Aws WJ 201412

December 2014
PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
For Info, go to www.aws.org/adindex

North !

With our unmatched rolling capacity,
we can meet your heavy plate
rolling needs. Hodgson can roll
cylinders and segments up to 10
thick and diameters ranging from 1
to 20.
5"TH x
30"ID x 28"W
For all of your rolling, forming

and bending needs, please call
1-800-263-2547
3.5"TH x
40"ID x 200"L
Fax 1-905-356-6025
Email info@hcrsteel.com
wwwhecom
December 2014 Volume 93 Number 12
CONTENTS
FEATURES
40
Improving GMAW Efficiency through Shielding Gases

Practical recommendations are made to improve
welding operations through the use of argon-based
shielding gases D. Sarma
46
A Technology to Increase SAW Productivity

The use of an electrically isolated welding wire
helps to increase deposition rates in submerged arc
welding H. Raudsepp
48
A Must in Todays Workplace: WeldQuality Monitoring

Point-of-use monitoring and postweld verification
are two methods for improving weld quality
M. Albright
46
40
48
84
88
THE AMERICAN WELDER

80
Heat Tint Poses Corrosion Hazard in Stainless Steel

Advice is given on ways to eliminate heat tint
when welding stainless steel M. Fletcher
84
Welding Program Revitalized

A welding program is reborn and a dedicated
teacher inspires his students to look to the future
as welders A. Cullison
88
Considerations for Selecting Shop Grinders

The author evaluates different types of grinder
power sources and suggests which is best
A. H. Krieg
WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT

443s Characterization of Multilayered Multipass Friction
Stir Weld on ASTM A572 G50 Steel
A butt/lap joint configuration was friction stir
welded and its mechanical properties were
evaluated for the best welds Y. C. Lim et al.
451s Friction Stir Welding of Extruded Powder

Metallurgy Al Allloy
It was demonstrated that friction stir welding produced
joints without voids or discontinuities and a refined
microstructure in the stir zone A. Elrefaey et al.
A Numerical Model for the Prediction of Phase

TransformationInduced Compressive Residual
Stresses
Numerical analysis using the software Sysweld was
performed on gas metal arc welds made with lowtransformation-temperature welding wires
T. Alghamdi and S. Liu
472s Improvement of Process Robustness in Weld

Bonding of Galvanized DP780 Steel
A variable electrode force was used in this study to
widen the weld lobe Y. S. Zhang et al.
458s Low Transformation Temperature Welding

Consumables for Residual Stress Management:
DECEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 3
DEPARTMENTS
6
8
10
12
16
22
24
26
28
34
52
56
Editorial
Washington Watchword
Press Time News
International Update
News of the Industry
Business Briefs
Letters to the Editor
Brazing Q&A
Aluminum Q&A
Product & Print Spotlight
Coming Events
Certification Schedule
OFFICERS
President Dean R. Wilson
Welldean Enterprises
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Vice President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Vice President John R. Bray
Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
DIRECTORS
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Subsea Global Solutions
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
D. J. Burgess (Dist. 8), Alstom Power
N. C. Cole (Past President), NCC Engineering
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection &
Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
K. Fogleman (Dist. 16), Consultant
P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Sandia National Laboratories
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Jones (At Large), The Harris Products Group
J. Knapp (Dist. 17), Gas and Supply
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), K. A. Phy Services, Inc.
W. R. Polanin (At Large), Illinois Central College
W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Airgas USA, LLC,
NorthCentral Region
4 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2014
59
60
61
Society News
Tech Topics
Errata D1.2/D1.2M:2014
Amendment Notice
75 Guide to AWS Services
78 Personnel
The American Welder
90 Learning Track
94 Fact Sheet
96 Welding Journal Index
112 Classifieds
114 Advertiser Index
R. W. Roth (At Large), RoMan Manufacturing, Inc.

N. Saminich (Dist. 21), NS Inspection and Consulting
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
J. Stoll (Dist. 18), Bohler Welding Group U.S.
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), UL, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), Ford Motor Co.
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training &
Testing Institute
WELDING JOURNAL
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coor. Melissa Gomez
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
On the cover: A welding operator oversees a

submerged arc tandem welding application
in which two twin wire heads are placed in
sequence to achieve wire deposition rates of
up to 83.7 lb/h. (Photo courtesy of ESAB
Welding & Cutting Equipment, Florence, S.C.)
C. Coffey, Lincoln Electric

D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
S. Fyffe, Astaras, Inc.
D. Levin, Airgas
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, WeldAid Products
D. Wilson, Welldean Enterprises
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrop Grumman
Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 331666672
(305) 4439353 or (800) 4439353
Design and Production

Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Sr. Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Sr. Advertising Sales Exec. Sandra Jorgensen
Sr. Advertising Sales Exec. Annette Delagrange
Manager of Sales Operations Lea Paneca
Sr. Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
tmoore@aws.org
PUBLICATIONS, EXPOSITIONS,
MARKETING COMMITTEE
D. L. Doench, Chair, Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair, ESAB Welding
& Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary, American Welding Society
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
Welding Journal (ISSN 00432296) is published monthly by

the American Welding Society for $120.00 per year in the United
States and possessions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and $10.00 per single
issue for nonmembers and $14.00 single issue for international.
American Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36th St., # 130,
Miami, FL 331666672; telephone (305) 4439353. Periodicals
postage paid in Miami, Fla., and additional mailing offices. POST
MASTER: Send address changes to Welding Journal, 8669 NW
36th St., # 130, Miami, FL 331666672. Canada Post: Publications
Mail Agreement #40612608 Canada Returns to be sent to
Bleuchip International, P.O. Box 25542, London, ON N6C 6B2,
Canada.
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of articles for
personal, archival, educational or research purposes, and which
are not for sale or resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of authors and sources
is made. Starred (*) items excluded from copyright.
Copyright 2014 by American Welding Society in both
printed and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible for
any statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data and infor
mation developed by the authors of specific articles are for infor
mational purposes only and are not intended for use without inde
pendent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential users.
EDITORIAL
AWS Continues to Innovate
Dean R. Wilson
AWS President
This will be a
gamechanger in
how welders are
hired, how they ob
tain valuable skills
and credentials,
and how they will
be empowered to
perform better and
earn more over
their lifetime.
When I took office as president of the

American Welding Society just a year ago, I
unveiled my theme of continuous improvement through innovation. As it turned out,
2014 was a year of remarkable innovation at
AWS.
Today, I thank the entire Society its
70,000-plus members, more than 1000
committee members, Board of Directors,
160 Sections, 38 international agents, industry partners, hundreds of scholarship
donors, and 130 dedicated staff members
for coming through with so many innovations that are making history for our mission to advance the science, technology,
and application of welding and allied joining
and cutting processes. While thats the Societys historic mission, this year we informally expanded it to advancing the people
of welding.
By all measures, 2014 has been a great
year for AWS and its mission. We surpassed
all our financial goals and we are surpassing
our nonfinancial goals, as well.
Even more significantly, we have set the
stage for elevating AWS up to a much higher
level, with an impressive list of innovations
and improvements. As president, I kept you
informed through a series of video updates
on our progress for the first time ever.
Continuous improvement through innovation has been demonstrated in the sales
and marketing areas, with a brand-new
branding strategy, complete with an updated logo, a soon-to-be unveiled new website,
and a reorganized sales force that is active
around the world.
We have launched an AWS Asia office in
China, with three AWS employees there.
That gives us a brick-and-mortar presence
in Hong Kong and Beijing. And our recent
international agency meeting at our beautiful headquarters demonstrated expanded
relationships with dozens of educational
and industry partners from 17 countries.
Its all about the people of welding. We
introduced an AWS customer satisfaction
survey that gives us new metrics to work toward to exceed member expectations.
Following are just a few of what AWS has
accomplished this year:
The value of the research content in this
Welding Journal has more than tripled since
2008, according to the standard academic
measurement of research impact.

The recent FABTECH expo in Atlanta
was the biggest ever held outside of Chicago. And next years Chicago show has already broken all records for exhibitor space
reservations.
This year, hundreds of Certified Welding
Inspector candidates benefited from new
online training from AWS Learning, preparing them better than ever before for live
seminars, examination, and, ultimately,
their new professional responsibilities.
One of my priorities has been the fulfillment of a Master Welder credential. We want
to recognize those special welders who work
to perfect their craft. This year, more than
10,000 stakeholders were surveyed to provide
guidance for a blue-ribbon task group that is
developing the Master Welder program.
Continuous improvement requires great
staff and a strong technology infrastructure. A new chief information officer, Emilio
Del Riego, is leading a multimillion-dollar
modernization of AWSs IT system and web
technology.
With all these improvements in place,
AWS is poised to launch the most significant innovation of all. The Society has devoted a year to advancing the people of
welding, with new career management
tools, including stackable credentials, classroom and online training, and secure, efficient placement for qualified jobseekers.
Our goal is to provide welding professionals
with continuous career enhancement tools
from recruitment to retirement.
This will be a game-changer in how
welders are hired, how they obtain valuable
skills and credentials, and how they will be
empowered to perform better and earn
more over their careers.
Next month is the launch date for this
amazing innovation. Whether you are an
employer, an employee, a student, or an educator, you need to be ready to activate your
profile on this powerful and secure system.
This represents a revolution in how we work
in our industry, and its a superb demonstration of what we can gain from continuous improvement through innovation.
Again, I thank everyone in the AWS family around the world for a very successful
year of advancing the science, technology,
application, and people of welding. WJ
WASHINGTON WATCHWORD
Manufacturing Skills Legislation
Introduced
Inspired by the Race to the Top program created by the
Department of Education, which created competition
among schools to improve student metrics, a so-called Race
to the Shop legislation has been introduced in the House
and Senate. The Manufacturing Skills Act (S. 2897/H.R.
5564) would create an annual $100 million competitive
grant to support initiatives to strengthen the manufacturing workforce and address regional skills challenges. Grants
would be awarded to up to five states and five metropolitan
areas with the strongest and most comprehensive proposals.
Each winner would receive up to $10 million over a threeyear period. The state or metropolitan area that receives the
grant would also be required to provide at least 50% of the
grants value in matching funds. The grants would be intended to help promote reforms in workforce education and
skills training, under the administration of the Secretaries
of Commerce, Labor, Education and Defense, and the Director of the National Science Foundation.
CTE Legislation Introduced in the Senate

Two Senate bills have recently been introduced on a bipartisan basis, designed to boost career and technical education. The Career and Technical Education Opportunity Act
(S. 2795) would extend eligibility for federal student loans
to short-term career and technical education programs that
do not meet the current program length requirements under
Title IV of the Higher Education Act. This extended eligibility for federal aid would provide increased access to courses
that provide students with industry-recognized credentials.
The Creating Quality Technical Educators Act (S. 2867)
would create a CTE teacher-training grant partnership to recruit and train high-quality CTE teachers. The goal would be
to foster partnerships between high-needs secondary
schools and postsecondary institutions to create one-year
teacher residencies for CTE teachers. Through grants in the
Higher Education and Opportunity Act of 2008, many
teacher residency partnerships already exist between postsecondary institutions and local schools to train prospective
educators, but none is CTE focused. CTE teacher residencies
created through the Creating Quality Technical Educators
Act would target mid-career professionals in related technical fields, as well as recent college graduates, veterans, or
currently licensed teachers with a desire to transition to a
CTE focus.
GAO Directed to Assess Federal

Manufacturing Programs
A bipartisan group of U.S. Senators has asked the Government Accountability Office (GAO) to analyze federal
manufacturing policies and provide recommendations for
BY HUGH K. WEBSTER
improvement. The analysis should include the scope, effectiveness, and potential for redundancy of federal manufacturing programs and tax incentives. Apparently, there is
presently no official catalog of all federal programs designed
to support U.S. manufacturing, nor even a comprehensive
list of agencies charged with executing laws that affect
manufacturing.
White House Announces Three New

Manufacturing Initiatives
Three new federal agency actions designed to strengthen
advanced manufacturing have been announced by the White
House.
The Departments of Defense, Energy, and Agriculture
and NASA have announced more than $300 million expenditures for three technologies identified as critical to U.S.
competitiveness: advanced materials including composites
and bio-based materials, advanced sensors for manufacturing, and digital manufacturing.
The National Science Foundation, the Department of
Energy, and NASA are developing technology testbeds
within federal research facilities where companies can design, prototype, and test a new product or process.
This fall, the Department of Labor will launch a $100
Million American Apprenticeships Grant Competition to
spur new apprenticeship models and scale effective ones in
high-growth fields such as advanced manufacturing.
The Department of Commerces Manufacturing Extension Partnership will build new capabilities at its state-based
centers and pilot a competition for $130 million over five
years across ten states to help small manufacturers adopt
new technologies and bring new products to market.
New STEM Resource Released

The National Science Board, which is part of the National
Science Foundation, an independent government agency,
has released an interactive, online resource featuring new
and updated data and graphics about STEM education and
workforce in the U.S. and providing facts on topics such as
student proficiency, college degrees in STEM fields, and jobs
in science-related occupations. The resource features 60 central questions, organized by education level and the workforce, with multiple data points, graphs, and maps providing
the answers to each question. The new resource is available
at www.nsf.gov/nsb/sei/edTool.
Export Import Bank Renewed

Congress has quietly reauthorized the Export Import
Bank for at least one more year. The bank, which provides financing and insuring to foreign buyers of U.S.-made goods,
has been the subject of much debate as to its ongoing value
and viability, with defenders and detractors along the political spectrum. WJ
HUGH K. WEBSTER, AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at 1747 Pennsylvania
Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; email hwebster@wcb.com; FAX (202) 8350243.
PRESS TIME NEWS

Aiken Technical College Receives $195,000
Nuclear Regulatory Commission Grant to
Start Nuclear Welding Program
The new nuclear welding systems program at Aiken Technical

College will help fill the need for qualified nuclear welders in the
Central Savannah River Area. Pictured above, a student prac
tices his skills in a welding lab at the college.
A $195,000 grant from the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission will enable Aiken Technical College, Aiken, S.C., to
design and implement a nuclear welding systems program
on campus. It will also meet the critical demand for qualified
nuclear welders in the Central Savannah River Area.
The one-year, intensive pipe welding technology program
will serve as a stand-alone program for experienced welders
or an add-on certificate for students who plan to continue
their nuclear welding education. Additionally, it will be designed to meet industry welding standards and supported
with equipment, a mock-up industrial welding setting, and
online modules that cover nuclear welding specific topics.
Once developed, the program will join many others to be
taught in the colleges Center for Energy & Advanced Manufacturing currently under construction. This $8.5 million,
36,000-sq-ft facility will house the colleges welding, mechatronics, radiation protection technology, and nuclear quality
systems programs. Its expected to open for classes next fall.
In 2009, the Nuclear Energy Institutes Workforce Report
cited a short- and long-term need for craft workers due to
nuclear construction projects at the Department of Energys
Savannah River Site, as well as commercial sites in South
Carolina and Georgia. Also, the study projected 1146 craft
workers trained in nuclear welding systems would be needed
by 2020 in the Central Savannah River Area.
The demand for nuclear welders is important to meet the
workforce needs of the Mixed Oxide Fuel Fabrication Facility and Salt Waste Processing Facility at the Savannah River
Site, plus the construction of new nuclear reactors operated
by Southern Co. at Plant Vogtle in Waynesboro, Ga., and
SCANA Corp. at V.C. Summer Nuclear Power Station near
Columbia.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory Research

Reveals Unique Capabilities of 3D Printing
Researchers at the Department of Energys Oak Ridge
National Laboratory (ORNL), Oak Ridge, Tenn., have recently demonstrated an additive manufacturing method to
precisely control the structure and properties of metal
components.
Ryan Dehoff, staff scientist and metal additive manufacturing lead at the Department of Energys Manufacturing Demonstration Facility at ORNL, presented the research at the Materials Science & Technology 2014 conference in Pittsburgh, Pa.
We can now control local material properties, which
will change the future of how we engineer metallic components, Dehoff said. This new manufacturing method
takes us from reactive design to proactive design. It will
help us make parts that are stronger, lighter, and function
better for more energy-efficient transportation and energy
production applications such as cars and wind turbines.
The researchers demonstrated this method using an
ARCAM electron beam melting system where successive
layers of a metal powder are fused together by an electron
beam into a 3-D product. By manipulating the process to
manage the solidification on a microscopic scale, the researchers demonstrated 3-D control of the microstructure
of a nickel-based part during formation.
Were using well-established metallurgical phenomena,
but weve never been able to control the processes well
enough to take advantage of them at this scale and at this
level of detail, added Suresh Babu, the University of Tennessee-ORNL governors chair for advanced manufacturing. As a result of our work, designers can now specify location- specific crystal structure orientations in a part.
Other contributors to the research are ORNLs Mike Kirka and Hassina Bilheux; University of California Berkeleys
Anton Tremsin; and Texas A&M Universitys William Sames.
Recreational Vehicles Maker Expanding,

Creating 125 New Jobs
KZRV, LP, a maker of towable recreational vehicles, has
plans to expand its operations in Shipshewana, Ind., creating up to 125 new jobs by 2017.
The company will invest up to $4.83 million to construct and equip a new 80,750-sq-ft lamination facility in
Shipshewana. This dedicated area, to be fully operational
by late spring 2015, will allow the company to increase its
production capacity for lamination, aluminum frame welding, and towable recreational vehicle assembly.
Currently, KZRV (www.kz-rv.com) employs more than 360
full-time Indiana associates. It intends to begin hiring aluminum welders and general assembly workers in late spring
2015. Interested applicants may apply in person at the companys human resources office in Shipshewana, Ind. WJ
Welding Filler Metals for

Lasting Connections
voestalpine Bhler Welding

www.voestalpine.com/welding
Welding Filler Metals for

Lasting Connections
voestalpine Bhler Welding

www.voestalpine.com/welding
INTERNATIONAL UPDATE
Nizi International Acquires Chemalloy
Nizi International, Luxembourg, a distributor of base
metals and foundry products, and Chemalloy Company, Inc.,
Bryn Mawr, Pa., a manufacturer of custom-sized alloys, metals, minerals, and chemicals and supplier of metal powders,
have reached a nonbinding agreement that Nizi is to acquire
substantially all of the business and assets of Chemalloy.
Chemalloy will continue as a separate entity within the Nizi
Group, operating under the Chemalloy brand. Chemalloy
President and CEO Tony Demos and the companys management team plan to provide a seamless transition of the
Chemalloy business to the Nizi Group.
Though the core market of Nizi has been Europe, the acquisition of Miller and Company in 2012 strengthened the
position of the group in the U.S. foundry market. The acquisition of Chemalloy, which is expected to close before the
end of the year, will further strengthen the Nizi Group in
North America.
Regarding the acquisition, Dag Teigland, chairman of Nizi
International, said, Nizi International represents our longterm industrial commitment toward the metal industry and
we have high ambitions for the future development of the
Nizi Group. With a strong financial platform, a highly dedicated organization, and a robust business model, Nizi is well
positioned for growth and further geographical expansion.
Chemalloy fits right into this strategy. In addition, both
companies represent proud industrial traditions and share a
lot of the same values. Tony Demos has done a remarkable
job in developing Chemalloy over the last decades and we
thank him for his trust in us to take over his company. Together, we will continue to offer a reliable and competitive
supply of raw materials to our customers.
EuroBLECH 2014 Attracts International Audience
EuroBLECH 2014 hosted 59,600 trade visitors and exhibitors from

38 countries.
EuroBLECH 2014, the 23rd International Sheet Metal

Working Technology Exhibition, was recently held in
Hanover, Germany. 59,600 attended to learn about the latest technology trends for sheet metal processing. A record
number of 1573 exhibitors from 38 countries put a wide
range of products and live machine demonstrations on display, on a total net floor space of 87,500 m2.
EuroBLECH 2014 attracted a more international audience than previous years. Visitor survey data showed that
top visitor countries outside Germany were the Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland, Poland, Sweden, Turkey, the
Czech Republic, Spain, Great Britain, Belgium, and the U.S.

The busy atmosphere reflected the overall positive outlook
of the sheet metal working sector. The exhibition survey
showed that companies assess the current business climate
as more favorable than two years ago.
Nicola Hamann, managing director of Mack Brooks Exhibitions, the show organizers, said, The prevailing mood at
the show was positive throughout. There was lively trading
activity in the eight exhibition halls and many exhibiting
companies reported large numbers of international business
contacts and buoyant sales figures. A first analysis of the exhibitor survey shows that participating companies were
highly satisfied with the outcome of EuroBLECH 2014. A
vast majority of exhibitors were able to fully or largely reach
their target groups; they praised the quality of trade visitors
and the internationality of the audience.
Program Helps Employers Resolve Skill Shortages

In response to the skills shortage challenges facing Alberta employers, the Canada-Alberta Job Grant (CAJG) program was recently announced, which will offer substantial
funding support for employers to upgrade the skills of current and new employees. The program, which places the decisions about required training in the hands of employers,
will provide up to $10,000 in direct costs such as tuition and
other mandatory fees, books, and supplies for each trainee,
with employers covering a minimum one-third of the cost.
Employers can receive a maximum $300,000 grant per year.
In anticipation of the announcement, SAIT Polytechnic
has put in place a team of specialists dedicated to helping
employers with the grant application process. The job grant
program is closely aligned to SAITs real-world, hands-on
training and weve identified dozens of SAIT programs that
meet the funding criteria, said Rod Miller, associate vice
president of corporate training at SAIT. Were also wellpositioned to customize training to an employers specific
needs.
To qualify, training will be more than 25 h long and will
be completed within 52 weeks of the approval date. It cannot replace existing training offered by an employer, and it
must be delivered by a third-party provider such as SAIT.
Training can be full-time or part-time and can be delivered
in the classroom, at the workplace, or online.
Shiloh Industries Expands Stamping

Business into Central Mexico
Shiloh Industries, Inc., a supplier of lightweighting, noise
and vibration products, recently announced its acquisition
of Radar Industries, Warren, Mich. The purchase leverages
Radar Industries tooling technologies, stamping capabilities, and key customer relationships, and expands its existing manufacturing capacity to include Central Mexico and
Michigan.
The acquisition includes three metal stamping plants
two located in Warren, Mich. and the other in Celaya, Mex.
It also includes a sales and technical center, also in Warren.
Radar is comprised of approximately 325 workers in the U.S.
and Mexico. WJ
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

Sheet Metal Welding Conference XVI
Highlights Premiere Resistance, Laser,
and Arc Welding Advancements
back. The automotive industry is being challenged with creating lighter-weight structures, requiring welding professionals to stay informed as technology changes, Poss said.
At the traditional vendor display event, held the evening
of October 23, more than 30 booths represented various
welding equipment and technology companies. Susann
Morfino of MJM Sales, Inc., organized the gala. Guests visited the exhibits, networked, and tasted hors doeuvres.
In addition, on October 21 (before the conference began),
the Aluminum Welding Workshop at R & E Automated Systems, LLC, Macomb, Mich., attracted 75 participants. This
tutorial covered resistance spot welding of aluminum with
several product overviews and equipment demonstrations.
The biennial SMWC will be held again in 2016. Proceeds
support the AWS Detroit Section scholarships and educational programs. For more details, visit www.awsdetroit.org.
Kristin Campbell, associate editor
Posing for a group portrait at the Sheet Metal Welding Confer

ence XVI (from left) are Mike Palko (2010 chair), Michael Poss
(2014 chair), and Mark D. Gugel (2012 chair).
One-hundred and eighty attendees recently gathered to

learn the latest developments presented during the Sheet
Metal Welding Conference (SMWC) XVI held October 2224
at Schoolcraft College VisTaTech Center, Livonia, Mich.
Sponsored by the American Welding Societys (AWS)
Detroit Section, this highly regarded event took place in cooperation with the Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance, a Standing Committee of AWS; EWI; and the Advanced Laser Applications Workshop.
Alan Taub, chief technical officer, American Lightweight
Materials Manufacturing Innovation Institute, and professor, material science and engineering, University of Michigan, gave the keynote speech. Challenges in Manufacturing
a Multi-Material Vehicle focused on gas prices; vehicle
weight reductions; advanced high-strength steels; aluminum; and joining/assembly themes. Weve gotten better
at designing, engineering, manufacturing and are not talking about single material vehicles anymore, Taub said. Challenges for future body construction include the need to be
able to join any combination of materials in any form with
low cost, high stiffness, durability, and corrosion resistance.
During the conferences technical sessions chaired by
academic, automotive, and other industry leaders nearly
50 papers were presented. These titles represent the covered
processes: Resistance Welding of Lightweight BIW Metals;
Resistance Welding II: Control; Adhesives and Fastening;
Laser Welding I: Welding Process; Arc Welding I: Lightweight Metals; Resistance Welding III: Steels; Arc Welding II:
Steels/Laser Welding: Evaluation; Laser Welding II: Process
Monitoring and Simulation; and Solid State Welding.
Michael Poss, senior project engineer laser joining, advanced technology and welding, General Motors Co., served
as SMWC XVI chair. I was pleased we met the interest level
of attendees. They came away with a good education of the
topics, Poss said. He also shared what keeps people coming
Washington State Community College

Debuts New Welding Lab
Welding instructor Josh Horner is shown in the beginning process

of building Washington State Community Colleges welding lab.
Dr. Bradley Ebersole, president of Washington State

