MOTION IN FIELDS

MOTION IN FIELDS
Projectile motion

9.2

Gravitational field, potential and energy

9.3

Electric field, potential and energy

9
AHL

9.1

9.1 PROJECTILE MOTION

9.1.1 State the independence of the vertical and
the horizontal components of velocity for a
projectile in a uniform field.

vh
g ms2
cliff

9.1.2 Describe and sketch the trajectory of

projectile motion as parabolic in the
absence of air resistance.
9.1.3 Describe qualitatively the effect of air
resistance on the trajectory of a projectile.
9.1.4 Solve problems on projectile motion.
IBO 2007

9.1.19.1.3 PROJECTILE MOTION

Projectile launched horizontally

n this section we shall look at the motion of a projectile

that is launched horizontally from a point above the
surface of the Earth.
In the Figure 901a projectile is ired horizontally from a
clif of height h with an initial horizontal velocity vh
Our problem is efectively to ind where it will land, with
what velocity and the time of light. We shall assume that
we can ignore air resistance and that the acceleration due
to gravity g is constant.

d
Figure 901 The path of a horizontal projectile
Since there is no force acting in the horizontal direction
the horizontal velocity will remain unchanged throughout
the light of the particle. However, the vertical acceleration
of the projectile will be equal to g.
We can ind the time of light t by inding the time it takes
the particle to fall a height h.
To start with, we consider only the vertical motion of the
object:
u=0
a=g
h

s=h

t= ?
v = vv

Figure 902 The vertical motion of the object

249

CHAPTER 9

Time of flight
his is calculated from the deinition of acceleration
i.e., using v = u + at, we have that

vv
v v = 0 + g t t = ---g

where vv is the vertical velocity with which the object

strikes the ground.
2

To ind vv we use the equation v = u + 2as , so that

as the initial vertical velocity (u) is zero, the acceleration
a =g and s = h.
hen

v v = 0 + 2g h v v =

2g h

From which we have that

AHL

2gh
t = ------------- =
g

2h
-----g

and so, the time of light is given by

t =

2h
-----g

Since the horizontal velocity is constant, the horizontal

distance d that the particle travels before striking the
ground is vh t. (i.e., using s = ut + at2 = ut, where
in the horizontal direction we have that a = 0 and
u = vh = constant)

Figure 903 Using multi-flash photography

his is irrespective of the speed with which the particle
is ired horizontally. he greater the horizontal speed, the
further this projectile will travel from the base of the clif.
It is also possible to show that the path of the particle is
parabolic.
To ind the velocity with which the particle strikes the
ground we must remember that velocity is a vector
quantity. So, using Pythagoras theorem at the point of
impact (to take into account both the vertical component
of velocity and the horizontal component of velocity) we
have that the velocity has a magnitude of

his gives

vh

2h
d = v v ----g
his is the general solution to the problem and it is not
expected that you should remember the formula for this
general result. You should always work from irst principles
with such problems.
An interesting point to note is that, since there is no
horizontal acceleration, then if you were to drop a
projectile from the top of the clif vertically down, at the
moment that the other projectile is ired horizontally,
then both would reach the ground at the same time. his
is illustrated by the copy of a multilash photograph, as
shown in Figure 903.

vv

V =

vv + vh

and the direction will be given by inding

v
= arc tan ----v
vh
where the angle is quoted relative to the horizontal. If the
angle is to be given relative to the vertical then we evaluate
( 90 )

250

MOTION IN FIELDS
or

v
= arc tan ----h-
v v

2
s = ut + 1--- at
2

so that

Notice that at impact the velocity vector is tangential to

the path of motion. As a matter of fact, the velocity vector
is always tangential to the path of motion and is made up
of the horizontal and vertical components of the velocities
of the object.

2
1 2
y = v v t + 1--- ( g )t y = ( v sin )t --- g t
2
2

If we now substitute for

x
t = -------------v cos
into this equation we get

Projectiles launched at an angle

x 2
1
x
y = ( v sin ) --------------- --- g --------------
v cos 2 v cos

Consider the problem of a projectile that is launched from

the surface of the Earth and at an angle to the surface of the
Earth. Ignore air resistance and assume that g is constant.
In Figure 905 the particle is launched with velocity v at
angle to the surface.
y
+ ve

v v = 0, a = g
v

g
maximum height (H)

2v v
T = -------g
time to impact

2
sin
1 2
= x ----------- 1-- g x-- ------ cos----
cos 2 v
2
2
= x tan 1-- g x- sec
2 v

his is the general equation of the motion of the projectile

that relates the vertical and horizontal distances. his
equation is plotted below for a projectile that is launched
with an initial speed of 20 m s1 at 60 to the horizontal.
he path followed by the projectile is a parabola.
y

v = 0
v

vv

vh

10

10

Range

10

20
20 sin 60 17.32

Figure 905

Projectile launched at an angle

60

10

20 cos 60 = 10

he vertical component of the velocity, vv , is

17.32

v v = v sin
he horizontal component of the velocity, vh, is

v h = v cos
As in the case of the projectile launched horizontally,
there is no acceleration in the horizontal direction and the
acceleration in the vertical direction is g.
If we refer the motion of the projectile to a Cartesian coordinate system, then ater a time t, the horizontal distance
travelled will be given by

20

Figure 906

The parabolic path

he maximum height H that the projectile reaches can be

found from the equation
2

v = u + 2as
where u is the initial vertical component of the velocity
and v the inal (vertical component) of the velocity at the
highest point, where at this point, the vertical component
is zero. So that,
2

x = v h t = ( v cos )t

2
2
v sin
0 = ( v sin ) + 2 g H H = -----------------2g

If we use the igures in the example above (v = 20 m s1, = 60)

and the vertical distance can be found by using the
equation

( 20 sin 60 )
with g = 10 m s2 then we see that H = ------------------------------ = 15
2 10

251

AHL

to the horizontal

CHAPTER 9
i.e., the object reaches a maximum height of 15 m.
he time T to reach the maximum height is found using
v = u + a t, such v = 0,
u = v sin and a = g, to give
0 = v sin g T g T = v sin

Hence,

sin
T = v-----------g

AHL

For the example above the value of T is 1.73 s. his means

(using symmetry) that the projectile will strike the ground
3.46 s ater the launch. he horizontal range R is given by
R = ( v cos ) 2T which for the example gives R = 34.6 m.

Experiment shows that both the horizontal and vertical

drag forces depend on the speed of the projectile. he
efect of the horizontal drag will be to foreshorten the
range of the projectile and the efect of the vertical drag
will be to reduce the maximum height reached by the
projectile. However, the presence or air resistance also
means that the mass of the projectile will now afect
the path followed by the projectile. In the absence of
air resistance there is no acceleration in the horizontal
direction and the acceleration in the vertical direction is g,
the acceleration of free fall. With air resistance present, to
ind the horizontal (aH)and vertical (aV) accelerations we
have to apply Newtons second law to both the directions.
If we let the horizontal drag equal kvH and the vertical
drag equal KvV where k and K are constants and vH and vV
are the horizontal and vertical speeds respectively at any
instant, then we can write

(We could also ind the time for the projectile to strike the
ground by putting y = 0 in the equation

kvH = maH and mg KvV = maV

2
y = ( v sin )t 1--- g t
2

Although we have established a general solution,

essentially solving projectile problems, remember that
the horizontal velocity does not change and that when
using the equations of uniform motion you must use the
component values of the respective velocities. Do not try
to remember the formulae.

