SHIP RESISTANCE

Introduction
When a ship moves forward through the water at a constant
velocity, V. Its forward motion is going to generate:
a) dynamic pressure on the hull, producing a resultant force in
the longitudinal direction and opposite to the advancing
direction; and
b) tangential stresses on the immersed (or wetted) surface due to
the viscosity; their resultant force is also opposite to the ships
moving direction.
The total force opposite to the motion is called the resistance of
the ship or drag. The resistance components most concerned
arise from one of the two forces; namely normal dynamic
pressures or tangential stresses on the ship surface.

The ship actually moves at the same time through two fluids,
water and air, with widely different density. While the lower part
of the hull is moving through water, the upper part is moving
through air. Like moving in the water, the upper part of the ship
moving in the air is also subject to the same types of forces
(dynamic pressures and tangential stresses).
a w

Because
, the air resistance is usually much smaller
than the water resistance, except for those aerostatic support of
hydrodynamic support crafts.
Summary: Water resistance (submerged part of a hull)
Air resistance
(upper part of hull &
superstructure)

Types of Water Resistances

1. Wave-Making Resistance: Belongs to the category of
normal dynamic pressures. Due to these dynamic pressures
waves are generated on the surface of water and spread away
from a ship. Waves possess energy. Thus a ship making
waves means a loss of its energy. Wave-making resistance
is important to surface ships, especially those of high speeds,
but may be negligible to submarines.
2. Frictional Resistance: Arising due to the viscosity of water,
i.E. Tangential stresses. Because of viscosity & velocity
gradient in the direction normal to the ship hull, there is a
mass of fluid being dragged along with a ship. Energy
necessary to drag the mass of fluid is the work done by the
ship against the frictional resistance.

3. Eddy-making Resistance: contributed from normal pressure

applied on a hull. Due to the viscosity of the fluid, the flow
separates from the surface of a hull and eddies (vortices) are
formed. These eddies induce the changes in the velocity
field and thus change the normal pressures on a hull. The
changes in the pressure field around a ship result in the
eddy-making resistance.
4. Air resistance (mainly resulting from wind resistance).
5. Appendage resistances: are caused by the appendages of a
ship, such as propellers, rudders and bilge keels.

Dimensional Analysis of Ship Resistance

The purpose of studying Dimensional Analysis (D.A)

D. A is helpful to classify and compute various types of

resistances, by examining the basic laws governing the
resistances of a body moving through a fluid.
Although CFD has made considerable progresses, the present
practice still depends on ship model test to determine the
resistances of the ship. D.A is especially useful in data
analysis of ship model test, which may deduce the resistances
of the corresponding prototype ship.

 The foundation of dimensional analysis (review)

D. A is based on the principle that an equation which expresses a
physical relationship must be dimensionally homogenous.
In other words, the physical units of all terms at both sides of an
equation must be the same, e.g.

A R2 , P F

In general, all physical units can be expressed by 3 fundamental

units, such as mass-length-time or force-length-time.
Buckingham theory: if there are n dimensional variables in a
physical equation, described by m fundamental dimensions, they
may be grouped into n m dimensionless variables.

 Dimensional Analysis of model test of resistance

R f ( L, 1 , 2 , 3 , etc, ,V , , g , p )
For a comparison between geometrically similar bodies
(a ship and its model), their nondimensional ratios

1 , 2 , 3 , (ratioes) etc are the same. Thus,

R f ( La bV c d g e p f )
Based on the dimensional homogeneity
(M - mass, L - length, T - time)

ML
L M
a M
f L 3
2
T
L T TL

L
2
T

f La 3b c d e f M b d f T c d 2 e 2 f

M
2
T L

a 3b c d e f 1
(1)
b d f 1
(2)
c d 2e 2 f 2
(3)
We have 6 parameters and 3 eq.s relating
them, thus
b 1 d f ,
c 2 d 2e 2 f , a 2 d e.
R f L2 d e p1 d f V 2 d 2 e 2 f d g e p f

R
Lg p

f
,

2
2
1
LV
V

V
2 2

V L

2
/ , is the dynamic viscosity
& the kinematic viscosity

LV V 2
V 2
,
,
&
are dimensionless coefficients. They
1
p
V 2 L2 Lg
2
are related to the similarity laws between the model and prototype.
R
The (total) resistance coeff . CT
,
1
V 2 S
2
where the wetted surface S of a hull has is proportional to L2 ;
LV
Reynolds number, Re
, related to the friction resistance;

V
Froude Number, Fr
, related to the wave-making resistance
Lg
R

Euler Number, Eu

p
1
V 2
2

, not significant to the resistance.