Community College, Marietta, Ohio, recently welcomed area
dignitaries to cut a ribbon at the schools new welding lab
where students will have the ability to earn American Welding Society certifications.
The demand for qualified welders in eastern and southeastern Ohio is higher than ever due to the increased domestic energy production in both Marcellus and Utica shale
formations. Recognizing this opportunity, Washington State
Community College launched a one-year welding certificate
program, said Congressman Bill Johnson.
This certificate includes shielded metal arc welding, gas
metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, plate and pipe
welding, as well as set-up techniques. Safety and hands-on
experience are priorities, too.
Welding instructor Josh Horner is ASME certified, a
graduate of the West Virginia University Parkersburg weld-
ing program, and has numerous years of experience working

in area fabrication shops. He mentioned being excited about
offering extra lab hours and evening with daytime classes.
Local industries will be looking for individuals who are
able to fill welding positions. Additionally, other local industries that supply equipment and services to oil companies
are looking for welders.
There are many employment opportunities that a oneyear welding certification from the community college can
be applied to, including fabrications, power and chemical
plants, pipeline and drilling, plus riverboats.
Union Pacific Railroad Invests $29 Million

to Strengthen Infrastructures
Union Pacific Railroad, Omaha, Neb., will strengthen Nebraskas transportation infrastructure by investing $11 million in the rail line between Grand Island and Gibbon, Neb.
The railroad will replace 78,400 concrete railroad ties and install 14,400 tons of rock ballast.
In addition, Union Pacific Railroad will strengthen
Kansas transportation infrastructure by investing $18 million in the rail line between Paola and Parsons, Kan. It will
replace 77,000 railroad ties, install 39,200 tons of rock ballast, and renew the surfaces at 118 road crossings. Crews
will also replace nearly 12 miles of rail in various locations
between Paola and Parsons.
Both projects, funded entirely by the company without
taxpayer dollars, are scheduled to be done by mid-December.
United States Naval Ship Fall River

Gets Delivered
The joint highspeed vessel United States Naval Ship Fall River, as
seen above, completes acceptance trials testing and evaluations
in the Gulf of Mexico. (U.S. Navy photo.)
The U.S. Navy recently accepted delivery of a joint highspeed vessel, the future United States Naval Ship Fall River,
from the Austal USA shipbuilder.
Today, the Navy received a tremendous asset, said
Strategic and Theater Sealift Program Manager Capt. Henry
For info, go to www.aws.org/adindex
Stevens. The addition of Fall River to the fleet will enhance

our forward presence and ability to bolster global security
from the sea by quickly transporting significant resources to
a wide array of geographic regions throughout the world in
time of need.
The Fall River has a core crew of 22 civilian mariners who
operate and navigate the ship as part of the U.S. Navys Military Sealift Command. This delivery also follows completing
its builders and acceptance trials in July.
Joint high-speed vessels are noncombatant transport
ships built from a commercial design with limited modifications for military use.
Richmond Community College Graduates

Get Back to Work as Ferro Fab Welders
Ferro Fab, Hamlet, N.C., a manufacturer of specialized
metal components, has added two new welders to its workforce who recently received their welding certificates from
Richmond Community College, also located in Hamlet.
Anthony Allred and Ronald Legrande attended the college through a grant program called North Carolina Back-toWork. It helps long-term unemployed or underemployed individuals receive skills training to pursue new careers. The
grant covers tuition and supplies for individuals who qualify.
Getting this job has been excellent help to me and my
family, said Allred. He added that welding is challenging,
but he picked up on the new skill rather quickly.
According to Malcolm McLester, Ferro Fab plant manag-
Pictured (from left) are Ferro Fab welder Anthony Allred, Rich
mond Community College Director of Customized Training Lee
Eller, Ferro Fab Plant Manager Malcolm McLester, and Ferro Fab
welder Ronald Legrande with a giant spool built by welders at
the Hamletbased industry.
er, this program has helped find good candidates to hire.

While we like to hire people who have work experience, this
is a good starting point for these guys. We get them in here
and get them exposed to the work and integrated into the
business. We like to promote within, so there are opportunities to advance up the ladder.
/ Perfect Welding / Solar Energy / Perfect Charging

/ Perfect Welding / Solar Energy / Perfect Charging
,++*)('&%$#)"!&
+&+(+&
'& +)"!+)%)&
+
++
+
+ + +)+
+ +
+
+
jobs out in the country or welding work at exposed locations:
until recently, jobs like these always involved costly and timeconsuming preparations. Long mains supply leads or big, heavy
8 kVA generators are now no longer necessary. AccuPocket
&+)+#%"!+%$))%+(%'")++#)"!&
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+ &++%
+ +
++ +
rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. Contact your local sales team
for more information. www.fronius-usa.com
,&++)++'!'
+ + +
+
)!+'
+ !+)%'&")+ )+&
+
+
+ ++#)"!&
+
+

++'
+ +
!'%!+#)"!&
+
+'&
+
)+
+ )+)
+
+(")!$
+
'%+(#)%+%)+)+
+
+
+ + )
+
+ !&&!'"" +'&"%)!++)+()&&+#)"!&
+
+ + +
+
+'"")
+
)+'+)%+'
+
+ +
+
+ )""&) +
+ & ++
"&)++"#+(')%+
+
+
+
+ %"+'
+ !++(")+"&+
+
+
+
+ %"+)
+ '")+"%'$&+%')"+())!+"#+(')%+'
+
+
+
+ +
+ !+&)%+
+
+
productivity.
,+!"'%+
+
+ )(++)' ++(%'!)+&'++&+%+)+&
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+ + + )% )
/ Plain text display graphical user interface makes it easy to operate.

/ Plug & Weld automatic component detection no tools needed.
www.fronius-usa.com
Publication Regarding Thoriated

Tungsten Electrodes
The International Institute of Welding, Commission VIII
Health and Safety, recently published a report in which it
makes recommendations regarding the use of thoriated
tungsten electrodes. The abstract can be seen and the full report purchased for $39.95 at http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40194-014-0197-9.
In March, the AWS Safety and Health Committee
updated its Fact Sheet 27 on Thoriated Tungsten
Electrodes. The fact sheet can be downloaded free of
charge at www.aws.org/technical/facts/fact-27-201405.pdf.
Industry Notes
Support the Enlisted Project, a San Diego-based military focused 501(c)(3) nonprofit, was recently presented a
check for more than $74,000 from the Gas and Welding
Distributors Association at its 2014 annual convention as
part of the organizations gives back program to support local charities in the meetings host city. The other nonprofit
selection was Warrior Foundation - Freedom Station.
Laboratory Testing, Inc., Hatfield, Pa., has added moisture analysis to its list of materials testing services offered.
continued on page 110
Friends and Colleagues:

The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual
members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image
and impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counsel shall be based on an individuals
career of outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in
the welding industry by one or more of the following:
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the
welding industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing
commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees
in industry activities.
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to
training and vocational education in the welding industry. The individuals
organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced
by support of participation of its employees in industry activities.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at
wreeve@aws.org at AWS headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the
Counselor nomination form located at http://www.aws.org/awards/fellow_counselor.html.
Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made major contributions to
our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2015. The
Counselors Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Counselor nominations for 2016
consideration.
Sincerely,
Lee Kvidahl
Chair, Counselor Selection Committee
Friends and Colleagues:

The American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to
recognize members for distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and
technology, and for promoting and sustaining the professional stature of the field. Election as a
Fellow of the Society is based on outstanding accomplishment and technical impact of the
individual. Such accomplishments will have advance the science, technology and application of
welding, as evidenced by:
Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and
technology
Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of welding
Innovative development of welding technology
Society and Section contributions
Professional recognitions
I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feel
have a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the
standards set by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you
look to the most senior members of your Section or District in considering members for
nomination. In many cases, the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most
familiar with their contributions, and who would normally nominate the candidate, are no long
with us. I want to be sure that we take the extra effort required to make sure that those truly
worthy are not overlooked because no obvious individual was available to start the nomination
process.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at
wreeve@aws.org at AWS headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the
Fellow nomination form located at http://www.aws.org/awards/fellow_counselor.html. Please
remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made major contributions to our
chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2015. The Fellows
Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2016 consideration.
Sincerely,
Thomas M. Mustaleski
Chair, AWS Fellows Committee
BUSINESS BRIEFS
Alcoa Opens AluminumLithium
Aerospace Plant in Indiana
manufacturing of plastic injection tooling); Oregon State

University (to develop two alternative mold fabricating approaches and evaluate for functionality, precision, and cost
reduction potential); and the University of Texas at Arlington (to develop a manufacturing system that will autonomously prepare small motor subsystems and assemble
the motor components).
ASTM International Reveals New Brand Identity
Alcoas aluminumlithium plant in Lafayette, Ind., produces third

generation aluminumlithium alloys for the aerospace industry,
including for the Airbus A380 and A350, as pictured here. (AIR
BUS S.A.S. 2013 photo by exm company/F. LANCELOT.)
Alcoa has recently launched an aluminum-lithium plant

in Lafayette, Ind., where third-generation aluminum-lithium
alloys are produced for the aerospace industry.
The Lafayette cast house, next to its extrusion plant, can
produce more than 20,000 metric tons (44 million lb) of aluminum-lithium annually making it the largest facility of
its kind in the world, according to the company.
Alcoas materials scientists invented a majority of the alloys produced at the facility as well as the casting equipment
and processing technology. The company offers various aluminum-lithium products, including extruded, forged, and
rolled parts. It produces single-piece wing skins, including
for wide-body airplanes, fuselage skins, wing stringers, floor
beams, seat tracks, and other components.
The plant opening will also create 75 new positions.
Alcoa is building upon our states strong manufacturing
tradition, creating even more good-paying jobs that will engage a skilled Indiana workforce, said Indiana Lt. Gov. Sue
Ellspermann.
Walmart U.S. Manufacturing Innovation

Fund to Award $10 Million in Grants
The first grant recipients of the Walmart U.S. Manufacturing Innovation Funds $10 million commitment, which
will extend over the next five years, have been announced.
Seven research and development institutions were awarded a total of $4 million in grants to create new processes,
ideas, and job creation that will foster an increase in Americas manufacturing footprint.
Included among the winners are Indiana University-Purdue University at Indianapolis (to advance and accelerate
the industrial implementation of metal 3D printing for the
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pa., introduced its new brand identity at the fall meetings of the organizations board of directors in Seoul, South Korea. In addition to being a large standards-creating organization, it currently offers training, proficiency testing, and certification.
The new purpose statement, Helping our world work
better, articulates succinctly why the organization exists as
well as its primary ambition. The logo that has served for
more than 100 years was also refined, resulting in a less angular and more contemporary monogram. A video showing
ASTM standards improving lives around the world is posted
on the organizations YouTube channel.
Thermal Spray Technologies to Expand

Thermal Spray Technologies, Inc., is expanding its facility
in Sun Prairie, Wis., representing an $11.5 million project
expected to create about 200 new jobs.
The company purchased a 92,000-sq-ft building near its
existing facility in the Sun Prairie Business Park, which will
undergo a complete renovation. Construction is under way
with a completion date projected for early 2015.
The expansion, which ultimately will triple the size of the
companys workforce, is in response to increased customer
demand. It will also enable installation of industrial coating
and machining technology.
The Wisconsin Economic Development Corp. is providing
the company with up to $750,000 in Economic Development Tax Credits over the next three years.
Recent Acquisitions
Wall Colmonoy Corp., Madison Heights, Mich., a manufacturer of surfacing and brazing products, castings, and engineered components, has announced the acquisition of
Franklin Bronze & Alloy Co., Inc., a provider in the investment casting industry. The company will be renamed
Franklin Bronze Precision Components, LLC, and become a
wholly owned subsidiary of Wall Colmonoy.
Tech Air, Danbury, Conn., a distributor of industrial/
specialty gases and related welding supplies, has recently
acquired US Oxygen & Supply, Arlington, Tex., along with
Specialty Air Technologies, Long Beach, Calif. Tech Air now
operates through 25 branch and fill plant locations and is
serving customers in the Northeast, Southeast, Southwest,
and West, said Myles Dempsey Jr., the companys CEO. WJ
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

AWS CWI and CWE
Ivy Tech Community College
Evansville, Ind.
Welding Efforts Donated to

Museum and Memorial Ship
Earn High Praise
This letter is in response to Melissa Gomezs
article, Volunteers Repair Historic Navy
Warship, published on pages 9698 of the
Welding Journals September 2014 issue. It
details the welding skills volunteered by stu
dents from Ivy Tech Community College to
the LST325, a decommissioned U.S. Navy
tank landing ship.
Thank you so much for a wonderfully written article! My Welding Journal

has made its rounds here at the college
and gotten my program a great deal of
attention from inside and outside the
college. Ive even had calls from potential students asking if they will get to
work on the ship if they enroll. I love
the quotes from the students and John
Engstrom (vice president, board of directors, USS LST Ship Memorial). You
did a fantastic job!
John C. Durbin
Program Chair, Industrial Technology
Assistant Professor, Welding Specialty
Droplet Oscillation Research

Supplement Gets Discussed
This correspondence references the part I
experimental study, and part II modeling
and analysis, of the Active Metal Transfer
Control by Utilizing Enhanced Droplet Oscil
lation research supplements by J. Xiao, G.
J. Zhang, W. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang in the
Welding Journals August 2014 (pp. 282s to
291s) and September 2014 (pp. 321s to
330s) issues. A response is also provided.
The authors did a good job describing their investigations. However, I

have a few questions and comments.
What was the duration of a complete typical droplet transfer cycle?
By my observation of their oscillograms, figures, and charts, it seems as
if the duration ranged from 50 to 60
msec per cycle. (This range seems to
agree with an article in the Welding
Journals July 2013 issue, pp. 205-s to
217-s, concerning the same subject.)
INDUCTION HEATING SYSTEMS

Sales, Rentals, Lease Programs
Weld Preheating,
Post-Weld Heat Treatment,
Coating Removal, Shrink Fit,
Liquid- and Air-Cooled Systems
In addition, what is the practical

welding current range in terms of either average current or rms current? Stated another way, what is the
practical wire feed speed range?
By use of the droplet and wire dimensions reported, and a cycle duration of 50 msec, I calculated a feed rate
as follows:
Let D0 = wire diameter = 0.8 mm
and D1 = droplet diameter = 1.01.3
mm (see pages 216-s and 329-s previously cited).
When, for example, we choose D0 =
0.8 mm, D1 = 1.0 mm, duration = 50
msec.
Then let D1 = 1.25D0 drop volume,
V1 = (1/6) (1.25)3D03 wire volume, V0
= (1/4)D02L where L = length of wire
consumed to make a droplet.
When V0 = V1 by rearrangement,
L = (2/3) (1.25)3D0 = 1.04 mm (approximately 1.0 mm).
For a 50 msec cycle, the feed rate is
about 47 in./min when D1 = 1.3 mm
and D0 = 0.8 mm, D1 = 1.625D0.
Then L = (2/3) (1.625)3D0 = 2.29
mm.
For a 50 msec cycle, the feed rate is
about 108 in./min.
For a feed rate range of 47108
in./min, an 0.8-mm steel wire uses an
average current of less than 50 A (see
Welding Handbook, Vol. 2, p. 179, 9th
edition). This is a very limited welding
range if my sample calculations above
are correct.
Also, what is the practical welding
current range the authors expect with
this type of metal transfer?
August F. Manz
AWS Fellow
Union, N.J.
I am happy that our papers drew your
attention. I regret that they did not provide certain details.
The analysis and calculation you performed are correct, and it is true that our
average current is less than 50 A. Our
goal was actually to reduce the current as
much as we can while still transferring
droplets in desired way. Hence, being less
than 50 A exemplified the effectiveness of
our method.
reddarc.com/ihs
1-866-733-3272
YuMing Zhang, PhD

Professor and Director of Welding
Research Laboratory
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Ky.
BRAZING Q&A
BY TIM HIRTHE
Q: We are making a joint between a braided copper (Cu) cable and a Cu

post/rivet using a filler metal of 95% cadmium (Cd) and 5% silver (Ag). The
flux we are using leaves a residue and the design of the assembly makes it dif
ficult, if not impossible, to clean. The problem is that the residue is very corro
sive. It is a riveted, electrical connection so it does not require significant
strength, just good electrical properties. Since we are joining Cu, it has been
suggested we use a solder and a noncorrosive rosinbased flux. These assem
blies operate at an elevated temperature and we need to perform our joining
operation at 600F (315C) minimum so we have ruled out soldering. We have
investigated flux materials on the market that are used for joining Cu to alu
minum (Al) that have noncorrosive residues. If they are good on Cu to Al, we
wonder whether they can be used on Cu to Cu. It seems Cu to Cu should be
easier to join. They appear to be in an acceptable temperature range also.
What do you recommend?
A: First, I must address your use of

cadmium (Cd). Historically, Cd was
commonly found in metal-joining
workplaces, but as its toxicity became
better understood, its use has declined. Cadmium is one of six substances specifically restricted in the
European Restriction of Hazardous
Substances directive (RoHS). The most
dangerous forms of exposure are
through dust and fumes. These can be

generated in the brazing and soldering
processes. For as long as you work
with this Cd-bearing filler metal, you
must make sure the work areas are
properly ventilated and that safehandling procedures are in place to ensure employee safety. Guidance on this
is available from ANSI Z49.1:2012,
Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied
Processes, available as a free download

from the American Welding Society
website www.aws.org.
My first recommendation is to replace the Cd/silver (Ag) alloy with
something else. Assuming you are going to continue to use it until an alternative is qualified, Ill address the flux
issue.
This filler metal has a melting range
of 640740F (338393C). I am not
sure which flux you are using, but it
most likely contains one of several
chlorides and may even contain hydrochloric acid. These types of fluxes
are commonly used with highertemperature filler metals used above
400 to about 800F (205 to 425C).
This type of flux is needed to be active
in this range. As you can tell from
these ingredients, there will be significant corrosion if left on the parts.
Fluxes have specific temperature
ranges in which they are active.
General-purpose brazing fluxes do
not become active until about 1000F
(537C), which is considerably higher
PIPE WELDERS... PURGE PROBLEMS?

INTERPURGE... IS YOUR SOLUTION!
WHY SETTLE FOR THIS?
316L Stainless w/ Argon Purge @ 250ppm Oxygen Level
NOTE: 1% Oxygen in Atmosphere is 2,094.6 ppm!
WHEN YOU CAN HAVE THIS!
PURGE 2-3 MINUTES!

DAMS FOR ALL SIZES
ASSORTED PURGE
KITS AVAILABLE
PURGE MONITORS
(OXYGEN TO 1PPM)
QUICK & ACCURATE

PIPE ALIGNMENT
316L Stainless w/ Argon Purge @ 12ppm Oxygen Level
PERFECT PURGING = HIGH QUALITY WELDS
than your operation. The only other

fluxes that are active between the lowtemperature solder range and the
general-purpose brazing fluxes are
the aluminum (Al) fluxes. This is why
your question is very reasonable.
In general, Al fluxes do not work on
other alloy systems. As you illustrate
with your question, however, there are
some materials that are capable of
joining Al to other metals such as Cu.
It has also been known that some Al
brazing processes can bond to stainless steel as found in the cookware industry. In the case of Al to Cu, the
filler metals are zinc (Zn) based. These
have similar melting temperatures to
the filler metal you are using now.
There are commercially available
fluxes for Al in the temperature range
you are looking for. Unfortunately, the
noncorrosive aspect is a bit deceiving.
If you are joining Al to Al, the flux
residues can be noncorrosive. After
joining, there are Al compounds that
are left on the components. When you
join something other than Al base
metals, the Al in the residue will create
a galvanic cell. In your case, if you
swap out the chloride-bearing flux for
one of these Al fluxes, you swap out
chloride corrosion for galvanic corrosion. They are not an option.
There really are no viable noncorrosive fluxes in the temperature range
that you are faced with using the
Cd/Ag alloy. It takes you back to trying
to replace the alloy. Other than Al alloys, the only other reasonable choice
is a Zn-based material. The most common are in the Zn-tin group. You need
high Zn content as the most common
ones with intermediate amounts of Zn
have melt ranges that are as low as
390F (200C). Others need to be approached with caution as many also
contain Cd, which would defeat the
purpose of changing alloys to eliminate it.
There is a series of active solders
that you might want to investigate.
They are solders with alloying additions that make them wet a variety of
materials without flux. They require a
small abrasive action while the solder
is molten to activate the bonding
process, thus the term active solder. I
am not sure that there is a hightemperature option for your application but it might be worth trying.
Your best option may be to go to a
low-temperature Cu/phosphorus (P)
alloy. These are in the AWS BCuP
group. They are higher in temperature,

generally melting between 1100 and
1300F (593704C), but they need
no flux for Cu-to-Cu brazing. Being Cu
based, and perhaps having a bit of Ag
in them, depending on the alloy selected, the electrical properties should be
acceptable.
In summary, the temperature range
you are using has limited options for
fluxing, but there are viable alternatives to the Cd/Ag alloy currently being used. For safety and health reasons, as well as manufacturing flexibility, an alternative should be sought. WJ
This column is written sequentially by TIM

P. HIRTHE, ALEXANDER E. SHAPIRO, and DAN
KAY. Hirthe and Shapiro are members of and
Kay is an advisor to the C3 Committee on
Brazing and Soldering. All three have con
tributed to the 5th edition of AWS Brazing
Handbook.
Hirthe (timhirthe@aol.com) currently
serves as a Brazing & Soldering Manufactur
ers Committee (BSMC) vice chair and owns his
own consulting business.
Shapiro (ashapiro@titaniumbrazing.com)
is brazing products manager at Titanium
Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio.
Kay (dan.kay@kaybrazing.com), has more
than 40 years of experience in the industry,
and operates his own brazing training and
consulting business.
Post your questions for use in this column
on the Brazing Forum section of the BSMC
website www.brazingandsoldering.com.
3,000
CONTRACTORS
100,000
IRONWORKERS
Ironw
nw
workers
kers
SAFETY, QUALITY,
Y, PRODUCTIVITY
UCTIVITY
www.ironwork
orkers.org | www.impact-ne
-net.org
ALUMINUM Q&A
Q: Below are the questions and
answers for the quiz published in
the Welding Journals October
2014 Aluminum Q&A column. The
names of the ten winners are also
posted.
1. Which of the following American
landmarks, built in 1884, has an alu
minum pyramid cap on its top?
A Lincoln Memorial
B Washington Monument
C Jefferson Memorial
D Benjamin Franklin Memorial
The answer is B. The capstone of
the Washington Monument is made of
aluminum, which was at the time
(1884) a precious metal (see Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Setting the aluminum capstone

on the top of the Washington Monu
ment. The capping ceremony was con
ducted in December 1884, and the
formal dedication of the monument was
in February 1885. Both were given front
page publicity in the nations newspa
pers, and the aluminum point or apex
was honorably described. Hundreds of
thousands, perhaps millions, of people
who had never before even heard about
aluminum now knew what it was.
2. In what year was the filler metal

Alloy 4043A registered with the Alu
minum Association?
A There is no such aluminum filler
metal alloy.
B 1954
C 1976
D 1981
The answer is C. The registration
dates for all the international alu28 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2014
BY TONY ANDERSON
minum designations are listed in the

Aluminum Associations International
Alloy Designations and Chemical Composition Limits for Wrought Aluminum and Wrought Aluminum Alloys
also known as the Registration
Record Series Teal Sheets. This information is available as a free download
at www.aluminum.org/resources/industry-standards. Click on the Teal Sheets.
3. Which of the following alu
minum alloys has been cooled from
an elevated temperature shaping
process (not cold worked after cool
ing) and naturally aged to a substan
tially stable condition?
A 6463-T1
B 6063-T2
C 6351-T4
D 6063-T5
E 6061-T6
The answer is A. The Alloy and
Temper Designation System for Aluminum (ANSI H35.1 / H35.1(M)
2013) clearly shows the T1 temper is a
material that was cooled from an elevated temperature shaping process
and naturally aged to a substantially
stable condition. This temper is not
cold worked to improve strength after
cooling. The T2 temper is essentially
the same temper, but cold worked after cooling to improve strength.
4. In accordance with the require
ments of AWS D1.2/D1.2M:2008,
Structural Welding Code Alu
minum, what is the bending diameter
to be used for base Alloys 7005 and
2219 when conducting a guided bend
test?
A 6t
B 8t
C 10t + 18 in.
D It is different for each alloy.
The answer is B. Figure 3.13 of
AWS D1.2/D1.2M:2008 clearly shows
the 7005 (M27) and 2219 (M24) to
both have a bending diameter of 8t.
Additional information: Clause
3.8.1.7, Special Bending Conditions,
shows that the 7005 (M27) shall be
bend tested within two weeks of welding (this is because of the natural aging capability of this base metal) and
2219 (M24) shall be annealed before
bending (this is because of the major
changes in ductility within the weld
area of this base metal when in the aswelded condition).

