the characteristics of dharmas since the substrate
does not exist, and 16) meditation since specific and general charac
teristics are inappropriate.
2B2C2A2B4B2B How to produce the uninterrupted peak realization
Criticisms based on superficial and ultimate (realities) are to be

refuted by means of ultimate and superficial (realities) respectively.
Having perfectly produced complete certainty after driving away a
thousand (uncertainties) with skillful technique relying on both re
365
alities, the bodhisattvas desirous of virtue will produce the uninter

rupted samadhi.
2B2C2A2C Finishing the chapter
The commentary of the fifth chapter of the Treatise of Oral

Instructions o f P r a j n a p a r a m i t a
called the Ornament of
Abhisamayas.
366
CHAPTER SIX
GRADUAL REALIZATION
2B2C2B Stabilizing causes and results
2B1 Gradual realization to attain stability
2B1A The text continues by positing relation
One who has attained the peak abhisamaya develops the gradual meanings
which are realized singly and collectively in order to confirm them. The gradual
abhisamaya (follows).
2B1B Explaining the text of the chapter
2B1B1 Root text
1.
GRADUAL
A C T IV IT Y
(R A N G E S )
FROM
GENEROSITY THROUGH W ISDOM , M INDFULNESS OF

BUDDHA AND SO FORTH, TO THE NON-EXISTENT SELF
NATURE OF DHARMAS. It is said.
2B1B2 Commentary
The realizations that are the gradual activity are: (1-6) accom
plishing the ten stages because the (final) four param itas are in
cluded within prajnaparam ita, by completely fulfilling the six
paramitas of generosity and so forth which are strengthened by the
complete purity of the three m andalas,
7a) the foundations of
mindfulness and so forth, b) the aspects of the seven330 subsidiaries

330 seven not in Tib.
367
of enlightenment and the eight subsidiaries of the holy path, and c)

the threefold recollection of Buddha with the characteristic of not
remembering ultimately (which) respectively express the paths of a)
the nirvedha-bhagiya, b) vision, and c) meditatiun, 8) similarly,
recollection of virtuous, non-virtuous, and unclassified dharmas, 9)
as before, recollection of the irreversible Arya bodhisattva Sangha,
(10-12) similarly, recollections of morality, letting go, and deity,
and 13) bearing in mind that all dharmas such as form and so forth
have no self nature.
2B2C2E1C Finishing the chapter
The commentary of the sixth chapter o f the Treatise of Oral

Instructions o f P r a j n a p a r a m i t a
called the O rnam ent of
Abhisamayas.
368
CHAPTER SEVEN
INSTANTANEOUS REALIZATION
2B2C2B2 The instantaneous realization attains stability
2B2A The text continues by giving the commentary
In order to become thoroughly familiar with the gradual abhisamayas that have been developed, one meditates on them in an
instant. This is instantaneous realization. It has four kinds with
characteristics (to be explained as follows).
2B2B Explaining the text of the chapter
2B2S1 Instantaneous realization which is not ripened
2B2B1A Actual
First is the instantaneous realization of all uncontaminated un

ripened dharmas in one instant.
2B2B1A2 Root text
1.
THE
R E A L IZ A T IO N
OF
THE
SA G E
IS
INSTANTANEOUS BECAUSE ALL UNCONTAM INATED

DHARMAS ARE INCLUDED BY EACH OF GENEROSITY
AND SO FORTH. It is said.
2B2B1A3 Commentary
There is a saying about the self nature of Dharmadhatu : "One

thing is the nature of all things. All things are the nature of one
369
thing. Whoever sees the thusness of one thing sees the thusness of
all things."331 Not only do many include one but also an instant
which perceives the gnosis of generosity and so forth, with the na
ture of avoiding the mistake of grasping particular things, includes
all dharmas with characteristics from generosity and so forth,
through the eighty minor marks.
This realization of the bod-
hisattva sage is the instantanecus realization.