From this we can now see why the mass afects the path
since both aH and aV depend on height. (For those of you
doing HL maths, you will realise that the above equations
can be written as diferential equations but inding their
solution is no easy matter!) We have here, another example
of the Newton method for solving the general mechanics
problem- know the forces acting at a particular instant
and you can in principle predict the future behaviour of
the system.

The effect of air resistance on

9.1.4 SOLVE PROJECTILE PROBLEMS

projectile motion

Notice that at impact the velocity vector is tangential to

the path of motion. As a matter of fact, the velocity vector
is always tangential to the path of motion and is made up
of the horizontal and vertical components of the velocities
of the object.

We have seen that in the absence of air resistance, the path

followed by a projectile is a parabola and that the path
depends only on the initial speed and angle of projection.
Of course, in the real world all projectiles are subject to air
resistance. Fig 907 shows the free body force diagram for a
projectile subject to air resistance.

Example

vertical drag

A particle is ired horizontally with a speed of 25 ms-1 from

the top of a vertical clif of height 80 m. Determine
horizontal drag

(a)

the time of light

(b)

he distance from the base of the clif where it

strikes the ground

(c)

the velocity with which it strikes the ground

weight

Figure 907 The effect of air resistance

252

MOTION IN FIELDS
he magnitude of this velocity is

Solution

40 + 25 = 47 m s1
u = 25 m s -1

Horizontal:

Vertical: u = 0
a= g
80 m

and it makes an angle to the horizontal of

+ve

a =0

= arc tan 40
-----
25

cliff

= 68 (or to the vertical of 32).

he vertical velocity with which it strikes the ground

can be found using the equation
2

v = u + 2as , with u = 0, a = g and s = 80 (= h).

projectile problems

hat is, the vertical velocity at impact is 40 m s1.

In some situations the use of conservation of energy can

be a much simpler method than using the kinematics
equations. Solving projectile motion problems makes
use of the fact that E k + E p = constant at every point
in the objects light (assuming no loss of energy due to
friction).

he time to strike the ground can be found using

v = u + at, with u = 0, a = g and v = vv. So that,

In Figure 909, using the conservation of energy principle

we have that the

his then gives v v =

2gh =

2 10 80

= 40

vv
40
t = ----- = ----- = 4.
g
10
hat is, 4 seconds.
(b)

Conservation of energy and

Total energy at A = Total energy at B = Total energy at C

i.e.,

1 2
1 2
1 2
--- mv A = --- mv B + mg H = -- mvC + mg h
2
2
2

he distance travelled from the base of the clif using

2
s = ut + 1--- at , with u = 25,
2

Notice that at A, the potential energy is set at zero (h = 0).

1 2
-- mv B + mg H
2
B

a = 0 and t = 4 is given by
s = 25 4 = 100.

vA
H

vv

hat is, the range is 100 m.

(c)

vB
1 2
--- mvC + mg h
2

C
h

he velocity with which it strikes the ground is

given by the resultant of the vertical and horizontal
velocities as shown.

1 2
-- mv A + 0
2
A

vC

vh

Figure 909

Energy problem

v h = 25

Ground level

v v = 40

253

AHL

(a)

CHAPTER 9

1270 = 733.53 + 10 H

Example

H = 53.6
-1

A ball is projected at 50 ms at an angle of 40 above the

horizontal. he ball is released 2.00 m above ground level.
Taking g = 10 m s-2, determine

hat is, the maximum height reached is 53.6 m.

b.

(a)

the maximum height reached by the ball

(b)

the speed of the ball as it hits the ground

At C, the total energy is given by

2
2
E k + E p = 1-- mvC + mg 0 = 1-- mv C
2
2

Using the total energy at A, E k + E p = 1270 m

Solution

Equating, we have that

2
2
1270 m = 1--- mvC v C = 2540
2

AHL

v C =

50
H

2540 = 50.4

hat is, the ball hits the ground with a speed of 50.4 m s1.

A 40
2m

Exercise

R = r ange
a.

he total energy at A is given by

2
E k + E p = 1-- m ( 50.0 ) + mg 2.00
2
= 1250 m + 20m

1.

A projectile is ired from the edge of a vertical clif

with a speed of 30 m s1 at an angle of 30 to the
horizontal. he height of the clif above the surface
of the sea is 100 m.
(a)

= 1270 m
Next, to ind the total energy at B we need to irst determine
the speed at B, which is given by the horizontal component
of the speed at A.
Horizontal component: 50.0 cos 40 = 38.3 m s1.

Hence show that the projectile will hit the surface

of the sea about 6 s ater it is launched.

herefore, we have that

2
1
E k + E p = -- m ( 38.3 ) + mg H
2

y = 15t 5 t

(b)

Suggest the signiicance of the negative

value of t that can be obtained in solving
the equation?

(c)

Determine the maximum height reached by

the projectile and the horizontal distance to
where it strikes the sea as measured from
the base of the clif.

= 733.53 m + 10 mH

Equating, we have
1270 m = 733.53 m + 10 mH

254

If g = 10 m s2 and air resistance is ignored

show that at any time t ater the launch the
vertical displacement y of the projectile as
measured from the top of the clif is given
by:
y = 15t - 5t2

MOTION IN FIELDS

9.2 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD, POTENTIAL AND

ENERGY
If the particle is moved to B, then since r is very small,
we can assume that the ield remains constant over the
distance AB. he work W done against the gravitational
ield of the Earth in moving the distance AB is

9.2.1 Define gravitational potential and

gravitational potential energy.

GMe m
W = ---------------r
r2

9.2.2 State and apply the expression for

gravitational potential due to a point
mass.

(remember that work done against a force is negative)

IBO 2007

9.2.1 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

We have seen that if we lit an object of mass m to a height h
above the surface of the Earth then its gain in gravitational
potential energy is mgh. However, this is by no means the
full story. For a start we now know that g varies with h and
also the expression really gives a diference in potential
energy between the value that the object has at the Earths
surface and the value that it has at height h. So what we
really need is a zero point. Can we ind a point where the
potential energy is zero and use this point from which to
measure changes in potential energy?
Well, the point that is chosen is in fact ininity. At ininity
the gravitational ield strength of any object will in fact
be zero. So let us see if we can deduce an expression for
the gain in potential energy of an object when it is lited
from the surface of the Earth to ininity. his in efect
means inding the work necessary to perform this task.

r =

r
Me

m A
g
r

Figure 911

r + r

Gravitational forces

In the diagram we consider the work necessary to move

the particle of mass m a distance r in the gravitational
ield of the Earth.

G Me m
he force on the particle at A is F = ---------------r2

To ind the total work done, W, in going from the surface

of the Earth to ininity we have to add all these little bits
of work. his is done mathematically by using integral
calculus.