minum, what is the minimum tensile
strength required when conducting a
reduced section tension test on Alclad
3003H112 tube 12 in. thick?
A 11 ksi
B 14 ksi
C 15 ksi
D 13 ksi
The answer is D. Table 3.2 of AWS
D1.2/D1.2M:2008 clearly shows 3003H112 (M21) tube of all thickness to
have a minimum tensile strength requirement of 13 ksi.
6. Which of the listed aluminum
filler metal classifications would be
the most appropriate to weld 5052
base metal that is going to be used in
a service environment with a sus
tained elevated temperature of
250F?
A ER5356
B ER4043
C ER5556
D ER5183
The answer is B. The sustained elevated temperature for aluminum alloys is recognized as being between
150 and 350F. If 5xxx series base
metal or filler metal with more than
3% magnesium (Mg) content is subjected to prolonged exposure to these
temperatures, precipitate can form
within it that is highly anodic to the
Al-Mg matrix. This continuous grain
boundary network of precipitate produces susceptibility to stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) and the potential for
premature component failure.
The 5052 base metal contains less
than 3% Mg and is therefore suitable
for use at prolonged elevated temperature. ER5356, ER5556, and ER5183,
however, are all filler metals that contain more than 3% Mg (around 5%
Mg). While they could be used to weld
5052 base metal, none is suitable for
prolonged elevated temperature service. Filler metal ER4043 contains no
Mg and is therefore suitable for use at
elevated temperature. Arguably, the
ER5554 filler metal could be a good or
even better choice for this application
as it has a maximum Mg content of
3%, making it suitable for prolonged
elevated temperature service, and it
also has improved strength and tough-
ness when compared to ER4043 (unfortunately, it was not one of the answer options given for this question).
7. What would be the most appro
priate aluminum filler metal to weld
6061T6 base metal that 1) is going to
be clear coat anodized after welding,
2) is required to be a good color
match with the base metal after an
odizing, and 3) will be going into a
service environment with a sustained
elevated temperature of 270F?
A ER5356
B ER4043
C ER6061
D ER5554
The answer is D. With this question, we have two important considerations color match after anodizing
and sustained elevated temperature
service. Although the ER5356 has
more than 3% Mg and would give a
very good color match after anodizing,
it is unsuitable for elevated temperature service. The ER4043 is suitable
for elevated temperature service; however, because it contains 5% silicon
(Si), the weld would turn very dark
gray after anodizing, producing a very
bad color match with the 6061 base
metal. There is no such filler metal as
ER6061. The 6061 alloy is very susceptible to hot cracking, and such a filler
metal would invariably be extremely
problematic. That leaves us with the
ER5554; this filler metal has a maximum Mg content of 3%, making it
suitable for prolonged elevated temperature service. It also has no Si additions, which makes it suitable for postweld anodizing applications using the
6061 base metal.
8. What is the minimum ultimate
tensile strength of 7075T651 plate in
1
2 in. thickness as specified in the Alu
minum Associations Aluminum Stan
dards and Data 2013?
A 78 ksi
B 82 ksi
C 94 ksi
D 100 ksi
The answer is A. Table 7.2, Mechanical Property Limits HeatTreatable Alloys of Aluminum Standards and Data (page 7-18), shows the
minimum ultimate tensile strength of
7075-T651 to be 78 ksi.
9. What is the typical ultimate ten
sile strength of 7075T651 plate at 75
and 320F, respectively, as specified

in the Aluminum Associations Alu
minum Standards and Data 2013?
A 70 and 65 ksi
B 73 and 60 ksi
C 83 and 102 ksi
D 75 and 55 ksi
The answer is C. Table 2.2, Typical
Tensile Properties at Various Temperatures of Aluminum Standards and
Data (page 2-9), shows the typical ultimate tensile strength of 7075-T651 to
be 83 ksi at 75F (room temperature)
and 102 ksi at 320F (cryogenic temperature).
Additional information: Many materials when subjected to very low
temperatures undergo changes in their
physical structure, which severely limits their usefulness in cryogenic applications. Many steels, for example, become extremely brittle.
Aluminum alloys have an unusual
ability to maintain their ductility and
resistance to shock loading at extremely low temperatures approaching absolute zero. As temperature decreases
below room temperature, aluminums
tensile and yield strengths actually increase, and the ductility and toughness of most alloys increase as well.
Even at the lowest test temperatures
available, in liquid helium at 452F
(273C), strength remains high and
ductility and toughness remain well
above values at room temperature for
most alloys. For this reason, aluminum is used in many applications
that are very cold. For example, many
liquid natural gas (LNG) tankers carry
vast amounts of LNG in very large
welded aluminum spheres.
minum, temporary backing made of
copper shall not be used if
A It is more than 1 in. wide.
B The weld joint has a 132-in. opening or larger.
C It is less than 99.97% pure copper.
D The weld joint has a root opening
less than 132 in.
The answer is B. AWS
D1.2/D1.2M:2008 Clause 4.7.4,
Temporary Backing, clearly states that
copper can only be used as a temporary backing material if the joint being
welded has a 132-in. (1-mm) opening or
less. This is in order to prevent the
copper backing material from being
exposed to direct contact from the

welding arc and the possibility of copper inclusions being created in the
root of the weld. Copper inclusions are
undesirable from a corrosion and
cracking potential standpoint.
minum, the use of antispatter com
pound is prohibited unless
A It is hydrogen free.
B It is applied more than 1 in. away
from the welded joint.
C Approved by the Engineer.
D Specified by the welding inspector.
The answer is C. AWS
D1.2/D1.2M:2008 clearly states in
Clause 4.23, Anti-Spatter Compound,
The use of anti-spatter compound is
prohibited unless approved by the Engineer. It is generally accepted that
anti-spatter compounds have the potential to introduce hydrocarbons into
the welding area and cause porosity
problems, and for this reason, their
use is prohibited. However, if the Engineer feels that the use of antispatter
compound is acceptable, he/she may
approve its use.
12. Gas tungsten arc welding direct
current electrode negative with pure
helium shielding gas is seldom used to
weld aluminum, but when it is used,
welds would typically have which of
the following characteristics?
A Good cleaning action
B Deep and narrow penetration but
no cleaning action
C Very low heat input
D Shallow and wide penetration for
very thin sheet welding.
The answer is B. The ideal gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) welding arc
supplies the maximum amount of heat
into the base metal and minimum into
the electrode. It also provides arc
cleaning to remove the aluminum oxide in advance and to the sides of the
weld pool. Each of the three modes
that can be used (alternating current,
AC; direct current electrode negative,
DCEN; and direct current electrode
positive, DCEP) lacks one or more of
these requirements to some degree.
The DCEN arc concentrates about
80% of its heat into the weld pool.
This results in relatively deep and narrow weld penetration using a small
electrode, but it does not provide arc

cleaning. On the other hand, a DCEP
arc gives excellent cleaning action, but
only about 20% of its heat goes into
the weld pool, and the remaining 80%
that goes to the electrode is removed
by cooling water and wasted. Weld
penetration is shallow and wide, and
the electrode must be large. As a compromise between these two extremes,
a balanced wave AC arc gives adequate
cleaning action for most applications
and divides the arc heat about evenly
between electrode and weld pool.
Weld penetration and bead shape are
also, as expected, compromises between welds made with the two DC
modes.
Winners
I would like to thank all who participated in this aluminum quiz. I was
very impressed with the response and
quality of the answers. I received
many comments as to how individuals
had enjoyed researching the correct
answers, and many indicated that responding to the quiz was both educational and fun. What a great combination!
The ten winners, selected at random from all who sent me 100% correct answers, are listed below.
Kyle Williams, Alcoa Center, Pa.
Justin Williams, Indiana, Pa.
Sergio Antonio Muoz Pinzn,
Bucaramanga, Colombia
Danfer De la Cruz, Lima, Per
Greg Smith, La Mesa, Calif.
Tim Kinnaman, West Kingston, R.I.
Bruce B. Sabourin, B.C., Canada
Liam Rostock, Ross-shire, Scotland
Kate Collard, Ross-shire, Scotland
Jordan Williams, Indiana, Pa.
TONY ANDERSON is director of aluminum

technology, ITW Welding North America. He
is a Fellow of the British Welding Institute
(TWI), a Registered Chartered Engineer with
the British Engineering Council, and holds
numerous positions on AWS technical com
mittees. He is chairman of the Aluminum As
sociation Technical Advisory Committee for
Welding and author of the book Welding
Aluminum Questions and Answers currently
available from the AWS. Questions may be
sent to Mr. Anderson c/o Welding Journal,
8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166
6672; tony.anderson@millerwelds.com.
PRODUCT & PRINT SPOTLIGHT
sive Action Cooperative Trust (IMPACT), allows ironworkers and their

contractors to complete many of the
basic functions of their jobs. Users can
access worker logs and the Incident Response Guide, reference the Ironworker
Foreman Pocket Guide, and link to the
Local Union directory, Ironworkers
jobline, and AISC Standards. The app
also allows users to access ironworker
members certifications and qualifications via their membership card, using
the included QR code scanner. The app
is available for free through the Apple
and Google Play stores.
Video Borescope Built for

RealTime Collaboration
The Mentor Visual iQ VideoProbe,

a video borescope with 3D-phase
measurement and analysis plus Wi-Fi
connectivity, streamlines the inspection process and helps ensure the safety and integrity of assets. Useful in the
aerospace, power-generation, and oil
and gas industries, the video
borescope can help plant operators
improve the probability of detection
and reduce the chances of unplanned
downtime. It is equipped with a touchscreen interface, on-screen keyboard,
ergonomic buttons, and menudirected inspection that guides users
through the inspection process and organizes results for simplified reporting. Built for real-time collaboration,
the borescope allows inspection technicians to connect directly with experts from the field to get advice,
share screens and images of the inspection site, make notes, and more
accurately assess the area.
up to 37 elements without the need

for a vacuum or helium gas flush
while the 200 and 300 are value analyzers with SiPIN detectors. It covers a
range of applications and materials,
from aerospace or automotive applications to metals processing or fabrication, and is capable of analyzing many
materials.
MetalCored Wires Useful

for Joining and Repair
Applications
Ironworker App Allows

Access to Worker Logs
The FabCOR 4130 SR gas-shielded

metal-cored wire for semiautomatic
welding and SubCOR 4130 SR metalcored submerged arc welding electrode can maintain mechanical properties, such as hardness, during long
periods of stress relief. Both wires
provide higher deposition rates than
solid wires, assisting in increased
travel speeds, and offer a highstrength weld deposit with versatile
chemistry, making them useful for
joining and repair applications with a
variety of materials, including AISI
4130 and 4140. Intended for use with
DCEP polarity, the wires can be used
in single and multipass welding applications.
HandHeld XRF Analyzer

Comes in Four Models
IMPACT
www.impactnet.org
(800) 5454921
Bruker Elemental
www.bruker.com
(509) 7839850
GE Measurement & Control

www.mentorvisualiq.com
(888) 3323848
The 2nd generation of the companys S1 TITAN hand-held XRF analyzer

platform offers a weatherproof IP54rated housing and optional integrated
camera, as well as small spot collimator. The Detector ShieldTM has been
made standard for all models. Also,
the patented SharpBeamTM collimator
technology remains a standard feature
in all S1 TITAN models. Its available
in four configurations the 600 and
800 use a thin-film window and
FAST TM SDD detector for analysis of
Monitoring Weld Quality
The Ironworker App, developed by

the Ironworker Management Progres-
Hobart Brothers Co.

www.hobartbrothers.com
(800) 4241543
Electromechanical Testers
Offer Safety Functions
EBook Available for

Mechanical and
Manufacturing Industry
ments, combined with excerpts from

ANSI standards. The eBook platform
offers the ability to bookmark, page
cross-reference, index, and calculate
math equations.
Industrial Press
www.industrialpress.com
(888) 5287852
UVA LED Kit Enables

Fluorescent Yoke
Inspection
An eBook edition of Machinery
Handbook is now available for its
100th-year anniversary. The 29th edition of the book includes current techniques, data, and knowledge from
leading experts in the mechanical and
manufacturing science industry. Useful for mechanical and manufacturing
engineers, designers, draftspersons,
toolmakers, machinists, and CNC specialists, the eBook features chapters
on mathematics, mechanics, materials,
measuring, toolmaking, manufacturing, threading, gears, and machine ele-
The EK-3000 EagleEye UV-A/

white light LED inspection kit for
magnetic particle inspection enables
NDE inspectors to easily detect discontinuities in ferrous materials. The
portable kit features a compact,
battery-operated inspection lamp, two
ultrahigh-intensity UV-A (365 nm)
LEDs, and a three-LED white light assembly for visible illumination in dark
work areas. An adjustable strap enables the lamp to be worn on a hard
hat or directly on the head for handsfree operation. An attachment is avail-
The AGS-X series of electromechanical testers includes 20- and 50-kN

tabletop types and 100- and 300-kN
floor types. The testers, which come
with TRAPEXIUM X or TRAPEXIUM
LITE X software to gather and display
data for users in real time, offer highlevel control, tight precision, and intuitive operation for a variety of material
testing applications. Features include
load cells with test force accuracy within 0.5% over the range 1 to 1500 of the
maximum capacity, a 1-kHz sampling
rate, and one-touch crosshead stroke
limiters for adjustment and firm locking. A selection of grips, compression
plates, jigs, extensometers, and other
accessories allow configurations to be
tailored to almost any application. The
testers also include comprehensive
safety functions, such as stroke limit
switches, emergency-stop buttons,
and safety covers.
Shimadzu Scientific Instruments
www.ssi.shimadzu.com
(800) 4771227
Couplants Designed for

Nondestructive UT
Inspections
mild formulations, and being environmentally friendly. They are for nondestructive UT inspections for shear
wave, weld inspection, acoustic emission testing, thickness gauging, flow
metering, and other ultrasonic testing
in power-generation, aerospace, oilfield, pipeline, refinery, and automotive industries.
Magnaflux
www.magnaflux.com
(847) 6575300
Welding Equipment
Industry Report Provides
Key Statistics
able that permits the lamp and sprayer

to be mounted together for singlehanded fluorescent yoke inspection.
Spectronics Corp.
www.spectroline.com
(800) 2748888
The company has improved some of

its SONOTECH ultrasonic couplants,
including Ultragel II, Echogel, and
Sonotrace now in bright, vibrant
colors that wont fade or turn cloudy
along with Soundsafe, Soundclear,
and UT-X. Benefits include providing
better corrosion protection, having
The Global Welding Equipment Industry Report 2014, a professional and indepth study on the current state of the
global welding equipment industry,
provides a basic overview including
definitions, classifications, applications, and industry chain structure.
continued on page 38
PRODUCT & PRINT

SPOTLIGHT
features of the companys WorkStar

2000. Additional features include a UV
light that exceeds ASTM E2297 requirements of 10,000 W/cm; cordless, rechargeable functionality; moveable light head; magnetic mounting
capability; retractable hook for suspending; two level power selection;
removable belt clip; and tripod mount
capability.
continued from page 36
The report, which includes 217 tables

and figures, discusses development
policies and plans and analyzes manufacturing processes and cost structures. It focuses on 35 industry players, providing information such as
company profiles, product picture and
specification, capacity production,
price, cost, production value, and contact information.
Maxxeon, Inc.
www.maxxeon.com
(877) 6210005
Electrode Welds Plates

with Surface Contaminants
Research and Markets

www.researchandmarkets.com
(800) 5268630
UV Inspection Light Made

for Welding, Castings
WorkStar 2003, a cordless tool for
fluorescent magnetic particle and penetrant NDE, has been designed for use
by manufacturing, maintenance, and
quality control technicians in the

welding, casting, machining, oilfield,
and chemical-processing industries.
The products high-output UV inspection light integrates the new light with
Select 70CRP is a flux cored,

carbon-steel electrode designed for
welding structural plate with surface
contaminants, such as rust and weldable primers. Due to its formulation,
the product welds on primer and rust
with minimal porosity and/or blowholes. This wire delivers smooth arc
characteristics, minimal spatter, and
slag removal. Available in a 332 in. diam-
Ferrite Content with the FERITSCOPE FMP30

fast, precise and non-destructive
Handheld instrument for the measurement of the ferrite content
in Austenitic and Duplex Steel
Outstanding features
Fast, non-destructive measurement
of ferrite content on-site or in the
lab
Ferrite measurable either in Ferritepercentage %Fe or Ferritenumber
FN
Measurement range 0.1 to 80% Fe
or 0.1 to 110 FN
Evaluation capabilities to the
platform FISCHER Data Center
Software
User-friendly operation menu
www.fischer-technology.com
Coating Thickness
Material Analysis
Microhardness
Material Testing
Guidelines for Submitting a Welding Journal

Feature Article
eter, it presents a choice for welding

automatic or semiautomatic fillet
welds on ship panels, barges, or any
plate that has been coated with rust
preventive primer or noncoated plate
that has rusted.
SelectArc, Inc.
www.selectarc.com
(800) 3415215
Dust Collector Features

Cleaning System
Have you ever thought about writing a feature article for consideration in
the Welding Journal? If so, our staff stays on the lookout for original, noncommercial, practical, and hands-on stories. Take a look at our editorial calendar
available as part of the American Welding Societys Media Kit at
www.aws.org/wj to see what topics will be highlighted in future issues as well
as the editorial deadlines. Potential ideas to focus on could include a case study,
recent company project, tips for handling a particular process, and so on.
Heres an easy breakdown of our guidelines:
The text of the article should be about 1500 to 2000 words and provided in
a Word document.
Line drawings, graphs, and photos should be sent as high-resolution jpg or
tiff files with a resolution of 300 or more dots per inch.
Plan on about one figure for every 500 words, and provide captions for
every image. Also, if a nice lead photo is available, please include it for review.
The authors names, along with the companies they work for and their positions, should be listed.
If youd like to discuss a particular idea or e-mail a submission for evaluation,
please contact Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen at mjohnsen@aws.org or Associate Editor Kristin Campbell at kcampbell@aws.org.
Education That Works
COMMERCIAL
DIVE TRAINING
AIM HIGH. DIVE DEEP. Call Today!
The Donaldson Torit Downflo
Evolution (DFE) cartridge dust collector offers an intelligent airflow design,
cleaning via the MaxPulse cleaning
system, MERV 15-rated Ultra-Web
nanofiber cartridge filters, and a
smaller equipment footprint with up
to 40% fewer filters required, reducing
maintenance time and overall cost of
operation. Each DFE dust collector is
also enhanced by technical support,
24-h replacement filter shipping, and
a 10-year warranty.
Donaldson Co.
www.donaldsontorit.com
(800) 3651331
1.800.238.DIVE (3483)
www.diversacademy.edu
Near Atlantic City, New Jersey
Automatic gas metal arc welding

in progress. (Photo courtesy of
The Linde Group.)
Improving
GMAW
Efficiency
through
Shielding
Gases
Practical recommendations are offered

for improved efficiency, quality, and
lower costs through use of argon-based
mixed shielding gases
any manufacturing companies work as lean organizations today. This means that
small- and medium-sized companies
have to keep their focus on producing
while at the same time allocating resources or time to find increasingly effective ways of working in order not to
miss the opportunities that exist to
improve their efficiency, quality, and
cost savings.
Semiautomatic or automatic gas
metal arc welding (GMAW) is one of
the main production technologies for
many manufacturing companies. However, advances in technology, weld design, and quality assurance are not
easily adopted. This results in inefficient or overwelding of both fillet and
butt-joint welds, especially T-joints in
fillet welds, which is the most employed type of joint in welded structures. Because of its geometry, this
type of joint is often overwelded and
twice or three times as much volume
must be filled with metal as is needed
for the desired size. That increases not
only direct costs and weight but also
the shrinkage force and distortion that
add other costs (Ref. 1). A systems approach is necessary, which takes into
account end applications and manufacturing variability as well as economic considerations to ensure the welded
structure is produced in the most optimal way and is free from risk of failure. Components are typically fabricated from a designed set of cut-to-shape
plate or sheet steel, castings, extrusions, forgings, etc., and the variability
starts when individual components
progress through the manufacturing
value chain.
This article deals with optimization
and improvement in efficiency while
using simple single-wire GMAW both
in semiautomatic and robotic applications, using argon-based, two-component shielding gases. Benefits of using
such gases include attainment of spray
metal transfer mode, giving increased
welding speeds and higher productivity, lower fabrication costs, and significantly reduced oxidation leading to
smoother, high-quality, less oxidized
weld surfaces, less elemental losses
through the arc, resulting in improved
mechanical properties; flatter fillet
weld profiles with less weld metal
waste compared to convex CO2 fillets;
significantly lower spatter rates leading to reduced wastage and cleanup
lonization energy, eV
liu
He
Ar
go
n
ge
tro
Ni
-d
on
rb
Ca
Ox
yg
e
io
xid
en
Hy
dr
og
Dissociation Energy, eV
Fig. 1 Dissociation and ionization energy of the shielding gas components, eV (parameters for ignition properties, welding voltage, and arc energy).
BY DIGANTA SARMA
time; as well as being an environmentally friendlier process with significantly lower particulate fume formation rates, carbon monoxide emissions, and so on.
Factors Related to
Shielding Gas Choice
The welding arc, a highly efficient
but complex phenomenon, consists of
varying amounts of ionized gases and
metal vapor, which means the physical
properties of the process gases have a
direct and immediate impact on the
arc (Ref. 2). In addition, the process
gases also contact the hot metal, a
highly reactive area, in which the
chemical and metallurgical effects of
the gases also play an important role.
Ionization occurs directly in the case
of the monoatomic inert gases, Ar and
He. Diatomic or polyatomic gases,
such as H2 or CO2, have to be initially
disassociated in the arc, a process that
requires additional energy Fig. 1.
The less energy required for these
processes, the easier it is to ignite the
arc. If components that are comparatively difficult to ionize, such as He or
CO2, are present, the welding voltage
has to be increased accordingly. However, this additional electrical energy
is released again in the form of recombination energy, which can both improve heat input and increase welding
speed.
Depending on the gas, the properties of the plasma change, and as a
consequence, the weld joints themselves also differ distinctly. The radial
profiles of the emission coefficients of
an iron line, argon line, or atomic oxygen line, respectively, have been determined for 100% CO2 and an Ar + CO2
mix (Ref. 2). These profiles indicate establishment of a metal vapor arc core
that has a broader profile under CO2
but is more focused in the center for
Ar. The measured iron line emission
was near to its norm maximum in the
case of CO2. From this fact, temperatures around 8000K and a metal vapor
Fig. 2 Thermal conductivity of different shielding gas components. (Heat transfer from
the arc to the base depends on the thermal conductivity of different gases. Helium and hydrogen offer particularly high thermal conductivity values.)
molar fraction above 75% in the arc

center could be roughly estimated for
this case. Estimations of the electrical
conductivity and the arc field indicate
the current path must include not only
the metal vapor arc core but also outer
hot regions dominated by welding gas
properties in the case of Ar. Accordingly, more energy in a more focused region should be transmitted to the
workpiece in the case of CO2. The energy transfer should be lower and distributed over a larger region in the
case of an Ar + CO2 gas mixture.
It has now been shown that the
oxygen index only weakly correlates
with fume formation rate (FFR) (Ref.
3). A strong correlation of increasing
FFR with increasing CO2 concentrations in argon-based shielding gases
was obtained. This was attributed to
the influence of CO2 on metal transfer
and arc characteristics, decreasing arc
stability, where increased CO2 content
would promote larger droplets, longer
detachment times, higher arc temperatures, and, consequently, increased
fume generation. It has also been
found that shielding gas composition
had no obvious effect on fume composition. However, enrichment of Mn in
the fume composition was observed.
Some of the arcs heat is transferred
to the workpiece via the plasma gas
flow. Especially at high temperatures,
the two components He and H2 significantly improve process efficiency.

