Aquatic

Terrestria
l

Ecosystem

- An assemblage of living and non-

living elements contained within a

boundary such that these elements
have functional relationships with
each other and can maintain the
flow of energy and complete the
chemical cycle.

Ecosystem
system (system ecology) collection of
interdependent parts functioning as a whole
> as

Open

(energy and matter freely pass through a

boundary)
Closed ( energy freely passes through but not
matter)
OPEN

CLOSED

Energy

earth

ecosystem

Ecosystem
STRUCTURE

FUNCTION

Plant size

Food chains and food webs

Species diversity

Nutrient cycling

Trophic Structure

Energy use

Ecological niches
Community Organization

Structure - refers to how the components or

parts are organized and the way they fit
together or relate to each other to make a
whole

Levels of Biological Organization

Communities

Ecosystem

Population

Energy

Population system

Organisms

Organism System

Organs

Organ System

Tissues

Tissue System

Cells

Matters

Ecosystems

Communities

Cell System

Genes

Genetic System

Biotic components + Abiotic Components

Biosphere

= Biological systems

Populations

Organisms

The Principle of Integrative Level or

The Principle of Hierarchical Control
States that as the components combine and integrate to produce
larger functional whole in a hierarchical series, new properties
emerge. Thus, as one move from organisms system to population
system to community system, new properties are attributed.
Organisms may compete or cooperate to increase chances of
survival.
As one level move to another level, new attributes emerge
then components combine together to form a system.
Ex.

H2O =
New character

2H+ O
distinct character

* The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Components of Ecosystem
1. According to standpoint of Trophic Level

nourishment

Autotrophic
Related to components in which activity is photosynthesis
the production of organic matter from simple & drawn from
the surrounding & build into a complex organic material.
In photosynthesis,
CO2 + H2O + Energy from Light
CO2 + H2O + Eight + Carbohydrates/Sugar
Heterotrophic
Transformation of primary products to secondary products
from the plants.
- rearrangement of synthesis.

- decomposition is included.
- animals, micro-organism and other user of plants.
Heteroptrophs are predators.
Biophages

animals
animals/plants/other organisms.

consume

other

Saprophages refers to heterotrophics feeds on dead

organic matters.
Ex. microorgansim

Photosynthesis
Energy from the
sun is the driving force
of the ecosystem

it is one way flow

(that is why high
quality energy cant be
recycled or reuse)

First law of Thermodynamics

E is neither created nor destroyed
can only be transformed from one form to
another

there is no gain or loss in the process

the amount of energy that comes into a system
is equal to the amount of E that comes out

Energy flow is a one-directional process.

sun---> heat (longer wavelengths)

10

Second law of Thermodynamics

Energy transformation is not 100% efficient
Transformations of energy always result in some loss or
dissipation of energy

In energy exchanges in a closed system, the potential

energy of the final state will be less than that of the initial
state
Entropy transformation of matter or energy from an
organized state, to a more random, disorganized state
disordered energy
any closed system tends spontaneously toward
increasing disorder
11

2. According to Structure

Producers plants
Consumers animals feed on plants/other animals.
Decomposers feeds on dead organic matter.
Non-living components - O2 NO3 PO4 , Nutrients (16)
Less the energy transfer to one (1) group of organism, a
certain amount of energy is loss. The efficiency of
consuming energy is independent on the organism
consuming it.
Nutrient transfer is cyclical in nature.

Energy Exchange in an Ecosystem

13

Energy Pyramid

Most energy in most ecosystems is stored in the bodies of primary producers.

Only about 10 percent of the energy at one energy level passes to the next
highest trophic level.
14

Energy Pyramid
10-30

% of the total energy content are

transferred to the next level ( much is lost as heat
(2nd law)
70-90% as maintenance cost

15

The Biotic Components of Ecosystems

Producers
(autotrophs)

Heat

Abiotic chemicals
(carbon dioxide,
oxygen, nitrogen,
minerals)

Heat
Solar
energy

Photosynthesis
Heat

Consumers
(heterotrophs)

Decomposers
(bacteria, fungus)

Aerobic
respiration
Decomposers

Heat

Producers
(plants)

Consumers
(herbivores,
carnivores)

Heat

Trophic Levels
Primary

Consumer( Herbivore)
plant eaters
- feeding directly on producers

Secondary Consumer ( Carnivore meat eater)