G Me m
1
1
W = ---------------- dr = G Me m ----- dr = G Me m -r R

r2
r2
R
R

1
= GMe m 0 ---
R
G Me m
= ---------------R
Hence we have, where R is the radius of the Earth, that the
work done by the gravitational ield in moving an object of
mass m from R (surface of the Earth) to ininity, is given by

GM m
W = -----------e----R
We can generalise the result by calculating the work
necessary per unit mass to take a small mass from the
surface of the Earth to ininity. his we call the gravitational
potential, V, i.e.,
V = ----m

We would get exactly the same result if we calculated the

work done to bring the point mass from ininity to the
surface of Earth. In this respect the formal deinition of
gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational ield
is therefore deined as the work done per unit mass in
bringing a point mass from ininity to that point.
Clearly then, the gravitational potential at any point in
the Earths ield distance r from the centre of the Earth
(providing r > R) is

GM
V = ------------e
r

255

AHL

9.2.3 State and apply the formula relating

gravitational field strength to
gravitational potential gradient.

CHAPTER 9
he potential is therefore a measure of the amount of work
that has to be done to move particles between points in a
gravitational ield and its unit is the J kg1. We also note
that the potential is negative so that the potential energy
as we move away from the Earths surface increases until it
reaches the value of zero at ininity.
If the gravitational ield is due to a point mass of mass m,
then we have the same expression as above except that Me
is replaced by m and must also exclude the value of the
potential at the point mass itself i.e. at r = 0.
We can express the gravitational potential due to the Earth
(or due to any spherical mass) in terms of the gravitational
ield strength at its surface.

AHL

At the surface of the Earth we have

GM
g 0 R e = --------Re

9.2.3 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

GRADIENT
Let us consider now a region in space where the
gravitational ield is constant. In Figure 912 the two points
A and B are separated by the distance x.
x
A

B
direction of uniform gravitational
field of strength I

Figure 912 The gravitational potential gradient

he gravitational ield is of strength I and is in the direction
shown. he gravitational potential at A is V and at B is V + V.
he work done is taking a point mass m from A to B is
Fx = mIx.

So that,

g 0 R e2 = GM

However, by deinition this work is also equal to -mV.

herefore mIx = -mV

Hence at a distance r from the centre of the Earth the

gravitational potential V can be written as

g 0 R e2
GMe
V = ------------ = -----------r
r
he potential at the surface of the Earth
(r = Re) is therefore -g0Re
It is interesting to see how the expression for the
gravitational potential ties in with the expression mgh.
he potential at the surface of the Earth is -g0Re (see the
example above) and at a height h will be g 0 ( R e + h ) if
we assume that g0 does not change over the distance h.
he diference in potential between the surface and the
height h is therefore g0h. So the work needed to raise an
object of mass m to a height h is mgh , i.e., m diference
in gravitational potential
his we have referred to as the gain in gravitational
potential energy (see 2.3.5).
However, this expression can be extended to any two
points in any gravitational ield such that if an object of
mass m moves between two points whose potentials are
V1 and V2 respectively, then the change in gravitational
potential energy of the object is m(V1 V2).

256

or I =

V
x

Efectively this says that the magnitude of the gravitational

ield strength is equal to the negative gradient of the
potential. If I constant then V is a linear function of x
and I is equal to the negative gradient of the straight line
graph formed by plotted V against x. If I is not constant
(as usually the case), then the magnitude of I at any point
in the ield can be found by ind the gradient of the V-x
graph at that point. An example of such a calculation can
be found in Section 9.2.9.
For those of you who do HL maths the relationship between
ield and potential is seen to follow from the expression for
the potential of a point mass viz:

m
r
dV
m

= +G 2 = I
dr
r
V = G

MOTION IN FIELDS

9.2.4 Determine the potential due to one or

more point masses.

Figure 913 shows the ield lines and equipotentials for two
point masses m.

9.2.5 Describe and sketch the pattern of

equipotential surfaces due to one and two
point masses.
m

9.2.6 State the relation between equipotential

surfaces and gravitational field lines.
9.2.7 Explain the concept of escape speed from a
planet.
Figure 913 Equipotentials for two point masses

IBO 2007

9.2.4 POTENTIAL DUE TO ONE OR

MORE POINT MASSES
Gravitational potential is a scalar quantity so calculating
the potential due to more than one point mass is a matter
of simple addition. So for example, the potential V due to
the Moon and Earth and a distance x from the centre of
Earth is given by the expression

M
M
V = G E + M
r x
x

It is worth noting that we would get exactly the same

pattern if we were to replace the point masses with two
equal point charges. (See 9.3.5)

AHL

9.2.8 Derive an expression for the escape speed

of an object from the surface of a planet.

9.2.7-8 ESCAPE SPEED

M

he potential at the surface of Earth is - G R which

means that the energy required to take a particle of mass
Mm
m from the surface to ininity is equal to - G
R

But what does it actually mean to take something to

ininity? When the particle is on the surface of the Earth
we can think of it as sitting at the bottom of a potential
well as in igure 914.

where ME = mass of Earth, MM= mass of Moon and r =

distance between centre of Earth and Moon.

9.2.5-6 EQUIPOTENTIALS AND FIELD

infinity

GM
--------R

LINES
If the gravitational potential has the same value at all points
on a surface, the surface is said to be an equipotential
surface. So for example, if we imagine a spherical shell
about Earth whose centre coincides with the centre of
Earth, this shell will be an equipotential surface. Clearly,
if we represent the gravitational ield strength by ield
lines, since the lines radiate out from the centre of Earth,
then these lines will be at right angles to the surface If the
ield lines were not normal to the equipotential surface
then there would be a component of the ield parallel to
the surface. his would mean that points on the surface
would be at diferent potentials and so it would no longer
be an equipotential surface! his of course holds true for
any equipotential surface.

satellite
surface of E arth

FIgure 914

A potential well

he depth of the well is --------R and if the satellite gains an

amount of kinetic energy equal to ------------R where m is its
mass then it will have just enough energy to lit it out of
the well.
In reality it doesnt actually go to ininity it just means that
the rocket is efectively free of the gravitational attraction
of the Earth. We say that it has escaped the Earths
gravitational pull. We meet this idea in connection with
molecular forces. Two molecules in a solid will sit at their

257

CHAPTER 9
equilibrium position, the separation where the repulsive
force is equal to the attractive force. If we supply just enough
energy to increase the separation of the molecules such
that they are an ininite distance apart then the molecules
are no longer afected by intermolecular forces and the
solid will have become a liquid. here is no increase in the
kinetic energy of the molecules and so the solid melts at
constant temperature.
We can calculate the escape speed of a satellite very easily
by equating the kinetic energy to the potential energy such
that
GMe m
1 2
--- mv es c ape = ---------------Re
2

2GM
--------------e =
Re

2 g 0 Re

Substituting for g0 and Re gives a value for vescape of about

11 km s1 for the Earth.

Solution

V = G

herefore g 0 =

herefore g h =

GM g 0R 2 3.8 (3.4) 2
=
=
= 0.42 m s-2
Rh 2
Rh 2
(10.2) 2

(the distance from the centre is 3.4 106+ 6.8 106 = 10.2 106 m)

Exercise

1.

