0079~6816/92 $15.00 + .

OO
Copyright 0 1992 Pergamon Press Ltd.

Progress in Surface Science, Vol. 41, pp. 3-49

Printed in the U.S.A. All rights reserved.

ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY

E. MEYER
institute of Physics, University of Base/, Klingelbergstrasse
4056 Base/, Switzerland

82

Abstract
The basic principles
are described
mental

of atomic

and compared

forces,

force microscopy
with each other.

such as van der Waals,

and frictional

forces,

are discussed.
A simple

electrostatic,

is given and the relevant

Principles

Modes

of Operation

3.1 Force vs. Distance

deflection

sensors

basis of the funda-

capillary,

ionic repulsion

work is summarized.

Page

5
6
7
9

Introduction
Basic

magnetic,

experimental

Contents

Various

theoretical

Curves

Deflection

Sensors

11

4.1 Electron

Tunneling

12

4.2 Interferometry
4.3 Beam

Deflection

4.4 Capacitance

Methods

4.5 Comparison

between

Deflection

Sensors

Cantilevers
Van

der Waals

Forces
3

13
14
15
16
17
18

E. Meyer

21

Electrostatic

Forces

Magnetic

Forces

Capillary

Forces

IO

Ionic

11

Frictional

12

Elastic

13

Conclusions

40

14

Acknowledgments

42

References

42

Repulsion

23
26
28

Forces

33

Forces

and Plastic

38

Deformations

Abbreviations
AES

auger electron

AFM

atomic

CE

contact

CD

corona

DFM

dipping

EFM

electrostatic

spectroscopy

force microscopy
electrification
discharge
force microscope
force microsope

FM

frequency

modulation

FFM

friction

JKR

Johnson-Kendall-Roberts

force microscope

LB

Langmuir-Blodgett

LEED

low-energy

electron

diffraction

LFM

lateral

MFM

magnetic

force microscope

PMMA

polymethylmethacrylate

PSD

position

RHEED

reverse

SEM

scanning

SEMPA

scanning

SFA

surface

SPM

scanning

probe

STM

scanning

tunneling

force microscope
sensitive

detector

high energy

electron

electron

microscope

electron

microscope

diffraction
with polarization

force apparatus
microscope

UHV

ultra high vacuum

XPS

x-ray

photoelectron

microscope
spectroscopy

analysis

Atomic Force Microscopy

1 Introduction
The scanning
face science
space

tunneling

in its ability

on an atomic

microscopy

scale

conductivity.

[8, 41 proposed

a new type

stead

of measuring

suggested

is a synthesis
and

the STM,

using

Binnig

same

continued

nitride.

fragile

Langmuir-Blodgett

scale.

Biological

investigated

instrument
The
between

trostatic

probe

polymers,

applied

for the first

to different

time

materials,

on

could
such

as

down to the molecular

are other

materials,

microfabricating
into different

are examples

first

the develop-

silver halides,

and glasses

methods,

this

on graphite.

of AFM

Organic

from microns

ceramics

of the microscope

force

tip and sample

microscopes

examples

the instrument
processes

for the

environments,

such

of the various modifications

Concurrently,

to characterize
evolved
electron

the

this has become

of the UHV

a standard

analytical

and other

application

SPMs

(AES),

chambers

ultra

have already

can be foreseen.

to combine

incorporated

gain

The same develmethods,

(XPS)

chamber.

(UHV)

STMs

meth-

opportunity

and therefore

spectroscopy

in one single

further

different

where different

high vacuum

the

and the elec-

the unique

of methods

spectroscopy,

were combined

in commercial

(FFM),

of a single method.

x-ray photoelectron

of other

(MFM),

the field became

Th IS provides

spot by a combination

some years ago in electron

(LEED)

microscope

interactions

of a variety

force microscope

tendency

AFM/FFM.

than by the separate

diffraction

or to measure

led to the creation

there is also an unifying

spectroscopy

forces

By th ese new developments

AFM/MFM,

a single nm-sized

as Auger electron

surface

t ion force
th e f ric

(DFM),
(EFM).

to measure

such as the magnetic

(SPM),

microscope

force microsope

more information

AFM

could be imaged

from being

resolution

in the history

to radiation.

after

resolution

such as photosensitive

exposure

of this microscope

a sharp probing

subdivided.

energy

One year

(AFM)

to sense forces,

has undergone.

ods such as STM/AFM,

opment

for scanning.

In-

the authors

microscope

springs

atomic

Gerber

limitation.

using mechanical

milestones

New detection

this

force

[6] obt ained

Insulators,

is the require-

tip and sample,

atomic

these

and low temperature,

basic principle

scanning
dipping

The

After

and incorporation

vacuum,

a probing

in real

and Christoph

overcome

et al.

films,
Apart

could

scale.

of STM

Quate

the first atomic

without

continuously.

sensor preparation

between

transducers

macromolecules,

by AFM.

was improved

limitations
Calvin

a useful tool in sur-

and semiconductors

[5] presented

at a high pace.
by AFM

which

profilometer,

piezoelectric

Albrecht

boron

be characterized

as liquids,

currents

on an atomic

and coworkers

year

an insulator,
ment

forces

of the mechanical

publication,
In the

of microscope

become

of metals

In 1986 Gerd B innig,

tunneling

measuring

surfaces

0 ne of the main

[l, 2).

ment of sample

h as already

(STM)

to characterize

such

and lowNowadays,

chambers.

Some

and the addition

of

E. Meyer

The development
STM

are the most

AFM

to conductive

of commercial
succesful

and chemists

engineers.

Commercial

to electron

microscopes.

ambient

pressure
with

but also biologists,

AFMs

materials

The

or in liquids.

information

about

special

properties

surface

and mechanical

surface

characterizes

comparable

preparation

the morphology

such

and

to apply

not only

with an efficiency

without

instrument

AFM

possibility

has attracted

routinely

are measured

The

electrochemists,

physicians,

can be applied

Samples

quantitative

followed the pace of research.

in the field of SPM.

as well as to insulating

physicists

samples

microscopes

instruments

as roughness

at

of the

or height

distributions.
The

layout

principles,
on

of this article

modes

different

of operation

forces

descriptions

is as follows.

and the corresponding

of the forces,

can contribute

their

applications.

especially

forces,

examples

are given where a separation

electrostatic,

and their

forces

emphasis

imaging

forces,

where most

ionic

separation

and ionic repulsion

is placed
theoretical

of forces into sections

contact

capillary

of several contributions

of the basic

some simple

The subdivision

simultaneously

or frictional

Then

origins,

in the case of repulsive

frictional

descriptions

are given.

by AFM;

such as van der Waals,

and van der Waals

more detailed

and instrumentation

which can be sensed

is not always unambigous,

First,

repulsion

is difficult.

is achieved,

or

Some

e.g., magnetic

forces.

2 Basic Principles
In force

microscopy

the probing

sponse

to the force between

Images

are taken

deAection
sition

to ZO.lA

between
action
=A.

by scanning

the sample

probing
between

spring

constants

are measured

range

bonded

Th ere f ore, non-destructive

regimes

are distinguished:

operated

in non-contact

mode

electrostatic,

information

surface

structure
surface
resolution

topography

with

can be detected

under

In addition,
appropriate

to lo-N.

separations

In this
high

frictional
conditions.

separations

resolution.
forces

forces

the inter-

at separations
the

Two force

can be sensed

ionic

magnetic

of

microscope

of 10 to lOOnm, forces,
forces,

pofrom

Typical

small forces.
When

of charges,

mode,

1).

For comparison

mode.

or capillary

At smaller
with

Fig.

with these

distributions

the sample.

(cf.

the

of the lateral

to lOON/m and motions

sensor

non-contact

In re-

tip and digitizing

is of the order of lo-N

is possible

and

magnetic

to be traced

is achieved.

0.001

lo-

at tip-sample

or liquid film distribution.

ing tip is in contact

from
atoms

topography,

to the probing

deflection

imaging

Contact

as van der Waals,

about

are between

spring.

also called lever, is deflected.

of the piezo as a function

by the

tip and sample

two covalently

to a cantilever-type

the cantilever,
relative

of the lever or the z-movement

x, y. Typical

microns

tip is attached

tip and sample

is
such

and give

domain

wall

of the order of A the probrepulsion

Under

and elastic

best

forces
conditions

or plastic

allow

the

atomic

deformations

Atomic Force Microscopy

FeedbackL.oop

Figure 1:
Basic principle

of AFM. A sharp probing

tip is mounted

on a cantilever-type

spring.

The force between tip and sample causes cantilever deflections which are monitored
the sample a feedback-loop
can keep the
by a deflection
sensor. While scanning
deflection constant
(equiforce mode).

3 Modes
First,
namic

we have to distinguish

modes,

between

also called ac-modes.

to the force F which

in response
established,

As derived

of Operation
static

also called

cross section

acts on the probing

has a spring

dc-modes,

mode, the cantilever-type

tip until

from Hookes law, the deflection

to the force F = CAZ~where the proportional

with constant

modes,

In the static

constant

constant

the static

zt of a cantilever
is the spring

and

spring

dy-

bends

equilibrium

is

is proportional

constant

cg. A beam

which is given by

cB = 3EI/13
where
rectangular

E is the Youngs

beam

of width

modulus,
b and

1 the length

thickness

and I the moment

d the moment

of inertia

of inertia.
I is given

For a

by

I = bd3/12.

With the dimensions

a spring
10-l

constant

m is derived.

Si-cantilever

In the static,

(E=1.69.10N/m2)

mode typical

forces between

to 10mGN are measured.

While
height

lx 10x 10Opm of a rectangular

of c~=O,42N/

scanning

the surface

of the sample

relative

the deflection
to the probing

can be kept
tip.

This

constant

mode,

called

by regulating
equiforce

the
mode,

E. Meyer

is the most
variations

common

mode.

of elasticity...),

interpreted

as topography.

constant

and

variable

the

The

deflection

mode,

is quite

common,

Thus,

the interpretation

profiles

with

of the

allows
because

lever

high

the height

deflection

scanning

the height

is similar

of a homogeneous

van der Waals

As an alternative

variations

mode

height

measured

position

speeds.

(neglecting

ionic

forces,

of the sample

are digitized.

variations

to the equiforce

sample

or repulsive

This

For atomic
are small

is kept

mode,

scale

on this

are

called

imaging
limited

this
area.

mode.

ContactjNoncontact
I

Figure

2:

Possible

In the

modes

of operation.

dynamzc

distance-dependent
the rectangular

mode
force

beam

the lever
F(z)

is oscillating

shifts

the resonance

close

to its resonance

curve.

The

equation

frequency.
of motion

is given by

where ,U = m/l is the mass

density.

equation

can be separated.

T -t wT

= 0. The 11 Eigenfrequency

With

The time dependent

the Ansatz

9 ~ j(z)?(t)

part is described

is given by

the differential

by a harmonic

equation

A
Of

Atomic Force Microscopy

where

f,, = 27rw, and K, depends

pends on the force acting

frequency

on the space dependent

part and therefore

For the above mentioned

on the tip.

of the first Eigenmode

is found

%-cantilever

also de-

the resonance

* d)=2.33.103kg/m3,

to be 138 kHz (p=p/(c

~,Z=1.875104).
In first approximation
frequency.