- feeding on primary consumers
Tertiary Consumer
- feeding on other carnivores
Omnivore (such as pigs, rats, foxes, bears,
cockroaches and humans) eat plants and animals

 Detritivores

(detritus feeders and decomposers)

- feeding on detritus, or parts of dead oeganisms and

cast-off fragments and wastes of living organisms
and Scavengers (such as vultures,flies, hyenas and some
species of sharks and ants)
- feeding on dead organisms
Detritus feeders

(such as crabs , carpenter ants, termites

and earthworms)
- extract nutrients from partly decomposed OM in
leaf litter, plant debris and animal dung
Decomposers mostly certain types of bacteria and fungi

20

3. According to Function
Functions of Ecosystem:
1)Energy circuit/flow energy flows through the structural
elements of an ecosystem.
a)Food chain - a linear relationship such as
leaves --- caterpillar --- chickadee --- hawk

Grazing food chain organisms feeding on living organisms

Detritus food chain organisms feeding on dead organisms
b)Food web more intricate and complicated

ENERGY ENTERS ECOSYTEM

All energy in
ecosystem comes from
the sun
First law of
Thermodynamics:

Energy cannot be
created or destroyed
(but it can be
transformed into
stored energy & heat)

ENERGY LEAVES ECOSYSTEM

Second law of
thermodynamics:
Energy is lost as energy
is transformed
In ecosystem, when

energy is transformed,
some energy is lost as
HEAT

ENERGY PATHS
1. Food Chain: Single path

3 ways to
illustrate
energy flow
2. Food Web: many paths

3. Food Pyramid

Connections: Food Webs and Energy Flow in

Ecosystems

Food chains

Heat

Food webs

First Trophic
Level

Second Trophic
Level

Third Trophic
Level

Fourth Trophic
Level

Producers
(plants)

Primary
consumers
(herbivores)

Secondary
consumers
(carnivores)

Tertiary
consumers
(top carnivores)

Heat

Heat

Heat

Solar
energy

Heat

Heat

Detritvores
(decomposers and detritus feeders)

Heat

2)Nutrient cycling nutrients are alternately bound up in living

organisms, freed in the environment and bound up again in

living tissues.
Closed system system that neither receive inputs from
nor contributes outputs to the external environment
Open system system with exchange of materials and
energy to the surrounding environment

3) Diversity pattern in time and space

4)Development and evolution of ecosystem
5)Control (Cybernetics/Homeostasis)

Within any
ecosystem, there are
two major food
chains

Difference
1. Source of energy
for herbivores
2. Energy flow
direction
3. interconnected

Energy Flow through an Ecosystem

heat

Solar
Energy

heat

Primary
Producers

heat

Primary
Consumers

heat

heat

Secondary
Consumers
heat

Detritivores
(Decomposers and Detritus feeders)

heat

Properties of ecosystems

1. Productivity amount of energy formed or rate of production

or organic matter
Expressed in: no./mass/unit time/area (eg. No./kg./ha./yr.)
a)Primary productivity rate at which radiant energy is
stored by photosynthetic activity.
I)Gross primary productivity (GPP) total rate of
photosynthesis
II)Net primary productivity (NPP) rate of storage of in
plant tissue in excess of respiration
Energy available to the next trophic level
NPP = GPP Resp.

Stability the ability of an ecosystem to return to equilibrium

following minor external forces/disturbance
Ex. Temp, rainfall, soil water content
- Reciprocal of variability (1/CV)
2.

3. Sustainability - the ability of an ecosystem to return to

equilibrium following major external forces/disturbance
Ex. Long drought, acidification of soil, salt intrusion,
typhoons, infestation
. Diversity no. of species in an ecosystem
More species, higher biological diversity, higher stability, higher
sustainability
4

5. Equitability benefits of ecosystem are distributed among its

beneficiaries
More members have access higher equitability (and vice versa)

Ecological Succession

Primary Succession

Exposed
rocks

Lichens
and mosses

Small herbs
and shrubs

Heath mat

Jack pine,
black spruce,
and aspen

Balsam fir,
paper birch, and
white spruce
climax community

Time
Fig. 8.15, p. 188

Secondary Succession

Mature oak-hickory forest

Young pine forest

Annual
weeds

Perennial
weeds and
grasses

Shrubs
Time

Biogeophysical Processes on Earth

Solar
Capital

What ecosystems can provide man?