9.2.9 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING

V 1.3 10 7
=
= 3.8 m s-2
R 3.4 10 6

To determine the ield strength gh at 6.8 106 m above the

M
surface, we use the fact that g 0 = G 2 such that GM = g0R2
R

You will note that the escape speed does not depend on
the mass of the satellite since both kinetic energy and
potential energy are proportional to the mass.

he graph below shows how the gravitational

potential outside of the Earth varies with distance
from the centre.
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

r /m 10

1
2

In theory if you want to get a rocket to the moon it can

be done without reaching the escape speed. However this
would necessitate an enormous amount of fuel and it is
likely that the rocket plus fuel would be so heavy that it
would never get of the ground. It is much more practical
to accelerate the rocket to the escape speed and then in
theory just point it at the Moon to where it will now coast
at constant speed.

6.4 10 23
M
= 6.7 10 11
=1.3 10 7N kg-1
6
3.4 10
R

But V = -g0R

V / Jkg 10

AHL

ve s c ape =

Determine also the gravitational ield strength at a distance

of 6.8 106 m above the surface of Mars.

4
5

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

AND GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

6
7

(a)

Example

Use the following data to determine the potential at the

surface of Mars and the magnitude of the acceleration of
free fall

Use the graph to determine the gain in

gravitational potential energy of a satellite
of mass 200 kg as it moves from the surface
of the Earth to a height of 3.0 107 m above
the Earths surface.
Answer: 1010 J
(b)

mass of Mars

= 6.4 1023 kg

radius of Mars

= 3.4 106 m

258

Calculate the energy required to take it to

ininity?
Answer; 1.3 1010 J

MOTION IN FIELDS
Determine the slope of the graph at the
surface of the Earth, m, above the surface of

the Earth? Comment on your answers.

Answer: 10, and equals the gravitational ield strength at
the surface of Earth (acceleration of free fall)

9.3 ELECTRIC FIELD,

POTENTIAL AND
ENERGY

Let us irst look at a case of two positive point charges each

of 1C that are initially bound together by a thread in a
vacuum in space with a distance between them of 10 cm
as shown in Figure 916. When the thread is cut, the point
charges, initially at rest would move in opposite directions,
moving with velocities v1 and v2 along the direction of the
electrostatic force of repulsion.
v

v2
AFTER

BEFORE

Figure 916 Interaction of two positive particles

he electric potential energy between two point charges
can be found by simply adding up the energy associated
with each pair of point charges. For a pair of interacting
charges, the electric potential energy is given by:

9.3.1 Define electric potential and electric

potential energy.
9.3.2 State and apply the expression for electric
potential due to a point charge.
9.3.3 State and apply the formula relating
electric field strength to electrical potential
gradient.
9.3.4 Determine the potential due to one or
more point charges.
9.3.5 Describe and sketch the pattern of
equipotential surfaces due to one and two
point charges.
9.3.6 State the relation between equipotential
surfaces and electric field lines.
9.3.7 Solve problems involving electric potential
energy and electric potential.

U = Ep + Ek = W =

Fr = kqQ / r2 x r = kqQ

Because no external force is acting on the system, the

energy and momentum must be conserved. Initially,
Ek = 0 and Ep = k qQ / r = 9 109 1 10-12 / 0.1 m = 0.09 J.
When they are a great distance from each other, Ep will
be negligible. he inal energy will be equal to mv12 +
mv22 = 0.09 J. Momentum is also conserved and the
velocities would be the same magnitude but in opposite
directions.
Electric potential energy is more oten deined in terms of
a point charge moving in an electric ield as:
the electric potential energy between any two points in
an electric ield is deined as negative of the work done by
an electric ield in moving a point electric charge between
two locations in the electric ield.

IBO 2007

9.3.1 DEFINING ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

& ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
Electric potential energy
he concept of electric potential energy was developed
with gravitational potential energy in mind. Just as an
object near the surface of the Earth has potential energy
because of its gravitational interaction with the Earth,
so too there is electrical potential energy associated with
interacting charges.

U = Ep = - W = -Fd = qEx
x (or opposite to) the
where x is the distance moved along
direction of the electric ield.
Electric potential energy is measured in joule (J). Just as
work is a scalar quantity, so too electrical potential energy
is a scalar quantity. he negative of the work done by an
electric ield in moving a unit electric charge between
two points is independent of the path taken. In physics,
we say the electric ield is a conservative ield.
Suppose an external force such as your hand moves a small
positive point test charge in the direction of a uniform
electric ield. As it is moving it must be gaining kinetic

259

AHL

(c)

CHAPTER 9
energy. If this occurs, then the electric potential energy of
the unit charge is changing.
In Figure 917 a point charge +q is moved between points
A and B through a distance x in a uniform electric ield.

Electric potential
he electric potential at a point in an electric ield
is deined as being the work done per unit charge in
bringing a small positive point charge from ininity to
that point.

B
V = V Vf = -W /q

x
+q

Figure 917 Movement of a

positive point charge in a uniform field

If we designate the potential energy to be zero at ininity

then it follows that electric potential must also be zero at
ininity and the electric potential at any point in an elctric
ield will be:
V = -W / q

AHL

In order to move a positive point charge from point A to

point B, an external force must be applied to the charge
equal to qE (F = qE).
Since the force is applied through a distance x, then
negative work has to be done to move the charge because
energy is gained, meaning there is an increase electric
potential energy between the two points. Remember
that the work done is equivalent to the energy gained or
lost in moving the charge through the electric ield. he
concept of electric potential energy is only meaningful if
the electric ield which generates the force in question is
conservative.

W = F x = Eq x

xcos

Figure 918

Now suppose we apply an external force to a small positive

test charge as it is moved towards an isolated positive
charge. he external force must do work on the positive
test charge to move it towards the isolated positive charge
and the work must be positive while the work done by the
electric ield must therefore be negative. So the electric
potential at that point must be positive according to the
above equation. If a negative isolated charge is used, the
electric potential at a point on the positive test charge
would be negative. Positive point charges of their own
accord, move from a place of high electric potential to
a place of low electric potential. Negative point charges
move the other way, from low potential to high potential.
In moving from point A to point B in the diagram, the
positive charge +q is moving from a low electric potential
to a high electric potential. he electric potential is
therefore diferent at both points.

Charge moved at an angle to the field

If a charge moves at an angle to an electric ield, the

component of the displacement parallel to the electric
ield is used as shown in Figure 918
W = F x = E q x cos

he electric potential energy is stored in the electric ield,

and the electric ield will return the energy to the point
charge when required so as not to violate the Law of
conservation of energy.

In the deinition given, the term work per unit charge

has signiicance. If the test charge is +1.6 10-19C where
the charge has a potential energy of 3.2 10-17 J, then the
potential energy would be 3.2 10-17J / +1.6 10-19 C =
200 JC-1. Now if the charge was doubled, the potential
energy would become 6.4 10-17 J. However, the potential
energy per unit charge would be the same.
Electric potential is a scalar quantity and it has units JC-1
or volts where 1 volt equals one joule per coloumb. he
volt allows us to adopt a unit for the electric ield in terms
of the volt.
Previously, the unit for the electric ield was NC-1.
W = qV and F = qE,
so W / V = F / E
E = FV / W = NV / Nm = Vm-1.

260

MOTION IN FIELDS
he work done per unit charge in moving a point
charge between two points in an electric ield is again
independant of the path taken.