F = dF/dz

only the force gradient

An effective

spring

constant

is defined

influences

the resonance

by

Ccf/ = cH - F.
A repulsive
whereas

force ( F < 0) stabilizes

an attractive

In the ac-mode
tion)
scan

the feedback

or keeps the frequency

physical

The

content:

and

loop is disabled

loop either

resonance

curve

gradient
gradient

and variable
to interpret,

speeds.

In the &c-mode, force gradients

of z=lOnm

range

between

between

constant

is fixed to a certain

between

lo-l3

(slope

position
Again,

gradient

10-j

during

the whole

the feedback

the constant

mode

and 10 N/m

detec-

have the same

As an alternative

are acquired.

the variable

= const * z-

frequency,
frequency

amplitude

[7]. Both methods

are measured.

whereas

force law of the form F(z)

asserts

images

are easier

the resonance

and lowers the resonance

(FM-detection)

images
a simple

the spring

constant

of constant

profiles

the spring and increases

force destabilizes

allows

gradient

higher

are measured.

the corresponding

scan
With

forces at a distance

to 10-N.

3.1 Force vs. Distance Curves

In contrast
curves

to the

above

does not involve

of distance
function

between
of sample

a change

probing

force, F&,,

and short-range

modes,

of lateral

between

tip and sample.

and repulsive

neglecting

tip and sample,

z, is derived

FleuC,.(zy) yields

the desired

F,,,,(Z)

zt is monitored

zL with the spring

measurements

In the contact

Fl,,,,.

mode long-range

by the elastic
the tip radius

decay

to the

attractive

deformation

and

as a

constant

is equal

force which acts on the contact

about

distance

of the

zone is not
lengths

of

forces have to be made.

In first approximation,

presumed

vs.

the force as a function

the deflection

forces Frep are equilibrated

repulsive

of force

but measures

the deflection

For non-contact

lever : Fl,,,, = Fatt, + Frep. The repulsive

derived unambigously.
Some assumptions
attractive

acquisition

Usually,

z,. By multiplying

is derived.

the

position

tip and sample.

position

c~ the net force Fl,,,,

attractive

described

elastic

deformations,

from AZ = A(z, - 2,).

force law Fl,,,,( z).

and Fall,.(z) can be determined.

and the corresponding

With

the distance

Thus,

probing

the force vs.distance

th e above

The reverse direction,

force vs. distance

between

mentioned

when a model

curve is derived,

is shown

curve

restrictions
potential
in Fig.

is
3.

10

E. Meyer

The

instabilities

constant.
which

includes

already

occur

A more
both

applied

adhesive

to surface

the calculations
SFA-literature

at the points

sophisticated

where the derivative

model
forces

force

are completely

of the force equals

is the Johnson-Kendall-Roberts

and elastic

apparatus

deformations

analogous

[8]. This

measurements.

(SFA)

to the AFM

the spring

(JKR)

In

and the reader

model

model
has been

SFA-experiments
is referred

to the

[9].

Z+IAl

10
t
8

-2

Figure

3:

Force

vs.

inset.

distance

At points

instabilities

occur.

Instead
monitored

should
mined.
complete

For details

After

by numerical

a Lennard-Jones-type

This

as a function
method

the acquisition
integration.

be used for contact

A combination
set of parameters

derivative

potential
equals

as shown

the spring

in the

constant

and

gradients

can

see [II].

the force

in the ac-mode.

also

from

and 3-4 the force

of measuring

measurements.
is derived

curve
l-2

is more

accurate,

of the force gradient

Pethica

where

ac-measurements

of the JKR-model.

force

especially
vs.

the local
allows

the

that

1)~

for noncontact

distance

et al. [ 101 suggested

meausurement

of dc- and

of z-distance,

curve

the force

ac-measurements

stiffness

can be deter-

determination

of the

11

Atomic Force Microscopy

4 Deflection
The first deflection
sensor

was found

tunneling
probing
laser

sensor was based on electron

to be sufficient

is rather

tip and the rear

sensitive

deflection

tunneling,

these

to centimeters.

to achieve

to contaminants
Therefore,

other

and capacitance

deflection

sensors

For the optical

the performance

but are typically

betweeen

these

hand,

which might

/,

below

lo-N.

as optical

methods

tunneling

is given
Thus,

is limited
limits

optical

between

interferometry,
In contrast

to

of microns

by the light

electrostatic

for most

in finding the ultimate

pres-

forces

the interaction
applications.

can

forces
On the

by the wavelength
of force microscopy.

interferometry

HE-NE-LASER

capacitance

laser beam deflection

Figure

the tunneling

introduced.

method

are negligible

of the optical

be of importance

electron

such

have been

For the capacitance

and the cantilever

the miniaturization

techniques,

between

to the interaction

the interaction

influence

light,

comparable

of the

[3, 6, 11, 121. However,

are far away from the lever at distances

techniques

lo-N.

other

[3]. The resolution

resolution

and the interaction

methods

sure which is of the order

sensors

tunneling

atomic

side of the lever can become

tip and sample.

beam

Sensors

method

4:

Several

force

microscope

the right,

the cantilever

indicated

on the left.

designs.

In each set-up,

in the middle,

the sample

and the corresponding

piezo

is shown

deflection

sensor

on
is

of

E. Meyer

12

For

temperature

low

methods,

is a point

the

rear

of the

the

basic

concepts,

experiments

which

lever,

favours

is reduced

the laser

tunneling
to the

the sensitivities

power

of l-lOOOpW,

where the electrical

order

of a few nW.

and the limitations

used

power,

In the

for optical

dissipated

following

are described

on

section

for each detection

technique.

Electron

4.1
Electron
surface

tunneling

atoms.

The

originates
tunneling

Tunneling

from the overlap of wavefunctions

current

between

two metals

between

the tip and

is given by

I = Iu.exp(--A&z)
where
electrodes

[I].

For typical

of magnitude

when

close proximity
sensitivity

to the sample,

current

AZ is in A and

mode

of 20% which
as 0.018,

the

static

such

to press

as lo-N

between
evaporated

gold

at ambient

pressure
and

dimensions
in high

is well-suited

films

optical

current

of 5-1O.k.

between

the

decays

one order

the tunneling

tip is at

In order to calculate

The relative

variations

the

of the

lever

been

causes

a current,

tunneling

is a very sensitive

method

allowing

distances

However,

typical

currents

are of the order

the

Ptlr-tips

methods

applications

detection

are

UHV
conditions.

The

these

/lSj have

reliable

First

is achieved.

succc~sful

easier
the

possibility

that

freshly

conditions

For

is too

UHV

to minimize
AFM

as

tunneling

method

to operate.

to

causes

that

tunneling

tunneling

low temperature

demonstrated

in the

Forces

it is found

stable

in air the

and

performed

for

is its sensitivity

[14, 151. For ideal

to achieve

and

30.100kHz

of contaminants

current

conditions

of n\l:

clca.rly

presence

[16]. E m p irically,

applications

more

are

of

In the dynamic

is typically

method

tunneling

are necessary

to be advantageous.

to these

of the

to lo-N

the low power

to a few kHz.
which

nominal

F or standard

tunneling

tunneling

under

of O.lA

frequency

or hydrocarbons.
until

are reduced

and

modulation

the bandwidth

most

of the

reported

[ll].

[17] and

limit

Therefore,

experiments

seem

vacuum

distance

\ I,

A dISt ante

which

as oxides

on the

the forces

low temperature

z the

Th erefore,

AZ is applied.

at its resonance

handicap

have

metals,

delicate

that

amplifications

Another

contaminants
tip

shows

cantilevers.

mode.

lff.

at distances

2 .I\/92
Q in eV.

is oscillating

microfabricated

typically

and

of 4eV, the tunneling

t is increased

to be measured.

high
lever

heights

height

are then given by

where

nA requiring

barrier

a small modulation

= 1 ~- exp (-A$L)

as small

high

barrier

AI/I
variation

Q) is the

the distance

of tunneling,

tunneling

the

r/z A-,

A=l.O25eV-

and
the

experiments

the tunneling

detector

13

Atomic Force Microscopy

4.2 Interferometry
lnterferometric
is given

deflection

by the wavelength

The measured

photocurrent

superposition

of the object

I = $6
where
erence

+ Z;]

sensitivity

of the laser
beam

and all calibrations

and the reference

that

of piezos

the length

scale

are easily

done.

I which is given by the

to the light intensity

between

beam:

the optical

X is the the wavelength

phase

the electric

are the corresponding

between

the

advantage

= I0 + I/z + &&OS(@)

and Io,l~

on the difference

have the intrinsic

is proportional

@ is the phase difference

beam,

where

sensors

fields I&,

intensities.

path of the reference

and AZ the deflection

difference

is shifted

variations

of the intensity

I?n of object

and ref-

The phase difference

and object

beam:

of the lever.

by piezoelectric

depends

For maximum

positioning

mx/2

to +,, =

where m is an integer.
Then,

the relative

AI
-_=

IO + II{

to
47rAz
_z_

AI
-_=

for IO z IR, A modulation

which is 4 orders
tocurrents
voltage
variations
and the
formance

to achieve

Small
by Rugar
been

phase
et al.

which

developed

by several

of the design.

differences

between

groups

by Sarid

In addition,

beam

[23].

these

small

can be measured

Good

dynamic

mode

per-

119, 201 or heterodyne

mode crucially

spurious

pho-

for the current

electronics

of lO-A/m

of lo-

typical

depends

reflections

on the rigid-

should

be avoided

stability.

the object

a few microns
et al.

are required

using homodyne

in the static

variation

However,

and low-noise

sensitivities

of the signal-to-noise

[22] th e reference

is mounted

intensity

tunneling.

to 1OOkHz or MHz.

a good low-frequency

for the optimization

a fiber

and spectral

a relative

amplifications

interferometer

1211. Good performance

ity and compactness

in order

only small

can be increased

has been reported

interferometry

useful

causes

in electron

a stable

can be measured
bandwidth

less than

are PA to mA where
With

AZ

of Az=O.l.&

of magnitude

converter.

given by

2m(y)

which can be reduced

are approximately

and reference
ratio.

is the beam
away from

Th e cantilever

beam

turned

In the fiber-optic
reflected

the lever.
is placed

out

based

by the cleaved
An elegant
in front

to be
design
end of

design

of a laser

has

diode

E. Meyer

14

facet.

A fraction

causes

of the laser light is reflected

of the

variations

reflected

and emitted

Another

design

where

the

concepts

be applied

methods

and

are given

I=lpA,

detectors

sources,
practical
is the

to be shot

purposes

highest

limited
mode.

sensitivities

The

rather

the wavelength

by the detector.

can be achieved

for special

optical

for force

method

cantilever.

In the early

cantilever.