 VL V
R
CT 1
f
,
f Re,Fr

Lg
2 SV

When a model and its prototype are geometrically similar and

their two dimensionless coefficients (Re, Fr) are the same,
their resistance coefficients (CT) should be the same.
Dimensional analysis reduces the number of the related
parameters involved in model tests. However, it can take the
problem no further than the above conclusion.

Model Tests of Ship Resistance

Model tests are widely used in the design and study of large
engineering constructions, such as harbor, breakwater, bridge
constructions, and ship buildings.

A ship model is geometrically similar to its prototype. The

size of the model is usually much smaller than that of the
ship.
Ship model tests are employed to predict the resistance, the
interaction between the hull and the propeller, seakeeping
properties of a ship, etc. Therefore, model tests are very
important in ship design and ship research. Here we focus
on model resistance tests.

 Ship Resistance and Model Test

Model resistance tests are usually carried out in a towing tank. A
towing tank is a long and narrow basin. Small towing tanks are
about 200-300 long, 15-30 wide, 5-9 deep. Large ones, e.g.
U.S. Navy, the David Taylor Model Basin has a length of
2775, a width of 51 and a depth of 22.
A ship model (at a fixed displacement and a naked hull (no
appendage, 4-7 for small towing tank, 12-30 for large one) is
towed at a constant velocity by a mechanically propelled towing
carriage (see website below). The resistance of the model at the
constant velocity is recorded by the instruments on the carriage.
Usually the test is carried at a number of constant velocities,
and
a resistance curve is thus obtained.
http://www.dt.navy.mil/hyd/fac/tow-bas/hig-spe-bas/index.html

V
gL

A typical resistance curve in a model test

A Towing Carriage and A Ship Model

A Towing Carriage

Overview of MarinTeks Shop Model Tank (Norway)

 Determining the Resistance of a ship based on its

model test
When a ship and its model are geometrically (all characteristics
& dimensions are in the same ratio) and dynamically similar, we
may use Eq (5.1) to determine the resistance of a ship based on
the measured data from its model test. Namely,

when

Fr m Fr s

CT m CT s

and Re m Re s ,

R
or 1
2
2 SV s

2
2
1

S
V
Rs
S
V
12 s s s 2 s s 2
Rm 2 m S mVm S mVm

R
(5.1)
2
1
2 SV m

Geometrical similarity indicates the main characteristics of a

model & its prototype are in the same ratio.

Ls
m
Lm

or , for a model and its prototype

having the same Fr & Re, then we require

Vs

Vm

Ls
Vs Lm s 1
m, &

; ,
Lm
Vm Ls m m

if both are run in water at the similar density &

temperature, s m .
Since m ? 1, it is almost impossible to satisfy both,

Fr m Fr s

and Re m Re s

1. In order to overcome this fundamental difficulty to satisfy

the similarity laws, a major (first) assumption was made
by Froude that the frictional and the wave-making
resistances are independent, and the frictional-resistance
coeff. depends only on the Reynolds #. The wave-making
or residual resistance coeff. depends only on the Froude # .

V
R
VL
CT CF CR f1 f 2

2
1

SV

gL

RF
VL
Frictional Resistance: CF 1
f1
2

2 V S

RR
Wave-making Resistance: CR 1
f2
2

V
S
2

gL

2. It is also assumed that the frictional resistance coeff. of a ship

(or a model) is the same as that of a smooth flat plate with
the same length and wetted surface area as the ship (or the
model). Therefore, CF or RF of a ship (or a model) can be
computed given the length according to the half-analytically &
half-empirically friction formulas.
3. Based on these two assumptions, we may determine the
resistance of a ship at a constant velocity given the results of
model resistance test. The steps are detailed below.
a. At Vm , the total resistance of a model, RTm , can be measured.
Thus CTm

RTm
,
2
1
2 S mVm

where S m is the model's wetted surface area.