9.3.3 ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH AND

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL GRADIENT

9.3.2 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A

POINT CHARGE
Let us take a point r metres from a charged object.
he potential at this point can be calculated using the
following:

Let us look back at Figure 917. Suppose again that the

charge +q is moved a small distance by a force F from A to B
so that the force can be considered constant. he work done
is given by:
W = F x

he force F and the electric ield E are oppositely directed,

and we know that:

W = -Fr = -qV and F = q1 q2 4 0 r2

F = -qE and W = q V

herefore,
herefore, the work done can be given as:
q V = -q E x
herefore

hat is

V
E = -----x

q
V = --------------4 0 r
Or, simply

V = kq
-----r

Example

Determine how much work is done by the electric ield of

point charge 15.0 C when a charge of 2.00 C is moved
from ininity to a point 0.400 m from the point charge.
(Assume no acceleration of the charges).

AHL

q1q2
q1q2
q2
r =- -------------W = ----------------- =- q1 -------------- = -q 1 V
2
40 r
40 r
40 r

he rate of change of potential V at a point with respect to

distance x in the direction in which the change is maximum
is called the potential gradient. We say that the electric ield
= - the potential gradient and the units are Vm-1. From the
equation we can see that in a graph of electric potential
versus distance, the gradient of the straight line equals the
electric ield strength.
In reality, if a charged particle enters a uniform electric ield,
it will be accelerated uniformly by the ield and its kinetic
energy will increase. his is why we had to assume no
acceleration in the last worked example.

1
V
E k = -- mv2 = q E x = q --- x = q V
2
x

Solution
Example
The work done by the electric ield is W = -qV
= -1/40 q (Q /r - Q / r0.400)
W = (- 2.00 10-6 C 9.00 109 NmC-2 15.0 10-6 C)
0.400 m = - 0.675 J

Determine how far apart two parallel plates must be

situated so that a potential diference of 1.50 x 102 V
produces an electric ield strength of 1.00 x 103 NC-1.

An external force would have to do +0.675 J of work.

261

CHAPTER 9
Some further observations of the graphs in Figure 915 are:

Solution

V
E

V
x

1.5 10 2 V
1.00 10 3 N C 1

Using E = ------- x = ------- = ------------------------------------------

Outside the sphere, the graphs obey the

relationships given as E 1 / r2 and V 1 / r
At the surface, r = r0. herefore, the electric ield
and potential have the minimum value for r at
this point and this infers a maximum ield and
potential.
Inside the sphere, the electric ield is zero.
Inside the sphere, no work is done to move
a charge from a point inside to the surface.
herefore, there is no potential diference and the
potential is the same as it is when r = r0.

= 1.50 10-1

he plates are 1.50 10-1 m apart.

he electric ield and the electric potential at a point due
to an evenly distributed charge +q on a sphere can be
represented graphically as in Figure 919.
Charge of + Q evenly distributed
over surface

r0

Similar graphs can be drawn for the electric ield intensity

and the electric potential as a function of distance from
conducting parallel plates and surfaces, and these are
given in Figure 920.

AHL

E
Potential plot

E field:

1 Q, r > r
E = ----------- ----0
4 0 r2

r0

E field plot

+
+
+
+

1 Q
V = ------------ ---- , r > r 0
40 r

r0

Figure 919 Electric field and

potential due to a charged sphere
When the sphere becomes charged, we know that the
charge distributes itself evenly over the surface. herefore
every part of the material of the conductor is at the same
potential. As the electric potential at a point is deined as
being numerically equal to the work done in bringing a unit
positive charge from ininity to that point, it has a constant
value in every part of the material of the conductor.
Since the potential is the same at all points on the conducting
surface, then V / x is zero. But E = V / x. herefore,
the electric ield inside the conductor is zero. here is no
electric ield inside the conductor.

262

x
x

x
x

Figure 920 Electric field and electric

potential at a distance from a charged surface

MOTION IN FIELDS

9.3.4 POTENTIAL DUE TO ONE OR

Solution

MORE POINT CHARGES

he potential due to one point charge can be determined
by using the equation formula

he electric potential of the +2 C charge due to the

6 C charge is:
V = (9 109 Nm2C-2 -6 10-6 C) ( 32 + 42) m =
- 1.08 104 V

V = kq / r.

he electric potential of the +2 C charge due to the

+3 C charge is:

Example 1

V = (9 109 Nm2C-2 3 10-6 C) 3m = 9 103 V

Determine the electric potential at a point 2.0 x 10-1 m
from the centre of an isolated conducting sphere with a
point charge of 4.0 pC in air.

he net absolute potential is the sum of the 2 potentials

- 1.08 104 V + 9 103 V =

Solution

AHL

- 1.8 103 V
he absolute potential at the point is - 1.8 103 V.

Using the formula

9.3.5 EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES

V = kq / r , we have
12

( 9.0 10 ) ( 4.0 10 )
V = ------------------------------------------------------------------ = 0.18 V
1
( 2.0 10 )
the potential at the point is 1.80 x 10-1 V.
he potential due to a number of point charges can be
determined by adding up the potentials due to individual
point charges because the electric potential at any point
outside a conducting sphere will be the same as if all the
charge was concentrated at its centre.

Example 2

hree point charges of are placed at the vertices of a rightangled triangle as shown in the diagram below. Determine
the absolute potential of the + 2.0 C charge.
-6 C

4m

+3 C

3m

+2 C

Regions in space where the electric potential of a charge

distribution has a constant value are called equipotentials.
he places where the potential is constant in three
dimensions are called equipotential surfaces, and where
they are constant in two dimensions they are called
equipotential lines.
hey are in some ways analogous to the contour lines on
topographic maps. In this case, the gravitational potential
energy is constant as a mass moves around the contour
lines because the mass remains at the same elevation above
the Earths surface. he gravitational ield strength acts in
a direction perpendicular to a contour line.
Similarly, because the electric potential on an equipotential
line has the same value, no work can be done by an electric
force when a test charge moves on an equipotential. herefore,
the electric ield cannot have a component along an
equipotential, and thus it must be everywhere perpendicular
to the equipotential surface or equipotential line. his fact
makes it easy to plot equipotentials if the lines of force or lines
of electric lux of an electric ield are known.
For example, there are a series of equipotential lines
between two parallel plate conductors that are
perpendicular to the electric ield. here will be a series of
concentric circles (each circle further apart than the
previous one) that map out the equipotentials around an

263

CHAPTER 9
isolated positive sphere. he lines of force and some
equipotential lines for an isolated positive sphere are
shown in Figure 922.

50 V
40 V
30 V

Lines of
equipotential

20 V
10 V

Figure 925 Fquipotential lines between charged

parallel plates gravitational fields and electric fields

No work is done to move a charge along an

equipotential.
Equipotentials are always perpendicular to the
electric lines of force.