Food and fiber

Balanced CO2 O2 atmosphere
Climatic buffer provided by ocean
and masses of vegetation
Clean water
Life-cycle resources
Recreational and aesthetic needs

Air
resources
and
purification

Climate
control

Water
resources
and
purification

Recycling
vital
chemicals
Renewable
energy
resources

Soil
formation
and
renewal

Natural
Capital

Waste
removal and
detoxification
Natural
pest and
disease
control

Biodiversity
and gene
pool

Nonrenewable
energy
resources

Nonrenewable
mineral
resources
Potentially
renewable
matter
resources

Service type

Provisional

Regulative

Examples of goods or services

provided
Fiber; Food; Freshwater; Fuel
wood and other essential
resources
Climate regulation; Disease
control and suppression of
pathogens; Water purification
and regulation

Supporting
(processes)

Nutrient cycling; Primary

production; Soil formation

Cultural

Aesthetics; Cultural heritage and

sense of place; Educational;
Recreational; Spiritual and
religious

Table 1: Classification of ecosystem services. Based on

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2003).

Service type

Goods or services provided

Provisional

Provision of clean water through infiltration;

Production of food, fodder, fuel, fibre and raw
materials; Physical support

Regulative

Mitigation of floods and droughts through water

retention; Regulation of biogeochemical cycling,
global climate patterns, animal and plant
populations, and potential pests and pathogens;
Erosion control; Bioremediation; Translocation of
nutrients, particles, gasses (incl. trace gasses)

Supporting
(processes)

Nutrient cycling incl. decomposition, retention and

delivery of nutrients; Soil biological activity; Soil
formation; Water cycling

Cultural

Recreation; Spirituality; Aesthetics; Sense of place

Hydrologic (Water) Cycle

Condensation

Transpiration
from plants

Precipitation
Precipitation
to ocean

(Geologic cycle)

Rain clouds

Transpiration

Precipitation

Evaporation

Evaporation
From
ocean

Surface runoff
(rapid)

Surface runoff (rapid)

Runoff
Infiltration and
Percolation
Groundwater movement (slow)

Ocean storage

Groundwater movement (slow)

Fig. 4.28, p. 90

The Carbon Cycle (Terrestrial)

( Nutrient Cycles)

Atmosphere
(mainly carbon dioxide)
volcanic action

Terrestrial
rocks

weathering

photosynthesis

aerobic
respiration

combustion of wood
(for clearing land; or
for fuel

Land food webs

sedimentation

producers, consumers,
decomposers, detritivores

Soil water
(dissolved carbon)
leaching
runoff

death, burial, compaction over

geologic time

Peat,
fossil fuels

Fig. 4.29, p. 93

The Carbon Cycle (Aquatic)

diffusion between
atmosphere and ocean

combustion of fossil fuels

Carbon dioxide
dissolved in
ocean water

photosynthesis

aerobic
respiration

Marine food webs

producers, consumers,
decomposers, detritivores

incorporation
into sediments

death,
sedimentation

uplifting over
geologic time

Marine sediments, including

formations with fossil fuels

sedimentation

Fig. 4.29, p. 92-93

The Nitrogen Cycle

GASEOUS N ITROGEN (N2)
IN ATMOSPHERE
NITROGEN
FIXATION
by industry for
agriculture

FOOD WEBS
ON LAND

FERTILIZERS

NITROGEN FIXATION
bacteria convert to ammonia
(NH3+) ; this dissolves to form
ammonium (NH4+)

uptake by
autotrophs

excretion, death,
decomposition

uptake by
autotrophs

NITRO GENOUS WASTES,

REMAINS IN SOIL

NO3IN SOIL

AMMONIFICATION
NH3, NH4+
IN SOIL

loss by
leaching

by bacteria

2. NITRIFICATION

bacteria, fungi convert the

residues to NH3 , this
dissolves to form NH4+

bacteria convert NO2- to

nitrate (NO3-)

1. NITRIFICATION

NO2IN SOIL

bacteria convert NH4+ to

nitrate (NO2-)

DENTRIFICATION

loss by
leaching

Fig. 4.30, p. 94

The Phosphorus Cycle

mining
excretion

FERTILIZER

GUANO
agriculture
uptake by
autotrophs

MARINE
FOOD
WEBS

weathering

DISSOLVED IN
OCEAN
WATER

uptake by
autotrophs
weathering

DISSOLVED IN
SOILWATER,
LAKES, RIVERS

death,
decomposition
sedimentation

MARINE SEDIMENTS

LAND
FOOD
WEBS

death,
decomposition
settling out

uplifting over
geolgic time

leaching, runoff

ROCKS

Fig. 4.32, p. 96

The Sulfur
Cycle

Atmosphere

Hydrogen sulfide
(H2S)
+
Oxygen (O2)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
and
Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
+
Water (H2O)