b. According to the 2 nd assumption, CFm , can be computed given

the length of model according to a friction coefficient formula.
c. Computing the model's residual resistance coefficient
CRm CTm CFm .
d. If

Vs
Vm
Vs

, namely,

Vm
gLs
gLm

CRm CRS f 2

Ls
m , then
Lm

V
,

gL

the ship's residual resistance coefficient is computed.

e. Same as in Step b, CFS can be computed given the ship's length.
f. The total resistance coeff. of a ship is given by, CTS CFS CRS
CFS CRm CFS CTm CFm CTm CFm CFS .

g. The total resistance of a naked ship (excluding appendages)

can be obtained, RS CTS 12 S SVs2 , at VS mVm . When
two geometrically similar ships are running at speeds which
conform to the Froude Law, Frs Frm , they are said to be running
2

S s Ls
at corresponding speeds. It is noticed that,
m2 .
Sm Lm

In most cases, the total resistance of a ship can be determined

accurately based on the model test results using the above method.
However, the method is based on the 2 major assumptions (a. CF
& CR are independent, b. CFS of a ship is equal to that of a flat
plate with the same length). Sometimes the errors due to the
approximations may be significant. We will study the frictional,
wave-making and eddy-making resistances in detail, for
understanding the computation using the method & its validity.

Frictional Resistance
Laminar and Turbulent Flow (review of CVEN 311)
Laminar flow: the fluid appears to move by the sliding of
laminations of the infinitesimal thickness relative to adjacent
layers.
Turbulent flow: is characterized by fluctuations in velocity
at all points of the flow field and these fluctuations with no
definite frequency.
Whether a flow is laminar or turbulent flow depends mainly
on its Reynolds #. For
6 a plate flow,
when Re < 10
the flow is laminar,

Re > 108

the flow is turbulent,

106 < Re < 108 the flow is transitional

 Friction formulas for a flat plate

The following formulas are commonly used.
1) Blasius formula. (Laminar flow)
CF 1.32 / Re, Re 4.5 105. Re

R
VL
, CF 1 F 2 , thus, RF V 1.5 .

2 SV

2) Prandtl and von Karman formula (turbulent flow)

A
15
log10 ReCF M , CF 0.074( RN ) , thus, RF V 1.8 .
CF
3) Schoenherr formula (1947 ATTC line, derived based on 2))
0.242
log10 Re CF ,
for Re 4.5 108 .
CF
4) 1957 ITTC line formula (known as ship-model correlation line
not a friction coefficient for a flat plate, turbulent flow)
0.075
7
CF
,
for
Re

10
.
2
log10 Re 2

Wave-Making Resistance
Wave-making resistance is important to
1. a surface ship (negligible for submarine); and
V
F

2. its speed is high. Accurately speaking, its Froude # , R

gL

V
L

or in U.S. the speed/length ratio,

is high.
It is noticed that the speed to length ratio is a dimensional
coefficient, where V is in knots, L in feet.
A nautical mile/hr (knot) = 0.5144 m/s.
V
1 is equivalent to FR 0.3
L
When FR 0.1, CW & RW is negligible.
When FR 0.45, CW V 6 , RW is dominant in RT .

 Ways to study or determine wave-making

resistance
1. Experiments with models in towing tank; At present, model test
is still the most important tool for prediction of wave-making
resistance.
2. *Theoretical and numerical computations (CFD): help in
interpreting model test results, reduce the range of model tests,
and guide further research.

 Ship Wave Pattern

Lord Kelvin (1887) considered a single pressure point traveling
in a straight line over the surface of the water, sending out
waves which combine to form a characteristic pattern.

Transverse Waves
Divergence Waves

 Description of the wave pattern of a moving pressure point

1. A system of transverse waves: the heights of successive crests
diminish when T.W go afterwards w.r.t. the pressure point.
2. A series of divergent waves: the whole pattern is roughly
contained within two straight lines, which start from the
pressure point and make angles of 19 28 on each side of the
line of the motion.

In deep water, (h ),
wavelength of T.W:

TW 2 V 2 / g
Wavelength of D.W:
DW 2 V 2 cos 2 / g ,
=19o28'

 Ship Wave Pattern

Kelvin wave pattern illustrates and explains many of the
features of ship waves. Ship wave pattern is similar to the
combination of two Kelvin wave systems generated by two
pressure points, with one near the bow and the other near the
stern.