2B2B1B Indicated by examples
1B1 Itie text continues
(In answer) to the question, "Yet how are all uncontaminateds

included when perceiving one uncontaminated gnosis?" (there is) a
mundane example.
1B2 Root text
2.
JUST AS WHEN A BEING MOVES AN ENTIRE
W H EEL
PUM P
AT
ONCE
W ITH
SIN G LE
FOO T
MOVEMENT, GNOSIS IN AN INSTANT IS LIKE THAT 333 It

is said.
1B3 Commentary
331 from Aryadeva's CcuuMaiaka, 8.16 (misquoted). See V. Bhattacharya: 1931,
p. 18-19.
332 5 ^ Edgerton: 1985, p. 34 for a list
333 s cc Conze: 1957, pp. 33-34 for further comments on this verse. Quoting an
article by Laufer, he says: "The reference is obviously to the Noria, or Persian
Wheel, which... is a well-whee! with water pots attached to the spokes, and
'consists of a revolving chain of pots or buckets which are filled below and dis
charged when they come to the top.' It may be driven either by the water itself, or
by animals, or by the hands or feet."
370
For example* when, due to prior excellent construction,
'I 'lA
an
entire wheel pump moves together at once, set in motion by a per

son with a single foot movement, similarly by the impetus of
former prayers and the strength of the Dharmadhdtu, in just one
instant, (the bodhisattva) actualizes all similar types in perceiving a
single uncontaminated gnosis.
2B2C2B2B2 Ripened instantaneous realization
Having thus shown the first, the second instantaneous realization

has the characteristic of (realizing) all uncontaminated dharmas in
stantaneously in the context of ripened Dharmata.
2B Root text
3.
WHEN THE STATE OF RIPENED DHARMATA, 335
W HICH CONSISTS OF ALL THE W HITE DHARM AS,

PR O D U C E S
P R A J N A P A R A M IT A ,
THAT IS THE IN
STANTANEOUS GNOSIS. It is said.

2C Commentary
When a bodhisattva is separated from all hostile states by medi

tating on the remedies, the state of ripened Dharmata on the side of
complete purity produces the white nature free from all stains, like
33^ Tib. supplies "by a skilled craftsman"

333 SkL vipOka-dharmatHvastha, Tib.
, Conze: 1954b,
p. 94: "When (the Bodhisattva has reached) the condition where the karma-result
(of his dharmas without outflows) has matured".
371
the autumn moonlight. Since he realizes at just that (same) nstant

the gnosis of all uncontaminated dharmas which have reached a
rip e n e d
co n d itio n ,
(th is)
in stan ta n eo u s
re a liz a tio n
is
prajnaparamita.
2B2C2B2B3 Instantaneous realization without characteristics
Having thus shown the second, the third instantaneous realiza

tion has the characteristic of (understanding) all dharmas without
characteristics instantaneously.
3B Root text
4.
REMAINING IN (THE CONVICTION THAT) ALL
DHARMAS ARE LIKE DREAMS IN HIS ACTIVITIES OF

GENEROSITY AND SO FORTH, HE DISCOVERS IN AN
IN S T A N T
THAT
A LL
DHARM AS
ARE
W IT H O U T
CHARACTERISTICS. It is said.
3C Commentary
Having previously experienced with the two accumulations that

all dharmas are like dreams, on the occasion of realization he abides
in all dharmas such as the skandhas which are the basis of cling
in g 336 and so forth as having the nature of dreams. He knows in
ju st an instant by accomplishing the six param itas of generosity
and so forth that dharmas with the natures of delusion and complete
336 Skt. upadana-skandha, Edgerton: 1985, p. 145
372
purity are without characteristics, with the aspect of ascertaining the

nature of generosity and so forth. Knowing that all dharmas are
without characteristics is instantaneous realization.
2B2C2B2B4 Non-dual instantaneous realization
Having thus shown the third, the fourth instantaneous realization

has the characteristic of (realizing) the non-dual characteristic o f all
dharmas instantaneously.
4B Root text
5.
WHEN DREAMS AND THE VISION OF DREAMS
ARE NOT SEEN IN A DUALISTIC MANNER, HE SEES THE