Figure 923 and 924 show some equipotential lines for

two oppositely charged and indentically positive spheres
separated by a distance.
equipotential lines

+ve

ve

Figure 923 Equipotential lines

between two opposite charges

Point masses and charges

AHL

In summary, we can conclude that

hroughout this chapter the similarities and diferences

between gravitational ields and electric ields have
been discussed. he relationships that exists between
gravitational and electric quantities and the efects of point
masses and charges is summarised in Table 926

Quantities

Figure 922 Equipotentials around

an isolated positive sphere

Gravitational quantity

Electrical quantity

V = ----m

V = ----q

g = ---m

E = --q

V
g = ------x

V
E = -----x

V = G m
---r

1 q
V = ------------ -4 0 r

g = G -m
---2
r

1
E = ------------ -q--4 0 r 2

m1 m2
F = G ------------2
r

q1q2
F = -----1------- ---------40 r 2

Figure 926

Formulas (table)

equipotential lines

9.3.7 SOLVING PROBLEMS

here are a number of worked examples that have been
given in section 9.3. Here are two more examples.

Figure 924 Equipotential lines between

two charges which are the same

264

MOTION IN FIELDS
Total energy = kqQ / r + - kqQ / r = - kqQ / r

Example 1
= - 9.0 109 Nm2C-2 (1.6 10-19 C)2 5.3 10-11 m =
-2.17 10-18 J
Deduce the electric potential on the surface of a gold
nucleus that has a radius of 6.2 fm.

= -2.17 10-18 J 1.6 10-19 = -13.6 eV.

he ionisation energy is 13.6 eV.

Solution
Exercise 9.3
Using the formula
1.

A point charge P is placed midway between two

identical negative charges. Which one of the
following is correct with regards to electric ield
and electric potential at point P?

V = 9.0 109 Nm2C-2 79 1.6 10-19 C 6.2 10-15 m

= 1.8 107 V
A
B
C
D

he potential at the point is 18 MV.

Example 2
2.

Electric ield
non-zero
zero
non-zero
zero

Electric potential
zero
non-zero
non-zero
zero

AHL

V = kq / r , and knowing the atomic number of gold is 79.

We will assume the nucleus is spherical and it behaves as if it
were a point charge at its centre (relative to outside points).

Two positive charged spheres are tied together in

a vacuum somewhere in space where there are no
external forces. A has a mass of 25 g and a charge
of 2.0 C and B has a mass of 15 g and a charge of
3.0 C. he distance between them is 4.0 cm. hey
are then released as shown in the diagram.

Deduce the ionisation energy in electron-volts of the

electron in the hydrogen atom if the electron is in its
ground state and it is in a circular orbit at a distance of 5.3
x 10-11 m from the proton.

Solution
v1

his problem is an energy, coulombic, circular motion

question based on Bohrs model of the atom (not the accepted
quantum mechanics model). he ionisation energy is the
energy required to remove the electron from the ground
state to ininity. he electron travels in a circular orbit and
therefore has a centripetal acceleration. he ionisation energy
will counteract the coulombic force and the movement of the
electron will be in the opposite direction to the centripetal
force

B
BEFORE

(a)
(b)

3.

AFTER

Determine their initial electric potential

energy in the before situation.
Determine the speed of sphere B ater
release.

he diagram below represents two equipotential

lines in separated by a distance of 5 cm in a
uniform electric ield.

Total energy = Ek electron + Ep due to the proton-electron

interaction
F = kqQ / r2 = mv2 / r and as such mv2 = = kqQ / r.

v2

+ + + + + + + +
40 V

5 cm

20 V

herefore, Ek electron = kqQ / r.

Ep due to the proton-electron interaction = - kqQ / r.

Determine the strength of the electric ield.

265

CHAPTER 9
4.

his question is about the electric ield due to a

charged sphere and the motion of electrons in that
ield. he diagram below shows an isolated, metal
sphere in a vacuum that carries a negative electric
charge of 6.0 C.

8.

he gap between two parallel plates is 1.0 10-3 m,

and there is a potential diference of 1.0 104 V
between the plates. Calculate
i.
ii.

iii.
(a)

AHL

(b)

(c)

On the diagram draw the conventional way

to represent the electric ield pattern due to
the charged sphere and lines to represent
three equipotential surfaces in the region
outside the sphere.
Explain how the lines representing the
equipotential surfaces that you have
sketched indicate that the strength of the
electric ield is decreasing with distance
from the centre of the sphere.
he electric ield strength at the surface of
the sphere and at points outside the sphere
can be determined by assuming that the
sphere acts as a point charge of magnitude
6.0 C at its centre. he radius of the sphere
is 2.5 102 m. Deduce that the magnitude
of the ield strength at the surface of the
sphere is 8.6 107 Vm1.

An electron is initially at rest on the surface of the

sphere.
(d)

(i)

(ii)

9.

An electron gun in a picture tube is accelerated

by a potential 2.5 103 V. Determine the kinetic
energy gained by the electron in electron-volts.

10.

Determine the electric potential 2.0 x10-2 m from a

charge of -1.0 10-5 C.

11.

Determine the electric potential at a point midway between a charge of 20 pC and another
of + 5 pC on the line joining their centres if the
charges are 10 cm apart.

12.

During a thunderstorm the electric potential

diference between a cloud and the ground is
1.0 109 V. Determine the magnitude of the
change in electric potential energy of an electron
that moves between these points in electron-volts.

13.

A charge of 1.5 C is placed in a uniform electric

ield of two oppositely charged parallel plates with
a magnitude of 1.4 103 NC-1.

Describe the path followed by the

electron as it leaves the surface of the
sphere.
Calculate the initial acceleration of
the electron.

5.

Determine the amount of work that is done in

moving a charge of 10.0 nC through a potential
diference of 1.50 102 V.

6.

hree identical 2.0 C conducting spheres are

placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of
sides 25 cm. he triangle has one apex C pointing
up the page and 2 base angles A and B. Determine
the absolute potential at B .

(a)

(b)
(c)

14.

266

Determine how far apart two parallel plates

must be situated so that a potential diference of
2.50 102 V produces an electric ield strength of
2.00 103 NC-1.

Determine the work that must be done

against the ield to move the point charge a
distance of 5.5 cm.
Calculate the potential diference between
the inal and initial positions of the charge.
Determine the potential diference between
the plates if their separation distance is 15 cm.

During a lash of lightning, the potential diference

between a cloud and the ground was 1.2 109 V
and the amount of transferred charge was 32 C.
(a)
(b)

7.

the work done by an electron in moving

from one plate to the other
the speed with which the electron reaches
the second plate if released from rest.
the electric ield intensity between the
plates.

(c)

Determine the change in energy of the

transferred charge.
If the energy released was all used to
accelerate a 1 tonne car, deduce its inal
speed.
If the energy released could be used to melt
ice at 0 C, deduce the amount of ice that
could be melted.

MOTION IN FIELDS
15.

Suppose that when an electron moved from A to B

in the diagram along an electric ield line that the
electric ield does 3.6 10-19 J of work on it.
Determine the diferences in electric potential:
VB VA
VC VA
VC VB

(a)
(b)
(c)

9.4 ORBITAL MOTION

Although orbital motion may be circular, elliptical or
parabolic, this sub-topic only deals with circular orbits.
his sub-topic is not fundamentally new physics, but
an application that synthesizes ideas from gravitation,
circular motion, dynamics and energy.

9.4.1 State that gravitation provides the

centripetal force for circular orbital motion.

9.4.2 Derive Keplers third law.

16.

Determine the potential at point P that is located

at the centre of the square as shown in the diagram
below.