Wave pattern of a ship

Wave pattern behind a moving duck

Wave Pattern of a small boat (divergence wave pattern)

Wave Pattern of a small boat (divergence wave pattern)

 Interference Effects
1. At lower speed (Froude #), waves made by a ship are very small
& wave-making resistance is insignificant.
2. At lower Froude #, divergent waves are the primary wave
system. As the Froude # of a ship increases and the depth of
water decreases, transverse waves are more important.
3. The wavelength of T.W. increases with the speed of a ship.
Thus the position of the T.Ws crest (or trough) w.r.t. the ship
changes.

4.If the trough of the T.W. generated by the bow coincides with that
generated by the stern, then CW becomes very large. If the crest
of T.W generated by the bow coincides with the trough of T.W
generated by the stern, then CW becomes small. This
phenomenon is called bow and stern wave interference, which
accounts for the humps and valley in the CW curves.
5. In order to reduce the
resistance, a ship designer
chooses appropriate L, V
such that CW is at valley
instead of at humps.
(p149-151)

The form drag consists of 3 parts.

1. Eddy-making Resistance; the curvature causes the pressure
change along the ship. Due to the viscosity, the pressure change
will cause the flow separation from the surface, & generate
eddies. Energy is fed into eddies, and the resulting resistance is
called eddy-making resistance. Main contribution to the
form resistance is made by eddy-making resistance. For a
low speed ship, it is important to avoid the abrupt change of
the hull in order to minimize the eddy-making resistance.

2. The

curvature of a ship (or a model) will change the local

velocity along the ship. Since the path along a streamline from
bow to stern is longer on a shaped body than on a flat plate, the
average velocity along a ship > V. Thus RFS RF , Plate .
3 Interaction between viscous & wave-making resistances,
which is very complicated. It is a research topic in Marine
Hydrodynamic and ship-model test. The increase or decrease
of resistance due to the interaction are classified into form
drag. Sometimes, some items may be directly classified into
wave-making resistance.
It is understood now that why the difference between the total
resistance coeff. & frictional resistance coeff. is called the
residual coefficient,
CRm CTm CFm .

Air or Wind Resistance

Majority of the wind resistance is due to eddie-making type, & therefore
it varies roughly with VR2 (VR is the relative velo. of air to a ship)
F k VR

AL sin 2 AT cos 2
cos

(Hughes formula)

k - an empirical constant = 0.6, (0.5~0.65), F - wind resistance (lb)

- density of air, 0.00238 (slug/ft 3 ), VR - wind velocity relative to a ship (ft/s)

- angle of wind direction relative to the longitudinal center line of a
ship measure from the bow.
- direction of the resultant force relative to the center line.

ur ur ur
V R V w V s

Form (Eddie-Making) Resistance

Previously, we made an assumption that the friction
resistance coefficient of a ship (or a model) is the same as that
of a smooth flat plate with the same length (Re) & wetted
surface area; namely, the friction resistance of a ship is the
same as that of a flat plate with the same length and wetted
surface area. In generally, this assumption is approximately
correct. However, a careful investigation has shown that there
are differences between the friction resistance of a ship and
that of a plate with the same length & wetted surface. Usually,
the friction resistance of a curved surface object is greater
than
that of a flat plate with same length & wetted surface. Their
difference is called the form resistance or form drag.

AL - Longitudinal projected area.

AT - Transverse projected area.

pa
&
are
pb
determined based
on the figures at
the right.
A special case
(head wind)

0, 0,
F R
0.0068kV 2 AT

Appendage Resistance
Usually, the model resistance test gives the resistance of the
naked hull (without appendages). Appendages, such as bilge
keels, rudder and bossings (open shafts and struts), will result in
additional resistance, aka appendage resistance.
It is usually added to the naked hull resistance, about 10
15% of the latter as listed in the following table.
1. Appendage resistance of a multiple-screw (propeller) ship is
larger that that of a single-screw ship.
2. The upper limit for V/(L0.5)= 0.7 seems to be higher.
Ship type

Speed/length ratio
0.70
1.0
1.6
Large fast quadruple-screw ships 10-16%
10-16%
Small fast twin-screw ships
20-30%
17-15%
10-15%
Small medium V twin-screw ships 12-30%
10-23%
Large medium V twin-screw ships 8-14%
8-14%
All single-screw ships
2-5%
2-5%

