Protein Synthesis

I. Protein synthesis is divided into two phases: Transcription and translation.

II. Transcription
A. RNA polymerase unzips DNA
1. We are not making more DNA, we are just reading it.
B. RNA polymerase reads in a 3' to 5' direction.
1. In which direction is RNA formed?
C. Free RNA nucleotides are base paired with the exposed DNA nucleotides and assembled into a
messenger RNA molecule by RNA polymerase.

D. The messenger RNA molecule leaves the nucleus and moves to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
E. After transcription, translation begins.
III. Translation has four stages.
A. Amino Acid Activation Stage.
1. The amino acids are attached to their appropriate t-RNA molecules.
a. Specific enzymes bind each transfer RNA with only one specific amino acid.
2. This process begins during transcription.
3. A molecule of ATP transfers its high energy bond to the activated t-RNA.
B. Initiation Stage
1. The ribosome moves along the messenger RNA molecule but nothing happens until the
code for formyl-methionine (AUG).
2. When this code is reached, the elongation process begins.
C. Elongation Stage (Three steps)
1. Step 1: New incoming t-RNA matches its anti-code with the m-RNA code

a. For the first time this is repeated twice.

2. Step 2: Then the amino acid (or chain of amino acids) on the first t-RNA is transferred
to the amino acid on newly arrived t-RNA.

3. Step 3: The empty t-RNA leaves.

4. These three steps are repeated over and over again.

5. The ribosome continues along the m-RNA.

6. The Diphtheria toxin stops the elongation process!

IV.

V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.

D. Termination phase
1. The elongation continues until a nonsense code is reached.
2. There will be no new incoming t-RNA and therefore the protein is released and sent on its
way.
3. One m-RNA can be read many times by many ribosomes.
A few more questions on protein synthesis
A. What brought each animo acid to the growing protein?
B. What determined which t-RNA and amino acid would be place in order in the ribosome?
C. What determined the m-RNA code?
Central Dogma: DNA-> RNA->Protein.
Proteins are not stable forever, so they must be synthesized as needed.
Remember the operon theory and how cellular chemistry is controlled.
m-RNA is also unstable and must be made as desired. Why is this good?
A. One gene is usually transcribed many times
B. One piece of m-RNA can be read many times
Once synthesized, how do proteins find their destination?
A. There are extra amino acids (hydrophobic many times) that are not part of the active protein but
have a role in delivery.

DNA, genes and chromosomes

I. What is a gene?
A. A length of DNA that codes for a protein
II. How many genes are in a DNA molecule?
A. Depends on species, but can be tens of thousands.
B. It is estimated that humans have over 100,000 genes.
III. There are base sequences in DNA that don't code for anything, these are called introns. Exons
code for the protein.
A. The introns get transcribed into m-RNA but special molecules spliceosomes remove the
unwanted information so the m-RNA can be correctly translated.
IV. What are chromosomes
A. Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein.
B. There are two types of proteins associated with the DNA in a chromosome
1. Histones- shown below, form the nucleosome.
2. Regulatory proteins make up about 50-70% of the rest. (Remember operon)

C. We only see chromosomes during cell division, and at that time they have already doubled.
D. So a chromosome is made of two identical chromatids.

E. Between divisions the chromosomes are not visible because they are stretched out in the
form of chromatin.