Good thermal conductivity has a positive effect on joint geometry, wetting,
degassing of the molten pool, and
welding speed. Figure 2 shows details
of thermal conductivities of various
components in a shielding gas mix. All
these are important, especially as it
has been established that better weld
toe geometry results in better fatigue
resistance (Ref. 4), which is the largest
reason for failure of welded joints in
ships. Investigations have shown that
this geometry is adversely affected due
to spatter-induced incomplete fusion
in GMAW using CO2 gas.
Carbon dioxide and oxygen are
both active, oxidizing gases. Especially
at high temperatures, they react quickly with materials present to form oxides. In appropriate quantities, metal
oxides can improve arc stability, which
is put to good use in several multicomponent gas mixtures. However, if a
larger percentage of active gases is
present, for example, GMAW of carbon steels, the resulting increase in oxidation generates additional heat. The
product of oxidation, otherwise
known as slag or silicate, is often
found on the surface of the joint. Oxygen as a shielding gas component has a
greater oxidizing effect than the same
quantity of CO2. If quality demands re-
Fig. 3 Rear and front assembly of two

wheelers for the project.
quire a lower level of these deposits,

the active gas components in the Arbased multicomponent gas mixes are
reduced after taking into consideration requirements regarding fusion,
penetration, and number of pores. In
the case of a higher quantity of CO2,
carbon pickup may occur, depending
on the type of base material.
Purity levels and mixing accuracies
play a vital role. Shielding gases are
standardized in AWS A5.32/
A5.32M:2011, Welding Consumables
Gases and Gas Mixtures for Fusion Welding and Allied Processes, and ISO 14175
(which has the same title as A5.32).
These standards specify, among other
things, the minimum quality requirements of the components and mixtures. However, depending on the material, process, method, and quality requirements, higher qualities may be
necessary. Therefore, for the current
project, shielding gas of the type ISO
14175 M21-ArC-18 (Ar + CO2) has
been used.
Background
The company under study manufactures front and rear assembly units for
two-wheeled vehicles Fig. 3. These
components are made of carbon steels
(ERW St. 30, 37 Grades CRC-D and
HRC-D). Material thickness usually
Fig. 4 Components of weld costs.
varies from 0.6 mm (clip wire throttle)

to 2.6 mm (pipe L section) and feature
lap and butt joints welded using the
GMAW process. Filler material consists of 0.8- and 1.2-mm-diameter
AWS A5.18 ER70S-6 solid wire in
spools. The welding specification
states the welds should have a minimum penetration of 20% of total
thickness, weld parameters are
150180 A, 2030 V, and 1215 L/min
gas flow rate. The company estimates
it consumes 92 g of welding wire for
every meter of welding and 650 m3 of
shielding gas for every ton of component fabricated, numbers it would like
to bring down to 80 g and 500 m3, respectively. The objective of the exercise was to identify and implement
ways to reduce process costs and improve efficiency while achieving these
goals.
While 32 welders were engaged in
rear frame assembly, welding 4895.6
m/day and producing 2350 frames/
shift, 25 welders were engaged in the
front frame assembly welding 4103
m/day and producing 2400
frames/shift.
Project Details
The project objectives were as
follows:
1) Determine economics of the
welding operation.
2) Recommend steps to ensure
long-term weld cost savings as defined
previously.
3) Recommend ways to improve
weld process efficiency.
Weld Trial Methodology

Weld process parameters for rear
and front frame assembly were captured using automatic data loggers.
The data loggers measure current,
voltage, wire feed rate, and arc time.
These figures were then fed into a
weld cost tool developed by Linde to
arrive at weld cost components and
other key process indicators. Weld trials were conducted using both robots
and manual welding. Seventy-one weld
trials were conducted (Table 1). The
observations from these trials were
used to determine the following
process parameters:
1) Wire feed rate (m/min)
2) Wire consumed per meter of
weld (g/m)
3) Gas consumed per meter of weld
(m3/m)
4) Gas consumed/wire deposited
(m3/ton)
5) Wire cost expressed as a percent-
age of total weld cost

6) Power cost expressed as a percentage of total weld cost
7) Labor cost expressed as a percentage of total weld cost.
Manual inputs used were weld
length and gas flow rate (measured using installed gas flow meters at the
company, which were installed in lowpressure gas distribution lines at each
welding point). All welders were contracted welders who were prequalified.
The shielding gas used was an
argon/CO2 mixture (80:20). Both the
front and rear frame assemblies were
welded using 0.8- and 1.2-mm-diameter type AWS A5.18 ER 70S-6 solid
wire. The welding power source used
was an inverter-based, 400-A machine.
Flat and horizontal welding positions
were used.
When the total weld cost (Fig. 4)
was determined, the welding wire was
found to be the largest component.
For this computation, wire price was
considered at $0.94/kg for the 1.2mm-diameter wire and $0.98/kg for
the 0.8-mm-diameter wire; power cost
was set at $0.13/kWH; and labor cost
at $0.57/h. For these calculations, only
the primary process (welding) time
was considered. Other items such as
setup time, auxiliary process time,
buffer time, etc., were not included.
This result is different from what is
observed in developed countries,
where labor makes up as much as 78%
of the cost, followed by 20% for filler
metal, 1% for shielding gas, and another 1% for other costs (Ref. 5).
Results
Gas Flow Rate
It was observed that the flow rate
Table 1 Summary of Results from 71 Weld Trials

Component Type
Rear and Front

Assembly Frames
Wire consumed per

meter of weld, g/m
89.52
Gas consumed per

meter of weld, m3/m
0.03
Gas consumed/wire
deposited, m3/ton
355.2
Remarks
Significant
Reduction
utilized was almost twice the recommended rate. Lowering this rate resulted in reduction in actual flow at
nozzle end, which affected weld quality. The weld pool must be fully covered
with shielding gas until the weld has
solidified. Key factors on which gas
flow rate depends include nozzle size,
joint type, contact tip protrusion,
torch angle, travel speed, drafts, tipnozzle concentricity, spatter buildup
on the nozzles, gas diffuser design and
condition, nozzle neck seal, shielding
gas type, and material being welded.
Assuming the effect of all factors constant, the recommended shielding gas
flow rate follows:
1) Mid-range 0.8/1.00 mm wire at
90220 A: 820 L/min
2) High-current 1.0/1.2 mm wire at
220400 A: 1530 L/min.
For robotic welding (solid and cored
wires) 1020% is added to the above
gas flow rates. Installing a gas leak detection system and installing a suitable device for delivering accurate flow
point control ensures an optimized gas
flow rate and results in further cost
savings.
Weld Parameters
Welding parameters like voltage,
wire feed speed/current, electrode extension, etc., play a vital role in determining optimum weld size and desired
production rate. Welding voltage/current, wire feed rate, and contact tubeto-work distance are variables for ensuring optimum deposition rate and
travel speed for a productive fillet
weld. The most important setting is
wire feed rate, which governs the reproducible weight of the deposited
weld metal and is also important in
guarding against an excessive deposition rate. The volt/ampere values correlated with wire feed rate are merely
guidelines. They vary with contact
tube-to-work distance, particularly for
manual welding since changes in distance are unavoidable when manipulating the welding gun. Deviations of
around 10% are possible at constant
wire feed speeds.
To illustrate the impact of correct
parameter setting on wire deposition
and consumption, we undertook welding of the front frame assembly at
one identified station, using 1.2-mmdiameter wire, replacing the 0.8-mmdiameter wire hitherto used and also
optimized the weld parameters accord44 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2014
Fig. 5 Example of weld parameter variation.
ingly, resulting in nearly 34% reduction in deposited wire weight/meter

(Table 2).
Process Control
Variation in deposited weld lengths
vs. the stipulated design as well as application of different weld parameters
(current and voltage) affect the consumption of wire as well as in some
cases the depositing of either excess or
inadequate amount of weld metal. A
study of weld parameters used at the
same weld stations but at different
points in time also showed differences
that need to be eliminated Fig. 5. In
Fig. 5, we observed variations in both
current and voltage as well as the
amount of wire consumed for a standard length of welding, carried out by
different welders at different points in
time. A standard operating procedure,
if introduced, would ensure that such
variations are minimized, thereby ensuring optimum wire consumption,
which has been shown to be the highest contributing factor to the overall
cost of welding.
Recommendations
It was observed during the trials
that gas flow at the weld gun nozzle
end was insufficient although flow
was set at 30 L/min. It is important to
optimize gas flow rate by any or all of
the following to ensure that weld costs
do not increase:
Supply system leak detection
Welding set leak detection
Accurate outlet point flow control
and elimination of surge flow.
Optimization of wire feed rates for
both manual and robotic welding is
recommended to avoid overwelding
and improve efficiency: Weld parameters are to be set up as per recommendation for a fixed deposition rate and
welders should strictly maintain weld
setting; the range of broad weld settings should be reduced to 10% for
better process control. Since an argonbased mixed gas is being used, such
optimization and control of weld parameters can be easily communicated
to all welders and supervisory
personnel.
Control of wire waste and wire con-
Table 2 Experimental Work on Weld Parameter Selection

Wire Diameter, mm
Weld Length, mm
Current, A
Voltage, V
Deposited Wire
Weight, g/m
0.8 mm
140
209
30.2
155
1.2 mm
140
249
25.7
102
Remarks
34%
sumption optimization are other key

factors in reining in unwarranted
expenses.
Communication and engagement
with welders is necessary to ensure all
of these. A holistic and humane approach is recommended.
possible by addressing each factor in a

well laid out and scientific manner
while working with the welders and
supervisors who are motivated by the
improvement that is brought on by
these actions. WJ
Acknowledgments
Conclusion
Several ways exist to improve efficiency and quality of gas-shielded
welding such as automation, advanced
power sources, as well as the latest
weld consumables and shielding
(mixed) gases. While doing semiautomatic or robotic welding using the
GMAW process using a two-component shielding gas, it is important to
understand and establish the weld
costs involved and the factors that determine them. This can be established
through simple methods and analysis
of the results opens up avenues for improvement. Step improvements are
The author wishes to thank colleagues at India and the project team
at the site for their support during this
study through practical suggestions
regarding weld sample selection,
measurement, and data analysis.
References
1. Hudec, Z. 2010. Optimization of

source wire gas system for efficient robot welding. Int. J. Multidisci. Des. Optim 4(7): 107116.
2. Wilhelm, G., Gott, G., Schopp,
H., and Uhdandt, D. 2010. Study of
the welding gas influence on a controlled short-arc GMAW process by op-
tical emission spectroscopy. Journal of

Physics D: Applied Physics.
3. Carpentar, K. R., Mohagham, B.
J., and Norrish, J. 2009. Analysis of
fume formation rate and fume particle
composition for gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) of plain carbon steel using
different shielding gas compositions.
ISIJ International Vol. 49, No. 3.
4. Report of the 17th International
Ship and Offshore Structures Congress. August 1621, 2009, Seoul, Korea. Vol. 2, Committee 3, Materials
and Fabrication.
5. Proceedings of the ASME International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information
in Engineering Conference. 2007.
DIGANTA SARMA (diganta.sarma@linde.com)

is head of Applications & Market Development,
South & East Asia, Linde Gas Asia Pte Ltd.,
Singapore.
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
A Technology to Increase
SAW Productivity
A global offshore industry manufacturer
realizes 60% increase in submerged arc
welding deposition rates
orwegian winch specialist I.P.

Huse (www.iphuse.no) reaches
deposition rates of 55 lb/h for
its submerged arc welding (SAW)
operation using a single power source
and a welding head that incorporates
patent pending cold electrode
technology.
Historically, twin arc welding has
been the most productive SAW process
in terms of deposition rates. Twin arc
welding is accomplished using two
wires in the same contact device, connected to the same power source and
same polarity.
The cold electrode technology integrates a third electrically insulated
cold wire between and parallel with
the two hot wires in the same contact
device (Fig. 1). The cold wire feed
speed is controlled independently
from the hot wires with integrated
software resident in the control unit.
The cold wire melts from the excessive
energy generated by the arcs from the
two hot wires. This technology can increase deposition rates up to 100%
and in some applications provides
even higher deposition rates.
clude shipyards, ship owners, and oil

companies Fig. 3. The Harya factory has approximately 130 employees.
Welding with New Technology

I.P. Huse currently has four welding
stations employing the integrated cold
technology in its SAW process. One of
the stations has been upgraded with a
new 1000/A AC/DC inverter power
source to further increase productivity. The company also employs cored
wires to maximize deposition rates
and weld quality with this process.
BY HANNES RAUDSEPP
The welding procedure specifications (WPS) employed by the company

in production produce averages between 44 and 55 lb/h, using a single
power source, while maintaining heat
input below 76 kJ/in. and welding
speeds at 33 in./min. Using a single
cold electrode welding head, it has
achieved up to 67 lb/h and above in fill
passes, and the welds satisfy ISO
15614 and impact toughness requirements for offshore applications.
Prior to implementing this technology, the focus on consistent improvement ensured that it was already
achieving the optimal productivity
Anchoring the Norwegian

Offshore Industry
Located on the island of Harya on
the Norwegian west coast, I.P. Huse
has a business history dating back to
the beginning of the last century. Today, the company is a world leader in
the design and manufacture of winches for anchor-handling vessels Fig.
2. The company also manufactures
winches for the ocean-going tugs that
tow oil platforms. These massive
winches can exert a pulling force in excess of 600 tons. Typical customers in-
Fig. 1 Welding head with two parallel hot wires and an electrically isolated
middle cold wire.
Fig. 2 A row of 600-ton winches for anchor handling in

vessels.
available using a twin arc welding

process. The results the company has
achieved using the integrated cold
electrode process is impressive when
compared to other common SAW
setups. For a typical 2-in. (50-mm)
single-sided V-groove with a 45-deg
included angle, the company achieved
productivity gains of up to 200%, compared to a single-wire SAW operation.
Even compared to a typical tandem
wire operation, the cold electrode
welding technology offered a 100%
productivity advantage in fill passes.
Simple Set Up
The setup of the process controller
for the system requires only the setting of a single additional parameter
prior to welding, the cold wire feed
ratio.
It is possible for the welder to adjust the amount of cold wire used in
the weld, without having to change the
active parameters and heat input. The
welder has control over the reinforcement height, ensuring a flat cap with
good wetting. Preventing overfilling
also saves on consumables.
The integrated cold electrode technology was developed by ESAB under
the tradename ICE. I.P. Huses success with it has led to it initiating
plans to upgrade additional welding
stations with this process. WJ
HANNES RAUDSEPP M.Sc., IWE, is Welding
Application Manager SAW/FSW, ESAB
Global Automation.
Fig. 3 Mooring winches for drilling rigs.
Integrated Cold Electrode:

The Process
Unlike other cold wire SAW methods, using an integrated cold electrode ensures that the cold wire is always melted in the twin arcs. The melting position
of the cold wire will always adapt to the arc if the welding conditions change,
unlike other cold wire setups. The cold wire feed speed is software controlled
along with the twin constant amperage (CA) regulation to further stabilize the
process. As a result, the process is unaffected by variations in electrode extension, and by variations in arc length.
The cold wire feed speed is set as a ratio of hot wire feed (cwfr % = cold wire
feed ratio). This is automatically controlled by the integrated software in the
control. Only one additional parameter must be set, the cwfr.
The cwfr range is between 10 and 100%, typically using cwfr 50100%. The
cold wire is automatically controlled by a patent-pending regulation method
in full CA mode, which improves process stability and adapts to changes in
welding conditions.
Heat input will always limit welding productivity as the base metal can only
handle a certain amount of heat. The integrated cold electrode process uses
excess heat to melt the cold wire. This results in up to 50% higher deposition
rate in fill passes compared to twin-wire process with the same heat input.
The stabilizing effect of this process allows welding speed to be increased
while either maintaining or reducing heat input.
In conventional applications and joint types, welding speed can be increased to above 40 in./min while maintaining heat input and process stability. With this process, welding speeds up to 70 in./min can be achieved depending on the application.
The integrated cold electrode process reduces the total energy in the weldment. Lower heat input provides less distortion and increases the mechanical
properties in some base metals and applications. Lowering the total energy in
heating the object also reduces the cooling time, so there is no excess time to
wait for the interpass temperature to drop.
The speed and productivity of this technology results in reduced flux consumption, on average of 20% and in some cases up to 45%, depending on the
application.
A Must in Todays Workplace:
Weld-Quality Monitoring
Todays technology delivers better means
to monitor and verify weld integrity
BY MATTHEW ALBRIGHT
Fig. 1 Point-of-use monitoring tools

can guide an operator through required
welds on a part in a step-by-step manner.
t has been said that change is the

only constant in life (Ref. 1). Not
only is this statement true, but
change is comprehensive, extending
its reach into every facet of our world.
As the realm of manufacturing undergoes consistent change, manufacturers
are faced with new challenges and
must adapt to changing times. Welding operations is one specific area
where manufacturers are being
pressed to take a hard look.
Welding Shifts from

Craft to Process
Welding is often one of the most
misunderstood manufacturing disciplines. It can be perceived as a dark art
wielded by the few brave enough to
learn the skills, and mastered by even
fewer. Certainly an exaggeration, but
the fog that sometimes surrounds this
process leads to distancing of the management team from welding operations. This distance can lead to viewing the application of welding in manufacturing as a craft, putting the operator in the position of being the sole
source of knowledge, and, unnecessarily, the highest contributing factor to
quality. Fast forward to the 21st century and this approach has led to real
problems.
The world has changed, and those

who know the welding process best are
earning their retirement (Ref. 2). The
Great Recession has changed hiring
tactics, and caused many companies to
reevaluate the qualifications required
for general manufacturing positions
(Ref. 3). Global competition has become more intense, putting additional
pressure on American companies to
remain price competitive (Ref. 4). In
addition, Americas perception of skillbased careers has been altered over the
course of time, and many agencies
both private and public are working to
change this trend (Refs. 5, 6). The
combination of these changes has
made it extremely difficult for many
manufacturers who have viewed welding as a craft. The good news is that
while the manufacturing world has
been changing, so too have the tools
that enable manufacturers to control
welding not as a craft but as a process.
Technology Aids
Process Monitoring
Technology is amazing, and one
need not look far to see the value that
the ever-changing face of technology
adds to our daily existence. Information is being transferred at a staggering pace, and most devices, whether
for business or personal use, can be

connected and accessed globally. Manufacturers of welding equipment are
leveraging these trends and providing
tools to their customers that are more
comprehensive in nature and easier to
use than in the past. By taking advantage of the technology now available,
manufacturers can begin to shorten
the distance that has been created by
taking a craft approach to welding operations.
For simplicity of discussion, weldquality monitoring tools can be divided into two general categories: pointof-use monitoring tools and postweld
verification tools.
A point-of-use monitoring tool such
as Lincolns Weld Sequencer software
(Fig. 1) is used to guide the operator
step by step through the assembly
process, while providing immediate
feedback on how well the operator is
following the predetermined path. For
example, these tools can halt the welding operator during the assembly
process and, if quality issues surface,
ensure that the products do not leave
the workstation without approval
from an inspector or foreman. These
types of tools also have several other
benefits, including
Simply presenting instructions on
how to assemble complex parts,
which can simplify training efforts
Fig. 2 Postweld verification

tools can be used to collect
data on welding operations
and support operator and
part traceability.
and improve product consistency;

Ensuring that correct welding procedures are employed in the right locations, which can enhance weld quality;
Verifying the correct weld quantities,
correct weld depositions, and amperage/voltage settings, which can help
the operator alter welding behavior;
Ensuring that operators are working
only on parts they are qualified to
weld, providing the ability to prevent
potential quality issues before they
occur.
Postweld verification tools are used
to collect not only information about
welded assemblies, but also information about the welding operation in
general Fig. 2. These tools do not
stop the welding operator, but rather
send notifications to the correct personnel regarding welding anomalies.
In addition to notifying management,
postweld verification tools provide
these additional benefits:
Fig. 3 CheckPoint, a Lincoln Electric production monitoring software package, offers

dashboard views of arc time, consumable usage, weld parameters for each weld, and other
data.
Fig. 4 Manufacturing mistakes, identified in recall notices or other actions, can affect the companys reputation and have a significant financial impact on any company.
Providing welding-operation productivity metrics;

Helping manufacturers identify quality trends;
Providing accountability metrics for
operators;
Supporting company traceability efforts;
Identifying accurate weldingconsumable usage metrics Fig. 3.
By applying one or both of these
tools in tandem, manufacturers can
begin to shed light on the mystery of
their welding operations, improve
weld quality and productivity, and establish proper expectations for their
welding operators.
from www.forbes.com/sites/emsi/
2013/03/07/americas-skilled-tradesdilemma-shortages-loom-as-most-in-demand-group-of-workers-ages/
3. Cappelli, P. 2012. Why Good People Cant Get Jobs. The Skills Gap and
What Companies Can Do About It.
Philadelphia: Wharton Digital Press.
4. DeloitteTouche Tohmatsu Ltd. &
U.S. Council on Competitiveness.
2013. Global Manufacturing Competitiveness Index. Deloitte.
5. Summit Media Group. 2014.
Manufacturing WorkForce Development

Playbook. Chicago: Summit Media
Group.
6. DeloitteTouche Tohmatsu Ltd.;
The Manufacturing Institute. 2011.
Unwaivering Commitment: The Publics
View of the Manufacturing Industry
Today. Deloitte.
MATTHEW ALBRIGHT is product manager for
welding equipment for The Lincoln Electric Co.,
Cleveland, Ohio, www.lincolnelectric.com.
Welding Operations
Become More
Accountable
In todays media-saturated environment, mistakes can become global
knowledge in a matter of minutes.
Manufacturing mistakes, identified in
recall notices or other actions, often
become common knowledge, affecting
a companys reputation Fig. 4.
These mistakes can also have a significant financial impact on the company.
With the increasing presence of social
media and the growing ability to hold a
company publicly accountable for actions that may be perceived as negligent, it is becoming more crucial that
companies take the proper steps to
move with changing times to prevent
errors in the manufacturing environment. Unfortunately, the days are gone
where welding operators had decades
of experience and could bear the burden of being the most critical component of influencing weld quality.
The world has changed over the
past couple of decades, and technology
is certainly changing from year to year.
If your company hasnt taken a look at
the tools available for weld-quality
monitoring, today may be the right
time to begin the journey to update
your welding practices. WJ
References
1. Heraclitus. (n.d.).
goodreads.com/quotes. Retrieved
from goodreads.com:
www.goodreads.com/quotes/537168change-is-the-only-constant-in-life
2. Wright, J. 2013 (March 7).
Forbes.com. Retrieved July 10, 2013,
COMING EVENTS
AWS-SPONSORED EVENTS
6th Intl Brazing & Soldering Conference. April 1922. Long
Beach, Calif. Topics will include current research, practical
and potential applications, and new developments in these
technologies. www.awo.aws.org/2015-ibsc.
FABTECH 2015. Nov. 912. McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill.
This exhibition is the largest event in North America dedicated to showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fabricating, tube and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad
manufacturing technologies. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264;
www.fabtechexpo.com.
U.S., CANADA, MEXICO EVENTS

International Thermal Spray Conference colocated with
AeroMat 2015 and Microstructural Characterization of
Aerospace Materials and Coatings. May 1114. Long Beach
Convention & Entertainment Center, Long Beach, Calif.
www.asminternational.org/web/itsc-2015.
INTERTECH 2015. May 19, 20. Downtown Marriott Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Ind. To feature developments and ap-
plications for superabrasives in the automotive and other industries. Sponsored by Industrial Diamond Assn. of America. www.intertechconference.com.
INTERNATIONAL EVENTS
International Conference on Mechanics and Civil Engineer
ing (ICMCE2014). Dec. 13, 14. Zhong Tian Century Hotel,
Wuhan, Hubei, China. All papers will be presented in English. www.icmce2014.org/cfp.html.
International Symposium on Engineering Technology, Edu
cation, and Management (ISETEM 2014). Dec. 26, 27.
Guangzhou, China. www.isetem.org.
2nd Arabia Essen Welding & Cutting. Jan. 1013. Dubai
World Trade Center, Dubai, UAE. www.arabia-essen-weldingcutting.com.
Metal + Metallurgy China 2015. March 31April 3, China
Expo Complex (Shanghai Hongqiao). Organizer: Hannover
Fairs International GmbH. www.mm-china.com/En/.
6th International Conference on Emerging Technologies in
Nondestructive Testing (ETNDT6). May 2729. Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium. www.etndt6.be.
8th Offshore Energy Expo and Conference. Oct. 13, 14. Amsterdam RAI, The Netherlands. www.offshore-energy.biz.
EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
Laser Additive Manufacturing Workshop. March 4, 5. College of Optics and Photonics at the University of Central
Florida, Orlando, Fla. www.lia.org/lam.
ECourses in Destructive and Nondestructive Testing of
Welds. Online video courses taken at ones own pace offer
certificates of completion and continuing education units.
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology. hiwt@welding.org;
www.welding.org.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tutorials, interactive e-learning courses, discussion forums, webinars, and blogs. Visit www.hypertherm.com, www.hyperthermcuttinginstitute.com.
INTEG Courses. Courses in NDE disciplines to meet certifications to Canadian General Standards Board or Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission. The Canadian Welding Bureau;
(800) 844-6790; www.cwbgroup.org.
Laser Safety Online Courses. Courses include Medical Laser
Safety Officer, Laser Safety Training for Physicians, Industrial Laser Safety, and Laser Safety in Educational InstituFor info, go to www.aws.org/adindex
MAVERICK
TESTING
LABORATORIES
Maverick Testing
Laboratories is a full
spectrum, independent,
state-of-the-art ISO
9001 Certified testing
laboratory . We provide a
comprehensive range of
welder performance,
welding procedures,
metallurgical and mechanical
testing services & full welding
consulting services throughout
the TX Gulf Coast.
We provide and sell the Maverick Test
Coupon, a 2.750 OD x 0.688 Wt.,
P-No-1 Material for the ultimate in
unlimited thickness to ASME Sec. IX. See
website for full details.
We have two facilities in Texas to provide a total welding
solutions center for our customers, including mobile on-site
testing capabilities.
Industries Served: Oil & Gas Refining, Offshore, Structural, Power &
Utilities, Pipeline, Petrochemical, and Aerospace.
MAVERICK
AV
VERICK TESTING LABORATORIES
AT
10001 Porter Rd., Suite 100, La Porte, TX 77571

T: (281) 888-8210 / www.m
www.mavericktestinglabs.com
w..mavericktestinglabs.com
tions. Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737;

www.lia.org.
International Training Institute. (703) 739-7200;

www.sheetmetal-iti.org.
Laser Safety Training Courses. Courses based on ANSI

Z136.1, Safe Use of Lasers, Orlando, Fla., or customers site.
Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.
ServoRobot Training Seminars. Two-day laser-vision seminars held throughout the year at Servo-Robot, Inc., near
Montreal, Canada. Seminars include tutorials and hands-on
practical training. For seminar schedule and costs, e-mail
request to info@servorobot.com.
Laser U Online Education Portal. Offers practical information to use on the job. Topics range from 3D printing to
drilling, welding, wireless and optical product requirements,
and many others. Visit website for complete information
and to sign up for modules. Laser Institute of America;
www.lia.org/laseru.
Laser Vision Seminars. Two-day classes, offered monthly
and on request, include tutorials and practical training. Presented at Servo-Robot, Inc., St. Bruno, QC, Canada. For
schedule, cost, and availability, send your request to
info@servorobot.com.
Machine Safeguarding Seminars. Rockford Systems, Inc.;
(800) 922-7533; www.rockfordsystems.com.
Machining and Grinding Courses. TechSolve, www.TechSolve.org.
NACE International Training and Certification Courses. National Assoc. of Corrosion Engineers; (281) 228-6223;
www.nace.org.
NDE and CWI/CWE Courses and Exams. Allentown, Pa., and
customers locations. Welder Training and Testing Institute;
(800) 223-9884; www.wtti.edu.
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers locations. Level I and II and refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, radiation safety, radiography, visual, etc. Test NDT, LLC; (714)
255-1500; www.testndt.com.
Online Education Courses. Topics include Introduction to
Die Casting ($99), Metal Melting and Handling ($99), Product Design ($59), Energy Training ($19), Dross Training
($19), Managing Dust Hazards ($19), Safety (free). North
American Die Casting Assn.; (847) 808-3161; www.diecasting.org/education/online.
Plastics Welding School. A two-day course for certification
to European plastics welding standards. Malcom Hot Air
Systems; www.plasticweldingtools.com.
Protective Coatings Training and Certification Courses. At
various locations and online. The Society for Protective
Coatings; (877) 281-7772; www.sspc.org.
Robotics Operator Training. Presented by ABB University at
13 locations nationwide. For course titles and locations:
(800) 435-7365, opt. 2, opt. 4; www.abb.us/abbuniversity.
Safety Training Online. Unlimited training on myriad industrial safety course titles. Visit website for complete information and previews of several courses; www.safety99.com.
Service Manager Course. Designed for sheet metal workers
and HVAC service shop owners. Various locations and dates.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of 2in. Pipe in the 6G Position

Uphill. Troy, Ohio. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
Soldering Training, LiveInteractive Online Courses. Three
courses offered: basic hand soldering, through-hole technology, and surface-mount technology. Visit site for course outlines, schedules, prices, and to register. Soldering Training &
Certification (STC), www.solderingtraining.com/ online-soldering-training.php.
SSPC Training and Certification Courses. Courses in protective coatings, abrasive blasting, paint inspector, bridge coatings inspector, surface preparation, NAVSEA inspector, and
many others. The Society for Protective Coatings;
www.sspc.org.
Thermadyne Distributor Training. Year-around training at
Denton, Tex.; West Lebanon, N.H.; Bowling Green, Ky.; and
Chino, Calif. trainingteam@victortechnologies.com.
Tool and Die Welding Courses. Troy, Ohio. Hobart Institute
of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
Unitek Miyachi Corp. Training Services. Personalized training services on resistance and laser beam welding and laser
marking; (626) 303-5676; www.unitekmiyachi.com.
Vibration Training Short Courses. Presented at locations nationwide, customers site, and by correspondence. Vibration
Institute; www.vibinst.org.
Welding Courses. A wide range of specialized courses presented throughout the year. The Lincoln Electric Co.;
(216) 486-1751; www.lincolnelectric.com.
Welding Introduction for Robot Operators and Program
mers. This one-week course is presented in Troy, Ohio, or at
customers locations. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448, ext. 5603; www.welding.org.
Welding Skills Training Courses. Courses include weldability
of ferrous and nonferrous metals, arc welding inspection,
quality control, and preparation for recertification of Certified Welding Inspectors. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; www.welding.org. WJ
An Important Event on Its Way?