Nowadays,

Beam

1 is the length

: 6 2 D/f
cantilever.

concept

microscopy

is determined
For typical

to be diffraction

given

by

noise of the
drastically

is well-established
the

of miniaturization

by

which have to be

small

beam

turns

mirrors

were mounted

lever is smooth

is monitored

photodiode.

out to be very approoff the rear side of the

by a position

The difference

between

by the total intensity

on the

enough

to be

sensitive
intensity

gives a direct

of the lever:
-_

1
1.1 - ItI .-- 6Az
__1 I i- Iii

16

of the lever and 6 the beam

either

or by the diffraction

found

that

is reflected

and lower halfes of the diode divided

angle

noise

For most

Deflection

of the reflected

Al
where

other

and FM-detectors,

interferometry

of the microfabricated

a two- or four-segmented

This

of optical

A 1aser beam

days of force

the surface

of the deflection

a few

are reduced

detection

cantilevers

and the limitation

on a simple

[27, 281.

The position

measure

to the thermal

and

above

the sensitivity.

vibrations

Interferometric

to mW)

used as mirror.
from the upper

of 780nm

[7].

detector

(PSD),

compared

of

e is the elementary

For frequencies
limit

Similar

limitations

applications.

is based

microscopy

of the lever.

For lower frequencies

with high-Q

of light are the disadvantages

4.3
This

limited.

mode where thermal

In combination

where

between

beams.
The

of 1OOkH z, a wavelength

is calculated.

noise

high laser power (pW

into account

priate

IS -= &1B

the shot noise limit is negligible

resolution

for the dynamic

noise:

[26].

feedback

phase

interferometer

and object

interferometers

noise of the electronics

Only in the contact

This optical
to the

of the deflection

as reference

of Az=1.8A

such as l/f or Johnson

cantilever.

serve

For a bandwidth

deflection

are found

are a measure

heterodynr

by shot

are proportional

[24, 251 uses a common-path

al.

directions

the bandwidth.

a minimum

et

to the

into the laser diode.

which

and, therefore,

two polarisation
can

charge

taken

beam

intensity

by Schonenberger

the optical

kHz,

laser

cantilever
limited.

by the focuse
on

the lever:

dimensions
Therefore,

length
S z

divergence
f

of the reflected

and aperture

2X/b where

6 is the

width

of the order of lO,xm the reflected

the relative

variation

beam.

L) of the lenses
of the
beam

of the photocurrent

is
is

15

Atomic Force Microscopy

3A.z b

AI
-_=
I

between

interferometry
of light

very compact
mode

for repulsive

contact

of the lever, which excludes

advantage

that

Instead

deflection

of the two-segment

between

left and right

photodiode,

diode

called friction

where

both

force microscopes

(FFM),

Capacitance
sensitivity

methods

makes

them

Therefore,

a change

a small change of distance

of

on the probing

forces are measured

are

later.

methods.

developments.

However,

their potential

The capacitance
z the distance

of a plate
between

the

of the capacitance

and

of the voltage:

At a mean

distance

z=lpm,

which

is comparable

bridge

or the resonant

a change

phase

as O.lA are measured.

voltages

to tens

of volts.

case of optical

are needed.

be a promising

where

causes

have been

introduced

breakthrough
plate.

The integration
relatively

instruments

relative

variation

of low5

such as the capacitor

[32, 33, 341. Displacements

was found

to limit

force gradient

The whole detector

appears

complicated

set-ups,

the electrostatic

to the capacitor

For ultra-small

alternative.

of Az=O.lA

Dielectric

by microfabrication.
methods

z
Several

Furthermore,

of soft cantilevers

can be built

shift,

AZ

methods.

to the optical

as small

fibers,

force acting

will cause a change

AU
-=u

snap-in

the difference

to the torsion

Methods

is given by C = E,EUA/Z, A the area of the plate,

capacitor
plates.

Then,

is proportional

than optical

for future

compa-

on a good
It is a great

and will be discussed

are less comon

attractive

results

depends

and

force sensor.

and the normal

4.4 Capacitance

in the static
deflection

to a bidirectional

diode is used.

(C-D)

deflection

of wires in practice.

to the lateral

the lateral

resolution
on beam

mode imaging

extended

a quadrant

by the wave-

of beam

[29]. The method

the application

can be easily

half of the photo

Force microscopes

are based

For dynamic

[30, 311, which is proportional

the cantilever
tip.

beam

are limited

The standard

can be achieved

reflectivity

shows the close similarity

methods

instruments

imaging.

detection

result

Due to the simplicity

can be constructed.

Most of the commercial

to interferometry

Both

deflection.

sensitivities.

and rigid designs

are designed
rable

and beam

and have similar

is O.lA.

TTT

is valid for 1 z 3b. This

where the approximation

length

AZ

can cause
than

such as laser

at low temperature,

the

plus cantilever

to be simpler

devices,

the applied

in the

diodes

this design

or

might

16

E. Meyer

4.5

Comparison

between

Deflection

Sensors

+
Tunneling

very
good

sensitive

forces

t;

dc-stability

I
,
Beam

deflection

!_

from

tunneling

delicate

preparation

limited

bandwidth

rongllrlcss

of lC\C~I

thermal

~.__.~___~~.
_~_ ~~. ~~ ~~ .-._._
easy to operate
:
reflectivit,v

small

(no wires)

interaction

high

large

intrinsic

Capacitance

good

of lever

length

spurious

microfabrication

diffraction
high

scale

interaction
(lever
dielectric

~~ _____.

power

of beam

bandwidth

sensitivity

limited

laser

1 fluctuations
any shape

drift
of mirror

diffraction

Interferometry

tip

divergence

limited

laser

power

reflections

between

electrodes

instabilities)
breakthrough

__-

Atomic Force Microscopy

17

5 Cant ilevers
In order to be sensitive
small

as possible

and building
high

to small forces

(O.Ol-lOON/m).

vibrations

should be minimized
A ccording

x lo-100kHz).

the spring

On th e other

constant

hand,

CB

and the resonance

to equation

has to be selected

the influence

(1) th e resonance

of acoustic

frequency
frequency

as

waves

has to be kept
is proportional

to
cB/m. Therefore,
the mass of the cantilever has to be minimized which means that
$_
the dimensions should be minimized,
too. Typical dimensions of thickness,
width and
length

are 1 x 10x 100~m

and a spring
The

constant

basic

vibrations.

constant

When

the probing

by the effective

in the attractive

should

a resonance

for the non-contact

of the first Eigenmode

for our example.

increase

gives for a S-lever

in resolution

cg is substituted

vibrations
spring

limitations

The amplitude

yields 0.15A
constant

which

frequency

of 138kHz

are given

by thermal

of 0.42N/m.

also be above

is given by ($J) z kBT/cB which

($)

tip interacts

spring

regime

constant

and decrease

l-lON/ m.

mode

Otherwise,

with the sample,

ceff.

Therefore,

in the repulsive

the spring
the thermal

regime.

The

the lever snaps into contact

at large separations.
In the contact
adhesion

forces

equilibrated
between
cannot
small

mode the thermal

in the z-direction

by the lever.

0.01

to lN/m.

Typical
With

be moved anymore.
adhesion,

Blodgett

films).

spring

vibrations
spring

softer

as small

forces

constants

springs

Only on surfaces

constants

of the cantilever

and frictional

become

in the lateral

for repulsive

the probing

contact

tip sticks

with small frictional

negligible.
direction

Here,
have

to

imaging

are

to the surface

and

forces and reasonably

as O.OOlN/m can be used

(e.g.

Langmuir-

18

E. Meyer
There

etched

exist

many

preparation

and bent towards

diamond

are glued

ogy.

With

certain

skill.

processes

in addition.

allowing

These

methods

Therefore,

batch

fabrication

are based

on well-known

photolithography

the silicon-wafer

faces of the silicon

deposited

the sensor

integrated

are etched

fabrication

of the tips are 10 to 30nm.

also offer

a variety

hard levers
combined

STM/AFM,

small lateral

levers

of geometries

for non-contact
spring

magnetic
constant

equation

process
or SisN,

of O.lpm

to particular

high aspect

ratio

can be

are achieved,
usually

radii

have

of curvature

available.

are optimized

technol-

wet and dry etching

Typical

are now commercially

with

and
The

The cantilevers

levers for contact-mode,

tips

consuming

films of SiO,

accuracies
[37].

are

Manufacturer

applications,

conductive

for MFM,

e.g.

levers

or levers

for
with

for FFM.

polarization

London

Thin

alignment,

wires

very common.

circuit

With

softer

der Waals

Van der Waals forces are present

classical

integrated

which

mode,

6 Van
the instantaneous

has become

[35, 361, SO,

1 1 or SisNl

These

metallic

and small pieces of, e.g.!

are all very time

with good reproducibility.

of silicon

Thin

is patterned.

preferentially.

Due to high precision

tips made

for cantilevers.

Foils can be cut in stripes

to the cantilever.

need a lot of manual

microfabrication

procedures

the sample.

Forces

in all force microscope

of atoms

which

[38] d escribes

interact

experiments.

They arise from

with surrounding

the interaction

energy

atoms.

between

The

two nonpolar

molecules:

where LYis the polarizability,

materials
The

typically

in the UV-regime),

dependence

anisotropic,
different.

on the

because

Polder

larger

[39] show that

two atoms

sphere,
above

than

at distances

representing
a plane,

that

retardation
larger

described

an AFM

probing

than

and h Plancks

van der Waals

consequences
effects

(for transparent
constant.

forces

to a moleculr
for the spatial

can

be

axis can be
arrangement

for future AFM experiments.

become

dominant.

X = c/u, the interaction

Casimir

energy

and

between

by

van der Waals

representing

constant
that

and might also be of interest

20nm,

frequency

along or perpendicular

has some interesting

is approximately

If we assume

(Y indicates

the polarizability

and polymers

For distances

absorption

so the dielectric

polarizability

This anisotropy

of liquid crystals

v a characteristic

forces

are additive,

tip (typically

the sample,

the

nonretarded

12 = lo-100nm

is approximately

given by

force

of a

radius of curvature),

Atomic Force Microscopy

F,, = -AR/z
where A is the Hamaker

constant.

For the retarded

19

case

F, = 2rBR/(3z3)

can be derived, where B is the retarded van der Waals constant.

The constants
A
and B are related to the microscopic
constants
C,,C, by simple relations
A = d,p2
and B = O.l~pc, where p is number of molecules per m3 [44]. However, the assumption
of additivity

is not fulfilled.

A correct

shitz theory
continuum

microscopic
treats

Manybody

manybody

[40]. Within

to be in aggreement

Hamaker

constants

butions

is rather

with

the results

tip (er), immersion

medium

from the lower frequencies

the interacting

the power-law
found

into account.

As an alternative,

but treats

theory

have to be determined

have to be taken

complicated.

effects correctly,

this macroscopic

is found

of spherical

interactions

description

particles

dependence

by simple

the Lif-

integration.

Only

and this is done from the dielectric

(~2) and planar

(static

sample

and infrared)

the

constants

(s3). Neglecting

the Hamaker

as a

of distance

contri-

constant

is given

by
A

h,,

b: - n:)(n; - ni)

e
where

n, = fi

at 3.101Hz
seen that

sample,

indices

has a positive

van der Waals forces can be either

arise only when

condition

are the refractive

and f( nlr nz,n3)

f(nl,nZrnJ)

a medium

is immersed

n1 5 n2 < n3 is fulfilled.
the van der Waals

at the absorption
value

attractive

between
For identical

forces are always

frequency

[9], From the above

or repulsive.

two different

can be

The repulsive

materials

materials

I/, typically

formula

in both

forces

and when
probing

the

tip and

attractive.

