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Pharynx
Also called the throat, the pharynx is the portion of
the digestive tract that receives the food from your
mouth.
The respiratory and digestive passages meet in the
pharynx. They separate posterior to the pharynx to
form the esophagus (leads to the stomach) and
trachea (leads to the lungs).
Swallowing is accomplished by reflexes that close
the opening to the trachea.
When swallowing, the epiglottis covers the trachea
to prevent food from entering.
The act of swallowing takes place in the pharynx
partly as a reflex and partly under voluntary
control. The tongue and soft palate -- the soft part
of the roof of the mouth -- push food into the
pharynx, which closes off the trachea.
Small intestine
Made up of three segments the duodenum,
Esophagus
jejunum, and ileum the small intestine is a 22 tube that connects the mouth to the stomach.
foot long muscular tube that breaks down food
Food moves through the esophagus by peristalsis,
using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile
which is a wave of muscle contractions that
from the liver.
pushes the food down the tube.
Peristalsis also is at work in this organ, moving food
Located in the throat near the trachea (windpipe). through and mixing it with digestive secretions from
At the end of the esophagus is the lower
the pancreas and liver.
esophageal sphincter(LES), which closes to
Like the stomach, it contains numerous ridges and
prevent food from re-entering the esophagus.
furrows. In addition, there are numerous
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Pancreas
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the
duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine.
These enzymes break down protein, fats, and
carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes insulin,
secreting it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is
the chief hormone for metabolizing sugar.
It is both an endocrine gland producing several
important hormones, including insulin, glucagon,
somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide, and a
digestive organ, secreting pancreatic juice
containing digestive enzymes that assist the
absorption of nutrients and the digestion in the
small intestine. These enzymes help to further break
down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the
chyme.
Rectum
Pancreatic Juice
The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch
Pancreatic juice contains sodium bicarbonate
chamber that connects the colon to the anus. It is
which neutralizes the acidic material from the
the rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to
stomach.
let the person know that there is stool to be
Pancreatic amylase digests starch to maltose.
evacuated, and to hold the stool until evacuation
Trypsin and Chymotrypsin digest proteins to
happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into
peptides. Like pepsin (produced in the stomach),
the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain.
they are specific for certain amino acids, not all
The brain then decides if the rectal contents can
of them. They therefore produce peptides.
be released or not. If they can, the sphincters relax
Lipase digests fats to monoglycerides and fatty
and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If
acids.
the contents cannot be disposed, the sphincter
Types of Pancreatic Enzymes and Their Effects
contracts and the rectum accommodates so that
the sensation temporarily goes away.
Enzyme
A shortage may
Effects
Feces is composed of approximately 75% water
Type
cause:
and 25% solids. One-third of the solids is intestinal
Lipase works with Lack of needed
bacteria, 2/3s is undigested materials.
Lipase
bile to break down
fats and fatfat molecules so
soluble vitamins.
Anus
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they can be
absorbed and
used by the body.
Protease
Protease breaks
down proteins. This
enzyme helps keep
the intestine free of
parasites such as
bacteria, yeast
and protozoa.
Diarrhea and/or
fatty stools.
Allergies or the
formation of
toxic substances
due to
incomplete
digestion of
proteins.
Increased risk
for intestinal
infections.
Salivary Glands
The salivary glands in mammals are exocrine
glands, glands with ducts, that produce saliva.
They also secrete amylase, an enzyme that breaks
down starch (a polysaccharide) into maltose (a
Amylase breaks
disaccharide).
down
Bicarbonate ions in saliva act as buffers,
carbohydrates
maintaining a pH between 6.5 and 7.5.
(starches) into
Diarrhea due to
3 kinds
sugars which are
the effects of
Submandibular
Amylase
more easily
undigested starch
The submandibular glands are a pair of glands
absorbed by the
in the colon.
located beneath the lower jaws. The secretion
body. This enzyme
produced is a mixture of both serous fluid and
is also found in
mucus, and enters the oral cavity.
saliva.
Approximately 70% of saliva in the oral cavity is
produced by the submandibular glands, even
Liver
though they are much smaller than the parotid
lies below the diaphragm in the abdominal-pelvic
glands.
region of the abdomen.
You can usually feel this gland, as it is in the
The liver has multiple functions, but its main
upper neck and feels like a rounded ball. It is
function within the digestive system is to process
located about two fingers above the Adam's
the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. It
apple (on a man) and about two inches apart
produces bile, an alkaline compound which aids
under the chin.
in digestion via the emulsification of lipids so they
Parotid
can mix with water and be acted upon by
The parotid gland is a salivary gland wrapped
enzymes. In addition, the liver is the bodys
around the mandibular ramus in humans. It is one
chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials
of a pair being the largest of the salivary glands.
absorbed by the intestine and makes all the
it secretes saliva into the oral cavity, to facilitate
various chemicals the body needs to function. The
mastication and swallowing and to begin the
liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It
digestion of starches.
breaks down and secretes many drugs.