Send information on upcoming events to the Welding Journal
Dept., 8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166. Items can
also be sent via FAX to (305) 443-7404 or by e-mail to
woodward@aws.org.
CERTIFICATION SCHEDULE
Certication Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations
Note: The 2015 schedule for all certifications is posted online at

www.aws.org/w/a/registrations/prices_schedules.html.
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)

Location
Long Beach, CA
New Orleans, LA
Seattle, WA
Waco, TX
Atlanta, GA
Milwaukee, WI
Miami, FL
Mobile, AL
Houston, TX
Kansas City, MO
Norfolk, VA
Boston, MA
Indianapolis, IN
Portland, OR
Rochester, NY
Edmonton, AB Canada
Corpus Christi, TX
Birmingham, AL
Chicago, IL
Dallas, TX
Miami, FL
Springfield, MO
York, PA
Las Vegas, NV
Minneapolis, MN
Syracuse, NY
St. Louis, MO
Nashville, TN
New Orleans, LA
San Francisco, CA
Perrysburg, OH
Miami, FL
Corpus Christi, TX
Albuquerque, NM
Fresno, CA
Miami, FL
Oklahoma City, OK
Corpus Christi, TX
Knoxville, TN
Birmingham, AL
Hutchinson, KS
Spokane, WA
Bakersfield, CA
Beaumont, TX
Hartford, CT
Orlando, FL
Memphis, TN
Miami, FL
Corpus Christi, TX
Miami, FL
Cleveland, OH
Jacksonville, FL
Los Angeles, CA
Louisville, KY
Omaha, NE
Seminar Dates
Feb. 813
Feb. 8-13
Feb. 813
Feb. 813
Feb. 2227
Feb. 2227
Exam only
Mar. 16
Mar. 16
Mar. 16
Mar. 16
Mar. 813
Mar. 813
Mar. 813
Exam only
Exam only
Exam only
Mar. 2227
Mar. 2227
Mar. 2227
Mar. 2227
Mar. 2227
Exam only
Mar. 29Apr. 3
Mar. 29Apr. 3
Mar. 29Apr. 3
Exam only
Apr. 1217
Apr. 1217
Apr. 1217
Exam only
Exam only
Apr. 26May 1
May 38
May 38
May 38
May 38
Exam only
Exam only
May 31June 5
May 31June 5
May 31June 5
June 712
June 1419
June 1419
June 1419
June 1419
Exam only
Exam only
Exam only
July 1217
July 1217
July 1217
July 1217
July 1217
Exam Date
Feb. 14
Feb. 14
Feb. 14
Feb. 14
Feb. 28
Feb. 28
Feb. 26
Mar. 7
Mar. 7
Mar. 7
Mar. 7
Mar. 14
Mar. 14
Mar. 14
Mar. 14
Mar. 16
Mar. 21
Mar. 28
Mar. 28
Mar. 28
Mar. 28
Mar. 28
Mar. 28
Apr. 4
Apr. 4
Apr. 4
Apr. 11
Apr. 18
Apr. 18
Apr. 18
Apr. 18
Apr. 23
May 2
May 9
May 9
May 9
May 9
May 16
May 23
June 6
June 6
June 6
June 13
June 20
June 20
June 20
June 20
June 25
June 27
July 16
July 18
July 18
July 18
July 18
July 18
Denver, CO
Kansas City, MO
Scottsdale, AZ
Waco, TX
Miami, FL
Milwaukee, WI
Sacramento, CA
Corpus Christi, TX
Anchorage, AK
Baton Rouge, LA
Chicago, IL
Las Vegas, NV
Philadelphia, PA
Seattle, WA
Rochester, NY
Charlotte, NC
Mobile, AL
Portland, ME
Minneapolis, IN
Salt Lake City, UT
San Antonio, TX
San Diego, CA
July 1924
July 1924
July 1924
July 1924
July 2631
July 2631
July 2631
Exam only
Aug. 27
Aug. 27
Aug. 27
Aug. 27
Aug. 27
Aug. 27
Exam only
Aug. 914
Aug. 914
Aug. 914
Aug. 1621
Aug. 1621
Aug. 1621
Aug. 1621
July 25
July 25
July 25
July 25
Aug. 1
Aug. 1
Aug. 1
Aug. 1
Aug. 8
Aug. 8
Aug. 8
Aug. 8
Aug. 8
Aug. 8
Aug. 8
Aug. 15
Aug. 15
Aug. 15
Aug. 22
Aug. 22
Aug. 22
Aug. 22
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)

Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)

CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)

CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI

For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education requirements without taking the exam. The exam can be taken at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)

The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)

ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Please ver

ify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your course sta
tus before making travel plans. Applications are to be received at least six
weeks prior to the seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that
time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application dead
line dates by visiting our website www.aws.org/certication/docs/sched
ules.html. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or
to register online, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443
9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars.
BY HOWARD WOODWARD woodward@aws.org
SOCIETY NEWS
AWS, Scouts, and Businesses Cooperate in Community Project

BY BILL ATKINSON AND DALE FLOOD
A major public sports complex located in Folsom, Calif., needed to improve access for the elderly and disabled members of the community
who depend on the center for exercise
and recreation. The dynamic sports
complex boasts an indoor soccer field,
two basketball courts, three indoor
volleyball courts, four indoor batting
cages, and a pitching and hitting cage.
The scope of the required facility
improvements included a large Americans with Disabilities Act- (ADA-)
compliant concrete ramp and safety
handrails. The underlying question
was, who would step up to the plate
to meet this difficult challenge?
The answer was provided by caring
community Eagle Scouts, led by Connor Stackhouse, who volunteered to
take this work on as a humanitarian
project. This was a noble commitment, but how could the Eagle Scouts
organize such an effort that involved
digging foundations, building forms,
and pouring a concrete ramp leading
up to the bleachers? After that, sturdy metal handrails would need to be
designed, welded, and installed. Finally, all of this would have to meet
local construction codes for public
and disabled access in a community
area.
Obviously, this would require the
talents of several skilled trades and
leadership with the organizational
skills to coordinate the entire project.
Stackhouse attempted to reach
out to the community, asking for help
for nearly 18 months. It was at that
point he approached the American
Welding Societys Sacramento Valley
Section for their assistance.
Section Chair Jason Rafter recognized this would be an excellent opportunity to improve the image of
welding and promote the Society in
the community. He decided to help
organize the project. Fortunately,
Rafter is also the Ironworkers Apprenticeship Coordinator for Local
Union 118 and was very familiar with
this type of construction. The team
he organized included the Sacramento Section Secretary Aleda Vaughn,
Ironworkers Ross Lundmark, Jim
Martinez, Brad Gasaway, Justin Della
From left, Kerry Shatell, AWS Dist. 22 Director, and Jerry Wentland, a Sacramento Valley Section officer, pose with the Eagle Scouts who worked on the construction project.
Chisea, and Nick Petrocelli.

Joining with the Section and
union workers, two local businesses
agreed to support the project. Ken
Morris from GNB, an advanced vacuum chamber and valve manufacturer,
added the resources of his facility and
staff. From Sacramento-based Tri
Tool, Inc., a leading portable welding
equipment and machine tool manufacturer, expert welder Jimmy Ray
Madrid and the Dale Flood, AWS vice
president-elect, were eager to assist
with the project including material
fabrication and welding.
The Eagle Scout idea snowballed
into reality as various labor union
members organized the concrete
work, and concerned students and
faculty members from Yuba and Sierra regional community colleges and
Sacramentos American River College
were recruited to study the local construction codes for compliance and
coordinate inspections and Building
Department approval of the plans.
The valuable materials and steel
were donated by GNB and Yuba College. Dan Turner from Yuba College
loaned a pipe bender for handrail
forming. Cutting, fabrication, and
welding on the guard and handrails
began during the evenings and weekends at GNB with welding professionals working alongside the Eagle Scout
members who viewed this as a re-
warding learning experience and a

sure-fire way to earn the Welding
Merit Badge.
As the project progressed and the
fabricated components neared completion, they were transferred to the
Ironworkers Local 118 where many of
the final details were performed and
the components readied for transport
to the sports complex.
Finally, the installation work commenced, and while construction was
in progress inside, Kerry Shatell, AWS
District 22 director, and Jerry Wentland, a Sacramento Valley Section officer, and others, conducted hands-on
welding demonstrations designed to
foster welding education and arouse
students interest about including
welding as their future occupation.
All in all, the project spanned more
than four weeks with on-site construction being completed to the satisfaction of the city of Folsoms Parks
and Recreation Department and,
most importantly, by the appreciative
elderly and disabled members of the
community who now have full access
to the sports complex.
BILL ATKINSON
(b.atkinson@tritool.com) is in the
Marketing Dept. and DALE FLOOD,
AWS vice president-elect, is weld project
manager at Tri Tool, Inc., Rancho
Cordova, Calif.
SOCIETY NEWS
TECH TOPICS
D1 Committee on Structural Welding Convenes in Jackson, Wyoming
At right, D1 Committee leaders are
(from left) Todd Niemann (incoming first
vice chair), Dave McQuaid (AWS vice
president and a past D1 chair), Don
Rager (a past D1 chair), AWS President
Dean Wilson, Chair Duane Miller, and
Allen Sindel, incoming chair. Below, Todd
Niemann (center) receives his Silver
Member certificate for 25 years of service to the Society from AWS President
Dean Wilson (left) and Dave McQuaid,
an AWS vice president.
A2 Committee on Definitions and Symbols Meets at EWI in Columbus, Ohio
Shown at the fall meeting, held Oct. 8, 9, are (from left) Chuck Ford, Ben Finney, Bill Beckman, Pat Newhouse, Chris Lander, John Gullotti, Nancy Porter, Richard Holdren, Bryan Worley, David Beneteau, Steve Borrero, Johnny Dingler, Chair JP Christein, and Ben
Grimmett. The A2 Committee on Definitions and Symbols held its fall meeting Oct. 8, 9, at EWI in Columbus, Ohio. The committee is responsible for the oversight of the A2B Subcommittee on Definitions (AWS A3.0M/A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions) and
A2C Subcommittee on Symbols (AWS A2.4, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination).
SOCIETY NEWS
D10 Committee Meets at AWS World Headquarters in Miami
From left are Don Reis, Bill Newell, Jennifer Molin, Bill Kashin, Chair Mike Lang, John Hill, Chris Goocher, Danny Ciarlariello, Andy Mulroy, and John Hainsworth. At the meeting, John Hill received a certificate in appreciation for his 23 years of service to the committee.
STRENGTHENING AND REPAIR OF

EXISTING STRUCTURES to CLAUSE
7. FRICTION STIR WELDING
p. 174, Annex I: change page header from ANNEX K to ANNEX I
p. 176, Annex J: change page
header from ANNEX L to ANNEX J
Amendment Notice
View and download the following
and all AWS Amendments at www.
aws.org/w/a/technical/amendments.
general instructions for the installation, operation, and maintenance of

common types of resistance welding
equipment. Generic preventative
maintenance schedules and equipment troubleshooting recommendations are provided, as is an overview
of common weld qualification techniques and how to correct common
weld problems. Stakeholders: The resistance welding community. E.
Abrams, ext. 307, eabrams@aws.org.
Standards Approved by ANSI

Shown at the recent committee meeting in Miami, D10 Chair Mike Lang
(right) presents John Hill a certificate of
appreciation for his 23 years of service
on the committee.
Errata
D1.2/D1.2M:2014
Structural Welding
Code Aluminum
Note: The following errata have
been identified and will be incorporated into the next reprinting of this
document.
p. xi, Table of Contents: delete line
Foreword 179
p. 78, Figure 4.2: change TABLE
4.6 to TABLE 5.3
pp. 106111, Clause 7: change
page header from CLAUSE 7.
B5.1:2013 AMD1, Specification for

the Qualification of Welding Inspec
tors
This Amendment adds AWS A2.4,
Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing,
and Nondestructive Examination, and
AWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms
and Definitions, to Annex A as reference documents applicable to AWI,
WI, SWI.
New Standard Project

Development work has begun on
the following new standard. Affected
individuals are invited to contribute.
Participation on all AWS Technical
Committees is open to all persons.
J1.2M/J1.2:201X, Guide to Installation and Maintenance of Resistance
Welding Machines. This guide provides
B5.17-2014, Specification for the

Qualification of Welding Fabricators.
Approved 9/12/2014.
B5.1-2013-AMD1-2013, Specification for the Qualification of Welding Inspectors. Approved 10/7/2014.
Technical Committee Meetings

Dec. 3, 4. Safety and Health Committee, Miami, Fla. S. Hedrick, ext.
305, steveh@aws.org.
Jan. 28. Committee on Personnel
& Facilities Qualification. Miami, Fla.
S. Hedrick, ext. 305, steveh@aws.org.
April 710. D1 Committee and
Subcommittees on Structural Welding. Miami, Fla. B. McGrath, ext. 311,
bmcgrath@aws.org.
SOCIETY NEWS
NEW AWS SUPPORTERS
Sustaining Companies
Applied Technical Services, Inc.
1049 Triad Ct., Marietta, GA 30062
Representative: Michael Murray
www.atslab.com
Applied Technical Services (ATS) is a
provider of consulting engineering,
testing, and inspection services. Since
1967, it has established an excellent
reputation with business, industry, and
the legal profession. Notably, ATS is
known for uncovering facts in metallurgy, materials testing, chemical analysis,
nondestructive testing, calibrations,
fires, and explosions. Its quality assurance program meets ISO 9001, ISO
17025, and Nuclear Requirements of 10
CFR 50 Appendix B, Part 21.
Helical Pier Systems
Ste. 100, 103 Portage Close
Sherwood Park, AB T8h2r5, Canada
Representative: Shane Kasprick
www.helicalpiersystems.com
Pemco of New Mexico, Inc.
POB 428, 2605 Lovington Hwy.
Hobbs, NM 88241
Representative: Garry Buie
www.pemconm.com
Global Mechanical
3494 Del Rio Ave.,Fracc Hacienda De
Rio, Mexicali Bcn 21254, Mexico
Martin University
2171 Avondale Pl.
Indianapolis, IN 46218
Jenmar Specialty Products

PO Box 270, Pounding Mill, VA 24609
Maxine Waters Employment

Preparation Center
10925 S. Central Ave.
Los Angeles, CA 90051
Lawrence Fabrication, Inc.

PO Box 8, Simpsonville, SC 29681
Miller Welding & Fabrication, Inc.
112 Little Tn School Rd.
Maryville, TN 37801
M. L. Ruberton Construction Co., Inc.
PO Box 564, 1512 Mays Landing Rd.
Folsom, NJ 08037
Stoddard Silencers of Canada, Inc.
491 Brimley Rd., Unit 1
Toronto ON M1J 1A4, Canada
Middle East for Commercial Diving

3 Eskander Ibraheem St.
Miami, Alexandria, Egypt
Rich Mountain Community College
1100 College Dr., Mena, AR 71953
Southwest Texas Junior College
2401 Garner Field Rd.
Uvalde, TX 78801
Supporting Companies
Strobel Manufacturing
105 S Green St., Clarks NE 68628
Tormex Industrias
San Pablo # 100-B Industrial, Mieleras
Coahuila, Torreon 27400
Educational Institutions
Envent Corp.
3220 E. 29 St.
Long Beach, CA 90806
Omega Natchiq, Inc.
4418 Pesson Rd.,
New Iberia, LA 70560
Affiliate Companies
Cross Plains ISD

700 N. Main, Cross Plains, TX 76443
Uniarc Filler Metals, LLC

1102 Macy Dr.
Roswell, GA 30076
Bae Industries
26020 Sherwood Ave.
Warren, MI 48091
East Valley Institute of Technology

1601 W. Main St., Mesa, AZ 85201
Welding Distributers
Bridgehampton Steel & Welding, Inc.

PO Box 19, #27 Foster Ave.
Bridgehampton, NY 11932
City Thermoplastic Engineering Sdn
Bhd., Lot 1, Jalan 7/3, Taman Industri
Selesa Jaya, Balakong Selangor 43300
Malaysia
Cogent Companies, Inc.
1550 Larkin Williams Rd.
Fenton, MO 63026
Consorcio MMC Renter
Lope De Vega # 59, Plaza, Apt 15-C
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
D/B Welding
4101 F M 113 N.
Weatherford, TX 76088
ARC Enterprises, Inc.

Greater Waco Advanced
27 Commercial Rd.
Manufacturing Magnet Academy
Kingfield, ME 04947
2401 JJ Flewellen Rd., Waco, TX 76704
BC Industrial Supply, Inc.
Hassan Abdul Karim Algahtani Sons Co. 3333 Lenox Ave.
Dammam-Khobar Hwy., near DHL of- Jacksonville, FL 32336
fice, Al Nawawi St., Eastern Province
Al Khobar 31942, Saudi Arabia
Cargo Bed International, Inc.
2070-335 Wesley St.
Institute of International Recognized
Nanaimo, BC V9R2T5, Canada
Qualifications (IIRQ), c/o Technology
Innovation Center
Tesco Engineers Co., Ltd.
Ste. #10, 237 Old Hope Rd.
39/13-16 Suanplu Corner Bldg. 3rd Fl.
Kingston 6, Jamaica
Soi. Suanplu, Sathorn, Thungmahamek,
Sathorn, Bangkok 10120
Kerrville ISD
Thailand
1009 Barnett St., Kerrville, TX 78028
LubbockCooper ISD
16302 Loop 493, Lubbock, TX 79423
SOCIETY NEWS
MEMBERSHIP ACTIVITIES
District Director Awards
Presented
The District Director Award provides a means for District directors to
recognize individuals and local companies who have contributed their time
and effort to benefit the affairs of
their local Section and/or District.
Stewart Harris, Dist. 4 director,
nominated the following for this
award:
Rich Husted, NE Carolina
C. Wayne Hoose, Triangle
Greg Fredrick, Charlotte
Sergey Kobelev, Carolina
Bill Rhodes, SW Virginia
Wayne Smith, Tidewater
Wake Tech C. C. Student Chapter
(Triangle Section)
Central Piedmont C. C. Student
Chapter (Charlotte Section)
York Technical College Student
Chapter (Charlotte Section)
D. Joshua Burgess, Dist. 8 director,
nominated the following for this
award:
Bradley Central High School Student Chapter (Chattanooga)
Gary Gammill, NE Mississippi
Robbin Shull, NE Mississippi
Joe Smith, Greater Huntsville
David Porter, Nashville
John Stoll, District 18 director, nominated the following for this award:
Matt Richard, Corpus Christi
Ellery Francisco, Corpus Christi
Brandys Landing, Houston
Andre Horne, Houston
Dan Jones, Houston
Connie Rosbrough, Houston
Ron Theiss, Houston
Saty Segu, Houston
Scott Witkowski, Houston
Tom Holt, Sabine
Elaine Davis, San Antonio
MemberGetaMember Update
Listed are the members with points
earned in the 2014 campaign. Five
points are awarded for each Individual
Member and one point for each Student Member recruited. See page 65 of
this Welding Journal for campaign
rules and prize list. Standings as of
Oct. 21. Call the AWS Membership Department, (800/305) 443-9353, ext.
480, for more information.
J. Morris, Mobile 230
M. Pelegrino, Chicago 40
D. Saunders, Lakeshore 33
R. Barber, East Texas 30
A. Stute, Madison-Beloit 28
D. Ebenhoe, Kern 25
D. Mandina, New Orleans 25
J. D. Mckenzie, Detroit 25
R. F Purvis, Sacramento 25
E. Donaldson, Cumberland Valley 24
R. Richwine, Indiana 24
A. Theriot, New Orleans 24
S. Miner, San Francisco 22
R. Zabel, Southeast Nebraska 22
J. Foley, Pittsburgh 21
C. Bridwell, Ozark 20
D. Galigher, Detroit 19
D. Lynnes, Northern Plains 19
R. Munns, Utah 19
M. Haggard, Inland Empire 19
J. Kline, Northern New York 18
G. Smith, Lehigh Valley 17
G. Deem, Columbia 15
R. Farquhar, Cleveland 15
M. Trute, Atlanta 15
J. Tso, LA/Inland Empire 15
R. Eckstein, Northwest 14
C. Lariche, Cleveland 14
R. Polito, Spokane 14
J. Russell, Fox Valley 14
J. Carney, West Michigan 13
S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley 13
C. Wolfman, Sacramento 12
R. Bubb, Philadelphia 11
C. Ortega, North Texas 11
AWS Member Counts