Figure

6:

AFM

measurement

the

non-contact

test pattern

performed
mode.

(200nm

imaged

with

(radius

of curvature

static

and capillary

influence
tesy

periodicity)

a sharp

sides van der Waals

in

A silicon
probing

20nm
force,

is

tip

).

Be-

electro-

forces

can also

the measurements.

Cour-

of M.

Nonnenmacher

(from

WI).
A more
relation

detailed

treatment

to force microscopy

of the theoretical

is given by Hartmann,

aspects
including

of van
retarded

der Waals

forces

in

forces and different

E. Meyer

20

immersion

media

Goodman
forces

and Garcia

between

diamond

17nN,

measurement
the

the

distances
Tabor

and

smooth

retarded

were performed
vapors,

force

a tungsten

microscopy

in the ac-mode

gradients

10-N
were

proteins

also

used

[21, 451.

in agreement

The

to their

of retarded

theoretical

predictions

at ambient

conditions.

Ni-tip

and mica.

smaller

distance
friction

sion in liquids,

theoretical
forces

Ducker

A possible

SFA

1Onm the

measurements

liquids,

gases

and

regime?

are

(determined
graphite.

of distance

[29] p er f ormed
of the Q-factor.
might

Van der Wxals

et al.

which

and

[46] reported

was found
force

vs.

distance

some deviations

with

from the

being

measurements

shift of the resonance

present

between

curve with

The origin of this dissipative

be the theoretically

to be

agreement

to contaminants

ac-force

Force

by integration)

larger than 40nm

distances

were

sensor.

photoresists,

1411 1,resented

IIartmann

between

measurements

of 3nm to 18nm.

was 5OA. Moiseev

For smaller

forces

predicted

force

van der

[47J.
experiments

well-defined

are required.

difficult.

As an alternative,

tion limits

At about

The

as silicon,

For distances

explanation

of atomically

as deflection

forces

not only the typical

but also a decrease

tips which deviates

of atomic

et al.

forces

sheets

attractive

conditions.

resolution

was found.

observed

probing

used for AFM

such

analysis.

at

and nonretarded

(immersed

interferometer

as a function

sensor.

quartz

in the van der Waals

were found which were attributed

They

is still uncertain.

performed

and corresponding

lateral

1431
forces.

The

et al. i21; measured

surfaces,

years

retarded

of 5 to 30nm.

conditions

started

Abrikosova

of polished

between

was observed.

at ambient

resolution

by a capacitive

the model

For future

highest

surface

of retarded

were found at distances

t,o image

of lateral

curves measured

Waals

surface

gives 3nN,

191.

with a heterodync

to 1.5.10~N

the dependence

different

Martin

of O.OlN/ m to 2N/m

between

forces

measurements,

preliminary.

regimes

and

to the calculated

H ere, the forces

films)

by

of .z = lnm,

sample
which

Derjaguin

a flat

separations

under

tip on a silicon

performed

forces

at close

Langmuir-Blodgett

still rare and rather

and

both

(SFA).

to nonretarded

systematically

deposited

The

apparatus

are made

at a distance

graphite

on

has a long tradition

microscope.

found good agreement

were measured

from

tip

forces

1.2nN.

forces

force

[44] o b served

force

van der Waals

graphite

a hemisphere

They

Winterton

mica

transition

atomic

between

of lOO-1000nm.

using the surface

E.g.,

and SiOZ on graphite

of the

forces

of the

tip radius of R=lOOnm

are found.

of van der Waals

invention

measured

estimations

[42]. F or a typical

1 to 20nN

on mica

The
before

Some

[41].

experiments.

Another
specially

appears

either

ultra

issue to be discussed

from simple

geometries

designed

cantilevers

operated
questionable

high vacuum

is the geometry

and makes

a theoretical

with spherical

It would also be of great interest

of force microscopes
resolution

conditions,

in the van der Waals

or irnmer-.
of typical
treatment

apex

to find the ultimate

regime.

but is also a real challenge.

could

be

resolu-

lhe achievement

Atomic Force Microscopy

7 Electrostatic
The

distribution

Charges

of charges

can be deposited

trification,

or by corona

on surfaces

either

by contact
(CD).

ice particles

in clouds,

CD-treated

foils depend

crucially

charge

transfer

poorly

understood.

in metal-metal,

ionic conductivity
microscopy
lution.

charge

Ultimately,

The force

band

may influence

surface

a conductive

also called

triboelec-

as toner

electrical

transfer.

The

particles

switches,

mechanisms

insulator-insulator

specific

transfer

interest.

such

on carpets,
and

structure,

the electron

distribution

single electrons

between

shoes

and industrial

(CE),

objects,

on charge

insulator-metal,

Electronic

scientific

electrification

D i ff erent

electrophotography,
polymer

Forces

is of both

discharge

21

surface

sites

during electrification.

can be measured

and
of the

contacts
(e.g.

are

kinks)
With

with unprecedented

in

or

force

high reso-

are detectable.
tip and a charge

distribution

on an insulating

film

is given by

Fct,arge = a-&
where
charge

qt is the induced

charge

on the tip and

E, the electrical

field.

The

induced

has two contributions:

4t = -(%

+ C.

V)

where

q3 is induced on the tip by the surface charge distribution and the term C. V
originates
from the voltage, V, between the tip and back electrode
with capacitance
C. In addition
to Fcharge, called charge force, the capacitive
force gives a further
contribution

which is given by

= 1/2V2C

F copacrty= I,2F
where C is the capacitance
the capacitance.

between

the electrodes

The total force is then described

and C = dC/dz

by the sum of charge

the derivative

of

and capacitive

force

Ftotal = qtE, + 1/2CV2

In a first approximation,
the first two terms
the

charge

forces,

E, is proportional

are a measure
signal

-(qa + C +V)E, + 1/2CV2

reverses

to the charge

of the charge

51sin&,

the charge

the capacitive
force is found

distribution.

its sign and can be easily

such as van der Waals forces or magnetic

V = r/;,+
whereas

force

contribution
as a dc-signal

forces.

When

(2)

on the sample.
By changing
distinguished
the voltage

can even be measured

and a signal at w.

Therefore,
the polarity,
from

other

is modulated,

separately

at 2w,

22

E. Meyer

(b)

I?

-PI

Figure

7:

Contours

of constant

ent of a negative
on PMMA

charge

by applying

1OOV at a distance
contrast

For a spherical

tip of radius

Ii above

reversed

the

poIarity

which

that

electrostatic

a iiat sample,

deposited
a voltage

by

of

The

changing

demonstrates

forces

of B. Terris

the capacitive

gradi-

of ~100OA.

is

Courtesy

given

force

dominate.

(from

[50]).

force is roughly

by

k:.a,,<,r.,f:, = - m,,Rl+,//
where
on the

z+ff is the effective

a good

this

constant

a slower

cy = 1. The

The
where
example
voltage

z-dependence
force

background,
charge
surface

charges

of corona

constant

z.-l is observed

measurements
[48] with

are involved.

on the magnetic

pulse of % 500V.

The

Localized

Afterwards,

The

capacitive!

local

variations

at z 2

cy between

is on11

1Onm and

forces

12 =:

0.3 to 0.6 rather

used in the field of MFM.

in order

Here,

to provide

to pre\:ent tip crashes.

have been used for characterization

discharge.

E.

R. The above equation

the tip radius

force has been extensively

which is necessary

forces

dielectric

but can be used to measure

IZ. For typical

is superimposed

zeff = zU + h/c depends

tip and sample.

film with
charge,

or to estimate
for z 5

capacitive

electrostatic

constant

of the surface

approximation

10.20nm,
than

between

h of the insulating

thickness

force is independent
of the dielectric

distance

first observation
surface

the charges

charges

in a variety
by Stern

et al.

were deposited

were imaged

of experiments
[49] was an

by applying

in the constant

gradient

Atomic Force Microscopy

mode.

The charge

By changing

the polarity

to the linear
the charge
faster

could be easily distinguished

voltage
peak

than

a reversal

dependence

from topography

of the contrast

on a macroscopic

by varying

was observed,

of the charge

on polymethylmethacrylate

observed

23

which corresponds

force in equation

(2).

(PMMA)

and sapphire

The

of this

scale.

origin

the voltage.

Decay

well

rates

were found

difference

of

to be

is not

yet

understood.
A further

improvement

amounts

of charge

seconds,

the charge

recombination

was achieved

were deposited
force decayed

of single

charge

electrons

move via thermionic

tunneling

and field emission

A study of contact
surfaces,

were found.
voltage,

but

macrosopic
therefore
in force
same

The

emission.

microscopic

that

With

Small
a few

correspond

to the

steps

that

and voltages

subsequent

times.

the

of 2-6 V,

of contacts
contacts

have different

is well understood

contact

For

areas

and

can be ruled out

by force

microscopy,

between

and helps to reveal

time.

with the number

this mechanism

of positioning

the tip

on the applied

contact

increases

the discrepancy

as O.2pm

by touching

to depend

and the

charge

On silicon

as small

were deposited

In contrast,

Hence,

et al. [50].

regions

was found

the transferred

of charge.

by Terris

charged

charges

the high accuracy

several

observations

[48].

1OV. Within

it is concluded

of 2 20nm

spheres,

of the number

the amount

is charged

The
rates

to the surface

it is known that

microscopy.

fashion.

has been performed

transfer

It was suggested

area

of z

the decay

At distances

and polycarbonate

was independent

increase

and Alvarado

pulses

are negligible.

charge

contacts,

of contacts.

From

by 0.3,um polystyrene

On PMMA

to the surface.

by voltage

in a staircase

carriers.

electrification

bombarded

by Schonenberger

on SiaN,

macroscopic

the
and

the origins

of contact

has been

performed

electrification.
Another

example

by Saurenbach
charge

et al.

[51].

force on the tip.

could be observed
The

surfaces

The

Thus,

with electrostatic

polarization
the domain

charges

as implementation

of electrostatic
in vacuum,

or to measure

fundamental

forces

should

currents

studies

microscopes

results
reviews

cause

Gdz(MoO,)a

Some

allow a more systematic

study.

as small

is just
as lo-A

MFM

refinements,

such

To observe

single

are exemplary

oppurtunities

for

with the EFM.

(MFM).

of the intensive

goes beyond
about

materials

of ferroelectric

beginning.

which are specially

netic force microscopes

a good impression

of ferroelectric

wall in a sample

8 Magnetic
Force

forces

by force microscopy.

investigation

electrons
future

of imaging

dedicated

Up t o now about
research

Forces
to magnetic

in this field.

