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Thermodynamics: concerns the conversion of heat into and from

other forms of energy most notably for engineers, mechanical work.

System: a collection of entities that interest us. Can be a fluid sample

or a machine. It is defined by a system boundary.

Dimensional homogeneity: it is the quality of an equation having

quantities of same units on both sides. (E.G.).

SI: The International System of Units is the modern form of the metric

system and is the worlds most widely used system of measurement.

Unit conversion factor: a unit conversion factor has a value of one
(unity) and converts a measured quantity to a different unit of

measure without changing the relative amount. (E.G.).

System boundary: drawn or defined so as to identify the flows of

mass, heat and work of interest in system analysis.

Equilibrium: no net force or heat flow acts on the system.
A closed system: is a space containing a fluid with a boundary
between said fluid and its surroundings. It is fully defined when the
following details are known: the fluid in question, the boundary
between the fluid under consideration and its surroundings, the mass

of fluid within the boundary.

Open system: mass can cross the system boundary.
State Postulate: two independent properties determine the state of a
simple system. In this state there is implicit one assumption, i.e. the

system has to be in a thermodynamic equilibrium.

A property: is such that a change in its value depends only on the
initial and final states of the systems and is independent of the
process (path) undergone by the system during the change of state. It

can be used to define an equilibrium.

A process: transforms a system from one equilibrium state to another.
A path: describes the transition between start and end states.
In a quasi-equilibrium process: the system is always very close to

equilibrium as it moves between start and end points.

Work: is defined as the product of a force (F) and the distance over

which the force is applied (S).

In a stationery system: any change in kinetic or potential energy is
minimum.

Internal energy: is the combination of all forms of microscopic energy

in a fluid: nuclear energy, chemical energy and energy of phase
change. The theory of kinetic gases includes sensible energy in the

form of translation, rotation and vibration of molecules.

Pressure: is the force per unit area that gas or liquid applies to any
bounding surface (real or imaginary) and is isotropic (at any point in
the fluid system it applies equally in all direction). Gauge pressure is
measured with reference to atmospheric pressure whereas absolute

pressure uses vacuum as a datum.

The Zeroth Law: states that if A (a special system called a
thermometer) is in equilibrium with both B and C (another two

systems), it follows that B and C are in thermal equilibrium.

A cycle: a closed system undergoes a cycle when it passes through a
series of events which leaves its final state equal to all aspects of its

initial state.
The First Law of Thermodynamics: when any closed system is taken
through a cycle the net work done by the systems upon the
surroundings is equal to the net heat supplied to the system from the

surroundings (the non-flow energy equation NFEE).

Corollary I of the First Law of Thermodynamics: there exists a
property of a closed system such that a change in its value is equal to
the difference between the heat supplied and the work done during

any change of state.

Corollary II of the First Law of Thermodynamics: the internal energy of
a closed system remains unchanged if the system is isolated from its
surroundings, that is, there is no work or heat transfer. This is the

principle of energy conservation.

Corollary III: a perpetual motion machine of the first kind is
impossible. This machine is one that produces work without heat
supply. If it is perpetual, it might act in cycles; therefore, work must
be produced continuously, ergo it must obey the first law and for

every cycle Q = -W, so if Q is to be finite, W too, and the machine

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cannot exist.
Carnot efficiency: that of an engine operating in a reversible cycle,

between two reservoirs.

Kinetic Theory of Gases:
Intensive properties: such as specific volume, temperature or
pressure, have no dependence on the size of a system whereas

extensive properties such as V or m do.

A kilomole is the engineering unit of substance, namely 6.022x10 26

molecules.
Charless Law (volume proportional to temperature); Boyles Law
(pressure proportional to the inverse of volume); and Gay-Lussac Law

(pressure proportional to temperature).

The Ideal Gas Constant R: is a physical constant which relates several
functions

of

thermodynamic

states,

essentially

stablishing

relationship between the energy, the temperature and the quantity of

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material.
The specific heat capacity is the quantity of energy required to raise
the temperature of one unit mass by one degree of temperature.
Term cv refers to such energy addition at constant volume. It has units

of kJkg-1K-1.
A datum temperature is a standard temperature that measures are

taken from.
Enthalpy is a combination property, the sum of (microscopic) internal

energy and a term with the sense of (macroscopic) work, pV.

The Heat Capacity at constant pressure is the heat that must be
added to raise the temperature of a fluid by one degree, given that
the pressure of the fluid is constant, and no form of artificial work is

done on the fluid.