Sublingual
Other Functions of the Liver
The sublingual glands are a pair of glands
detoxifies blood from intestines that it receives
located beneath the tongue, anterior to the
via the hepatic portal vein.
submandibular glands. The secretion produced is
stores glucose as glycogen (animal starch) and
mainly mucus in nature, however it is categorized
breaks down glycogen to release glucose as
as a mixed gland. Approximately 5% of saliva
needed. This storage-release process maintains a
entering the oral cavity come from these glands.
constant glucose concentration in the blood
(0.1%). If glycogen and glucose run short,
Tongue
proteins can be converted to glucose.
The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth. The
produces blood proteins.
tongue is covered with moist, pink tissue called
destroys old red blood cells and converts
mucosa. Tiny bumps called papillae give the
hemoglobin from these cells to bilirubin and
tongue its rough texture. Thousands of taste buds
biliverdin which are components of bile.
cover the surfaces of the papillae. Taste buds are
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PREMOLARS or
Bicuspid teeth
- The 8 premolars, used
for chewing food, are
placed lateral to and
behind the canine
teeth, with a flat upper
surface and 1-2 roots.
Their crown has two
pyramidal eminences
or cusps.
MOLARS
- The 12 molars are the
back human teeth.
Molar teeth have a
much different tooth
morphology with large
and flat upper surface
and 2-4 roots. Molars
are the largest of the
permanent teeth, used
for the final chewing
and grinding of the
food before swallowing.
- known as wisdom
teeth.
WISDOM Teeth
Wisdom teeth are the last molars (one at every
side of every jaw) and not a different type of
teeth. The wisdom teeth erupt between the ages
of 17 and 21.
Sometimes they don't erupt properly and they
often cause dental problems because of the
difficulty to clean them.
Temporary (deciduous) teeth
Permanent teeth
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food in the
duodenum
GIP
Presence of
Duodenum food in the
duodenum
gallbladder to release
bile and the
pancrease to
produce pancreatic
enzymes
Inhibits the gastric
glands of the
stomach and inhibits
stomach motility
Gastrin
The presence of food in the stomach stimulates
stretch receptors which relay this information to the
medulla oblongata. The medulla stimulates
endocrine cells in the stomach to secrete the
hormone gastrin into the circulatory system. Gastrin
stimulates the stomach to secrete gastric juice. This
pathway of information is summarized below.
stretch receptors medulla oblongata
endocrine cells in the stomach gastrin
circulatory system stomach secretes gastric
juice
Ulcer
An ulcer is an irritation due to gastric juice
penetrating the mucous lining of the stomach or
duodenum. It is believed that ulcers are caused by
the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, which, can
thrive in the acid environment of the stomach. The
presence of the bacteria on portions of the
stomach lining prevents it from secreting mucous,
Secretin
making it susceptible to the digestive action of
Secretin is produced by cells of the duodenum. Its
pepsin.
production is stimulated by acid chyme from
stomach. It stimulates the pancreas to produce
Appendicitis
sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes the acidic
Appendicitis is an infection. The appendix may
chyme. It also stimulates the liver to secrete bile.
swell and burst, leading to peritonitis (infection of
the abdominal lining).
Secreted
by:
CCK (cholecystokinin)
CCK production is stimulated by the presence of
food in the duodenum.
It stimulates the gallbladder to release bile and the
pancreas to produce pancreatic enzymes.
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Maltase
Peptidases
Maltose
Peptides
Glucose
Amino
acids
ENZYME
SOURCE
PRODUCTS
CARBOHYD
RATES
Salivary
amylase
Pancreatic
amylase
Maltase
Salivary
glands
Pancreas
Maltose
Small
intestine
Glucose
Pepsin
Stomach
mucosa
Pancreas
Intestinal
mucosa
Peptides
Pancreas
Fatty acids
and
monoglyceri
des
PROTEINS
Trypsin
Peptidases
FATS
Lipase
Maltose
Peptides
Amino acids
ENZYME
FOOD
PRODUCT
MOUTH
(salivary
glands)
Salivary
amylase
Polysacchari
des
Maltose
STOMACH
Pepsin
Proteins
Peptides
PANCREAS
Pancreatic
amylase
Trypsin
Lipase
Polysaccharides
Maltose
Peptides
Fatty acids
and
monoglyce
rides
Proteins
Fats
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