A complete

the scope of this review and the reader

[52, 53, 54).

forces

50 publications

are called

have appeared,
description

is referred

maggiving

of these

to some excellent

24

E. Meyer

investigation

The

of surface
band

of magnetic

magnetism.

structure

but

Domain

On the technological

Optimization

procedures

In order
tip which

to be sensitive

is evaluated

to magnetic

by integrating
=

magnetic
forces,

only

depends

boundaries,
storage

media

the probing

understanding

on spin-dependent

impurities

storage

and surface

are of great

interest.

density.

tip is made of ferromagnetic

field of the sample,

H, causes

a force on the

over the tip volume

of the tip.

by a magnetic

Iwo special

(3)

cases are illustrative:

dipole 7JL which results

(1) The

in a force

ModflIng

8:

(a) Contours

of constant

Corresponding

model

Therefore,

one expects

mode

not

as grain

for the

qqni(;)~
H(F+
qw
JIll

A? is the magnetization

(b)

is important

in order to improve

such as Ni, Fe or Co. The stray

tip is approximated

Figure

such
side,

are sought

R,
where

wall formation

also on features

morphology.

materials,

microstructure

and the second

force gradient

calculation.

to probe

derivative

of bits of a magnetic

Courtesy

the

of D. Rugar

derivative

in the constant

of the

gradient

recording

(from

stray
mode.

media.

(1))

[55]).

field in the equiforcc

Experimentally,

good

Atomic Force Microscopy

agreement

is found

with the dipole

the tip apex but within

pole contributes

approximation

the probing

significantly

25

when the dipole is not positioned

tip [55]. (2) With

a very long tip domain,

In this single-pole

to the force.

on

only one

approximation,

the force

is given by
F,,, = m . H,
where

m is the dipole

images give a direct

measure

to the first derivative

results

numerical

the harder

was found

or analytical

magnetic

field.

of the tip.

For certain
estimates.

integration

that

material.

either

gradient

of equation

case, equiforce

images

are related

a better

agreement

approximation

In order

[54].

to get more

quantitative

(3) has to be performed.

tip or sample

Wall motion

In this

tip geometries

with the single-pole

are only rough

account

length

of the stray field and constant

results

equations

also to take into

per unit

of the stray

to the experimental
The above

moment

magnetization

and reversal

One has

can be distorted

of magnetization

by

were reported

with soft materials.

Most of the first MFM
as magneto-optical
materials
MFM.
ning

have large stray

Compared

electron

Bittern

experiments

recording

out requiring

were performed
or longitudinal

fields which makes

to other

methods

microscopy

technique

media

any sample

them

advantage

well suited

analysis

of MFM

preparation.

(SEMPA),

digital

data

These

such

magnetic

to be characterized

Lorentz

by

microscopy,

electron

lies in its simplicity

Advanced

samples,

media.

such as Kerr microscopy,

with polarization

the main

on technological

recording

scan-

holography

in handling

acquisition

or
with-

allows routine

measurements.
Soft magnetic
be imaged

materials

improvement

could

be made

coatings

which reduces

imaging

of soft magnetic

A quantitative
results

such as Permalloy

by the use of microfabricated

the stray field significantly

materials,

interpretation

could be reproduced

such as Permalloy

by simulations

was then

sample

magnetization

out of the experimental

observed

lateral

resolution

A further

assumed

is typically

improvement

the stray field of superconductors

is to image

based
contrast

on the
and

experiments

Ginzburg-Landau
of topography
which

clearly

data

theory.
appears

demonstrate

accuracy.
small.

The

experimental

In most cases the

A determination

of the
cases to

possible.

At low

by MFM

the measurements

simultaneous

to be one of the most

this capability

The

in special

but still appears

can be sensed

and to compare

magnetic

distortion-free

can not be done unequivocally.

to be difficult

main

thin

At present,

IOOnm and could be improved

appears

vortices

with

to

Some

[53].

to be infinitely

temperatures
purpuse

levers

involved.

with reasonable

wall thickness

are more difficult

and wall motion.

and allows practically

of the data is rather

domain

10nm.

(N i F e ) or Fe whiskers

and the stray field of the tip can cause wall distortion

[56]. Here, the

with calculations

measurement
promising

have been reported

of magnetic
aspects.
already

First
(541.

26

E. Meyer

9 Capillary
AFM
ence

measurements

of vapors,

by thin

films

meniscus

or liquid

is formed

dominated

performed

in particular

condenses

+ l/Q)

The

force

is then

area of the meniscus,

where

tension,

T, ,

derived

~2

by the pres-

are already

and sample.
the sample.

In both

covered
cases

The interaction

the Laplace

and d the tip penetration

capillary

and

pressure

depth

force is given by F,,,,,.

I I I I I

I I I

T/i

the Kelvin

by the contact

1500
Position

into the liquid.

A rough

z 4nRy.

I I I 1

2000
(A)

9:

Force vs. distance

the tip first
approach,
repulsion

curve on a perfluoropolyether

contacts

the liquid

the force remains

forces

to break

a
is

by

are the radii of the meniscus

by multiplying

Z Sample

needed

tip

which is described

1000

Figure

probing

are influenced

the surfaces

A:

of the maximum

30

between

conditions,

Either

draws the tip towards

pressure

is the tip radius

estimate

vapor.

= y/T,<

where y is the surface

radius.

under ambient

by water

which strongly

by the Laplace

p = y(l/r,

Forces

take

over.

surface

constant

until the tip reaches

On retraction

the meniscus.

polymer

and a meniscus

Courtesy

liquid film.

On approach.

is formed.

On continued

the substrate,

of the tip a pull-off

of M. Mate

(from

where ionic

force of 1.2.10~~

[%I).

is

27

Atomic Force Microscopy

For a typical

tip radius

which is large compared

can have drastic
forces

removed.
samples.

SO

single

atom

imaging

The large

The question

arises

immersing

of 1nN are reported

forces.

become

The

additional

in water

of how these

around

the hydrocarbons

of local order is related

Another

instrument
ditions,

these

they

negative

through

the liquid

substrate

aspects

of capillary

the interaction
origin

of

of this

rearrange

bonds.

This

and causes the additional

forces is to incorporate

which

disturb

films.

Force

vs.

thin

the tip is attracted

the solid surface

points

determines

distance

in the noncontact
forces.

provide
The

and repulsive

the thickness

with repulsive

the imaging

by the liquid.

is reached

can be imaged

a systematic

storage

media

applications

AFM

film thickness

measurements

derived

by AFM.
tip which

explanations

might

involve

which cause

a distortion

surface.

the fluorocarbons
than

5000 to 26000)

study

mode.

A substraction

the
conthe

tip then

forces take

of the film.

Alterna-

Afterwards,

the solid

of the two images

The distribution

and ellipsometry
an increase

on the liquid

yields

study
of gyration

[60]. M easurements

Therefore,

entropic

become

compari-

a systematic

offset in

from an additional
film thickness.

probing
which
and

32 to 73A (molar
pressure

less pronounced

tip and liquid

extend

liquid
Other
film

over the mean

XPS demonstrated

with film thicknesses

of the disjoining
effects

between

ellipsometry

between

A detailed

revealed

originates

film or molecules

of AFM,

films on sil-

of these films is of interest

in the measured

forces

lie flat on top of the surface

the radii

data

This offset probably

causes

fluorocarbon

they are used as lubricants.

van der Waals

A combined

on thin polymeric

[58,59].

because

film on the probing

to 5 MPa.

forces

of the film.

for technological

is smaller

soft

Weisenhorn

[57]. Small

molecules

forces,

until

icon and on magnetic

liquid

on very

of hydrogen

of capillary

these

Mate et al. performed

son between

and multiple

The

water

are

with dry nitrogen.

between
surface

or air.

where

of entropy

the liquid

can be imaged

the distribution

where

E.g.,

the network

of capillary

to characterize

The

to the elimination

in vacuum

the presence

imaging.
tip atoms

anymore

at all.

effect,

to optimize

forces

deformation

into liquid

related

to a local decrease

large

force can be avoided.

trivial

than

or a chamber

on approach,

over. The distance

tively,

chamber

can be used

first instability
advances

in order

way to circumvent

in vacuum

Besides

stronger

plastic

completely

to the hydrophobic

increase
forces.

capillary

are not

contact

the outermost

is not possible

in water,

in liquids
is much

that

can also cause

with measurements

force is related

of repulsive

large

the tip and sample

measurements

hydrocarbons

forces

a force of 90nN is calculated

forces of 1-1OnN. These

mechanism

can

occurs.

suggest

van der Waals

on the contrast
region

As a consequence,

tip imaging
et al.

effects

in the contact

R = 1OOnm and 7 = 70mN/m

of

to typical

that

of 15 to 25A which
weights

are between

showed high values

of up

and the conformation

28

E. Meyer

is determined

explains

mainly

Questions
Blackman
three

by the strong

attraction

of the molecules

about

the fluidity

of thin films were adressed

[62].

F rom force

liquid-like

behaviour

et al.

cases:

vs.distance

for Langmuir-Blodgett

films of cadmium
AFM

These

liquid vs. solid breaks

found to describe

systems

Blackman

section,

which arise when probing

For soft
the point

springs,

where

instability

occurs

constant

show that

small dimensions.

in a more adequate

is a sharp

the gradient

m,

this

In contact,
region

the interaction).

long

attractive

range

a part of the attractive

region

are minimized.

contact
zlOON/m
this

The

measurements.

attractive

above

repulsion

with

sharp

originate

region

probing

tips,

from

the

Pauli

exclusion

states

with the same quantum

which

can arise from incomplete

exponential
tal data,
lacking.

repulsive

potentials
such as helium

In

forces

Hard sphere

close analogy

are extremely

models,

minimize

in repulsive
constants

attractive
transition

short

principle

numbers,
screening

of

forces;
from

ranged

which

the

However,

to van der Waals

a physical

at these

and decay

forces,

agreement

derivation

the equiforce

prevents

and from Coulombic

small

within

power laws of the form V(Z) = (o-/z),

V( 2) = C exp (- z /0 ) are in reasonable

scattering.

Close

region is observed.

between
These

case

the

the contact

on

spring

of

forces,

By retracting

common

which

from occupying

tances.

are in

to the range

acting

and a continuous

repulsion

an angstrom.

surfaces

by the lever deflection.

most

where

by the repulsive

is to use hard

an

and

and sum up over

is related

the forces

is the

approach

constant,
forces

is the approximate

and can cause damage.

back,

At

z of ZlOnm

are still present

electrons

nuclei

the spring

when the liquid

of this

the instability

contact

forces

forces

description

alternative

the forces

and non-contact.

and R=lOOnm

occurs

the lever snaps

can circumvent

to the repulsive

Ionic

equals

forces can be compensated

An

in combination

arrangement

contact

have to be equilibrated

sample,

where

of

have to be

Here, we describe

at a distance

constant,

large local stress on the tip and sample

instability,

per-

concept

approaches

For van der Waals

occurs

causing

to the second

forces

diameter

forces

for bonded

Forces

between

the instability

the

behaviour

the classical

Different

contact.

instability

of the tip (the

The

into

A is the Hamaker
forces

solid-like

are in contact.

transition

snaps

et al. [Sl] and

way.

are treated.

of the long-range

and the lever

For capillary

large

forces

tip and sample

of O.lN/m,

proximity.

a rather

long-range

there

A. R/z=O.lN/

tip radius.
close

which

et al. could distinguish

and intermediate

actually

10 Ionic Repulsion
In the previous

by Burnham

perfluoropolyether,

arachidate,

measurements

down at these

these

curves,

for unbound

fluoropolyether.

spring
ar
;,, =

to the substrate

the small film thickness.