Computing the naked hull resistance

according to its model test results
The model resistance test follows the Froude # similarity.
1. Let m Ls / Lm , thus Vm
2. Based on Re m

VS
m

, & measure RTm CTm

RTm
1
2

S
V
m m
2

Vm Lm

, computing CFm using a friction formula

m

for a flat plate;

3. Computing the residual resistance coeff. CRm CTm CFm ;
4. FN s FN m , VS mVm , Based on the Froude assumption,
CRS CRm ;

5. Based on Re S

VS LS

, (if S = m , then Re S =m1.5 Re m ),

S

computing CFS using a friction formula for a flat plate;

6. at Vs mVm ,

CT s C f s CR s C f s CT m C f m ;

7. The 'naked' hull resistance, RTS 12 S S SVS2CTS ;

8. Total resistance at Vs mVm , RT' RTS Rwind Rappendix ;
9. Effective power, E RT' VS .

Problems of predicting the resistance of ships based on model

tests (Summary)
1. It is assumed that the frictional resistance coeff. of a ship (or
model) is equal to that of a flat plate at the same Re #. However,
there is difference between the friction resistance of a ship
(curved surface) & the friction resistance of a flat plate is form
resistance as described in section 5.7. CR = CT CF , includes
wave-making & form resistances, not only wave resistance.
That is why CR is called residue resistance coefficient.
2. It is noted that a model test follows the Froude similarity. The
form drag depends on viscosity or Re # and does not obey the
Froude Law. Therefore CRS is not exactly equal to CRm .
These problems result in errors in determining ship resistance from
its model test.

Methods of Presenting Model Resistance Results

It is desirable that there is a standard method of presenting
model resistance data. However, so far it has not been reached.
1. Users want the original data. (speed, resistance, water
temperature, method of turbulence stimulation, cross sectional
area) The user can convert them to any desired form.
2. The data in the past were not presented in non-dimensional
form.
Introduced the following are a few methods commonly used in
presenting Model Resistance data.

1. CT ~ Re or CT ~ Fr
RT
V
V
~
or
2.
gL
L
3. circle K & circle C system, C ~ K
1
2

4
V
K

1
1 ,

1
2
6
g
g
6

4
V

they are non-dimensional

RT 1000
C
2
K

Relation to CT & Fr.

K

g
4

1
2

1
6

V
gL

RT 1000 g 13
C

2
V 4

4 L

1
2

1
6

Fr 4

1
2

1
3

RT 1000 S
1000 S
CT
2
2
2
3
SV 8
8 3

At a low speed, RT ~ R f ~ V 1.825 ~ V 2 , C is almost

independent of K .
3
4
R

V
or
V
When increase in speed, w
, C increases with K
Dimensional Form of circle C & circle K
K 0.5834

V
1
6

RT
2
3

2936

EHP
3
2

V
V
where V - knots, RT - tons, and - tons.
C

400

427.1

is specially for a ship whose LWL 400' .

Relation between Hull Form & Resistance

Choice of Ship Dimensions
The owner usually specifies that the new ship shall carry a
certain deadweight (How much cargo can be loaded) at a
particular speed, and the designer estimates the probable
displacement and principle dimensions.
Displacement = cargo weight (dead weight) + self weight
Length Cost, scantling, manning, docking, navigations.
longer L reduces wave-making resistance at high speed.
Draft increase draft will decrease resistance, reduces scantling,
but is restricted by the water depth of harbor or channel &
stability.
Breadth important to have adequate stability. Increase in B
may decrease L (smaller Fr, smaller wetted surface) thus
reduces the cost but results in the increase in wave-making
resistance. Also is limited by the width of canals.

 Choice of Form Coefficients

The most important form coefficient may be the block coeff., or
prismatic coeff. A larger CB, results in larger wave-making &
form resistance.
Block or prismatic coeff. should be reduced as the speed of a ship
increases so that in designing a ship there is a limit of fullness to
be observed for a given speed. A formula of the type, called the
economical block coefficient has often been used.
V
where A & B are constant.