-6 C

1m

5 C

9.4.3 Derive expressions for the kinetic energy,

potential energy and total energy of an
orbiting satellite.
9.4.4 Sketch graphs showing the variation
with orbital radius of the kinetic energy,
gravitational potential energy and total
energy of a satellite.

AHL

9.4.5 Discuss the concept of weightlessness

in orbital motion, in free fall and in deep
space.

9.4.6 Solve problems involving orbital motion.

IBO 2007

+3 C

1m

+2 C

9.4.1 SATELLITES
he Moon orbits the Earth and in this sense it is oten
referred to as a satellite of the Earth. Before 1957 it was the
only Earth satellite! However, in 1957 the Russians launched
the irst man made satellite, Sputnik 1. Since this date many
more satellites have been launched and there are now
literally thousands of them orbiting the Earth. Some are
used to monitor the weather, some used to enable people
to ind accurately their position on the surface of the Earth,
many are used in communications, and no doubt some are
used to spy on other countries. Figure 932 shows how, in
principle, a satellite can be put into orbit.
he person (whose size is greatly exaggerated with respect
to Earth) standing on the surface on the Earth throws
some stones. he greater the speed with which a stone
is thrown the further it will land from her. he paths
followed by the thrown stones are parabolas. By a stretch
of the imagination we can visualise a situation in which
a stone is thrown with such a speed that, because of the
curvature of the Earth, it will not land on the surface of the
Earth but go into orbit. (Path 4 on igure 932).

267

CHAPTER 9

Tangential component of velocity

2
Satellite orbit

3
E arth

Satellite carried by rocket to here

E arth

4
Figure 933 Getting a satellite into orbit

9.4.2 KEPLERS THIRD LAW

AHL

Figure 932

Throwing a stone into orbit

he force that causes the stones to follow a parabolic path

and to fall to Earth is gravity and similarly the force that
keeps the stone in orbit is gravity. For circular motion
to occur we have seen that a force must act at right
angles to the velocity of an object, that is there must be a
centripetal force. Hence in the situation we describe here
the centripetal force for circular orbital motion about the
Earth is provided by gravitational attraction of the Earth.
We can calculate the speed with which a stone must be
thrown in order to put it into orbit just above the surface
of the Earth.
If the stone has mass m and speed v then we have from
Newtons 2nd law
M m
mv2
---------- = G -------E----RE
R2
E

where RE is the radius of the Earth and ME is the mass of

the Earth.
ME
- , then
Bearing in mind that g 0 = G ------R E2

v =

g RE =

10 6.4 10 6 = 8 10 3 .

hat is, the stone must be thrown at 8 103m s1.

(his work of Kepler and Newtons synthesis of the work is

an excellent example of the scientiic method and makes for
a good TOK discussion)
In 1627 Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) published his laws
of planetary motion. he laws are empirical in nature
and were deduced from the observations of the Danish
astronomer Tycho de Brahe (1546-1601). he third law
gives a relationship between the radius of orbit R of a
planet and its period T of revolution about the Sun. he
law is expressed mathematically as

T2
= constant
R3
We shall now use Newtons Law of Gravitation to show
how it is that the planets move in accordance with Keplers
third law.
In essence Newton was able to use his law of gravity to
predict the motion of the planets since all he had to do
was factor the F given by this law into his second law,
F = ma, to ind their accelerations and hence their future
positions.
In Figure 934 the Earth is shown orbiting the Sun and the
distance between their centres is R.
E arth

Clearly we are not going to get a satellite into orbit so

close to the surface of the Earth. Moving at this speed the
friction due to air resistance would melt the satellite before
it had travelled a couple of kilometres! In reality therefore
a satellite is put into orbit about the Earth by sending it,
attached to a rocket, way beyond the Earths atmosphere
and then giving it a component of velocity perpendicular
to a radial vector from the Earth. See Figure 933.

268

Sun

Fes

R
Fse

Figure 934 Planets move according to Keplers third law

Fes is the force that the Earth exerts on the Sun and Fse is the
force that the Sun exerts on the Earth. he forces are equal
and opposite and the Sun and the Earth will actually orbit
about a common centre. However since the Sun is so very
much more massive than the Earth this common centre
will be close to the centre of the Sun and so we can regard
the Earth as orbiting about the centre of the Sun. he other

MOTION IN FIELDS

Kepler had postulated that the orbits of the planets are

elliptical but since the eccentricity of the Earths orbit is
small we shall assume a circular orbit.
he acceleration of the Earth towards the Sun is a = R

2
where = -----T
Hence,

a = R -2
--
--T

R
= 4
-----------2
T

But the acceleration is given by Newtons Second Law,

F = ma, where F is now given by the Law of Gravitation.
So in this situation
GMs Me
F = ma = ------------------ , but, we also have that
2
R
2

4 R
a = ------------- and m = Me so that
2
T
3
2
G Ms Me
GM
R
4 R
------------------- = Me ------------- ----------s- = -----2
2
2
2
R
T
4
T
s
But the quantity ----------2
4

is a constant that has the same value for each of the planets
so we have for all the planets, not just Earth, that
3

R
------ = k
2
T
where k is a constant. Which is of course Keplers third
law.
his is indeed an amazing breakthrough. It is diicult
to refute the idea that all particles attract each other in
accordance with the Law of Gravitation when. the law
is able to account for the observed motion of the planets
about the Sun.
he gravitational efects of the planets upon each other
should produce perturbations in their orbits. Such is the
predictive power of the Universal Gravitational Law that
it enabled physicists to compute these perturbations. he
telescope had been invented in 1608 and by the middle of

the 18th Century had reached a degree of perfection in

design that enabled astronomers to actually measure the
orbital perturbations of the planets. heir measurements
were always in agreement with the predictions made by
Newtons law. However, in 1781 a new planet, Uranus was
discovered and the orbit of this planet did not it with
the orbit predicted by Universal Gravitation. Such was
the physicists faith in the Newtonian method that they
suspected that the discrepancy was due to the presence of
a yet undetected planet. Using the Law of Gravitation the
French astronomer J.Leverrier and the English astronomer.
J. C. Adams were able to calculate just how massive this
new planet must be and also where it should be. In 1846
the planet Neptune was discovered just where they had
predicted. In a similar way, discrepancies in the orbit of
Neptune led to the prediction and subsequent discovery
in 1930 of the planet Pluto. Newtons Law of Gravitation
had passed the ultimate test of any theory; it is not only
able to explain existing data but also to make predictions.

AHL

thing that we shall assume is that we can ignore the forces

that the other planets exert on the Earth. (his would not
be a wise thing to do if you were planning to send a space
ship to the Moon for example!). We shall also assume that
we have followed Newtons example and indeed proved
that a sphere will act as a point mass situated at the centre
of the sphere.

9.4.3-4 SATELLITE ENERGY

When a satellite is in orbit about a planet it will have both
kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy. Suppose
we consider a satellite of mass m that is in an orbit of radius
r about a planet of mass M.
he gravitational potential due to the planet at distance r
from its centre is

-----------e- .
r
he gravitational potential energy of the satellite Vsat
GMe m
is therefore --------r-------- .

GM m

e
hat is, Vsat = ---------------- .

he gravitational ield strength at the surface of the planet

is given by

GMe
g 0 = ---------R e2
Hence we can write

g R2
Vsat = ----0------e-r
2
he kinetic energy of the satellite Ksat is equal to mv ,
where v is its orbital speed.