November 1, 2014
Sustaining.................................587
Supporting .............................351
Educational...............................699
Affiliate.....................................591
Welding Distributor ...................54
Total Corporate ......................2,282
Individual ...........................59,845
Student + Transitional ...........10,453
Total Members ..................70,298
Nominate Your Candidate

for MIT Masubuchi Award
The Prof. Koichi Masubuchi award,
with a $5000 honorarium, is presented
to one person, 40 or younger, who has
made significant contributions to the
advancement of materials joining
through research and development.
Send a list of your candidates experience, publications, honors, awards, and
at least three letters of recommendation
from fellow researchers to Prof. Todd
Palmer, tap103@psu.edu.
This award is sponsored annually by
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Ocean Engineering.
SECTION NEWS
LONG ISLAND From left are Tom Gartland, Jesse Provler, Chair Brian Cassidy, Deborah McInnis, Alex Duschere, Dist. 2 Director Harland Thompson, Ray OLeary, and Barry McQuillan.
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com
BOSTON
September 19
Activity: The Section manned a booth
to promote the Society at a Steel Day
event hosted by Capone Iron Corp. in
Rowley, Mass. Tom Ferri, Dist. 1 director, and Dave Paquin were joined
by Doug Desrochers representing the
Central Mass./Rhode Island Section,
distributing literature and answering
questions for the high school students and visitors.
BOSTON From left are Tom Ferri, Dist. 1 director; Dave Paquin; and Doug Desrochers
from the Central Mass./R.I. Section.
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
LONG ISLAND
October 9
Activity: The Sections experts held a
group discussion on the relative merits of welding 14-in. plate using gas
metal arc vs. shielded metal arc
processes. The winner was shielded
metal arc. Participating were Chair
Brian Cassidy, Jesse Provler, Deborah
McInnis, Tom Gartland, Alex
Duschere, Ray OLeary, and Harland
Thompson, Dist. 2 director.
LEHIGH VALLEY Mike Wiswesser, Dist. 3 director (standing, far right), is shown
with attendees at the Lehigh Career and Technical Institute .
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director
(610) 820-9551
mike@welderinstitute.com
LEHIGH VALLEY
August 6
Activity: The first Section meeting of
the season was held at Lehigh Career
and Technical Institute in Schnecksville, Pa. Mike Wiswesser, Dist.
3 director, attended the program.
AWS MEMbERShIp ApplICATIOn

4 Easy Ways to Join or Renew:
Mail: Form with your payment, to AWS
Call: Membership Department at (800) 443-9353, ext. 480
Fax: Completed form to (305) 443-5647
Online: www.aws.org/membership
contact information
q New Member q Renewal
q Mr. q Ms. q Mrs. q Dr.
Please print Duplicate this page as needed
Last Name:_______________________________________________________________________________
First Name:___________________________________________________________________ M.I:_______
Birthdate: _____________________________ E-Mail:____________________________________________
Cell Phone (
)__________________________ Secondary Phone (
)______________________
Were you ever an AWS Member? q YES q NO If YES, give year________ and Member #:____________________
Company (if applicable):___________________________________________________________________
Address:________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
City:_____________________________________State/Province:__________________________________
Zip/PostalCode:_____________________Country:______________________________________________
q Check here if you learned of the Society through an AWS Member? Members name:_______________________Members # (if known):________
q Check here if you would prefer not to receive email updates on AWS programs, new Member benefits, savings opportunities and events.
inDiViDUaL mEmBErSHiP
Please check each box that applies to the Membership or service youd like, and then add the cost together to get your Total Payment.
q AWS IndIvIduAl MEMbERShIp (One Year)..................................................................................................$84
q AWS IndIvIduAl MEMbERShIp (Two Years) SAvE $25 New Members Only....................................$143
q New Member Initiation Fee ...........................................................................................................................................$12
OpTIOnS AvAIlAblE TO AWS IndIvIduAl MEMbERS OnlY:

A.) OPTIONAL book Selection (Choose from 25 titles; up to a $192 value; includes shipping & handling)
q Individual Members in the U.S..................................................................................................................................$35
q Individual Members outside the U.S (includes International shipping)...........................................................................$85
ONLY ONE SELECTION PLEASE. For more book choices visit www.aws.org/membership
q Jeffersons Welding Encyclopedia (CD-ROM only) q Design & Planning Manual for Cost-Effective Welding q Welding Metallurgy
Welding Handbook Selections: q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 4) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 3) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 2) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 1)
Pocket Handbook Selections: q PHB-1 (Arc Welding Steel) q PHB-2 (Visual Inspection) q PHB-4 (GMAW / FCAW)
B.) OPTIONAL Welding Journal hard Copy (for Members outside North America)
q Individual Members outside North America (note: digital delivery of WJ is standard)..............................................$50
IndIvIduAl MEMbERShIp TOTAl pAYMEnT..................................................................................$_____________
NOTE: Dues include $18.70 for Welding Journal subscription and $4.00 for the AWS Foundation.
StUDEnt mEmBErSHiP
Please check each box that applies to the Membership or service youd like, and then add the cost together to get your Total Payment.
q AWS STudEnT MEMbERShIp (One Year)...................................................................................................................$15
q OPTIONAL Welding Journal hard Copy (Only available to students in the U.S., Canada and Mexico)...........................$20
Note: Hard copy option applies to students in U.S., Canada and Mexico. Digital delivery of magazine is standard benefit for all student members.
STudEnT MEMbERShIp TOTAl pAYMEnT......................................................................................$_____________
PaYmEnt information
Payment can be made (in U.S. dollars) by check or money order (international or foreign), payable to the American Welding Society, or by charge card.
q Check q Money Order q AMEX
q Diners Club q MasterCard
q Visa
q Discover
q Other
CC#:____________ / ____________ / ____________ / ____________ Expiration Date (mm/yy) ________ / ________

Signature of Applicant:_________________________________________ Application Date:_______________________
officE USE onLY Check #:_______________________________ Account #____________________________________
Source Code: WJ
Date:_________________________________ Amount:_____________________________________
REV. 11/13
8669 NW 36 St, # 130

Miami, FL 33166-6672
Telephone (800) 443-9353
FAX (305) 443-5647
Visit our website: www.aws.org
Type of Business (Check ONE only)
A
q Contract construction
B
q Chemicals & allied products
C
q Petroleum & coal industries
D
q Primary metal industries
E
q Fabricated metal products
F
q Machinery except elect. (incl. gas welding)
G
q Electrical equip., supplies, electrodes
H
q Transportation equip. air, aerospace
I
q Transportation equip. automotive
J
q Transportation equip. boats, ships
K
q Transportation equip. railroad
L
q Utilities
M
q Welding distributors & retail trade
N
q Misc. repair services (incl. welding shops)
O
q Educational Services (univ., libraries, schools)
P
q Engineering & architectural services (incl. assns.)
Q
q Misc. business services (incl. commercial labs)
R
q Government (federal, state, local)
S
q Other
Job Classification (Check ONE only)
01
q President, owner, partner, officer
02
q Manager, director, superintendent (or assistant)
03
q Sales
04
q Purchasing
05
q Engineer welding
20
q Engineer design
21
q Engineer manufacturing
06
q Engineer other
10
q Architect designer
12
q Metallurgist
13
q Research & development
22
q Quality control
07
q Inspector, tester
08
q Supervisor, foreman
14
q Technician
09
q Welder, welding or cutting operator
11
q Consultant
15
q Educator
17
q Librarian
16
q Student
18
q Customer Service
19
q Other
Technical Interests (Check all that apply)
A
q Ferrous metals
B
q Aluminum
C
q Nonferrous metals except aluminum
D
q Advanced materials/Intermetallics
E
q Ceramics
F
q High energy beam processes
G
q Arc welding
H
q Brazing and soldering
I
q Resistance welding
J
q Thermal spray
K
q Cutting
L
q NDT
M
q Safety and health
N
q Bending and shearing
O
q Roll forming
P
q Stamping and punching
Q
q Aerospace
R
q Automotive
S
q Machinery
T
q Marine
U
q Piping and tubing
V
q Pressure vessels and tanks
W
q Sheet metal
X
q Structures
Y
q Other
Z
q Automation
1
q Robotics
2
q Computerization of Welding
SECTION NEWS
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director

(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com
SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA
September 30
Activity: The Section members, Welding Instructor Chris Overfelt, and
Dist. 4 Director Stewart Harris conducted a high school student weld-off
competition at A. R. Burton Technology Center in Salem, Va. Hunter
Richard was the overall winner and
Rachel King took the top spot in the
girls division.
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director

(770) 356-2107
cmatricardi@aol.com
Aiken South Carolina

Student Chapter
SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA (Top photo) Attendees are shown at the September program. Above, at left, are Chris Overfelt (left), Hunter Richard (center), and Stewart Harris, Dist. 4 director. At right, Rachel King displays her trophy.
October 16
Activity: The Student Chapter members toured Praxair in Columbia, S.C.,
to study its gas cylinder filling operations.
FLORIDA WEST COAST

October 8
Speakers: Todd Faughn, Mike Vinson
Affiliation: 3M Personal Safety Div.
Topic: Controlling hazardous fumes in
the workplace
Activity: The event was held at Mimis
Caf in Brandon, Fla.
FLORIDA WEST COAST From left are Chair Charles Crumpton III and presenters
Todd Faughn and Mike Vinson.
AIKEN SOUTH CAROLINA STUDENT CHAPTER From left are Jason Pfentner, Aaron Carter, Chandler Stokes, Brian Gore, Kevin
Rawlins, Joseph Long, Devon Rains, Lane Simmons, Robyn Westphas, Craig Miller, and Kevin Gratton.
SECTION NEWS
CHATTANOOGA Attendees are shown at the Komatsu Manufacturing Operation in September.
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director

(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com
NORTHERN NEW YORK
October 7
Activity: The members toured the
USS Slater moored in Albany, N.Y.
Doug Tanner, a USS Slater restoration
volunteer and a Section vice chair,
discussed the dry dock restorations
and conducted a tour of the ship.
PITTSBURGH From left are Jody Dadum, Ken Broadbent, Section Chair George Kirk,
Ron Delsandro, Lou Rudi, Matt Wilson, Treasurer Tom White, Past Chair John Menhart,
and Jack Trettle from Matheson Tri-Gas.
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director

(786) 473-9540
uwe@sgsdiving.com
COLUMBUS
September 23
Speaker: Melvin Pascall, professor
Affiliation: The Ohio State University
Topic: Food packaging nano technology
Activity: The event was held at DNV
GL in Dublin, Ohio, for 37 attendees,
including members of local chapters
of SWE, ASME, ASM International,
and AIAA.
October 15
Speaker: Lee Kvidahl, AWS president
19931994
Affiliation: Ingalls Shipbuilding
Topic: Welding in shipbuilding
Activity: Vice Chair Jim Worman received his Silver Member certificate
for 25 years of service to the Society
from Uwe Aschemeier, Dist. 7 director. Fifty people attended this program, including members of several
local technical societies. The event
was held at La Scala Restaurant in
Columbus, Ohio.
NORTHERN NEW YORK Doug Tanner

is shown guiding the Sections tour of the
USS Slater.
PITTSBURGH
Activity: Recently, more than 60 Section members and welding students

toured Chapman Corp. in Washington, Pa. Leading the program were
Ron Delsandro, Pipe Fabrication Shop
manager; Jody Dadum, general foreman; Lou Rudi, QA manager; and
Matt Wilson, foreman. Also attending
were Ken Broadbent, business manager, and workers from Steamfitters UA
Local #449 based in Pittsburgh, Pa.
COLUMBUS (Top photo) Silver Member Jim Worman (left) receives his certificate from Uwe Aschemeier, Dist. 7 director. (Above) Chair John Lawmon (left) is
shown with speaker Lee Kvidahl.
SECTION NEWS
District 8
D. Joshua Burgess, director
(931) 260-7039
djoshuaburgess@gmail.com
Lusker, vice chair; Maurice Davis, program chair; DeMarcus Gates, publicity
chair; Rushton Syphurs, membership
chair; Niya Jackson, secretary; and
Jerome Ambers, treasurer.
Kolasa, a welding school instructor at

Lincoln, chaired the program. The
next Roundtable is scheduled for Dec.
6, 2014.
CHATTANOOGA
September 11
Speaker: Bill Brooks, technical sales
Affiliation: Holston Gases
Topic: Controlling fuel flashbacks
Activity: The program was held at Komatsu Manufacturing Operation.
NASHVILLE
October 16
Speaker: Reid Laurens
Affiliation: Thermo Fisher Niton
Topic: Positive material identification
Activity: The meeting was held at
World Testing, Inc., in Juliet, Tenn.
Dist. Director Josh Burgess presented
the Section Meritorious Award to Jim
Kirby and the Section Dalton E.
Hamilton Memorial CWI of the Year
Award to Michael Morris of World
Testing. The program was held at
World Testing, Inc., in Juliet, Tenn.
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director
(330) 484-3650
DRAKE WELL
October 9
Activity: The Section held a planning
and social meeting at The Commons
at Franklin in Franklin, Pa.
District 10 event
September 27
Activity: This year, the District hosted
its third annual series of Certified
Welding Inspection (CWI) Roundtables at The Lincoln Electric Co. in Euclid, Ohio. Participating were 25 CWIs
who discussed techniques for preparing for the CWI practical exam. Joe
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rwilcox1@ford.com
Ferris State University

Student Chapter
September 30
Activity: The Chapter members, led
by Advisor Jeff Carney, participated
in a Michigan Dept. of Transportation
Adopt-a-Highway cleanup along a
two-mile section of highway in Big
Rapids, Mich.
October 7
Activity: The Student Chapter members volunteered their maintenance
and cleanup services for the Big
Rapids Riverwalk along the
Muskegon River in Hemlock Park.
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
ts@bellsouth.net
Lawson State C. C.
Student Chapter
September 23
Activity: The Student Chapter held its
fall term election of officers at the
college in Birmingham, Ala. Elected
were Ladarious Bledsoe, chair; Mason
LAWSON STATE C. C. STUDENT CHAPTER From left are (seated) Niya Jackson,
Chair Ladarious Bledsoe, and Mason Lusker; (standing) Maurice Davis, DeMarcus
Gates, Rushton Syphurs, and Jerome Ambers.
NASHVILLE Members are shown at World Testing, Inc., in October.

SECTION NEWS
Ferris State University Student Chapter Members are shown during their Adopt-a-Highway project in September.
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director

(920) 241-1542
daniel.roland@airgas.com
District 13
John Willard, director

(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
CHICAGO
October 15
Speaker: Stuart Kleven
Topic: Recovery and restoration of the
Huntley, a Confederate submarine
Activity: Attending were welding students and members of the local chapter of ASNT. The event was held at
Bohemian Crystal Restaurant in
Westmont, Ill., for 43 attendees.
DRAKE WELL From left are (seated) Bob Fugate, Carol Miller, and Brenda Benyon;
and (standing) Dan Bubenheim, Mike Owens, Ward Kiser, and Travis Crate.
NASHVILLE Josh Burgess (right in both photos) presents awards to Jim Kirby (left
photo) and Michael Morris.
CHATTANOOGA Bill Brooks demonstrated gas safety practices at Komatsu

Manufacturing Operation.
SECTION NEWS
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director
(765) 606-7970
rlrichwine2@aol.com
INDIANA
September 25
Activity: Twenty members and guests
toured the Endress+Hauser Flowtec
automation and instrumentation
plant in Greenwood, Ind. The speakers included Mike Moore, engineering
manager; Klaus Maier, industrial engineering manager; Wally Wood, engineering weld technician; and Robert
Head, engineering staff member.
September 25
Activity: The Indiana Section held its
semiannual Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) seminar and testing program for 35 applicants. The event was
held at the Marriott Hotel in Indianapolis, Ind.
ST. LOUIS
September 18
Activity: The Section members toured
the Larry Jeffers Race Cars facility
and welding shop in House Springs,
Mo. Larry Jeffers and David Zientara
conducted the program.
search Center for Advanced Manufacturing at Southern Methodist University (SMU) in Arlington, Tex.
Radovan Kovacevic, Research Center
director, demonstrated welding using
high-power lasers and discussed friction stir welding process variations.
EAST TEXAS
June 14
Activity: The Section hosted the District 17 conference.
September 18
the Norris Cylinder Co. in Longview,
Tex. George Stevens, southeast region
sales manager, detailed the manufacture of seamless and welded industrial gas cylinders used for the storage,
and dispensing of industrial gases.
October 11, 12
Activity: The Tulsa Section hosted a
CWI exam. Officiating were test administrators Chair Rich Howard and
Tim Jones; and Proctors Travis Weber, Melissa Howard, and Jaimie Vera.
District 18
John Stoll, director
(713) 724-2350
John.Stoll@voestalpine.com
HOUSTON
TULSA
September 17
Speaker: Ben Pletcher, senior metallurgist
Affiliation: Select-Arc, Inc.
Topic: Innovations in metal cored
welding consumables
Activity: Jim Hansford, an education
board member, discussed plans for
the seminar, Welding Economics,
scheduled for Oct. 11 at NCI.
September 23
Speaker: Russel Fuchs
Affiliation: voestalpine Bhler Welding
Topic: Cored welding wires
Activity: The event was held at Golden Corral in Tulsa, Okla., for 41 attendees.
October 3
Activity: The Houston Section members visited the Arc Specialities facility in Houston, Tex. Dan Allford, owner and CEO, and Richard Holdren,
senior welding engineer, conducted
the tour.
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
District 16
Karl Fogleman, director
(402) 677-2490
fogleman3@cox.net
HOUSTON At left, Metallurgist Ben Pletcher (left) is shown with Vice Chair Grant
Peltier at the September program. At right, Arc Specialities owner Dan Allford (left)
chats with Chair Barney Burks.
District 17
Jerry Knapp, director
(918) 224-6455
jerry.knapp@gasandsupply.com
District 17 CWI Tour

October 9
Activity: The Certified Welding Inspector 9-year recertification class,
headed by instructor Ron Theiss and
Ernest Levert, AWS president
20022003, featured a tour of the Re-
TULSA Officiating at the CWI exam are (from left) Travis Weber; Chair Rich Howard;
Melissa Howard; Tim Jones; and Jaimie Vera.
SECTION NEWS
CHICAGO Attendees are shown at the October 15 meeting.
District 17 CWI Tour Instructor Ron Theiss (third from the left) poses with his CWI class during their tour of SMU.
EAST TEXAS At left, presenter George Stevens (left) is shown with J. Jones, AWS director-at-large. At right, attendees are shown at
the District 17 conference held June 14.
TULSA Shown at the September program are (from left) Chair Rich Howard,
speaker Russel Fuchs, and Wes Norton,
vice chair.
ST. LOUIS Jerry Simpson (center) is shown with presenters Larry Jeffers (left) and
David Zientara during the race car factory tour.
SECTION NEWS
October 3
Activity: Ron Theiss conducted the
15th annual nine-day CWI class and
exam for the United Brotherhood of
Carpenters and Joiners in Houston,
Tex, for 22 attendees.
District 19
Ken Johnson, director

(425) 957-3553
kenneth.johnson@vigorindustrial.com
PUGET SOUND OLYMPIC

October 2
Speaker: Sergio Vitomir, director
R&D
Affiliation: Protocol Environmental
Solutions, Inc.
Topic: Removing metal oxides
Activity: The program was held at
Bellevue Coast Hotel in Bellevue,
Wash.
SPOKANE
September 6
Activity: The annual golf outing was
held at The Links Golf Course in Post
Falls, Idaho. Ten four-member teams
participated with funds and gifts donated by local fabrication shops. The
winning team members were Doug
Owens, Kris Meeks, James Hill, and
Mark Hill.
October 15
Speaker: Phil Zammit, QA manager
Affiliation: Brooklyn Iron Works (ret.)
Topic: Reading welding symbols
Activity: The event was held at
Spokane Community College for 72
attendees.
Weber State University

Student Chapter
October 14
Activity: Advisor Mark Baugh, Andrew Deceuster and Chapter members toured GSC Foundries, Inc., in
Ogden, Utah, to study investment
casting of aluminum parts for Hellfire
missiles and fighter jet components.
District 21
Nanette Samanich, director

(702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com
ARIZONA
June 25
the AWS Accredited Test Facility
(ATF) at Mohave College in Kingman,
Ariz. Buddy May, a faculty member
and Section Student Affairs chair,
conducted the program.
October 6
Activity: Arizona Section officers held
a planning meeting at East Valley In-
stitute of Technology in Mesa, Ariz.

Attending were Chair Brent Boling,
Gary Gardner, John Weber, Leon
Zamora, Buddy May, Jerry Siko, Paul
Moreno, Andrew Lamer, Nick Martinez, and Fran Johnston.
LOS ANGELES/INLAND EMPIRE

October 10, 11
Activity: The Section held its annual
Welding Thunder team competition
for high school and college students,
at Santa Ana College.
October 16
Speaker: Dean Wilson, AWS president
Affiliation: Welldean Enterprises
Topic: The AWS Innovation Campaign
Activity: The event was held at Green
River Golf Club in Corona, Calif.
District 22
Kerry E. Shatell, director

(925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com
HOUSTON Instructor Ron Theiss (wearing jacket) and CWI class members are shown
at United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America.
District 20
Pierrette H. Gorman, director

(505) 284-9644
phgorma@sandia.gov
COLORADO
September 11
Activity: The Section visited Leed
Fabrication in Loveland, Colo., to
study the manufacture of pressure
vessels. Eric Warren made a presentation then conducted the tour of the
facility.
ARIZONA Shown at Mohave College

are (from left ) presenter Buddy May,
Fran Johnston, Leon Zamora, and Gary
Gardner.
HOUSTON Justin Gordy, a past chair,

is shown during the Arc Specialities tour.
SECTION NEWS
COLORADO Presenter Eric Warren (holding the Section banner) poses with Section members at Leed Fabrication.
Weber State University Student Chapter Attendees are shown during their tour of GSC Foundries in Ogden, Utah.
PUGET SOUND OLYMPIC From left

are Gary Marshall, speaker Sergio Vitomir, and Steve Pollard.
ARIZONA Shown at the October meeting are from left (seated) John Weber, Buddy
May, Paul Moreno, and Chair Brent Boling; (standing) Gary Gardner, Leon Zamora, Jerry Siko, Andrew Lamer, and Nick Martinez.
SPOKANE From left are Doug Owens,

Kris Meeks, James Hill, and Mark Hill.
LA/INLAND EMPIRE Chair George

Rollo (left) is shown with Dean Wilson,
AWS president, in October.
LA/INLAND EMPIRE The top Welding Thunder team members are (from left) Ben
Perez, Omar Andino, Alexandra Ruesga, Tyler Faust, Caleb Purdy, Michael Gilman, and
Joseph Brennan.
SOCIETY NEWS
Guide to American Welding Society Services

8669 NW 36th St., #130
Miami, FL 33166-6672
(800/305) 443-9353; Fax: (305) 443-7559
Phone extensions are in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
Dean Wilson . . . deanwilsonaws@gmail.com
Welldean Enterprises
151 Oak Tree Cir., Glendora, CA 91741
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(253)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(401)
INTERNATIONAL SALES
Managing Director of North American Sales
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Corporate Director, International Sales
Jeff Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities;
certification, publications, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . . . .(249)
Chief Financial Officer

Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . . . .(252)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . . . .(249)
Chief Technology Officer

Dennis Harwig..dharwig@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(213)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . . .(238)
Chief Information Officer

Emilio Del Riego..edelriego@aws.org . . . . . . .(247)
National Sales Director

Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Associate Director of Board and

Executive Director Services
Alex Diaz.. adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(294)
Administrative Services
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
HUMAN RESOURCES
Director
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . . .(208)
Associate Director
Patrick Henry..phenry@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .( 211)
INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WELDING
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international societies and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Hugh Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.
(202) 785-9500; F: (202) 835-0243.
Monitors federal issues of importance to the
industry.
CONVENTION AND EXPOSITIONS
Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . . .(239)
Society and Section News Editor

Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . . . .(244)
Director, Operations
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(299)
Technical Committee Activities, Welding
Qualification
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining
of Plastics and Composites, Personnel and Facilities Qualification, Mechanical Testing of Welds
Program Managers II
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals
and Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook, Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcommittees on Bridge Welding, Stainless Steel,
and Reinforcing Steel
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . . .(303)
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(301)

Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment,
Arc Welding and Cutting Processes, Computerization of Welding Information
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director
Lorena Cora.. lcora@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(417)
Brian McGrath .... bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . . .(311)

Structural Welding, Welding in Marine Construction
Public Relations Manager

Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(307)
Automotive, Resistance Welding, Machinery
and Equipment, Methods of Inspection
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(456)
Section Web Editor
Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(452)
MEMBER SERVICES
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between members and
AWS headquarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
John Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities.
ITSA INTERNATIONAL THERMAL

SPRAY ASSOCIATION
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa....kathydusa@thermalspray.org . .(232)
Director, Certification Operations

Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Application processing, renewals, and exams.
RWMA RESISTANCE WELDING MANUFACTUR

ING ALLIANCE
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . . . .(444)
Director, Accreditation Programs

Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification programs, as well as AWS-Accredited Test
Facilities, and AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
WEMCO ASSOCIATION OF WELDING MANU

FACTURERS
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . . . .(444)
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Managing Director
Technical Services Development & Systems
Andrew Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American
Council of the International Institute of Welding
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
BRAZING AND SOLDERING

MANUFACTURERS COMMITTEE
Stephen Borrero..sborrero@aws.org . . . . . . . .(334)
Director, Development and Systems

David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . . .(219)
GAWDA GASES AND WELDING

DISTRIBUTORS ASSOCIATION
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(462)
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS

Senior Manager
Wendy Sue Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards and Fellow and
Counselor nominations.
Chelsea Lewis.. clewis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(306)

Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and
Cutting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics
Welding, Welding in Sanitary Applications, Additive Manufacturing
Jennifer Molin.. jmolin@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Sheet Metal Welding, Welding and Brazing in
Aerospace, Ti and Zr Filler Metals, Joining of
Metals and Alloys, Piping and Tubing
Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . . . .(308)
Railroad Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron Castings, Welding Qualification
AWS FOUNDATION, INC.
www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development
Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
Associate Director of Scholarships
Vicki Pinsky.. vpinsky@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (212)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit 501(c)(3)
charitable organization established to provide support for
the educational and scientific endeavors of the American
Welding Society. Promote the Foundations work with
your financial support.
Where is the welding

industry headed?
The CEO of Lincoln knows. Economist Alan Beaulieu knows.
Head to WEMCOs
annual meeting
or be left behind.
Non-member executives are encouraged to participate.
MEET THE SPEAKERS
An Association of Welding Manufacturers
2015 Annual Meeting