Dimethl
(DMS)

Industries
Sulfuric acid
(H2SO4)
+
Ammonia (NH2)

Volcanoes
and
hot springs
Oceans

Ammonium sulfate
[(NH4)2SO4]

Fog and precipitation

(rain, snow)

Animals

Plants

Sulfate salts
(SO42-)

Decaying
organisms

Aerobic conditions
in soil and water
Sulfur
(S)

Hydrogen sulfide
(H2S)

Anaerobic
conditions in
soil and water

Terrestrial Ecosystem
Forests - is a biological community dominated by trees
Ecological roles :
major role is in the hydrologic cycle
intercept rainfall, regulate leaching and runoff
evapotranspiration
stabilize the soil and cycle of OM
influence the ambient temperature
purify the air by producing O2 that is important
for animal life and fixing CO2

BIOMES

Tropical Rain Forest (TRF)

Tropical dry forests or grasslands
Chapparal

Taiga
Desert

TRF
most massive, most diverse and most productive
generally found in lowlands with well-drained soils
annual rainfall is very high ( 1,800mm)
temperature is generally high ( mean over 180 C)

Composition:
very rich flora and fauna
60-200 sps of tree/ha
More animals than plants
high diversity of plants, low dominance (<15%)

Why so diverse?
it is located near/ close to the equator
edaphic diversity
formation of large biomass of trees
a very important concept on forest ecosystem is high
diversity
this attribute reduces the probability of popn
outbreaks in any ecosystem
Very important component in designing stable
ecosystem

Dynamics : TRF is a climax vegetation and it is in a

state of dynamic equilibrium
Nutrient Cycling: generally very low in fertility because
most of the nutrients are already locked in the tree
biomass in the form of wood
- the rate of nutrient absorption is governed by the
rapid decomposition of litter

- closed nutrient cycling system ( one of the reasons

why harvesting timber is lethal on forest ecosystem)
- despite their biological diversity and stability, TRF
are actually the most fragile terrestrial ecosystem

Tropical Forest: Vertical stratification with trees in canopy

blocking light to bottom strata. Many trees covered by
epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants).

Forest cover in the

Philippines declined
from
21
million
hectares, or 70% of
the its land area, in
1900 to about 6.5
million hectares by
2007. This data is
very similar that to the
U.N. FAO, which is
usually based on
government
data.
Both the government
and the FAO show an
increase in overall
forest cover since
1990.

FAO estimated that forest cover in the Philippines declined by an

average of about 54,750 hectares per year between 1990 and 2010.
Hansen puts the figure at about 51,400 ha per year between 2001 and
2012, increasingly slightly over the period

Grasslands

 Grassland ecosystem
Characteristic features
Vegetation dominated by herbaceous plants and most

abundant are grasses

Stratification less developed: rarely 4-5 meters
High proportion of biomass below the ground surface
High amount of biomass enters grazing route
Herbivores adopted to open habitat
High reproductive and dispersal capacity
Roots are very efficient in absorbing water and nutrients
Adapted to adverse environmental conditions

Marginal soil fertility

Acidic soils
Drought
Regular fire

 Grassland vegetation types in RP

Imperata cylindrica cogon most extensive

Themeda triandra - bagocboc
Cuppillepedium parviflorum misamis grass
Chrysopogon aciculatus - amorseco
Chrysopogon contortus spear grass
Schohorum spontaneum talahib

Seeds

Prolific reproducers
Seed widely dispersed by wind
Seeds remain viable in soil
Seed production encouraged by physical attack on plant

 Rhizomes
Can remain dormant
Extensive and prolific

Ability to impact other crops

Highly flammable
Fast growth rate
Large biomass production

Susceptibility
Intolerant to shade
Susceptible to herbicide

Factors affecting the expansion of Phil grassland

> mismanagement of TRF
> swidden farming
> repeated occurrence of fire
Interacting factors : popn growth, system of land
holding, unemployment, declining of arable land
per farmer in lowland

Economic significance: source of subsistence esp for

low-income people

Agroforestry a practice that maintains

a large portion of forest than the agricultural

land

Assisted Natural Regeneration

(ANR)
the
human
protection
and
preservation of natural tree seedlings in
forested areas

DESERT

Desert: Sparse rainfall (< 30 cm per year), plants and

animals adapted for water storage and conservation. Can
be either very, very hot, or very cold (e.g. Antarctica)

Chaparral: Dense, spiny, evergreen shrubs, mild

rainy winters; long, hot, dry summers. Periodic fires,
some plants require fire for seeds to germinate.

