Vic Camp - Natural Disasters

Exam 3 Study Guide - Earthquakes and Landslides

http://quizlet.com/42511756/geol303-exam-3-flash-cards/
-- Have a fundamental understanding of causes and effects of global climate change.

greenhouse gases (CO2 - carbon dioxide, CH4 - methane, N2O - nitrous oxide)

natural cycles of global cooling and global warming (ice age > ice melts)

currently experiencing a natural period of global warming due to inter-glacial cycle were currently in

increasing CO2 is main cause (bc burning of fossil fuels since beginning of industrial revolution)

bad bc can suffer habitat loss (ex. concentration of sea ice has declined dramatically)

if permafrost is made and it melts, methane is released which can result in more warming

population increase = energy use increase = global warming increase

Milton Milankovitch: the Earth orbits and tilts in a cyclic fashion, causing a cyclic spread of natural global warming.
-- Define deformation: the change that a rock body undergoes in volume and/or shape.
- Know the difference between elastic, plastic, and brittle deformation.Which type(s) are permanent and non-reversible? . . . are
temporary and reversible? Where is the zone of brittle deformation? . . . the zone of plastic deformation? Folds are examples of
what type of deformation? Faults . . .?

elastic: temporary and reversible (ex. rubberband can stretch and change, but will go back to normal when theres no
more stress applied to it)

plastic: permanent folding of rock, becomes more plastic as it gets warmer (ex. folding a piece of paper); zone = >15
km/under zone of brittle deformation (enough stress to stay)

brittle: permanent fracturing of rock, becomes more brittle as it gets colder (ex. breaks); zone = 15 km under ground
(enough stress to stay ex: faults = crack/fracture/break with a clear offset/movement)

-- Define stress (and relationship w/ deformation): stress is the force that produces deformation.
- Know the three types of stress (tension, compression, and shear). Which type will shorten rock bodies? . . . will stretch and
lengthen rock bodies? If a rock deforms in a brittle fashion, what feature(s) will be produced under compression? . . . under
tension? . . . under shear? If a rock deforms in a plastic fashion, what feature(s) will be produced under compression?

tension: pulling apart - stretch and lengthen (brittle = fracture; ex. normal fault)

compression: pushing together - shorten (brittle = fracture; ex. reverse and thrust faults)

shear: pushing together in opposite directions/grinding - stretch and lengthen (brittle = fracture; ex. strike slip fault)

-- Dip-slip faults are characterized by what type of movement (horizontal or vertical)? Strike-slip faults . . .? What are the three
types of dip-slip faults? . . . the two types of strike-slip faults?

dip-slip: shows vertical offset or movement (cross-section of Earth)

- normal: tension within divergent boundaries/MORs
- reverse: compression within convergent boundaries
- thrust faults: compression

strike-slip: shows lateral/horizontal movement (aerial view of Earth)

- right-lateral: shear stress within transform boundaries
- left-lateral: shear stress within transform boundaries

- Know how to differentiate between the hanging wall and the footwall. These are used to determine the relative movement of
which group of faults (dip-slip or strike-slip)? What type of fault is produced when the hanging wall moves up in relation to the
footwall? . . . moves down in relation to the footwall?

hanging wall: where the fault always sits about fault plane (where you hang the lamp)

- hanging wall moves down with dip-slip normal faults (tension)

- hanging wall moves up with dip-slip reverse faults (compression - very shallow angle)

footwall: below the hanging wall/fault plane (where you stand)

* ONLY FOR DIP-SLIP FAULTS. NO HANGING/FOOT WALLS IN STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS *

- Know how to differentiate between right-lateral and left-lateral faults. stand on one side of fault and see which direction the
opposite side goes.

* ONLY FOR STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS *

* rarely straight when we have a bend in a strike-slip fault, we will always have a localized area of either tension or
compression *
-- What types of faults would you expect at divergent plate margins? Why? . . . at convergent plate margins? . . . Why? . . . at
transform plate margins? . . . Why? What type of plate boundary is located at the San Andreas fault? Is the San Andreas a dip-slip
or strike-slip fault? Is it a right-lateral or a left-lateral fault?

divergent: normal bc plate margins are moving away from each other and causing tension, which leads to dip-slip
normal faults

convergent: reverse or thrust fault bc plate margins are pushing together and causing compression, which leads to dipslip reverse or thrust faults

transform: strike-slip fault bc plate margins are being pushed together but sliding past each other and causing shear
stress, which leads to strike-slip right/left lateral faults (ex. San Andreas fault - strike-slip, right-lateral)
-- A bend (or step) in strike-slip faults can result in local areas of compression or tension. Why is this important when considering
future earthquakes in the Los Angeles basin? A bend creates a blind thrust fault (low-angle reverse fault) which doesn't reach the
surface so it cannot be seen. It is important to consider in the LA basin bc it is a highly populated area and the bend is near the
basin.
- Was it an important consideration in the Northridge earthquake?
-- The majority of the world's earthquakes occur around the rim of what ocean? Pacific Ocean.
-- The world's deepest earthquakes are associated with what type of plate boundary? Convergent.
-- The zone of earthquake activity associated with this type of boundary is known as the Benioff zone.
-- Know the concept of elastic rebound. As tectonic plates are slowly moving, their edges are locked in place, causing bending of
the crust along the plate edges. When the force trying to make the edges slip overcomes the friction making them stick, there is an
earthquake. The bending and subsequent "catching up" of the crust is called "elastic rebound.