Feb. 2527
Vinoy Renaissance Resort & Golf Club
St. Petersburg, Fla.
Theme: Welding Industry
Consolidation and Globalization
Chris Mapes
Chairman, President, and CEO
Lincoln Electric
Chris Mapes was appointed chairman of Lincoln Electric in
December 2013, and president and chief executive officer in
December 2012. Previously, Chris was Lincolns chief operating
officer, the position he was appointed to when he joined the
company in 2011. He was elected to the Lincoln Board in 2010
while serving as executive vice president of A.O. Smith Corporation
and president of its electrical products unit. Prior to his career at
A.O. Smith, Chris was president, motor sales and marketing of
Regal Beloit Corporation and had also served as president of the
Global OEM Business Group of Superior Essex, Inc.
Jack Keough
he WEMCO Annual Meeting is filled with

unparalleled networking opportunities and
enlightening presentations. Renowned economist
Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for Trend Research will
again be our keynote speaker. Network with additional
speakers such as Lincoln Electric CEO Chris Mapes
and Industrial Distribution Magazines Jack Keough.
Contributing Editor and Associate Publisher

Industrial Distribution Magazine
Jack Keough has been researching and writing about the
distribution/manufacturing sector for 30 years. Hes been serving
as contributing editor and associate publisher for Industrial
Distribution Magazine of Madison, Wis. for 26 of those years. Jack
is also the president of his own marketing and consulting firm,
Keough Business Communications, and the contributing editor for
Electrical Distributor magazine and its website. He has written
extensively about distribution management, sales and technology
issues that have changed industrial distribution in the past three
decades.
Non-members are welcome to attend and

experience the full benefits of networking
with your industry peers!
KEYNOTE SPEAKER
Alan Beaulieu
Economist and President
Institute for Trend Research
Registration opens mid-December. For more

information, please contact Keila DeMoraes at
kdemoraes@aws.org or 800-443-9353, ext. 444
One of the countrys most informed economists, Alan Beaulieu is a

principal of ITR Economics, where he serves as president. He is
co-author of Make Your Move, a book on how to increase profits
through business cycle changes. Alan is also the senior economic
advisor to the NSW, chief forecaster for the European Power Train
Distributors Association, and the chief economist for HARDI.
Pronouncements from the Institute for Trend Research and/or Mr.
Beaulieu have appeared in/on the Wall Street Journal, New York
Times, USA Today, Knight Ridder News Services, Business Week,
Associated Press, Washington Times, CBS Radio, CNN Radio, Sirius
talk radio, KABC, NPR affiliate WLRN, and numerous other outlets.
PERSONNEL
Cincinnati, Inc., Names
President, CEO
Cincinnati, Inc.,
Harrison, Ohio, a
build-to-order machine tool manufacturer, has selected
Carey Chen to
serve as president,
CEO, and a member
of the board of directors beginning
early 2015. Chen
will succeed AnCarey Chen
drew Jamison who
will retire. Previously, Chen served at Hypertherm,
Inc., concurrently as VP and general
manager for light industrial businesses, CFO, and chief information officer.
Earlier, he was VP finance at Wiremold/Legrand, Paris, and VP and CFO
for Bayliner Marine Corp.
Hypertherm to Make
Management Changes
Hypertherm, Hanover, N.H., a supplier of plasma, laser, and waterjet
cutting systems, announced succession plans to become effective Jan. 1.
Current President Evan Smith will assume the role of CEO, succeeding
founder Dick Couch who will retain
the position of executive chairman of
the board and trustee of the companys stock ownership plan. Concurrently, Jenny Levy, director of corporate social responsibility, will assume
the role of vice president, corporate
social responsibility, from Barbara

Couch, who will retain her roles as
board director, chair of the corporate
social responsibility committee, and
HOPE Foundation president.
Fronius Builds Its Sales Team
Glen Hicks
A. Almaguer
Jeffrey Iley
Fronius USA, LLC, Portage, Ind.,

has promoted Angelica Almaguer to regional marketing leader North America, and named Jeffrey Iley a sales/application engineer for its southeast location. Almaguer previously served six
years as marketing director for the
companys two divisions in Mexico,
Perfect Welding and Solar Energy. Iley,
a graduate of the Hobart Institute of
Welding Technology, has experience in
the nuclear power and heavy industrial
industries and the U.S. Navy.
Laboratory Testing Adds Sales

Representatives
Laboratory Testing, Inc., Hatfield,
Chris Mecleary
Pa., has hired Glen Hicks and Chris

Mecleary to serve on its inside sales
team. Hicks has extensive experience
in the metals industries where he has
held sales positions at U.S. Metals,
Inc., Tioga Pipe Supply Co., Inc., and
most recently at MRC Global, Inc.
Mecleary previously was a district
sales manager for the Mueller Industries division, Precision Tool Co.
Chrysler Group Announces

Manufacturing Appointment
Chrysler Group,
LLC, Auburn Hills,
Mich., has appointed Brian Harlow
vice president,
head of NAFTA
Manufacturing, responsible for all assembly, stamping,
and powertrain
manufacturing operations in the
Brian Harlow
United States,
Canada, and Mexico, as well as implementation of the
World Class Manufacturing system at
all Chrysler Group manufacturing facilities. With the company since 1978,
Harlow most recently served as global
head of powertrain manufacturing engineering and vice president and head
of NAFTA Powertrain Operations.
Camfil APC Makes Upper

Management Changes
Camfil Air Pollution Control (APC),
Jonesboro, Ark., has appointed Alan
OConnell executive vice president in
charge of worldwide operations. He
succeeds Lee Morgan who will resign
as Camfil APC president at the end of

this year to become
president of The
Systems Group, El
Dorado, Ark., a diverse group of privately held companies engaged in
product and field
installations for
steel mills,
Alan OConnell
foundries, and
petrochemical
plants. OConnell previously worked
for the parent company, Camfil Group,
in Stockholm, Sweden, for more than
30 years, including 12 years as president and CEO.
Marketing Manager Appointed

at Solar Atmospheres
Solar Atmospheres, Inc., Souderton, Pa., a contract vacuum heat
treatment company
and supplier of vacuum furnaces, has
hired Keith Reim as
corporate marketing manager. With
more than 19 years
of experience in
Keith Reim
marketing, Reim
most recently
served as marketing manager for an
industrial automation company.
TRUMPF Appoints VP
Technical Service
James Rogowski
has been promoted
to vice president,
technical service of
TRUMPF, Inc.,
Farmington, Conn.,
responsible for accounts nationwide.
Rogowski began his
career with the
company in 1998
as a sheet metal apJames Rogowski plications engineer,
became managing
director TRUMPF Canada in 2008,
then was named director of machine

and power tool products in 2011.
Hobart Institute Hires

Technical Trainer
Hobart Institute
of Welding Technology, Troy, Ohio,
has named Ryan
Freeze a technical
training instructor
for continuing education courses. A
graduate of the Institute, and an
AWS Certified
Welding Inspector,
Ryan Freeze
Freeze has more
than 13 years experience in the field as an ironworker,
bridge repair contractor, and most recently as a project manager and estimator for a structural steel manufacturer.
Steel Recycling Institute

Names VP
The Steel Market Development Institute (SMDI), Washington, D.C., a
business unit of the American Iron
and Steel Institute, has named Mark
A. Thimons to succeed Gregory Crawford who has retired as vice president
of the Steel Recycling Institute. Thimons, who joined SMDI in 2010 as director of construction sustainability,
has 25 years of experience in steel
construction products and steel product sustainability.
Lockheed Martin Names VP

Lockheed Martin, Bethesda, Md.,
has appointed Greg Psihas vice president for corporate development, responsible for leading the corporations
mergers and acquisitions and integration activities, as well as technology
commercialization and fund investments. Psihas previously held various
positions at Eaton Corp. and Shell Oil
Co., and most recently served as corporate vice president of mergers and acquisitions at Applied Materials, a semiconductor capital equipment company.
CAN WE TALK?
The Welding Journal staff
encourages an exchange of ideas with
you, our readers. If youd like to ask a
question, share an idea or voice an opinion, you can call, write, e-mail, or fax.
Staff e-mail addresses are listed below,
along with a guide to help you interact
with the right person.
Publisher
Andrew Cullison cullison@aws.org,
Ext. 249, Article Submissions
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen mjohnsen@aws.org,
Ext. 238, Feature Articles
Associate Editor
Howard Woodward woodward@aws.org,
Ext. 244, Society News, Personnel
Kristin Campbell kcampbell@aws.org,
Ext. 257, New Products, News of the
Industry
Production Manager
Zaida Chavez zaida@aws.org,
Ext. 265, Design and Production
Senior Production Coordinator
Brenda Flores bores@aws.org,
Ext. 330, Design and Production
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein salty@aws.org,
Ext. 243, Advertising Sales
Sr. Advertising Sales Exec.
Sandra Jorgensen sjorgenen@aws.org
Annette Delagrange adelagrange@aws.org
Manager of Sales Operations
Lea Garrigan Paneca lea@aws.org,
Ext. 220, Production and Promotion
Advertising Sales Representative
Sandra Jorgensen sjorgensen@aws.org
Sr. Advertising Production Manager
Frank Wilson fwilson@aws.org,
Ext. 465, Advertising Production
Peer Review Coordinator
Melissa Gomez mgomez@aws.org,
Ext. 275, Peer Review of Research Papers
Welding Journal Dept.
8669 NW 36th St., #130
Miami, FL 33166
(800) 443-9353; FAX: (305) 443-7404
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Heat Tint Poses Corrosion

Hazard in Stainless Steel
Avoid time-consuming, difficult, and
expensive cleaning of heat tint by weld
purging during the welding process
BY MICHAEL FLETCHER
e have all seen the effect of

welds carried out without adequate gas coverage the
hot metal simply oxidizes in contact
with air. The effect is noticeable with
stainless steels Fig. 1. To some, this
is an inconvenient feature that can be
removed by grinding, but the cost of
doing so can be high, particularly if access is difficult.
Even with reduced oxygen content
in the gas coverage, the effect can be
marked. It will come as a surprise to
most that oxygen contents as low as
60 ppm (0.006%) (Fig. 1B) can produce discoloration or heat tint in
stainless steels.
While for many applications this
discoloration may be acceptable cosmetically, it is now apparent that it
presents a corrosion hazard (Refs.
17).
The Mechanism
of Corrosion
Stainless steels owe their resistance
to corrosion to the formation of a very
thin (105 mm), transparent surface
layer of chromium oxide. This provides
a passive film that acts as a barrier to
penetration by an invasive environment. When heated to a high temperature in the presence of oxygen, this
film increases in thickness until it becomes visible; the color becomes darker with increasing film thickness.
At a critical film thickness, the film
becomes unstable and begins to break
down. The fractured zones created of80 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2014
Fig. 1 Photos showing oxidation of 316L stainless steel coupons welded using argon
purging gas: A 12 ppm (ensures no heat tint occurs in stainless steel); B 60 ppm (even
this relatively low oxygen content can lead to heat tint); C 70 ppm; D 200 ppm;
E 250 ppm; F 500 ppm (the result of poorly protected underbead in welded austenitic
stainless steel).
fer sites for localized corrosion. Four

principal mechanisms are involved
pitting corrosion, stress corrosion
cracking, crevice corrosion, and microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC).
might be weakened and it occurs in

stainless steels where oxidation has reduced the passivity. Once the attack
has started, the material can be completely penetrated within a short time.
Pitting Corrosion
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Pitting corrosion is a form of localized corrosion. It produces attacks in

the form of spots or pits. This type of
corrosion attack most often takes
place at points where the passive layer
Stress corrosion cracking is characterized by cracks propagating either

transgranularly (through) or intergranularly (along) grain boundaries. It
results from the combined action of
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Fig. 2 Schematic of a fully integrated, inflatable weld-purge system for use in pipe and tube fabrication. These devices are available for diameters between 25 and 2400 mm.
tensile stresses in the material and the

presence of a corrosive medium. It can
be induced in some stainless steels by
adverse heat treatments, such as those
occurring in weld heat-affected zones.
Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is localized corrosion of a metal surface that is attributable to close proximity of another metal such as a weld. It is a locally accelerated type of corrosion and is one of
the major corrosion hazards in stainless steels.
Microbiologically
Induced Corrosion
Microbiologically induced corrosion
(MIC) is promoted or caused by microorganisms, typically in industries related
to food, beverage, and chemical processing. It is common in welded sections.
To avoid these forms of corrosion, it
is essential that heat tints are properly
removed before the stainless steel
equipment or piping is exposed to aggressive or aqueous environments. The
alternative is to prevent heat tinting
during the welding process by using an
inert environment to protect the surface.
Removal of Heat Tint

Light discoloration can be removed
by bright annealing or acid pickling,
but heavier deposits may require machining such as grinding and polishing. Removal clearly requires access to
the area in question, not only for
treatment but also for debris removal.
Even when access is available, none of
these treatments is easy and most can
be expensive.
Weld Purging
The alternative to potentially timeconsuming, difficult, and expensive
cleaning of heat tint is to avoid it during the welding process. This can be
undertaken by protecting the joint
from oxidation by using an inert gas
such as argon. The upper side of the
joint is protected by the inert gas used
in the torch. The underside, known as
the underbead, needs separate treatment. This technique is referred to as
weld purging.
Seals are inserted on either side of
the weld root and inert gas is admitted
to displace air in the space between
them. While a wide range of options
for sealing are available, those based
on inflatable seals have been found be
reliable and versatile Fig. 2.

Considerable design effort has been
applied by the designers and manufacturers of these products over the past
decade or so, and currently available
systems address the problems of controlled inert gas pressure and flow, the
need for easy and rapid deployment
and removal to limit overall welding
time, thermal resistance, and leaktight access for oxygen-monitoring
equipment. They also provide a large
pipe contact area and therefore excellent and reliable sealing.
Coupled with these advantages
comes flexibility to allow access and
removal through pipe bends, abrasion
resistance, and the use of materials
that meet food, semiconductor, and
nuclear compliance standards.
The Argweld systems are examples
of fully integrated, inflatable purge
equipment that can accommodate
tube and pipe diameters from 25 to
2400 mm (Ref. 8).
Clearly, a knowledge of the oxygen
level in the purge gas is essential, recognizing that a level as low as 12 ppm
may be necessary Fig. 1A. This can
be accommodated with an oxygen
monitor, and sensitive versions of
these have been developed specifically
for the welding industry. Commercially available weld-purge monitors can
THE AMERICAN WELDER

combine monitoring down to 10 ppm
with software for data recording,
analysis, and quality control.
Conclusion
During the last few years, the semiconductor, bioprocessing, food and
beverage, and petrochemical industries in particular have revised their
weld-acceptance standards upward in
striving to manufacture products with
impurity levels measured in nanometers. The welding accessory manufacturers have responded by developing
equipment capable of meeting these
standards, but increased use of this
equipment is vital in the pursuit of
quality.
Industry sectors with demanding
standards for weld quality need to be
aware of the corrosion hazards arising
from poor welding practice. Simply as-
suming that stainless steels are totally

resistant to corrosion can be risky. WJ
References
1. Titz, J. T. Microbiologically influenced corrosion of stainless steel.

Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium
On Orbital Welding In High Purity Industries, La Baule, France.
2. Ammann, T. 2010. Purging
while Welding. BOC Australia
Document.
3. Grant, A., Henon, B. K., and
Mansfeld, F. 1997. Effects of purge
gas purity and Chelant passivation on
the corrosion resistance of orbitally
welded 316L stainless steel tubing.
Pharmaceutical Engineering 17 (1):
113, (2): 4654.
4. Purge welding stainless steel for
cleanability and corrosion resistance.
Food Processing Online. May 20, 2010.
www.foodprocessing.com.au.
5. Henon, B. K. 2008. Considerations for orbital welding of corrosion

resistant materials to the ASME Bioprocessing Equipment Standard. Presented at the Stainless Steel America
Conference 2008 and available at
www.arcmachines.com/applications.
6. Netten, G. Necessity of
removal of heat tints on stainless
steel to avoid or minimize corrosion.
Vecon Netherlands Technical Bulletin
July 2005.
7. Taban, E., et al. 2014. Effect of
the purging gas on properties of 304H
GTA welds. Welding Journal 93(4):
124-s to 130-s.
8. Huntingdon Fusion
Techniques, Ltd, UK.
www.huntingdonfusion.com.
Michael Fletcher is CEO of Delta

Consultants, UK.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Welding Program Revitalized

A long-dormant welding program is given
new life, and inner-city students are on
track for a future in welding
hen Joe Williams graduated

from the welding class at
Philadelphias A. Philip Randolph Career and Technical High
School in 1986, little did he think that
he would come back to his old classroom and sit at his teachers desk, no
longer a student, but the instructor
running the program. Like many welding programs in the last 20 years, it
fell into disfavor and faded away.
Many school districts looked on welding as dirty, expensive, and not a very
good career path. The program became
dormant until 2012 when Williams
was hired to revive it.
Fateful Call
Since his graduation, Williams never had a hard time finding a welding
job. Hes worked in oil refineries, gov-
Fig. 1 Instructor Joe Williams and his welding class.
BY ANDREW CULLISON
erment jobs, shipyards, and even on

the production set of Avatar: The Last
Airbender. I was always getting calls
for welding jobs, he said. One day, I
thought if there is this great need for
welders, who is teaching all these
welders who are needed? That
thought motivated him to call the
Philadelphia school district and inquire whether there were any welding
jobs open. He got a positive response
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Fig. 2 A student welding an Amnesty Box for the Philadelphia school district.
and immediately sent in his rsum.

Within 30 days, he was approved and
signed up as the instructor who would
give a rebirth to the welding program.
Diverse Student
Population
A. Philip Randolph Career and
Technical High School is a city-wide
school servicing a diverse group of students from across Philadelphia. In addition to core academics, it offers nine
programs of study, one of which is
welding, said Williams. My students
learn all facets of the welding trade
from reading blueprints to processes
like shielded metal arc, gas metal arc,
and flux cored arc welding.
Students who attend the high
school have to apply for admission. It
is a magnet school that is not restricted by neighborhood boundaries and
accepts students from across the city.
Admission is competitive.
Initially, the welding program was
not very popular and was considered
by the students not to be as glamorous as other programs, said
Williams. He exposed those initial
classes to the many opportunities that
welding careers provide, but it was
hard to get them hooked when the
equipment they were using to practice
their skills dated back to when
Williams was a student. That problem
was solved when a helping hand was
offered from Airgas, Radnor, Pa.
Partnership Jump
Starts Program
Ron Stark, senior vice president of
sales and marketing for Airgas, came
in contact with Darryl Overton, principal of A. Philip Randolph High School,
who was passionate about restarting
the welding program. Airgas thought
a partnership with the school would be

a good fit to help fulfill the future
need for welders, said Stark. It also
presented a good social outreach for us
and its close proximity to our headquarters were favorable factors, but
what sealed the deal was meeting Mr.
Williams, said Stark. He was enthusiastic and dedicated to the program.
The deal involved providing new
equipment and accessories for the
welding lab. Through a partnership
with Miller Electric Co., Appleton,
Wis., Airgas was able to provide new
Miller welding machines and related
products. Now the students could
perfect their skills on state-of-the-art
equipment, said Williams. With
these industry collaborations, word
quickly spread through the school and
the community, and the welding program became the schools premier offering, he continued. This year, our
enrollment in the welding class has
doubled from last year.
THE AMERICAN WELDER

More than Equipment
The industry collaboration with Airgas wasnt limited to just providing
equipment. Dave Schaffer, a welding
process specialist, provided his expertise to what was needed to get the program into the 21st century. Dan Skehan, director of automation, was available to offer advice, and Eric Smith, a
district manager in Airgas East region,
has been involved since 2013, and sits
on the schools Occupational Advisory
Committee. They provided additional
help by getting donations of scrap, providing setup and training on the new
equipment, and organizing field trips
to various industries. Airgas personnel
remain active in helping the program.
Recently, the City of Philadelphia and
its school district, along with representatives from Airgas, held a celebration
in the welding work area. Airgas provides not only resources, but also mentorship, said Williams. Their people
always take time to speak to my students, drop off products, and give
workshops, he continued.
Student Interest Grows

Williams presently has 45 students
in his class Fig. 1. Many students
were initially enrolled in other programs before transferring over to the
welding program, said Williams.
However, they made sacrifices and
took risks to join my program and
learn unfamiliar skills about an unfamiliar trade and industry, he continued. Many of my students also make
daily sacrifices to learn their craft, including staying after school and forgoing their lunch to have extra time.
They understand the long-term benefits and give up much of their inschool socializing to dedicate themselves to welding, said Williams.
Many students come from unstable
home environments. If not for the
school-provided breakfast, some may
not eat on a regular basis, said
Williams. Welding helps them focus
their energy and attention beyond
their current situation and into the future. I am very proud of the growth
and pride my students have for their
craft, but most importantly in themselves.
I found out I am not just a teacher,
but a mentor, he said. I have had let86 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2014
Fig. 3 A finished Amnesty Box designed and fabricated by Williams students.
ters from parents thanking me because they no longer have problems

getting their child to school. They
want to go to welding class, said
Williams. I think I was meant to be a
teacher; it has changed my life.
Recognition
Williams class has gained recognition through the local newspaper and
TV media. Recently, his class was commissioned by the School District of
Philadelphia to design and fabricate
(Fig. 2) Amnesty Boxes. These allwelded boxes (Fig. 3) are located outside persistently dangerous schools for
students to anonymously dispose of illegal contraband, such as drugs and
weapons, with no questions asked.
My students and I are very proud
to be part of this program to reduce violence, said Williams.
First Graduating Class

This year will see the first graduating class for 11 seniors. Williams has
100% placement for all the graduates.
They will be starting jobs with various
local industries earning $1216 to begin. Three of his students already had
full-time jobs lined up with PTR Baler
Compacter, where they had been serving internships. I constantly receive
calls from companies in dire need of
welders. As long as Williams continues to inspire his students to do their
best, he will be able to meet those
needs. WJ
ANDREW CULLISON is publisher,

Welding Journal
MAY
MAY 5-7,
5-7, 2015
2015
Cintermex,
Monterrey,
Cin
termex, Mon
terrey, Mxico
Mxico
EVENTS
THE 4 EVEN
TS LEADING THE METAL
FABRICATION INDUSTRY IN MONTERREY
258,000+
SQUARE FEET
OF FLOOR SPACE
LIVE
TALKS
AND WORKSHOPS
DEMONSTRATIONS
550
EXHIBITORS
For more information about registering

to attend or reserving booth space, go to
ww
www.fabtechmexico.com
w.fabtechmexico.com
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Considerations for Selecting

Shop Grinders
Detailed are five grinder tool
power sources and the authors
recommendations to shop owners
BY ADRIAN H. KRIEG
rinding in metal fabrication is

one of the most expensive and
time-consuming operations.
There are, however, many ways that
the fabricator can save time, effort,
and money to reduce the prohibitive
cost of grinding. While there are alternative means to grinding, including
weld preparation bevelers, and other
tools, this article is strictly related to
grinding.
The first consideration of a fabricator who employs many people in
grinding operations is what sort of
power tool, i.e., grinder, should they
be using. The first considerations are
the volume of work and the number of
employees who use grinding. If the
shop has more than five grinding stations, considerable savings can be realized. There are several decisions to be
made.
Grinder Power Sources

The market in power tools is huge,
but for specialty applications it is
much smaller than the common tool
market. For powering grinders, there
are the following five types of motors
currently available:
Universal 110-V, 60-Hz, singlephase electric motor
Pneumatic (air-driven) motor
Three-phase (squirrel cage) induction motor
Hydraulic (oil-liquid-driven)
High-frequency, 300- to 360-Hz
electric squirrel cage motors.
Other Cost Factors

In grinding operations, the issues
of paramount importance are maintenance costs, power-to-weight ratio,
horsepower, speed (rev/min), total
tool weight, and noise.
All of these can impact operator fatigue, which in grinding is an important factor. While the grinding wheel
makeup, binder, and grit size are also
important, this article assumes all are
optimized for the task in question.
Each of the five motor types has
certain advantages and shortcomings
as follows:
The universal 110-V, 60-Hz electric
motors have these advantages. They
can be used most any place, are easily
moved from job to job, and offer relatively good power-to-weight ratio.
However, they have the highest maintenance costs, and are heavier than
some other options.
The pneumatically driven motors
commonly used industrially tend to be
noisy, have poorer power-to-weight ratios, are expensive in power consumption, require frequent service, and do
not operate at constant speeds.
The squirrel cage three-phase induction motors are heavy and more
difficult to handle.
Hydraulic motors, while excellent
for some power tool applications, are
not suited to grinding operations at
all.
Since the high-frequency or high-
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Comparing Two Power