Temperate Grassland: Marked by seasonal drought and fires,

and grazing by large animals. Rich habitat for agriculture,
very little prairie exists in US today.

Temperate Deciduous Forest: Mid-latitudes with moderate

amounts of moisture, distinct vertical strata: trees,
understory shrubs, herbaceous sub-stratum. Loss of leaves
in cold, many animals hibernate or migrate then. Original
forests lost from North America by logging and clearing.

Coniferous forest: Largest terrestial biome on earth, old

growth forests rapidly disappearing, usually receives lots
of moisture as rain or snow.

Tundra: Permafrost (Permanent frozen ground), bitter cold,

high winds and thus no trees. Has 20% of land surface on
earth.

Aquatic Ecosystem

http://www1.tecnet.or.jp/sand/map/map3.htm

71% of earths surface

is covered by water

Rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, inland

wetlands are freshwater
-97.4% of worlds
water is salty;
2.6% fresh water
-1.984% freshwater
in ice caps &
glaciers
-.014% available to
us
http://whyfiles.org/131fresh_water/2.html

Watersheds are important to all life

Drinking water... Recreation... Wildlife habitats... Economic benefits
Point & Nonpoint pollution sourceswhat are they?

Water picks up pollutants left by human activities

Farmers, businesses & homeowners use fertilizers &
pesticides. These run-off into water supplies.
Industrial pollutants are dumped or run-off into our
waterways
Individuals like you and me
Fail to pick up after our pets
Dump auto fluids, gasoline from lawn mowers, etc.
down storm drains
Leave grass clippings and leaves on paved surfaces
Wash cars on the street or driveway

www.naai.moldova.md/GI_images/econ_agric/griu_l.jpg
www.dem.ri.gov/programs/bpoladm/stratpp/partnership/watshed/

Freshwater Ecosystems
If 3% of the world's water is fresh, and 99% of this is
either frozen in glaciers and pack ice or is buried in
aquifers, then the remainder that is found in lakes,
ponds, rivers, and streams = .03 of the worlds water
resource

Lakes
Water body (usually freshwater)
Inland

Large
Can be fed by a river
May or may not have an outlet

Lake Zones

Bacteria, fungi

Freshwater.zones of life in a deep lake

Oligotrophic?

Eutrophic?

Fig 7-16

Oligotrophic Lake: Nutrient poor, water is clear,

oxygen rich; little productivity by algae, relatively
deep with little surface area.

Eutrophic lake: nutrient rich, lots of algal

productivity so its oxygen poor at times, water is
murkier often a result of input of agricultural
fertilizers

Who are the players in aquatic life

zones?

Ultraplankton (<5
m diameter cells)

Phytoplankton
Zooplankton
Decomposers

http://www.glf.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/sci-sci/bysea-enmer/activities/activities-activites_13-e.html

Functions

Freshwater ecosystems

Climate moderation

Economic Importance
Nutrient cycling
Food

Waste treatment and

dilution

Drinking water

Flood control
Irrigation water
Groundwater
recharge

Hydroelectricity

Habitats for aquatic &

terrestrial species

Transportation
corridors

Genetic resources
and biodiversity

Recreation
Employment

Scientific
information

Figure 7-15

Other freshwater ecosystem words to know!

Precipitation that
does not sink into the
ground or evaporate is
surface water. It
becomes runoff when
it flows into streams.
The land area that
delivers runoff,
sediment and
dissolved substances
to a stream is called a
watershed or drainage
basin.
http://www.sawpa.org/about/watershed.htm

Factors influencing aquatic ecosystem

dynamics
Temperature
Wind
Greater specific heat of

water vs land
Depth
Presence of inflow and
outflow
Amount of dissolved
oxygen
Evaporation

Water clarity
Light & light
penetration

Precipitation
Runoff
Artificial sources
Land sourced inputs
Nutrients
Pollutants
Sediments

Rivers
Flowing
Body of water

Importance
travel, transportation and trade routes,
irrigation, energy source (to power
machines), in the Philippines they
are used for

Rivers

Whats an estuary?
Region where rivers (fresh water) &
ocean (salt water) mix by action of
tides and river flow. Bays, mouths
of rivers, salt marshes & lagoons.
The brackish waters feed marine life,
birds & other wildlife.

www.origins-photography.co.uk/acatalog/The%20Mawddach%20Estuary.jpg

www.lumcon.edu/education/studentdatabase/images/estuary.jpg
www.duddon-estuary.org.uk/images/duddon%20map.jpg
www.ec.gc.ca/water/en/info/gloss/e_gloss.htm

An estuary.
salt marsh
ecosystem

Who are the

Producers?
Consumers?
Decomposers?