dis-

tenths

of

n > 9, and

to experimen-

of these potentials

scan lines are interpreted

is

29

Atomic Force Microscopy

as topography
the contact

of the sample.
measurements

these high resolution

cal calculations
calculations
dynamics

images

that

treat

is rather

on empirical

potentials

is referred

these calculations
The

images

Repulsion

broken

to the original

are briefly

equiforce

density.

should

and single atom imaging

of atoms

is found

tips on metallic

samples,

continuum

theory

local elasticity
starts.

interpreted

be limited

strong

Finally,

some theoretical

are operative

but

treatments,
out of

total

otherwise,

charge

bonds

are

[66, 641. Not only the repulsion

are predicted

is found

[64]. For metallic

which can lead to wetting

tip [67]. For the case of layered

with ab initio calculations

of

materials,

[68]. The observation

of

as well as an upper limit of forces before destruction

papers

also lateral

[65] have been

of constant

to lo-N;

anymore

adhesion

and/or

has been combined

A6 initio

which can be drawn

as contours

(physisorption)

metallic

by AFM is predicted,

terms

of these theoretical

to lo-

is not possible

of the sample

mechani-

[63, 641 and molecular

many-body

Conclusions

of

below:

but also weak bonds

the tip and destruction

include

quantum

as an entirety.

equations

description

literature.

summarized

are loosely

forces

that

imaging,

The interpretation

complex

tip and sample

Kohn-Sham

For a detailed

van der Waals

resolution.

and requires

of probing

mechanical

to the case of AFM.

the reader

to the non-contact

higher lateral

difficult

the system

based on quantum
based

adapted

In comparison

have achieved

forces

clearly show that not only normal

can

arise,

described

in more

forces [65, 691

detail

in the

next

section.
The amount

of experimental

and can be found

in different

Therefore,
recent

a complete

reviews

discussion

areas,

summary

to some selected

The first applications

such as graphite

the

imaging

chemistry

reader

[70, 711. In all these

in agreement

rather

high forces of up to lo-N

the contact

The fact that

the suggestion

closely

could

region

layers

of the sample

contrast

on an atomic
plane

scale.

[lo].

of

resolution

of

lattice

hundred

metal

was observed

and still atomic-scale

require
atoms.

and

materials

features

were

a monatomic
The atomic-

between

sample

and

forces.

were restricted
are sheared

to layered
against

In th e next stage of AFM

The easy shear

and therefore

capabilities

On these layered

degree of commensurability

to frictional

to some

we will restrict

[6] and transition

do not necessarily

can be as large as several

related

or metrology.

to the atomic

nitride

is huge

is referred

the resolution

the atomic

be applied

that these features

the first applications

that

yield the observed

with the image

experiments

likely arise from a certain

tip and are often

demonstrate

to the bulk values were found.

which demonstrates

scale features

that

of AFM were dedicated

spacings

resolved

physics,

and

[3, 11, 12, 131, mica [20], boron

dichalcogenides

tip but that

intended

applications

lattice
observed

such as biology,

is not

contact

which cover part of this work [4]. In th e f 0 11owing section

the microscope.
samples

work in the field of repulsive

the shearing

plane

of these

mechanism

materials

each other
studies,
crystals

led also to
which

ionic crystals
is not

should
were

coincident

could be ruled out in these

E. Meyer

30

experiments.
AgBr

observed.
spacing
that

Alkali

halides,

[74] were investigated

The

distances

between
[75].

comparable

could

or point

were found

both

ions

senses

be imaged

were found

the larger

4.1A,

to be in agreement

on an atomic

were

with the

of ionic radii, it was concluded

anions

leaving

I n some cases

on an atomic

such as

respectively,

the smaller

where the ionic radii of anion

[18].

could be resolved

which were resolved

[73], and silverhalides,

of 2.8A, 4.0Aand

From a comparison

ions.

Only in the case of KBr

defects

[72] and LiF

protrusions

charged

tip predominantly

undetected
steps

between

equally

the probing

such as NaCl

and square lattices

aperiodic

scale.

On KBr,

cations

and cation
features

are

such as

monatomic

steps

scale [18].

(b)

Figure

10:

AFM

measurement

steps

can

on AgBr(OO1)

be seen

(50Ox500nm)

and

ability

on organic
ported

systems

to image

such

molecular

lower than

the best

limitations

might

defects

atomic

be:

(1)

emerges

ions (from

single

point

resolution
Probing

etched

STM

metal

der Waals

forces,

which

increase

which are present

tips.

films

of defects
(2)

of the

are separated

[76] and

image

by 0.41nm

observed

range

by STM.
less sharp

forces,

such

in the repulsive

in most of the experiments

polymers

The quality

are typically

Long

the stress

(a) Monatomic

is still controversial.

molecules.

tips which

middle

[74]).

defects

and isolated

mode.

in the

The protrusions

as Langmuir-Blodgett

chemically

ambient

image.

to the bromine

of AFM

isolated

taminations,

dislocation

(b) High resolution

and are attributed

The

p er f ormed in the contact

a screw

Experiments
[77] have

Reasons
than

for these

the electro-

as capillary

contact

re

of the data is still

region.

and
(3)

which were performed

van
Con

under

conditions.

Experiments

which

are performed

under

well-defined

conditions,

such as UILV,

on

Atomic Force Microscopy

highly

detailed

about

the resolution

strated

itself

limits

Silver
graphic

difficult
halides

have unique

properties

that

charging

to a lateral
exposure
AFM
results

damage

of the growth

such as step heights,

of 4.1A.
before,
AgBr(ll1)

These

measurements

only one atomic

showed

superstructure

observed

screw

practically

both

support

species,

analytical

the

atomic

is probably

by the decoration

height

lattice

related

technique.

bromide

(2.9A)

has yielded

Fig.

are resolved

in regions

of

spacing

As mentioned

Measurements
of 608,

of the surface,
experiments

some

and yield new

and a superstructure
AFM

[74]. In

confirm

with a lattice
surface.

in

radiation

10 shows an

resolution

1x1

is limited

information

results

ions, is observed.

detailed

by

without

and orientation,

to a reconstruction
More

are hindered

this method

The AFM

is achieved

of 4.2A

to

decoration

methods.

and enhanced

resolution

are believed

no quantitative

an unreconstructed

the larger

play an important

these surfaces

emerges.

dislocations
atomic

provide

silver, no alternatives

or LEED,

However,

such as step structure

On the terraces

that

silver clusters.

of imaging

w h ere steps of monatomic

demon-

for the photo-

kink sites and jogs

Only noble metal

hill a screw dislocation

technique,

expensive

of silver halides.

of some of the conventional

of AgBr(OO1)

has already

applications

such as RHEED

and provides

statements

on the nm-scale.

them indispensable

forming

and photolysis.

offers the oppurtunity

, a drawback

high step density.

Charged

clear

techniques.

in replacing

techniques,

of 50-10081

AFM

of the decoration

results,

image.

the step structure

AFM

of silver halides in particular

and silver interstitials,

resolution

image

the center

The

of the latent

beam

about

interest

properties

by conventional

effects,

the z-direction.

a financial

sensitive
render

yield

results

on some selected

surface

photoelectrons

information

Nevertheless,
accurate

by other

The surface

Investigations

imaging.

useful by giving

we focus our attention

role in the formation

attract

will hopefully

to obtain

Despite

process.

have been found.

as %(111)7x7,

of contact

to be extremely

In the next section,

information

such

structures,

31

on
[78].

previously

in UHV

may

32

E. Meyer

render

more

crystals

exacting

details

are performed

and epitaxially
Further

grown films

experiments

deformable.
again

by the rapid

surface

diffusion

of magnitude

into the surface.

coefficient
than

The study
been

extended

growth

emulsions.

by AFM

hills and the superstructure

the technique

are encountered

on top

of the

surface

and

ions.

From

T-grains

can not
that

Micrometer-sized

[82]. In this study

be imaged

correctly

from

mobile

and easily

to the tip small

these
these

holes are refilled

measurements

This

the

3-4 orders

high ionic mobility

grown films of AgBr

tabular

grains

some fine details,

on the (111)-f acets

originates

[80]

image.

and epitaxially

are resolved.

as well. The steep side-walls

tip geometry

faces

which is about

of gold [Sl].

of the latent

of single crystals

to photographic

have been characterized

is rather

to be 9.10-cm/sec
coefficient

in the formation

of the surfaces

of inorganic

Cleavage

a small z-modulation

On a time scale of minutes

is estimated

studies

and SrF2.

by AFM.

of silver and bromide

the diffusion

is one of the key properties

Similar

BaF2,

have shown that the surface

the force and applying

diffusion

larger

reconstruction.

such as CaFT,

[79] are characterized

on AgBr

By increasing

holes can be drilled

of the surface

on fluorides,

due to the

(T-grains)

such as nm-sized

Some limitations

of T-grains

the limited

has

convolution

aspect

ratio

between

of the probing

tip.

(W

Figure

12:

(a) AFM
bilayer
film.

image

height
The

of a 3500x3500

are visible

spacing

to the intermolecular

(from

between

nmL area of a 4-layer

[81]).(b)

5.3x5.1

the protrusions

distances

(from

1851).

Cd-arachidate

nmZ area of a 4-layer

is about

0.5nm

which

of

and some details

film.

Steps

of

Cd-arachidate
correponds

well

Atomic Force Microscopy

Generally,
are rather

rough

surfaces

difficult

the experimental
artifacts

to image
data

films,

such

films

are easily

and AFM

air-exposed

surface

Therefore,

disturbed
Furthermore,
LB-films,
phase

forces.

allowing

of AFM

defects

difficult

and

analysis

of

to exclude

tip

step

organic

to the silver

halides,

Therefore,
~10-~N.

become

structure

the

and are not

resolution

has been

5A spacing

has been

technique

The films

free of a water

possible

molecular

with

Fortunately,

of approximately

conditions.

studies

observed

[85].

[76].

In

for the characterization

Fundamental

questions

of

such as

of mixed films (1011 can now be adressed.

on organic

parameters

crystals

or step

from the bulk-terminated

and the reader

ratio

are ultra-thin

and practically

mode,

a lattice

of transfer

is energetically

Careful

to be performed.

pressure

an established

separation

studies

as lattice

a reconstruction
detail

showing

optimization
or phase

such

beam.

with forces below

at ambient

has become

cases even deviations

in great

and rather

In the topography

molecular

AFM

A number

In close analogy

films.

by an electron

of most of the films is hydrophobic

some

transitions

properties

(LB)

destroyed

on films of Cd-arachidate

[83].

are required

to AFM imaging

AFM-measurements

the meantime,

microscopes

high aspect

of these surfaces.

has to be performed

by capillary

achieved

probe

with

are amenable

[84] are rare

such as LEED

and features

of the tip geometry

images

that

as Langmuir-Blodgett

are fragile
film.

credible

class of materials

the organic
methods

by scanning

and optimization

and to achieve

Another

with large gradients

33

surfaces

more favorable.
is again

[87, 881 have been

structure

referred

were found

Biological
to other

performed

were determined.

[89], indicating

materials

reviews

where

In certain
that

have been studied

[go].

11 Frictional Forces
When
parison

the probing
to macroscopic

significant
sliding
and

tip slides

is performed

lateral

point.

friction

advantages:

On the other

force, speed
simultaneously

is not very accurate

to find relative
Microscopes
simultaneously,
force

microscopes

mode,

regulating

different

designs

variations

separately,
(LFM).