THUSNESS OF NON-DUAL DHARMAS IN AN INSTANT. It is
said.
4C Commentary
Being familiar with the abandonment of dualistic appearance for

a long time without interruption, when a bodhisattva has uprooted
the latencies of dualistic appearance and does not perceive in the
manner of subject and object, (regarding) dreams as objects and
seeing dreams as a subject, then he finds the non-dual suchness of
3 3 7
dharmas in an instant. All dharmas are also just
like that is the
instantaneous realization.
2B2C2B2C Finishing the chapter
337 Skt. dharmdno, Tib.
373
The commentary of the seventh chapter of a Treatise of Oral

Instructions of P r a jn a p a r a m ita
called the O rnam ent of
Abhisamayas.
374
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Omniscience in the Indian context......................................... 68

Chapter Three Haribhadra and his Sphutartha............... 111

Chapter Five Peak Realization............................................. 326

ficulty understanding us as we will trying to understand them. Our

T raditional T ibetan Scholarship

of religion as an "ultimate concern." Yet this concern need not be

of our common experience,1 and is all the information a busy per

istence is so convincing that the realization of its non-existence will be powerfully

equivalent of "don't rock the boat". However, Hinduism is not the

system in Tibet, lend

themselves to misuse by those in authority whose sole interest lies in

1 A point made eloquently by Peter Berger in his book Sacred Canopy.

possible. Robinson's article on "Classical Indian Axiomatic"1 does a

the search for meaning, although possibly innate, is not always a

again theoretically consistent but not necessarily practically verifi

1 O f course, if it were to be practically verifiable (and Buddhists have traditionally

simply an assertion that there is indeed a balance that will be found

to all believers, and is generally taken to underlie all mundane ac

Sucii as ihe soul in Christian teachings, or the atrnar. of the UparJsads.

often the case that religious traditions claim to possess a monopoly

v hen humans come to express their basic religious impulses, there

denied by some religious teachers, such as the early Protestants and

perverse as it may appear from the outside. There are sufficient

In this view, language is dualistic, dealing with subject and object.

complex as to be practically incomprehensible. A description such

tionality for the human organism. W e naturally want to make every

1 The view, expressed by Augustine in his Confessions, which is refuted by

truth in order to get at what seems to be a more rational explana

wind on the water's surface, or ripples from some other source.

1 Reprinted in Ammerman: 1965, pp. 68-84.

personally has ever experienced anything like this so-called

ultimate meaning of everything are just a waste of effort, suitable

1 Samghabhadra, quoted in Eliade: 1973, p. 164.

tion is sufficiently strong.1 Perhaps each person's opinion about who

Yoga is the quintessentially Indian manifestation of the religious

mally accessible.1 Through pranayama, one progresses through the

experience itself is a meditative experience in which subject and

mountains are mountains and rivers are rivers. During enlighten

Buddhism, Christianity, and other religious traditions

functions, falling into four broad classes. Despite later revisionist

sakes the way o f m ilitary conquest in favor o f "conquest by

subsidize this extravagance. In time, the Brahmin rituals became so

was economically measurable, the vaisyas tended to be dissatisfied

1 Radhakrishnan: 1957, pp. 19-20.

velopment of Indian civilization is that people chose to support

of different people, and in each case he tailored his discourse to the

imported religion to be. Tibetans tend to view the situation as a

cally represented in the fanaticism of Nichiren, the famous propaga

the Buddhist system was founded. In Christianity, theories and def

1 Milarepa is, an example of perfect obedience and submission to his teacher's

Not that it is totally worthless, depending on one's own motivation,