L
Alexander formula (similar to the above)
V
2 1.08 CB , V is trial speed
LPP

CB A B

V
2 1.06 CB , V is service speed
LPP

Troast formula
Vsus
1.85 CP , Vsus is the sustained sea speed.
LPP

Definition of trial, service, & sustained speed

Before an owner receives a newly built or renovated ship, there is a
trail sail for the ship.
Trial speed is the required speed when the newly built ship takes
a trial sail.
Service speed is the required speed for the ship is service.
Usually a service speed is smaller than the trial speed. VT 1.06VS
Sustained speed lies very close to that at which the resistance
coeff. curve begins to rise steeply; i.e., to the speed at which the
power begins to increase rapidly than V3.

B
B
Breadth/ draught ratio,
, R & , R
T
T
Longitudinal distribution of displacement: longitudunal
position of C.B, (L.C.B), usually it is slightly positive for
a slow ship & about 10% behind the midship for a speedy
ship.
Length of parallel middle body: easy for manufacture &
longer for a fat ship, but does not present for a slim ship.
Shape of section (Loaded.W.L., sectional-area curve)
Bulbous bows: decrease the wave-making resistance &
decrease the form resistance. But only effective for
a limited range of speed (usu. not work for warships).
(see p168)

Series Experiments & Model Resistance Data

Sheets
Series Experiments
A series of models is a set of models in which the principal
characteristics are changed in a systematic manner. The
purposes of having resistance test of a series of models are:
1. A series of tests can be made to ascertain the best form of the
ship to give minimum resistance & this would involve tests
run with various alterations to some basic form.
2. The data from the tests of series models can be used to
estimate the resistance & EHP of a ship

 Well-known series models:

1. Taylors Standard Series: starting from a single parent ship
L
2.0
V
L
2. Series 64.
For naval ship.
2.0
V
3. Series 60. Began 1948 with ATTC Cooperation and is
published in 1963, (TMP Report 1712).
a. Five parent models cover, CB , from 0.60 ~ 0.80.
L B

(see the handout) & , ,

& LCB also change.
3
L
B T 100
b. LPP 400 ' & LwL 406.7 '

c. Single screw ships. No bulb at bows.

(see figure 11 of the handout) Lm = 20 ft. Turbulence
stimulators were fitted on the model.
d. Obtain the optimum location of L.C. B.
e. Resistance data of model tests are presented in two ways
R
i.) RR , in pounds, R in pounds per ton as a function of

L B
V
CB ,
,
&
.
B T
LWL
We will study how to use this diagram to estimate RT .
ii.) C

400 ft

400 ft

L B
as a function of CB ,
,
& K.
B T
includes the model-ship correlation

allowance (CF 0.0004) using 1947 ATTC line.

Model Resistance Data Sheet, SNAME.

This valuable sheet was issued by SNAME Project 2 of

Hydrodynamics Sub-Committee of SNAME. Model and
Expanded Resistance Data Sheets, available from Society.
About 200 ships, their model test results were obtained in various
towing tanks and all types of ships were included, which is
different from the Series Experiment.
The sheet gives: 1.) all principal form coeff.,
2.) basic model data
3.) results are presented in

C vs. K

RR
V
or
vs.

Estimation of EHP from Series Resistance Results

The series forms a very suitable basis for making estimate of
power (EHP), particularly in the early stage of a design (concept
design).
Only a limited number of variables are considered.
They are L, B, T , CB , CP & L.C.B . Having these data,
you may use the Series Results to estimate the resistance
& power (EHP ).
Series 60 results are used as an example here.
It is assumed that the shape of the designed hull is similar
to that of a Series 60.

L B
Based on LWL , Lpp , B, T , CB , C p & L.C.B ( L pp BTCB ), 1 , .
3 T
L
B
S
1. Based on , CB & , we find 2 using the diagrams.
B
T
3
B
If 2.5 (3.0 or 3.5), using interpolation or extrapolation;
T
V
2. Given velo., computing
(speed/length ratio) or vice verse;
LWL
3. Based on

R
V
L B
, , & CB , using the diagram to find R , & then RR .

LWL B T

4. Computing Re=VL / , determine CF 0.0004, then the frictional

1
resistance RF by multiplying V 2 S .
2
5. The total resistance: RT Rr RF ;
6. EHP (effective horsepoewer) = RTV / 550, where RT is in lb, & V in ft/s.