Coastal and Marine Environments

Coral Reefs
Seagrasses
Soft bottom
communities

Mangroves
Intertidal
Rocky Shores

Sandy Shores

Physical
support from
water buoyancy
Fairly constant
temperature
Nourishment
from dissolved
nutrients

Water
availability
Easy dispersal
of organisms,
larvae, and
eggs
Less exposure
to harmful UV
radiation
Dilution and
dispersion of
pollutants

Life in the oceansadvantages &

disadvantages
Life here can only
tolerate a narrow range
of
temperatures
Organisms are exposed
to dissolved pollutants
Fluctuating
population size
for many
species

Dispersion
separates many
aquatic offspring
from parents

o Climate moderation

o CO2 absorption
o Nutrient cycling
o Waste treatment
o and dilution
o
o
o
o

Reduced storm
impact (mangrove,
barrier islands,
coastal wetlands)

o
o
o
o

Habitats and
nursery areas for
marine and
terrestrial species

o Genetic resources
o and biodiversity
o Scientific
o information

Food

We need
oceans!

Animal and pet

feed (fish meal)
Pharmaceuticals
Harbors and
transportation
routes

Coastal habitats
for humans
Recreation
Employment
Offshore oil and
natural gas
Minerals
Building materials

Mangrove Forests

Mangroves

Key physical and chemical or abiotic factors

affecting terrestrial ecosystems and aquatic
life zones
TERRESTRIAL
ECOSYSTEMS
sunlight
Temperature
precipitation
Wind
Latitude (distance from
equator)
Altitude ( distance above
sea level)
Fire frequency
soil

AQUATIC LIFE ZONES

light penetration
water currents
dissolved nutrient
concentrations (especially
N and P)
suspended solids

URBAN ECOSYSTEMS

An urban ecosystem includes people among

the living things, and the structures they
build among the nonliving things. In an
urban ecosystem, humans influence
ecological factors (plants, air, soil, animals),
AND human decisions (where to build
houses, parks, highways, schools) are
influenced by ecological factors.

URBAN ECOSYSTEMS
a town or a city
classification is arbitrary based on residential popn
density
rural mainly food producers
urban mainly engaged in services or employed
in factories
unique

from other ecosystems because these are

essentially human construction
have the greatest impacts on the surrounding
environment, both in scale and character

URBAN ECOSYSTEMS

PHILIPPINE VISION FOR URBAN

DEVELOPMENT
To become a place where the least among

the citizens has the decent minimum of

food, clothing, shelter, and dignity and the
chance to make his or her life the fullest it
can be

 urban settlements considered ecosystem because

they have subsystems with hierarchies in them

Interactions: competition, complementation, or mere coexistence

urban ecosystems are similar to natural ecosystems
because they have subsystems, functions, processes and
flows. Although the former is man-made.

 City as a system
Flow of energy

Raw materials (food, water, wood,

energy, mineral ores, everything that a
human society needs) to products and
eventually release of waste
Not self contained ecosystem, connected
with other system
Affected by other system. Urban and
rural must be treated as one system.

Analogy between biological sciences and events

of human settlements

3rd Order
Consumers

Urban
Coordinators
Service Oriented

2nd Order Consumers

1st Order
Consumers

Producers

Urban Centers

Processing/wholesaling towns

Extracting community

MICROCLIMATE

determines the condition for survival of most

organisms

vegetation moderates climate of a given area by

altering wind movement, evaporation, moisture and
soil temperature

MICROCLIMATE in the CITY

urban microclimate is a product of the

morphology of the city and the density and
the activity of its occupants
impervious surfaces, concrete buildings
absorbs more heat and re-radiating
heat ( high capacity for absorbing)
compared with natural vegetation and
ground surfaces in rural areas
low
heat conductivity

Thank you!