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CHAPTER 9
By equating the gravitational force acting on the satellite
to its centripetal acceleration we have

GM e m
G Me m
mv 2
---------------- = --------- mv2 = ---------------- .
r
r
r2
From which

1 2
1 GMe m
--- mv = --- ---------------2
2
r

g 0R e 2m
2r

Which is actually quite interesting since it shows that,

irrespective of the orbital radius the KE is numerically
equal to half the PE, Also the total energy E tot of the
satellite is always negative since

he energies of an orbiting satellite as a function of radial

distance from the centre of a planet are shown plotted in
igure 935.

It is actually possible to deine the weight of a body in

several diferent ways. We can deine it for example as
the gravitational force exerted on the body by a speciied
object such as the Earth. his we have seen that we do
in lots of situations where we deine the weight as being
equal to mg. If we use this deinition, then an object in
free fall cannot by deinition be weightless since it is still
However,
if we deine the weight

in a gravitational
ield.

of an object in terms of a weighing process such as

the reading on a set of bathroom scales, which in efect
measures the contact force between the object and the
scales, then clearly objects in free fall are weightless. One
now has to ask the question whether or not it is possible.
For example, to measure the gravitational force acting on
an astronaut in orbit about the Earth. We shall return to
this idea of bodies in free fall when we look at Einsteins
General heory of Relativity in Chapter 19

1.2

We can also deine weight in terms of the net gravitational

force acting on a body due to several diferent objects. For
example for an object out in space, its weight could be
deined in terms of the resultant of the forces exerted on it
by the Sun, the Moon, the Earth and all the other planets
in the Solar System. If this resultant is zero at a particular
point then the body is weightless at this point.

kinetic ener gy
total ener gy

1.0
0.8

normilised energy

AHL

G Me m G M e m
1 G Me m
E tot = K sat + Vsat = 1-- --------------- + ---------------- = --- ---------------2
r
r
2 r

a set of bathroom scales, the scales would now read zero

- you would be weightless! It is this idea of free fall that
explains the weightlessness of astronauts in an orbiting
satellite. hese astronauts are in free fall in the sense that
they are accelerating towards the centre of the Earth.

potential ener gy

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2

10

12

distance / R

Y should be energy
-arbitrary units

Figure 935 Energy of an orbiting satellite as

a function of distance from the centre of a planet

9.4.5 WEIGHTLESSNESS
Suppose that you are in an elevator (lit) which is
descending at constant speed and you let go of a book that
you are holding in your hand. he book will fall to the
loor with acceleration equal to the acceleration due to
gravity. If the cable that supports the elevator were to snap
(a situation that I trust will never happen to any of you)
and you now let go the book that you are holding in your
other hand, this book will not fall to the loor - it will stay
exactly in line with your hand! his is because the book is
now falling with the same acceleration as the elevator and
as such the book cannot catch up with the loor of the
elevator. Furthermore, if you happened to be standing on

270

In view of the various deinitions of weight that are

available to us it is important that when we use the word
weight we are aware of the context in which it is being
used.

9.4.6 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING

ORBITAL MOTION
Example 1

Calculate the height above the surface of the Earth at

which a geo-stationary satellite orbits.

MOTION IN FIELDS

Solution

Solution

A geo-stationary satellite is one that orbits the Earth in such

a way that it is stationary with respect to a point on the
surface of the Earth. his means that its orbital period must
be the same as the time for the Earth to spin once on its axis
i.e. 24 hours.
3
G Ms
R
------=
---From Keplers third law we have
2
2.
4
T

We have seen that when dealing with gravitational ields

and potential it is useful to remember that

GM
g 0 = ------2--- or, g 0 R 2e = GM
Re
he gravitational potential at the surface of the Earth is

GM
g 0 R e = --------- .
Re

hat is,

he gravitational potential at a distance R

from the centre of the Earth is ---------

g0 R e
= ----------R

he diference in potential between the surface of the Earth

and a point distance R from the centre is therefore
using the fact that the force of attraction between the satellite
and the Earth is given by
G Me m
F = ---------------2
R
and that F = ma
2

4 R

Re
V = g 0 R e 1 ------

R
g 0 Re
If R = 2R e then V = ----------2
his means that the work required to lit the satellite into
orbit is g0Rm where m is the mass of the satellite. his is
equal to

where m is the mass of the satellite and a = ------------2

10 3.2 10 500 = 16000 MJ.

T
we have,

3
2
GM e m
GM
R
R
-----------2----- = m 4
------------- ------------e = ----22
2
R
T
T
4

However, the satellite must also have kinetic energy in order

to orbit Earth. his will be equal to
2

g 0 mR e
g 0 mR e
---------------- = ----------------- = 8000 MJ
2R
4

Now, the mass of the Earth is 6.0 1024 kg and the period, T,
measured in seconds is given by T = 86,400 s.

he minimum energy required is therefore

So substitution gives R = 42 106 m
24000 MJ.
he radius of the Earth is 6.4 106 m so that the orbital
height, h, is about 3.6 107 m.

Example 2

Calculate the minimum energy required to put a satellite

of mass 500 kg into an orbit that is as a height equal to the
Earths radius above the surface of the Earth.

271

AHL

Me

CHAPTER 9
6.

Exercises

1.

he speed needed to put a satellite in orbit does

not depend on

Answer: 9.6 103 m s-1

7.

A.
B.
C.
D.

the radius of the orbit.

the shape of the orbit.
the value of g at the orbit.
the mass of the satellite.

he radius of the moon is that of the Earth

Assuming Earth and the Moon to have the same
density, compare the accelerations of free fall at
the surface of Earth to that at the surface of the
Moon.

Answer: D

Answer: gMoon = 4gEarth

2.

9.

Estimate the speed of an Earth satellite whose

orbit is 400 km above the Earths surface. Also
determine the period of the orbit.

Answer: 2.6 103 m s-1, 1.6 104 s

AHL

A satellite in an orbit of 10r, falls back to Earth

(radius r) ater a malfunction. Determine the
speed with which it will hit the Earths surface?

3.

Calculate the speed of a 200 kg satellite, orbiting

the Earth at a height of 7.0 106 m.

Use the following data to determine the

gravitational ield strength at the surface of the
Moon and hence determine the escape speed from
the surface of the Moon.
Mass of the Moon = 7.3 10 22 kg, Radius of the
Moon = 1.7 10 6 m

Answer: 2.5 N kg-1, 3.0 103 m s-1

2

Assume that g = 8.2 m s for this orbit.

Answer: 1.0 104 m s-1
4.

he radii of two satellites, X and Y, orbiting

the Earth are 2r and 8r where r is the radius of
the Earth. Calculate the ratio of the periods of
revolution of X to Y.

Answer: 2
5.

A satellite of mass m kg is sent from Earths surface

into an orbit of radius 5R, where R is the radius of
the Earth.Write down an expression for
(a)

Answer: -

the potential energy of the satellite in orbit.

GM
5R

(b)

the kinetic energy of the satellite in orbit.

GM

Answer: 10 R
(c)

Answer: -

272

the minimum work required to send the

satellite from rest at the Earths surface into
its orbit.
GMm
5R