At present

numbers

from

but is extremely

forces

point

the exact

controlled.

The
to

contact

Therefore,
sensitive

on a local scale.

with the capability

but

to give absolute

has some

asperity;

and the normal

are compared

is not completely

In com-

friction

one single

and direction;
and

can arise.

to measure

there are also some restrictions:

and the tip geometry

forces

to essentially

controlled

hand,

frictional

use of AFM

is reduced

can be measured

zone is not well known

the technique

the surface,

experiments,

The contact
under

forces

along

U sually

with constant

of measuring

are called

friction

both topography

the measurements

normal

have been introduced:

and friction

force microscopes
are performed

force, and the lateral

(FFM)

channels
or lateral

in the equiforce

forces are digitized.

Two

E. Meyer

34

(1) Two separate

deflection

two signals

give a direct

Cantilevers

with

As deflection
tunneling

(2) Laser

beam

The

is used.

proportional

of the lateral

or spherical

optical

cross

interferometry

deflection

perpendicular

and normal
sections

to each other.

deflections

are best

\91], capacitance

difference

where

between

spring

segments

constant

G is the shear

of the cantilever.

long tips and small

(C-D)

forces,

The

of the cantilever.

suited

for this method.

methods

[32] and electron

to measure
detector,

from

upper

whereas

torsion

segments
between

to torsion,

is

forces.

of the tip and 1 the

with rather

long cantilevers

with

thickness.

17

= 25CXIN/m

t,

.,

13:

Frictional

force between

tip and a graphite

tion

of sample

different

.-\

,,.,,,;-__
./,, _,, ,,
:

(
5 ;-

,\

\- //;

-c__
r

_.p_L_L_-I
pd~d-_~.
LagA
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0

-10.0

(A-B)

is given by

Figure

-5.0

diode

the signal

i.e., to lateral

T the length

is achieved

and torsiorl
photo

and lower

cantilever

d the thickness,

modulus,
Maximum

both bending

a four segment

the difference

is proportional

for a rectangular

WIRE SPRUKi CONSTANT

I,

sensitive

the signal

i.e., to normal

to bending,

torsion

can be easily adapted

[30, 311. A s a position

from the left and right

length

are positioned

[93] have been implemented.

of the cantilever

The

measure

quadratic

sensors,

sensors

SAMPLE

POSITION (iii

20
40

loads.

a tungsten

surface
position

The circled

(c) indicate

double

of RI. Mate

(from

slips.
i95]).

as a funcfor

three

parts in
Courtesy

35

Atomic Force Microscopy

Typically,
to lO-N

normal

forces between

are measured.

With

specially

constants

of O.OOlN/ m and torsion

as IO-N

can be measured

surface

energy.

Otherwise,

[loll.

10V7 to lO-N
designed

spring

and frictional
Si-cantilevers

constants

of 1-O.lN/m,

forces between
having

normal

lateral

forces as small

H owever, these levers are limited

they stick to the surface

and regular

10-s

to surfaces

scanning

spring
with low

is not possible

anymore.

(a)

Figure 14:
FFM measurements
displayed
(a) Double

on Langmuir-Blodgett

and on the right

bilayer

the friction

fil m of Cd-arachidate

responding
friction force map showing
to the organic film.

films.

On the left the topography

is

force map.
(2x2ym)
increased

showing
friction

bilayer

steps.

on the substrate

(c) Bilayer film of Cd-arachidate

(2x2,u.m). (d) C orresponding
An arrowhead-shaped
structure
is observable.
The structure
material
inhomogenity
(from [98]).

(b) Corcompared

friction force map.

is interpreted
as a

E. Meyer

36
The

origins

electronic

of friction

excitations

surface

atoms

are moved

Then,

the stored

occur.

Recently

influence

on a microscopic

are likely

elastic

out of their
energy

arise

when

distance

constant.

curve

hysteresis
depend

normal

on the properties

the spring
yield

constant.

maximum

[69] and silicon

suitable

[92] offering
The

a tungsten

graphite

surface

a low friction

slip was observed

single

as mica

[20] and MoS2

Technological
characterized
Further
topography
step.

magnetic
progress

have

been

between

spring

The

onset

and 5.1O-N

scale features
The

Forces,

that

some
on

appear
atoms

lateral

to the load and

of atomic~scale

stick

for a 250N!m

spring,

of the cantilever.

diameter

to a certain

forces

of the underlying

were observed.

contact

were found

topography,
lubricated

was made by incorporating

[31] d emonstrated
They

Loads

At these

was estimated

of

high
to be

degree of commensurabil-

on other

layered

process

at steps

materilas

friction

et al.

such

lateral

measurements

Neubauer

et al.

Thev

(ullv).

of friction

forces on scanning
such a step.

The,

discs.

into ultra high vacuum

bv traversing
tip on gold.

1971. They

and local adhesion.

and unlubricated

the FFM

is unknown.

of load with an iridium

by Kaneko

siniultaneous

f ound increased

of up to 5OeV were deposited

as a function

soft springs

calculations

periodicity

demonstrated

discs by measuring

differences

on NaCl( 100).

of this dissipative
loops

but also on

such as a Pd-tip

showed

from instabilities

were related
results

The

[96].

and N. Amer

Energies

Similar

applications

characteristic

G. Meyer

scale features

tip and sample.

Repulsion

to be proportional

was detcrrnined.

can be excluded.

load,

whereas

dynamics

microscope

kverc found

f or a 155N/m

points.

vs.

does not only

of up to a few thousand

vary with the atomic

of 0.01

critical

for systems

or tor-

in the force

friction

is expected,

oc-

experiments.

with a force

and still atomic

imaging

zzlOOA and the atomic

ity between

large systems

the stick slip originates

were applied
atom

Th e molecular

Tl rc 1a t era1 forces

at 2.1O-N

that

up to lo-N

[65].

AFM

at these

Ionic

constant

occur

and the applied

friction

in the section

of simulating
of friction

coefficient

surfaces

reduced

can

The instabilites

spring

which

this model,

rather

tip and graphite

[95].

force

demonstrating

found

on silicon

the possibility

between

Within

have been performed

for treating

first observation

the lateral

processes

the instability

is unstable.

the lever jumps

dependence.

As mentioned

graphite

to particularly

direction,

calculations

itself

occurs.

can have significant

For soft cantilevers

force equals

of the contacting

friction.

mechanical

constant

or

tip or

until an instability

to the instabilities

For hard springs,

quantum

loads

of the lateral

a scan-direction

[94].

Phonons
Either

time and dissipative

the spring

but the spring

In close analogy

in the

causes

forces

understood.

of instabilities.

positions

in a short

ShoWn that

interface,

the derivative

are poorly

equilibrium

the size of the frictional

on

scale

by a sequence

is released

it also has been

curs not at the tip-surface

sion spring

created

and

up an atomic

The exact

[32] measured

found a. strong

origin
friction

hysteresis

Atomic Force Microscopy

of friction

on loading

while on unloading
interface,

e.g.

Fig.

tinguished:

above

on the substrate.

This

differences

in friction

Interestingly,

these

of the tip-surface

tribological

experiments

f orces

bilayer

of Cd-arachidate

scan area where three different

regions

corresponds

below

is to investi-

wearless

to the substrate,

forces

clearly
scale.

are found.

Between

that

inhomogenieties

than

Langmuir-Blodgett
bilayer

only

films some inhomogenieties

of the material

are observed

can be dis-

smaller

the first and second

Only on the bilayer

to local variations

the

is

to two bilayers.

are found to be ten times

demonstrates

friction

the intermediate

and the high level corresponds

on a microscopic

which are related

to a change

of 1.0 is found

of new bonds.

Single and double

With

the frictional

observation

coefficient

lOnN,

the substrate

regions

films act as lubricants

are observed

was related

films.

[98, 991.

14a/b shows a 2x2pm2

On the film covered

14c/d)

by FFM

a friction

or formation

the lowest level in topography

level is one bilayer

minor

hysteresis

of atoms

of Langmuir-Blodgett

investigated

observed.

This

way for doing well characterized

gate multilayers
have been

it is 0.4.

rearrangement

An alternate

On loading

and unloading.

37

composition.

(cf.

only in the friction

Fig.

force map

but not in the topography.

Figure

15:

(a) Topography
drocarbon
component

of a LB-bilayer

carboxylates.

The

prepared
circular

and the surrounding

Holes in the hydrocarbon

are 5nm deep and reveal

the substrate.

Overney.

(from

[loo]).

low friction
friction

on the hydrocarbons,

on the silicon

and hy-

to the hydrocarbon
component

islands

and highest

of fluorocarbon

are assigned

flat film to the fluorinated

(b) Th e f ric
. tion f orce map indicates
on the fluorocarbons

from a mixture

domains

substrate.

(5

x 5pm).

intermediate
Courtesy

of R.

E. Meyer

38

Figure

16:
Friction

(a)
loop

of a LB-monolayer

pared

from

orocarbon

and

carboxylates.
tween

of flu-

hydrocarbon
The

friction

ratio

on

is 4 : 1

[loll).

4000

2000

be-

fluorocar-

bon to hydrocarbon
(from

pre-

a mixture

YinIll)

The
mixed

ability

of FFM

to give material-specific

films of arachidic

[loo,

15 are assigned

while

fluorinated
forces

to hydrocarbons

molecules.

(PTFE)

a better

Local

scratch

experiments

hydrocarbons.

Therefore,

because

observations

ferent

experiments

materials

demonstrate

and identifies

Similar

of friction

to the concept

the tunneling
lated
lock-in

regime

amplifier

(with

carboxylic

domains
regions

than

the knowledge

the fluorocarbons

ether

shown

in Fig.

16, the

from

frictional

on the hydrocarbons.
of compounds

such as

for the fluorinated

are more robust

parts.
than

the

display good lubricating

with intermediate

friction.

Similar

[lOa].

the potential
and friction

of force microscopy

in the field of

force maps distinguishes

The combination

and elasticity

between

dif-

with local scratch

may give further

information

and wear.

and Plastic

AFM measurements

can be operated

combined

Deformations

STiV/AFRI)

either

can be combined
in the contact

signal is proportional

with elasticity

mode

[25j while the sample

A or tenths of A and a few kIfz. The modulated

and the output

on

are formed

loop in Fig.

is expected

to rupture

of adhesion

of FFM,

The microscope

with typically

From

local inhomogenieties.

12 Elastic
measurements.

resistance

of topography

fluorinated

that the fluorocarbons

made by SFA

and measurements

the origins

that

shown

demonstrated

flat

of 4 larger

performance

it is concluded

they combine

Comparison

experiments
to reveal

have

surrounding

a factor

is surprising.

tribological

were previously

The above
tribology.

the

is further

Tl re 1ri gl I circular

by the friction

are about

this observation

teflon

properties

1011.

