2Uses of Chrome Alloys

1. Stainless Steel
In 2009, 5.9 million tonnes of ferrochromium were produced with more than 90% going to the stainless steel
industry. It is chromium that confers upon stainless steel its remarkable corrosion resistance. Other elements such
as nickel and, in the top grades of stainless steel, titanium and molybdenum can also be added to improve technical
performance in specific environments.
The term 'stainless steel' covers a family of steels that contain chromium. To be 'stainless', the steel must contain at
least 11-12%Cr but some steels contain up to 30%Cr. For example, one of the best known stainless steels is the
Series 304 steel, often referred to as 18/8 stainless where 18 is the percentage of chromium and 8 is the nickel
percentage. There are standard compositions for the different grades of stainless steel and designation numbers
which are now universally used by the producers and consumers. These are:
Series 300 steels:

austenitic nickel-containing grades

Series 400 steels:

chromium-containing ferritic and martensitic grades with no or very little nickel

Series 200 steels:

where manganese replaces some of the nickel in the 300 Series

Series 600 steels:

precipitation hardening grades

The Series 300 steels have excellent corrosion resistance, are easily fabricated, can handle very low temperatures
(cryogenic) and also high temperatures (over 900 C). In some cases, extra low carbon grades are produced for
added corrosion resistance and are designated with an L; e.g. Series 304L. The addition of small amounts of Mo,Ti
and Nb also improves corrosion resistance, particularly in welded areas. The Series 300 steels are easily cleanable
and thus are used in environments where hygiene is important. They have very wide applications such as in
architecture, food processing, hospitals, and in the chemical, petrochemical, mineral processing and paper
industries.
The Series 400 steels can be martensitic, such as Series 410, 420 and 431, with moderate corrosion resistance and
are used, for example, for cutlery, knife blades and surgical instruments; or they can be ferritic, such as Series 409
and 430, with good corrosion resistance and are used in domestic equipment, architectural trims, chain conveyors,
and dust and fume extractors.
Making of Stainless Steel:
Stainless steel is made by melting various amounts of carbon steel and stainless steel scrap in an electric arc
furnace. To this melt, controlled additions of high-carbon ferrochromium or charge chrome are made to achieve the
correct chromium levels. The proportions of ferrochromium and stainless scrap used depend partly upon scrap
availability and partly upon scrap prices which themselves fluctuate with availability and with the nickel contained in
the scrap. Secondary refining is carried out in AOD or VOD vessels in order to lower the carbon content of the melt
without excessive oxidation losses of the chromium. Finally, additions of nickel, and sometimes minor amounts of
elements such as Mo, Ti, and Nb, are made and also trimming additions of chromium as low-carbon ferro-chromium
to achieve the required grade of stainless steel. The liquid stainless steel is then cast into ingots, billets or slabs for
hot- and cold-working to other products such as plate and coil.
Apart from the stainless steels, ferrochromium alloys are used, but in much smaller quantities, in other ferrous
materials such as carbon steels, full alloy steels, bearing and high speed steels, high-strength low-alloy steels and
tool steels, and in some cast irons, superalloys and welding materials. Alloy cast irons use chromium to achieve
hardness and resistance to corrosion, abrasion and impact, and are used for pumps, valves, pipes, rolls and wear
plates.

2. Special Steels
Chrome brings amazing properties to the metals with which it is alloyed. Add it to carbon steel in sufficient quantities
and the steel miraculously becomes stainless in other words, corrosion resistant, mechanically strong, heat
resistant, hard wearing, shiny and glamorous. Stainless steel, which accounts for some 66% of the use of chrome
today, is found everywhere in modern life, from nuclear reactors to exhaust pipes, architecture, kitchenware and a
host of other applications.

The corrosion resistance and shiny appearance of stainless steel come from an extremely thin, continuous
chromium-oxide film which spontaneously forms on the surface of the steel, in the presence of air. This film renders
the surface inert to chemical reaction, thus protecting steel from corrosive attack. Should the surface be damaged or
scratched, this passive layer instantly re-forms. Thanks to chrome, stainless steel literally self-heals. In fact,
chrome is the one and only magic ingredient making stainless steel stainless, whatever the grade.

Speciality steels produced for applications such as tools, injection moulds, camshafts, dies, bearings and mill rollers
also derive the high mechanical strength, hardness and heat-resistance required from their chrome content. Certain
exceptionally demanding applications require an alloy known as chrome metal, which, is almost pure chrome (99%).
Chrome metal provides the solidity and resistance to wear and high temperatures required for critical applications in
the aircraft, gas, petrochemical and nuclear sectors. Chrome is also used in alloyed cast irons, to bestow hardness
and resistance to abrasion and impact. These alloys are used for applications such as pumps, valves, pipes, rolls
and wear plates.