Ideal Gas Law:
Ideal Gas:
Constant Volume Process (or Isochoric): a process in which no work is
done upon the boundary in a constant volume process since there are
no moving boundaries.

Constant Pressure Process (or Isobaric): a process that occurs at

constant pressure.
Constant Temperature Process (or Isothermal): a process that occurs

at constant temperature.
Thermal equilibrium: temperature is the same throughout system.
Adiabatic process: no heat transfer to or from the system only work

can be done.
Steady Flow Processes: when a working fluid is continually passing
into and away from a system, probably undergoing some change in
the process, either in the temperature, pressure or chemical

composition.
Polytropic process: a process in which it is acceptable to relate

pressure and volume thus, pVn=const.

Nozzles: are used in jet and rocket motors to improve thrust by

accelerating gases.
Diffusers: are often placed on the back end of the turbines because

they can decelerate gases and thereby increase pressure.

Turbines: is a device that produces useful work from a hot, high
pressure gas. It converts internal energy plus flow work (which are

equal to enthalpy) to shaft work.

Compressors: it raises gas pressure.
Throttling valves: they reduce the pressure of a fluid stream by means
of frictional resistance. They are formed of capillary tubes, porous
plugs, or adjustable needle valves and are commonly used in

refrigerators.
Mixing chambers:
Heat exchangers:
A reservoir: is a very large heat store that changes its own
temperature only infinitesimally when heat is added or rejected, Q =
mc(T2-T1) and mc is huge. Hotter reservoirs are called sources and

colder reservoirs, sinks.

Cyclic process: one which always returns to the same state or

equilibrium.
A reversible engine: a theoretical cycle that would yield the maximum
possible efficiency.

A heat engine: is a device that accepts heat from a hot reservoir,

does useful work, and rejects heat to a cold reservoir. The efficiency
of the heat engine is the ratio of the desired outcome (W) to

necessary input (Q1).

Kelvin-Planck Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics: it is
impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat

from a single reservoir and produce and amount of work.

Clausius Statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics: it is
impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and transfers
heat from a cooler to a hotter reservoir without work being done on

the system by the surroundings.

A heat pump: is a device that moves heat from a cooler to a hotter
reservoir and demands a work input to do so. A refrigerator is an

especial instance of heat pump.

Reversibility: when a fluid undergoes a reversible process, both the
fluid and the surroundings can always be restored to their original
states. Thus, every reversible process is also a quasi-equilibrium
process without any source of irreversibility (e.g. friction or heat

transfer).
Reversible process: a process that can be reversed with no effect (or

trace) on the surroundings.

Reciprocating compressor:
Corollary 2: it is impossible to construct an engine operating between
only two reservoirs which will have a higher efficiency than a

reversible engine operating between the same two reservoirs.

Corollary 3: all reversible engines operating between the same two

reservoirs have the same efficiency.

Corollary 4: a scale of temperature can be defined as a scale
independent of the thermometric properties of any substance, and

which provides an absolute zero of temperature.

Corollary 5: the efficiency of any reversible engine operating between
more than two reservoirs must be less than that of a reversible

engine operating between two reservoirs which have temperatures

equal to the highest and lowest temperatures of the fluid in their
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original state.
The Clausius Inequality or Corollary 6: whenever a system undergoes
a cycle, the cyclic integral is zero if the cycle is reversible and

negative if irreversible.
Entropy or Corollary 7: there exists a property of equilibrium state of a
closed system such that a change in its value is equal to (equation)
for any reversible process undergone by the system state 1 and 2.
The closed system is often a fluid, and entropy is often a fluid

property.
Entropy: is a property of state that indicates the degree of disorder

and is given by the formula dS= dQrev/T.

Corollary 8: the entropy of any closed system which is thermally
isolated from the surroundings either increases or, if the process

undergone by the system is reversible, remains constant.

Carnot Cycle: is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by
Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot which shows the most efficient cycle for
converting a given amount of thermal energy into work, or
conversely, creating a temperature difference (e.g. refrigeration) by

doing a given amount of work.

When defining cycles, strokes must be accounted for and also, the

type of processes performed.

Turbofan engine: a large fan driven by the turbine forces air through a
cowl surrounding the engine. The fan exhaust leaves at a higher

velocity, enhancing the total thrust of the engine significantly.

Carnot Cycle: composed of four reversible processes, two isothermal
and two adiabatic.