As represented

on the fluorocarbons

At first sight

and partially

acid (CrsJHssCOOH)

acid (CsFr~C~H,-O-C2H_ICOOH)

contrast

[103] or in

or tip is modu-

signa.

is fed into a

to the slope of the corresponding

Atomic Force Microscopy

force law, which
demonstrated
gold [104].

is called

the concept

theoretical
mechanics,

atoms

and regions

is adequate

sit in the first

repulsive

already

at low forces

should

contact

forces,
First,

These

experiments

layer-by-layer

can be removed

ies investigate

inter-

more, the interaction

rocarbons,
fluorocarbons
The

The authors

expect

study

frictional

force.
SFA-

can also yield ab-

[106, 811. Systematic

A ranking

that

the interaction

between

heads.

Further-

Si-substrate

films of hydrocarbons

are more easily

stud-

of interactions

and flue-

ruptured

density

that

a minimum
The

than

the

technology.

The

The

experiments

displaced

amplitude

non-invasive

to lo-sN

suggest

and static
where

diameter

force.

of 2-3nm

of AFM
that

can be achieved

in the repulsive

previous

scratching

molecular

has been performed

and applying

a modulation

in a controlled

contact

resolution

material

is moved

as a function
Afterwards,

the fraction

better

than

disc a

the current

to the side and compressed.

of scan speed,
the surface

of elastic

on polymers

of a few kHz to

way. On a compact

is an order of magnitude

polymeric

et al.

An estimate

tip imaging.

is patterned
which

are performed

force,

contact

authors

by Weihs

and adhesion.

with the Johnson-Kendall-Roberts-

the resolution

to multiple

sample

hardness

by comparison

of nanometer-scale

is demonstrated

has been performed

modulus,

which limits

the force

the tip, a polycarbonate

a lower,

entirety.

with previous

the hydrophylic

mixed

on LB-multilayers

soft materials.

By increasing

modulation

showing
between

[81]. 0

Youngs

[85, 761 is attributed

A systematic

scratch

in their

films is determined

the load and scan speed,

of these films.

the hydrocarbons

is provided

deformation

mode on these
on LB-films

write

that

determine

diameter

due to plastic

[108].

increasing

plastically.

tails of the first layer and the hydrophobized

of nanoindentations
authors

of the contact
model.

rigidity)

[ 1001.

A study
[107].

are removed

is revealed

interactions

interaction

it has been found

the

of wear are found

that the instruments

of Cd-arachidate,

between

where

to deform

and the measured

By further

tails is weaker than the interaction

is found to be the strongest

graphite,

flexural

stages

films, in agreement

until the substrate

and intralayer

the initial

island

demonstrate

accuracy.

has been made for multilayers

to reduced

small islands

the area of the sheared

with reasonable

on

were combined

regions

of the Langmuir-Blodgett

are found for Cd-arachidate

measurements.

between

or tip starts

above,

by taking

hydrophobic

distinguish

the sample

the shear strength

solute numbers

such as hydrocarbons

scale [68, 1051. The authors

(corresponding

films mentioned

of 10m8N [98].

into account

have

are absent.

Under these conditions

Values of lI0.2MPa

experiments

that in the case of intercalated

even on an atomic

gallery

where the intercalants

higher

First

ab initio calculations

where

measurements

For the Langmuir-Blodgett

compliance.

is able to find local impurities,

have demonstrated

the elasticity

intercalated

or local

investigations,

of local elasticity

that

With

elasticity

that the technique

Some

with continuum
predict

local

39

sliding

direction,

is characterized

and plastic

deformation

with
can

E. Meyer

40
be determined.
the AFM
by Mamin

et al.

polymer.
Again,

Such experiments

with a pulsed

laser,

[log].

The

laser

The basic limitation

further

ticated.

few years,

Systems

ond regime
complicated
standard

already

two-body

theoretical

manybody

terms.

(e.g.

gold)

force

vs.

[67].

atoms

empirical
[ill],

melts

scales

more

the

sophis-

in the nanosec-

become

more

and more

are the Lennard-Jones

[llO],

which has a three-body

term

Nanoindentations

a metallic

are compared

and time

[112], which is dedicated

At oms move from the surface

curves

achieved

of the cantilever.

have become

potentials

Examples

atom

on on metals.

of a neck between

distance

By combining

have been

tip and locally

calculations

Stillinger-Weber

and imbedded

work is focussed

on the probing

thousand
The

potential,

ting and formation

(X kHz)

is given only by the inertia

dynamics

be treated.

for silicon,

on the nm-scale.

could yield an improvement.

molecular

and include

is well-suited

is focused

of up to a hundred

can

plasticity

of the method

miniaturization

In the past

investigate

very high write frequencies

nickel)

curves

The

showing

and a metallic

to the tip and vice versa.

with the simulated

and

to metals.

are simulated,

tip (e.g.

the

wet-

sample

Experimental

and agreement

has

been found.
In this
different
type

context,

experimental

sample

yields

the

relationship
experimental
A detailed
formed

serve that

a diamond

are pushed

These

calculations

distribution

the

metallic

work,

transition
surfaces

also

a cantileverin UHV?

point

where

has been
to point

contact.

a universal

predicted

tip is expected

of plastic

[113].

[ 1141. Both

contact

deformations

dynamics

or silver does not produce

demonstrated

agreement

to the

use a

with clean

process.

mechanisms

positions

They

performed

calculations

from the metallic

using molecular

interstitial

have

is in good

and

[16].

tip approaches

This

mechanical

irreversible

of the

tip on copper

into

a STM

work show that the transition

and coworkers,

atoms

between
of atoms

is a highly

investigation

by Belak

adhesion

energy

and theoretical

tip and sample

forces:

with quantum

an avalanche

has to be mentioned

tip and sample.

metallic

of the binding

et al.

to measure

between

is found

At close separations,
metallic

forces
about

agreement

of Diirig

approach

sensing

information

Excellent

work

or are sheared
that

[92].

dislocations.

per-

They

ob-

The metallic

to the side wall of the tip.

for a nm-sized

with the Hertzian

has been

calculations

tip,

the elastic

strain

theory.

13 Conclusions
A rich variety
van der Waals

of forces

forces

produce

repulsion

forces

is 10nm.

In the contact

the atomic

can be sensed

provide

images

by force microscopy.

of topography
Typical

this information.
mode nm-resolution

scale under best conditions.

whereas
resolution

is common

Some restrictions

In the non-contact
in the contact

mode,

mode,

of van der Waals

and can be improved

ionic

imaging
down to

have to be made for extremely

Atomic Force Microscopy

soft samples,

such as biological

limit

the

resolution

other

forces,

such

ferromagnetic
contrast.
ionic

to tens

as electrostatic

domains,

and

Measurements

repulsion

without

changing

increase

heights

lations

heights,

about

clearly

demonstrated

Blodgett

films,

material-specific

attractive

because
to apply

mechanisms
With

higher

forces,

about

the initial

stages

detail

on metals.

Significant

favourable

scale.

material

by contact

around

on an atomic

of the original

to cor-

dynamics

tip can withstand.

simu-

The analysis
AFM

of

work (large
ques-

of wearless

In some experiments

friction

on Langmuir-

The method

it is necessary

is observed

Deformation

appears

to be

inhomogenieties.

to ascertain

which

the

basic

gives some information

mechanisms

have been

transport

between

tip and sample

Therefore,

clean

AFM.

However,

instruments

or Langmuir-Blodgett

the material

the
forces

agreement

and finds local material

routinely,

metals

in great

are calculated

to be rather

un-

work in UHV is still

constructed.

Nanometer-sized

films.

studied

appear

experimental

are now being

AFM can be a useful tool in lithography.

melts

because

A).

AFM imaging

and molecular

has been found.

deformation

of wear.

rare and the first operational

into polymers

the

processes.

simulations.

for imaging

from

but it has also raised a lot of fundamental

more

plastic

dynamics

forces

can influence
forces

Up to now, the phenomenon

topography

method

mode,

the attractive

give reasonable

of the phenomena

contrast

of the dissipative

by molecular

models

on an atomic

it goes beyond
this

less than

Ab initio calculations

images..)

films

by these

of contact

often

non-contact

magnetic

liquid

compensate

(typically

hard sphere

of friction.

has been

charges,

thin

deformations

In the

are less affected

mechanisms

many

distorted

the origins

In order

surface

from

of forces which a monatomic

forces has explained

corrugation
tions

Simple

and plastic

mode.

and can easily

drastically

on ionic crystals.
limits

from

mode

of the contrast

yield upper

frictional

contact

forces

steeply

the z-position

scale is still in its infancy.

where elastic

forces

capillary

in contact

forces

An understanding
rugation

materials,
of nm in the

41

patterns

In combination

with

can be scratched

a pulsed

the tip, high rates of up to a few hundreds

laser,

which

of kHz have been

achieved.
The field of nanomechanics
nomena:

e.g., observation

prediction
tions

of plastic

theory.

Experiments
under

capability

quite

at low forces,
Lubrication

with

optimal

conditions

of the microscopes

generation

agreement

or magnetic
10nm.

dynamics,

Other

models:

investiga-

e.g., elastic

de-

agrees well with Hertzian

on the microscopic

scale by FFM.

forces have been found

to be in agree-

modes is typically

first experiments

and were dedicated

phe-

and theoretical

of dislocations.

in these non-contact
These

unexpected

on graphite

with classical

with molecular

The resolution

some interesting,

coefficients

films is also observed

electrostatic

theory.

revealed

friction

without
good

calculated

by thin

ment with classical

and,

deformation

have demonstrated

formation

has already

of ultra-low

to more applied

just

demonstrated

questions,

1OOnm
the

e.g., mag-

42

E. Meyer

netic
the

storage
great

charge

technology.

potential

of the

dissipation

forces

offers

Waals

friction

scratch
out.

world,

which

with

the

words

regime
and
on

to the macroscopic

is governed
the

on

the

way

by different

nanometer

of Richard

the

the

Theres

of van der Waals

to nonretarded
work

plenty

of van der
forces.

we have

just

started

now WC are curious

and

quantum

or higher

prediction

t.hcoretical

are to br expected

Feynman:

the regime

we expect

demonstrated

carriers

of retarded

surface

world

laws,

scale

Finally,

have

charge

the theoretical

e.g.

experimental

in a gentle

experiments
of single

values.

questions:

from

all the

knock

fundamental
observation

to macroscopic

transition

with

Compared

experiments

e.g.

of unresolved

or the

and

comes

some

compared

a variety

To conclude,
to

However,
technique:

to discover

a rather

mechanics.

Many

in the

years.

of room

next

what

different

fundamental
Or to say it

at the bottom

[IIs]:

14 Acknowledgments
J. Frommer,
Rudin

are

tribology

group

B. Terris,
by the

R. Overney,

acknowledged

Swiss

of force
in 1992.

of the

University

D. Rugar,

M.

National

senschaftlichen

R. Liithi,

for

Science

of Dr.

scientific

I-I. Haefke,

discussions

of Basel.

Mate

Forschung.

microscopy
The

L. Howald,

for stimulating

and

It is also

providing

Foundation

and

the

Komission

Martin

Nonnenmacher
with

who

him

to thank

This

like to cite the outstanding

lost

Giintherodt

work

zur

died

under

tragic

Wolter,

supported

Forderung

young

H.

in the

0.

was

der

contributions

a promising

and

collaboration

a pleasure

illustrations.

I would

community

H.-J.

excellent

wis-

to the field
circumstances

scientist.

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