3. Refractories
Chromite is an important refractory material, although production for this purpose is only approximately 1% of world
production of chromite. Refractory grade chromite requires a very low silica content, typically 0.7% SiO2. The
chromite is generally produced as a fine-grained concentrate from which most of the silica, which occurs in the
gangue, has been removed. The refractoriness of the chromite is also determined by the amount of combined
Cr2O3 and Al2O3, which should exceed 57%. Refractory chromite consumption has decreased over the last 35
years due to changes in steelmaking technology. However, it still has an important niche in the refractories industry.
Chromite has long been used in basic refractories in conjunction with magnesia, the 'chrome-mag' or 'mag-chrome'
refractories. Mag-chrome refractories are preferred in sectors of non-ferrous metallurgy, such as copper, lead and
zinc refining, because of their excellent corrosion resistance. However, there has been a downward trend in their
use in this sector, partly due to the increasing use of hydrometallurgical processes.
In iron and steelmaking, the move from open-hearth furnaces to basic oxygen and electric furnaces has led to a
sharp decline in mag-chrome brick usage. The bricks are, however, still used in steelmaking ladles, in argonoxygen decarburisers (AODs) and in tap-hole plugging.
Cement and lime kilns are the second largest user of these refractories but only consume about 7% of world
production. The use of mag-chrome bricks has virtually disappeared in cement kilns in Europe and North America
due to the regulations and costs of disposal of the used bricks which may contain hexavalent chromium as a result
of the oxidising atmosphere in the kilns. In the rest of the world, the use of mag-chrome bricks is still widespread.
Advantages of these bricks in cement kilns include excellent thermal shock resistance, good corrosion resistance
and high hot strength.

Mag-chrome bricks are used in high temperature furnaces in the glass industry but are also being phased out
due to concerns regarding hexavalent chromium.
4. Sand
Refractory chromite in granular form (chromite sand) is widely used in the foundry industry for both ferrous and nonferrous castings, particularly in the automotive, shipbuilding and heavy-engineering sectors. The merits of chromite
foundry sands include high refractoriness, good chemical stability, low thermal expansion which means the mould
retains a stable size and high density and thermal conductivity (which promote rapid solidification of the casting).
The chromite sands have high refractoriness with a melting temperature of about 2150C, low wettability and good
chemical stability, low thermal expansion, bloating by oxidation of FeO to Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 which helps to seal the
mould, and high density and thermal conductivity which promotes rapid solidification of the castings.
5. Chemicals
In 2009, only 2% of the world's production of chromite was used for chromium chemicals. Nevertheless, these play
an important part in the world's chemical industry. Sodium chromate is the primary product in the manufacture of
chromium chemicals.
Approximately 638,000 tonnes of sodium dichromate were produced in 2009. It is produced by reaction in a rotary
kiln to which the chromite is fed together with soda ash (sodium carbonate) and sometimes ground lime, limestone
or dolomite. The sodium chromate is then converted into a variety of chemicals including sodium dichromate,
ammonium and potassium dichromate, chromic acid, chromic oxide and basic chromium sulphate.
The earliest use of chromium chemicals was during or before the 19th century for colour and pigment applications,
due to their very bright colours. Currently, the largest use of chromium chemicals is as basic chromium sulphate in
the leather tanning industry. The second largest use of chromium chemicals is in the metal finishing industry.
Main applications include decorative chromium plating, hard chromium plating for engineering requirements, and
pickling of plastics.
Pigment applications are still important for chromium chemicals, sometimes mixed with other elements. The
pigments are all very brightly coloured in clear yellow, orange, green, turquoise and blue. They are used in paints,
plastics, ceramics and surface finishes.
Pure chromium oxide is used alone or together with alumina, zirconia and silica for high temperature and attack
resistant refractories. Other, smaller, applications include the use of chromium chemicals catalysts and oxidants in
commercial chemical synthesis.

6. Chrome Metal
Chromium metal consists of nearly 100% chromium. Impurities include Fe, Al, Si. Approximately 26,000 tonnes of
chromium metal were produced in 2009.
There are two ways of producing chromium metal, the aluminothermic process chrome oxide and the electrolytic
process using ferrochromium or chromic acid. Chromium metal standard grades range from 99% to 99.4%. Higher
grades are available as 99.6% Cr and degassed quality with 99.8% Cr and low gas.
Chrome metal is mainly used in the production of specialty alloys, nickel and cobalt -based alloys (super alloys)
where low iron is required. Due to their unique high temperature and corrosion resistance properties, these high
performance alloys are used in the most critical environments, such as aeronautic, oil & gas production, land based

turbines, petrochemical and chemical processing. In addition, chromium metal powder is used in the production of
welding electrodes and cored wires, aluminium briquettes and master alloys.