-- Know the difference between the hypocenter (focus) and the epicenter.

hypocenter (focus): source of the earthquake within the Earth

epicenter: place on surface directly above the hypocenter

* slip at the hypocenter releases energy, resulting in the development of seismic waves that travel outward in all directions. Some
travel through the body of the Earth (body waves) while some will travel along the Earths surface (surface waves). *
- What is the difference between surface waves and body waves? Which of these are known as L-waves? What are the two types
of surface waves? How do they differ? What are the two types of body waves? How do they differ? Of P-waves, L-waves, and Swaves, which is the fastest (first to arrive at the seismograph station)? Which is the slowest (last to arrive at seismograph station)?
Which causes the greatest amount of ground shaking (registers the highest amplitudes on seismograms)?
* seismic waves = the earthquakes elastic energy that travels through the rock; will slow down as they travel through looser
ground materials, as well as the amplitude increasing, which then increases the degree of ground shaking *

surface waves: only travel on Earths surface, a.k.a. L-waves; slowest/last to arrive at seismograph station; greatest
amount of ground shaking/register highest amplitudes
- Rayleigh waves: results in change of shape, vertical land shaking with a backward
rotation (similar to
oceanic waves)

- Love waves: results in change of shape, side to side shaking

body waves: can travel through Earths interior

- Primary/p-waves: results in change of volume, waves of compression (rock is
changing back; similar to sound waves); fastest/first to arrive at
seismograph station

compressing then

-Secondary/s-waves: results in change of shape (will spring back)

- What is the p-s interval? Does it get larger or smaller with increasing distance from the epicenter? The distance between
primary and secondary waves, which gets larger as it gets farther away from the epicenter.
- How many seismograph stations are needed to determine the location of an epicenter? 3
- What is this location process called? triangulation
-- What is fault creep? Slow, continuous movement occurring on faults due to ongoing tectonic deformation; sliding past each
other; no stress.
- Are devastating earthquakes associated with fault creep or with periodic fault movement? Periodic fault movement (bc fault
creeps do not tend to have large earthquakes)
- What is an asperite? Are asperites associated with fault creep or with periodic movement? Asperites are areas of high-friction
(stable rough spot) bc of interlocking rocks, associated with periodic movement.
- What segment of the San Andreas fault has a recurrence interval of about 22 years? Parkfield
-- Know the difference between earthquake intensity and magnitude. What scale measures intensity? . . .magnitude?

intensity: effects of an earthquake (modified Mercalli scale 1-12/low to high)

magnitude: the strength of an earthquake (Richter scale/magnitude scale)

- An increase of one magnitude on the Richter scale will result in a 10 -fold increase in the amount of ground shaking, but a 30
-fold increase in the amount of energy released.
-- What is base shear? . . . resonance? . . . liquefaction? What type of seismic waves are largely responsible for base shear and
resonance (p-waves, s-waves, Rayleigh waves, or Love waves)? What type of surface material will amplify these waves? What
type of surface material will enhance liquefaction?

base shear: the maximum estimated lateral force that will occur due to seismic ground motion at the base of a structure
(L-waves; amplified by soft/loose ground material)

resonance: produced when wave period of the seismic wave is in sync with the motion of the building (Rayleigh
waves; amplifies by soft/loose ground material)

liquefaction: ground materials are liquified, which leads to cubic packing, and may result in sinking buildings, lateral
ground flow, or sand blows/blow holes (enhanced by soft/loose sediment)

-- What is dilation and how can dilation be monitored? The expansion of rocks that can be monitored by 1) ground tilting, 2)
foreshocks, 3) electrical conductivity (cracks allow water in and an abrupt rise in conductivity in the rock will show if there is
dilation), and 4) measuring radon levels
-- How are tsunamis generated? They can be generated by large volcanic eruptions, landslides, meteorite impact, and earthquakes
(only with dip-slip faults bc of the vertical movement). NOT created by winds of seismic waves.
- What relation, if any, do they have with tidal forces? NO relation bc tidal waves are created by the gravitational forces of the
sun or moon, and cause changes in the level of water bodies, while tsunamis are series of water waves that are caused by the
displacement of large bodies of water due to seismic disturbances.
- Are they more common in the Atlantic Ocean or in the Pacific Ocean? Why? Pacific bc there is more earthquake activity.
-- What is mass wasting. the downslope movement of material under the influence of gravity.
- Know the various types of mass wasting and their characteristic features.

landslide: rapid form of mass wasting

falls: free fall, dominant vertical downward, move as separate blocks

flows: flow over landscape, move as very viscous fluids, turbulence within moving mass

slides: slide on top of basal slip surface that may be planar or curved, move as semi-solid mass, some pre-slide
coherence maintained within the moving mass
- What is the difference between a slump, a glide, a slide and a flow?

slump: occurs on curved surface

glide: occurs on a planar surface

slide: intact body, moves down a well-defined surface

flow: fluid-mud earth, debris is not an intact body

- How does water enhance mass wasting? Water increases the weight of the ground; it can lubricate the ground like clay and oversaturation can cause a loss of cohesion in the ground.
- Are mudflows more common in semi-arid environments or in moist environments? In semi-arid environments and travel
quickly; NEVER USE THE TERM MUDSLIDE (incorrect term bc mud can never slide bc it cannot remain intact); earth flows
are common in moist environments.
- What is talus? The accumulation of rock debris at the base of a steep slope.
- What is the angle of repose? Steepest angle at which a material remains stable, any higher and it can cause a landslide; for sand,
it has an angle of repose of 34 degrees.
-- Have a fundamental understanding of the following natural disasters:
Lisbon (1755):
New Madrid (1811-1812):
San Francisco (1906):
Gros Ventre (1925):
Viaont Dam (1963):
Alaska (1964):
Yungay (1970):
Haicheng (1975):
Tangshen (1976):
Loma Prieta (1989):
Landers/Big Bear (1992):
Northridge (1994):
EQ depths
1. shallow = <70 km
2. intermediate = 70-300 km
3. deep = >300 km

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