Sources for Best
Operation
The two most desirable power tool
grinding methods therefore require
secondary power sources. Pneumatic
tools require a compressor, in most
cases, a screw compressor; and highfrequency tools require a frequency
converter. In both cases, there is applicable electric switchgear in environmentally and economically sound applications. Note the star-delta motor
starter switches use less power when
starting.
These two comparative means of
driving the power tool in question requires us to consider their individual
characteristics.
Air-driven tools have very poor
ability to maintain constant speed. Air
tool manufacturers try to compensate
for this using a motor-speed governor,
which complicates the motor design,
but is absolutely necessary from a
safety perspective. Without a governor, an excessive increase in air-line
pressure could cause the motor to spin
too fast causing the grinding wheel to
explode. For this reason, all air motors

used in grinding applications have
built-in governors. Another drawback
is air tools are very noisy. The motor
exhaust noise is often louder than the
grinding noise. Consider also that air
motors have very poor power curves.
As the load increases, the rev/min rapidly fall. Bear in mind that if optimum
speed (rev/min) of the grinding wheel
is not maintained, the output falls.
And lastly, air tools are heavy and
clumsy compared to modern highfrequency tools.
The high-frequency-powered tools
are by far the most satisfactory for
grinding operations. The reasons are
as follows: They offer the best weightto-power output, lowest weight-topower ratio, highest rev/min, and lowest maintenance requirements. In addition, they offer the lowest noise output and most favorable operator acceptance. In shipbuilding, foundries,
and heavy fabrication where more
than ten grinders are employed, the
cost reductions and improved work
output can pay for the equipment in
less than 12 months.
It may be worthwhile to investigate
the cost to upgrade the equipment in
your shop. Start by getting quotes
from the high-frequency tool manufacturers, which include Bosch, Fein,
AEG, and CP. The frequency converters are available from GE, Westinghouse, and Himmelwerke. The
switchgear products are sold by Square
D and most electrical switchgear manufacturers.
Because the grinding speed is closely related to wheel consumption it is
important to keep the grinding edge of
the wheel running at the optimum
16,000 surface speed per second
(SFPS). To maintain this speed, the
user should purchase grinders with
different operating speeds. For example, for angle grinders, the most commonly used grinder, purchase tools
rated at 6000 and 8500 rev/min, and
9-in.-diameter wheels. As the wheel
wears down to under 7 in. in diameter,
switch to the higher speed grinder to
maintain 16,000 SFPS constant speed
at point of contact and get the best
possible output. WJ
DR. ADRIAN H. KRIEG, CMFGE
(adriankrieg@A2ZPublications.com) is an
AWS Life Member. He is with
A2Z Publications LLC, Bradenton, Fla.
WORK
W
ORK
SSMART
MART
RT
Model 200 Positioner
Model 1200 Pipemate
cycle tools are not commonly used, an

explanation is required. The threephase, 60-Hz induction motors operate at 3600 rev/min. This speed is not
high enough for industrial grinding
operations, which normally require a
speed of 16,000 surface ft/min. Note:
This is the optimum speed of a grinding wheel at the point of contact,
which is approximately the speed of a
22-caliber bullet. High-frequency tools
operate at multiples of the line frequency, which in the United States is
60 Hz. The multiples of 60 Hz are 60,
120, 180, 240, 300, 360, etc. The 120
and 180 Hz are too low, resulting in
motor speeds of only 7200 and 10,800
rev/min, respectively. The optimum
speed for such a motor is from 18,000
to 21,600 rev/min. All commercial aircraft engines use 400-Hz motors due
to weight and the fact they are not tied
to a 60-Hz original power source, they
operate at about 25,000 rev/min. Aircraft motor information is mentioned
here to provide proof that the powerto-weight ratios and reliability for
high-frequency tools are far and away
the best for all power tools.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
LEARNING TRACK
R & S Welding Mentors Offers Small Classes and

Personalized Instruction
Experienced instructors share their expertise to train
students for goodpaying jobs in the Pacific Northwest
At R & S Welding Mentors LLC,

Salem, Ore., instruction is targeted to
training students for good-paying jobs
in the structural steel, fabrication, and
production industries that are currently
available in the Pacific Northwest
region. The school offers both hands-on
performance-based training and AWS
welding certification training and
testing with special stress on workplace
safety, and the skills necessary for
developing teamwork, and good work
ethics.
Mission Statement
R & S Welding Mentors mission is
to deliver specialized training for individuals eager to learn welding and fabrication skills for the 21st century. Its
goal is to help young people, displaced
workers, and others receive the best in
class welding skills, knowledge, and
workforce competencies, to enable
them to secure high-paying jobs and
add value to the organizations they
work for, while achieving their person-
BY HOWARD M. WOODWARD
HOWARD M. WOODWARD
(woodward@aws.org) is associate editor of
the Welding Journal.
al professional goals.
The facility is a Private Career
School licensed by the Oregons Higher
Education Coordination Commission.
Students first complete safety training
then receive instruction on setting up
welding machines for various consumables and welding parameters. Students have the opportunity to begin
welding on their first day.
The standards of the American
Welding Society are referenced
throughout the course material and
R & S Welding Mentors LLC management and teaching staff members are (from left) CWI Tom Welch, Instructors Tony Kummer and Milan
Pond, Owner James Stanton, Business Manager Koneta Stanton, Administrator Collette Myers, and CWI BJ Hutchins. All photos by Barry
Hutchins Photography, Salem, Ore.
THE AMERICAN WELDER
Peter Frey practices his weld tacking

technique under James Stantons watch
ful eye.
the certification process.

As part of the students training in
proper welding procedures, their instructors supplement their educations
with their personal experiences in the
field and pass on some tricks of the
trade based on their real world knowledge of a cross section of the welding
industry.
Most beginning students practice
the shielded metal arc (SMA) welding
process first before advancing to learning the gas metal arc (GMA) and/or
flux core arc (FCA) welding processes.
Students then are offered the opportunity to learn either or both gas tungsten arc (GTA) and pipe welding presented as advanced courses. Upon
completion of instruction in these
processes, students can schedule a certification test at the school with CWI
BJ Hutchins of IQA (Inspection Quality Assurance).
tional welding processes.

School owner James W. Stanton
said, We teach SMA, FCA, GMA, and
GTA welding processes on mild steel,
stainless steel, and aluminum. In addition, students learn torch cutting,
plasma cutting, and carbon arc, including setting the parameters and safety
aspect for each process.
Our training is performancebased. Each student is enabled to
move forward at his or her own pace
determined by their ability to learn
and to meet the welding standards. We
try to keep each student challenged
and excited about moving forward. We
also strive to help students understand the value of good work ethics
and the value of relating to coworkers
and being a team player.
Stanton noted that he has received
calls from a number of former students telling him how they have progressed in their careers in the welding
industry. Hearing from them as they
receive raises and promotions over the
years and become financially self-sufficient is very rewarding.
We encourage previous students to
schedule a day in the welding lab
whenever they have an interview
scheduled for a welding job, he added.
They can spend a day refreshing their
skills so they can be better prepared
for taking an employers weld test.
This opportunity is offered free of
charge to all students who have completed the 15-week program.
Additional Services
Stanton said, While a majority of
our students seek instruction to pursue a career in welding, we also welcome students who want to weld for
hobby or home repairs. Private tutoring is also offered. Occasionally, a
welder may purchase a machine for
personal use then ask us to help set it
up and show them how to make the
best use of their new equipment. We
can provide an instructor to help them
correctly assemble and determine the
parameters for its proper use.
Enrollment
Welding can be a demanding trade,
so before being accepted for training
each student is interviewed to determine whether this training would be
appropriate for them, and to determine what level of training is needed.
Applicants must be at least 18 years
old, pass a drug test, be healthy
enough to work an 8-h shift in all
weather conditions, have the ability to
lift at least 45 lb, work at times with
arms elevated, have 20/20 vision, and
possess the spatial and mechanical
perceptions required to safely perform
the work. This interview may also in-
Small Class Sizes

Students benefit from the schools
small class sizes featuring a 6-to-1
student-instructor ratio. This provides
each student a lot of one-on-one attention and enables trainees with no
previous welding experience to achieve
in just 15 weeks all the skills and confidence necessary to succeed in an
entry-level position.
Graduates of the basic courses may
choose to continue their studies to become more proficient and learn addi-
James Stanton (left) and CWI BJ Hutchins prepare an outdoor welding project to give
the students some simulated field experience.
THE AMERICAN WELDER

effectively shares his enthusiasm for
the welding trades with his classes.
Community Impact
Practicing some team cooperation are (from left) Instructor Milan Pond, student Travis
Suek, and CWI BJ Hutchins.
clude a skill assessment should the applicant have welding experience.

Stanton said, We strive to help
each student set appropriate goals for
their long-term career plans. Understanding each students goals in the
welding industry helps us tailor their
training on an individual basis. This
enables each student to be more successful in his or her pursuit of employment in the welding industry.
The Facility
The R & S Welding Mentors facility
is equipped with 14 individual welding
booths with the latest state-of-the-art
equipment. In addition, a number of
older welding machines is maintained
on site to familiarize students with the
earlier technology they may encounter
while working in the field. The equipment training is occasionally supplemented by demonstrations presented
by Ron Gross, district manager for
Miller Electric who details the Dynasty
350, and Les Nelson, district business
manager for Victor Technologies, who
displays the newest products in the
Tweeco line.
The Instructors
School owner James W. Stanton has
an extensive background in the welding industry. He discovered his passion for welding during junior high
school, continued welding training

through high school, and graduated
with the skills to secure a journeyman
welder position. He worked in many
different aspects of the industry including production welding, as a journeyman shipwright, manufacturing,
crane operator/certified welder in
bridge construction, and underground
boring including pipe welding. During
his work in the industry, Stanton enjoyed teaching coworkers the art of
welding and fabrication. He is passionate about teaching and helping students overcome barriers while developing their strengths. Welding, he
said, is in my genes, being that I am
the great-grandson of the famous
blacksmith Walter Stanton of the
Charles Goodnight Ranch.
Tom Welch, a Senior Certified
Welding Inspector (SCWI) and a consultant for IMR KHA Portland Test
Labs and Steel Quality Specialists,
shares his extensive experience and
knowledge of the welding industry to
students in his classes.
Milan Pond, a full time instructor,
is passionate about teaching and helping students overcome barriers while
developing their strengths. Pond is experienced in the building construction,
automotive welding, fabrication, and
ornamental ironwork industries.
Tony Kummer recently joined the
staff as a part-time instructor. Kummer is a highly skilled GTA welder who
Mari McGovern, a job developer

and training specialist at Careers NW,
said, As a job developer for the Oregon Vocational Rehabilitation Services
program, I have seen several of my
clients successfully complete welding
certificates of every kind at R&S Welding Mentors. Because my clients face
serious barriers to employment, from
physical and learning disabilities to
homelessness and felonies, just to
name a few, James Stanton and Business Manager Koneta Stanton mentor
far beyond simply teaching them welding skills. They use a nonjudgmental,
gentle yet firm approach with them,
taking into consideration the welding
students underlying struggles and
background to teach them both the
vocational and life skills necessary to
become a successful, contributing
team member. As a result, many of the
companies I work with recruit their
welding candidates directly through
R&S.
Graduate welding student Heather
Clark agreed the instructors are helpful, encouraging, and consistent every
day. Their interaction with students is
with the utmost respect and patience.
She especially liked the emphasis on
time allocated to welding in the booth,
which for her was the best way to develop the skills she needed to acquire
the various certifications. WJ
R & S Welding Mentors LLC

Contact
Koneta Stanton
Business Manager
1750 Oxford St. SE, Salem, OR 97302
Phone: (503) 884-3277
e-mail; jwsteam@clear.net
www.weldingmentors.com
THE AMERICAN WELDER
FACT SHEET
Quality Considerations for Submerged Arc Welding

High-quality welds with fewer weld defects than other
processes can be produced with submerged arc welding
(SAW) because of the excellent protection of the weld metal
by the blanket of molten slag. As in other processes, however, the problems of porosity, slag inclusions, incomplete fusion, and cracking occur in SAW. Following are some causes
and remedies for the problems.
Porosity
Weld metal deposited with the SAW process is usually clean
and free of harmful porosity, but when porosity does occur, it
may be found on the weld bead surface or beneath a sound
surface. As with other welding processes, the base metal and
electrode must be clean and dry in SAW. High travel speeds
and associated fast weld metal solidification do not provide
time for gas to escape from the molten weld metal. The travel
speed can be reduced, but other solutions should be investigated to avoid higher welding costs. Porosity from covered electrode tack welds can be avoided by using electrodes that leave
no porosity-causing residue. Recommended tack weld electrodes are E6010, E6011, E7015, E7016, and E7018.
Inclusions
An inclusion in a weld is defined as the entrapment of
solid foreign material such as slag, flux, or oxide. If not
properly applied, SAW is not immune to slag inclusions. Inclusions are primarily found in the root overlap or between
previous passes, and generally near bevel faces or groove
faces. The risk of inclusions is greater under the following
conditions:
1) In downhill orientations, which may allow the molten
flux to race ahead of the weld pool and then roll under to become entrapped during solidification;
2) In grooves along the edges of previously deposited
beads, especially if they are convex;
3) If there is undercut along the edges of the weld bead;
4) When arc destabilization inhibits the slag from rising
to the top of the solidifying weld pool;
5) When a flux too high in viscosity is used, impeding the
solidification of the weld pool;
6) When a clean prior bead surface is not maintained;
7) In the case of improper welding head displacement,
particularly in the downhill orientation;
8) In the case of reduced penetration due to reduced heat
input, supplemental wires or powders, increased electrode
extension, excessive travel speed, or reduced arc density;
9) In the case of excessive travel speed, which causes
faster cooling and may inhibit the slag from rising to the top
of the weld pool.
Incomplete Fusion
Incomplete fusion can occur at any depth of the weld. It
can occur between either the present or previous beads or
the bead and the bevel or groove faces. Specific conditions,
most of which inhibit the melting and the fusible contact
between surfaces, may foster incomplete fusion. These conditions include the following:
1) Incorrect joint preparation or procedure
2) Presence of slag or oxide residue
3) Arc instability
4) High travel speeds
5) Insufficient heat input
6) Improper displacement, angle, or position of the welding head.
Cracking
Weldment cracking is considered the most serious of discontinuities because of the potential for catastrophic service
failure and the often-experienced difficulty in radiographic
inspection. Cracking can be categorized according to several
criteria, including location [weld metal, heat-affected zone,
or base metal cracking (hot or cold cracking)], but it is generally assumed to have two causes an imposed strain and
an inability to accommodate that strain.
Hot and Cold Cracking

The types of hot cracking include solidification, liquation,
and stress-relief cracking. This discontinuity is usually associated with the weld metal. Several conditions associated
with strains and the ability to accommodate them, predominantly of cross-sectional geometry and chemistry, follow:
1) Excess depth-to-width ratio
2) Excessive concavity (inability to accommodate strains),
especially with fillet welds
3) Inadequate fill at weld bead stopping points (decreases
ability to accommodate strain), which can cause crater
cracks
4) Chemical contamination, especially from sulfur or
hydrocarbon-bearing compounds.
Excessive heat input may decrease the cooling rate and
increase the time for metallurgical reactions in a cracksusceptible temperature range.
Like hot cracking, cold cracking manifests itself in a number of ways. These include hydrogen-induced cracking or
stress-corrosion cracking. Most cold cracking is associated
with the heat-affected zone, base metal, or weld metal. WJ
Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, 9th Edition, Volume 2, Welding Processes, Part 1.
DISSIMILAR
DISSIM
IM
MILAR MATERIAL
MILAR
MA
ATTERIAL
TER WELDING /
JOIN
OININ WORKSHOP
JOINING
JANUARY
JA
JANUAR
RY 26,
2 2015
at
The Blackwell Inn and Conference Center at
State University
The Ohio State
University,, Columbus, OH
American Welding
Welding Society
www
www.aws.org
.aws.org
The jjoiningg oof dissimilar ma

materials
terials can present man
manyy challenges across a
number of indu
ind
industr
luding automotive, petrochemical, power
power
industryy sectors inc
including
gen
eneratio
tion, medical products and microelectronics. This workshop is designed
nedd to
generation,
descr
scrib
ribe the st
ate-of-the art in dissimilar join
ing and will bring together exp
xpperts
pe
describe
state-of-the
joining
experts
in the fieldd to
t sshare their insight and experience. Topics
Toopics will include
include process
proc
ocess
technolog
y, ma
aterials, design, and modeling. In addition to technical
al
technology,
materials,
presentations
presenta
ations by
b experts
ex
from academia and industr
industry,
y, the works
workshop
rkshop will fea
feature
ature
experts
that
a panel discussion
sion tha
at will provide aattendees
ttendeess the opportunity
nity to ask the exp
about their dissimilar
similar joining
joini
ning
ng problems.
problems The workshop will
wi also feature
w
feature a tour of
the welding labora
tories aatt Ohio
hio Sta
te University
sity and
nd Edison W
elding Institute.
laboratories
State
Welding
Time
Tiime
Event/Speaker
Subject
7:45-8:30
Registration
Registration & Continental
Contin
Co tine
Breakfast
Breakfast
8:30-8:45
old
John Lippold
The Ohio
State
io Sta
S te University
Introduct
Introductions
8:45-9:30
Johhhnn DuPont
John
Lehigh
University
Le
ture Failure
Failure of Austenitic to Ferritic
Ferritic
Tempera
eem
High Temperature
Welds: Causes and Cures
Dissimilar Metal Welds:
9:30-10:15
Alexandrov
Boian Alexandrov
State University
sityy
The Ohio State
Dissimilar Metal Overlays for Oil and Gas

AApplication
pplication
10:15-10
-10:30
10:15-10:30
Break
Break
100:30-11:15
10:3
0
10:30-11:15
McCracken
Steve McCracken
ower Research Institute
Electric PPower
Dissimila
laar Metal Joining in the PPower
ower Genera
ation
Dissimilar
Generation
Industr
Industryy
11:15-12:00
11:15-12:0
2:00
Antonio Rameriz
State University
The Ohio State
e-based and Ni-based

Joining Dissimilar
lar FFe-based
Materials by FSW
Materials
12:00-1:00
Lunch
Lunch
1:00-1:45
Jerr
erry Gould
Jerry
Edison
Welding
on W
eelding Institute
Application
ion of Dissimilar Metals
Metal
tals Joining in the
Application
Automotive Industry
Industry
1:45-2:30
Daeh
ehn
Glenn Daehn
State Universi
sityy
The Ohio State
University
Welding Technologies
Teechnologies for Dissimilar
Dissim
ssim
Impact Welding
Ma
terials
Materials
2:30-3:15
Tim Frech
Frech
Tim
eelding Institute
tute
Edison W
Welding
materials joining in the

Dissimilar materials
medical and electronic industries
3:15-3:30
Break
Break
3:30-4:15
Wei Zhang
Wei
State University
The Ohio State
Dissimilar Metal Joint of Titanium

Titanium to Stainless
Literature Assessment and Numerical
Steel Literature
Modeling
4:15-5:15
John Lippold
State University
The Ohio State
Panel Discussion
Panel
WELDING JOURNAL INDEX

Part 1 WELDING JOURNAL
SUBJECT INDEX
VOLUME 93
5, 4, 3, 2, 1...Getting the New Years Eve Ball Done! K.
Campbell, (March) 90
A Must in Todays Workplace: Weld-Quality Monitoring
M. Albright, (Dec) 48
A Technology to Increase SAW Productivity H. Raudsepp,
(Dec) 46
Abrasive Flap Disc, Tips for Selecting an T. Hufford,
(July) 32
Additive Manufacturing of Titanium, Exploring Arc Welding
for N. Kapustka and I. D. Harris, (March) 32
Agents Gather, AWS International K. Campbell, (May) 59
Aluminum Brazing, What Matters Most in Vacuum C.
Moller and J. Grann, (Feb) 50
Analyzing the Physical Stress Welding Guns Create C. Petermann, K. Krger, F. C. Mooren, and E. Schubert, (Aug)
50
Anniversary Special: AWS at 95 A. Cullison, M. R.
Johnsen, H. Woodward, K. Campbell, and M. Gomez,
(June) 60
Army Offers Uncommon Career Path (March) 96
Art of Upcycling: Welding Trash into Treasure, The M.
Gomez, (March) 86
Automated Pipe Cutting, Making the Switch from Manual to
J. Henderson, (Sept) 40
Automating a Wheel Manufacturing Operation J. C.
Dutra, N. G. Bonacorso, D. Erdmann Dos Santos, M. H.
Hemmer, and R. H. Gonalves E Silva, (June) 76
Automation Myths, Dispelling D. Postlethwaite, (June)
68
AWS International Agents Gather K. Campbell, (May) 59
Brazing a Honeycomb in Turbine Engines, Selecting Materials for D. Sporer and D. Fortuna, (Feb) 44
Brazing Best Practices: 12 Tips for HVAC Technicians C.
Cordia and G. Mitchell, (Nov) 62
Brazing Brightens Surface Finish, Controlled-Atmosphere
Induction K. K. Kuhn and R. Detty, (Nov) 58
Brazing Ceramics to Titanium Using Amorphous Filler
Metal Y. H. Liu, J. D. Hu, Z. X. Guo, and J. C. Li, (Nov)
66
Business Briefs Profile: John Stropki (Feb) 38
Business Software Benefits S. Leavitt, (Aug) 62
Buttering on High-Carbon Equivalent In-Service Pipe,
Effects of M. Dull and K. Forest, (Sept) 48
Canada, Theres More to See and Do at FABTECH H. M.
Woodward, (March) 46
Canada Shows Growth, FABTECH A. Cullison, (June) 86
Ceramics to Titanium Using Amorphous Filler Metal, Brazing Y. H. Liu, J. D. Hu, Z. X. Guo, and J. C. Li, (Nov) 66
Changes Are Coming to Hazard Communication (Oct) 48
Career Path, Army Offers Uncommon (March) 96
Codes and Standards that Deal with Stainless Steels R.
Campbell, L. Sturgill, and W. Roth, (May) 44
Considerations for Selecting Shop Grinders A. H. Krieg,
(Dec) 88
Controlled-Atmosphere Induction Brazing Brightens
Surface Finish K. K. Kuhn and R. Detty, (Nov) 58
Corrosion Hazard in Stainless Steel, Heat Tint Poses M.

Fletcher, (Dec) 80
DC Pulse Welding Machine, The Control System for a H.
Zheng-Xiang, Y. Yan-Yan, X. Guo-Jian, and Z. Jing-Quan,
(July) 36
Digital Systems Deliver Orbital Welding Consistency S.
Cole and K. Beardsley, (Sept) 50
Dispelling Automation Myths D. Postlethwaite, (June) 68
Dissimilar Metals, Explosion Welding of D. J. Butler and
D. G. Brasher, (Nov) 40
Dissimilar Welding Utilizing Nickel-Based Filler Metals B.
Gaal, M. Caruso, and S. Kiser, (Nov) 50
Education, The Future of Welding W. R. Polanin, (April)
38
Effects of Buttering on High-Carbon Equivalent In-Service
Pipe M. Dull and K. Forest, (Sept) 48
Engineers, Meeting the Demand for Welding D. Phillips,
A. Benatar, and J. C. Lippold, (Oct) 52
Equipment for Comfort and Efficiency, Selecting GMAW
J. Wells, (June) 122
European Way, Welding Personnel Qualification the L.
Quintino, (April) 51
Exploring Arc Welding for Additive Manufacturing of Titanium N. Kapustka and I. D. Harris, (March) 32
Explosion Welding of Dissimilar Metals D. J. Butler and
D. G. Brasher, (Nov) 40
FABTECH 2013 A. Cullison, K. Campbell, and M. R.
Johnsen, (Jan) 44
FABTECH Canada Shows Growth A. Cullison, (June) 86
Fume Control, Questions You Need to Ask about C. Brodnick and J. Lange, (Aug) 56
Fume Management in Your Shop, Weld A. Felicijan and S.
Lowney, (Aug) 46
Galvanized Steel with Metal-Cored Wire, Pairing A.
DArcy, (Oct) 44
Genealogy, Tracing Our Welding A. F. Manz, (June) 72
GMAW Efficiency through Shielding Gases, Improving D.
Sarma, (Dec) 40
Going beyond the Arc: Welding Program Teaches Teamwork
B. Wehrman, (April) 48
Grinders, Considerations for Selecting Shop A. H. Krieg,
(Dec) 88
Grinding Pointers for a Safer Workplace (July) 40
Guns Create, Analyzing the Physical Stress Welding C. Petermann, K. Krger, F. C. Mooren, and E. Schubert, (Aug)
50
Hazard Communication, Changes Are Coming to (Oct) 48
Heat Tint Poses Corrosion Hazard in Stainless Steel M.
Fletcher, (Dec) 80
High-Carbon Equivalent In-Service Pipe, Effects of Buttering on M. Dull and K. Forest, (Sept) 48
High-Purity Welding for Hygienic Applications W. Roth,
R. Campbell, B. Henon, and D. Avery, (Nov) 54
High-Purity Welding in the Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Industries R. Campbell, J. Dvorscek, C. Elkins, and
W. Roth, (Nov) 44
Hollywood Spotlight Shines on Welding K. Campbell,

(April) 32
HVAC Technicians, Brazing Best Practices: 12 Tips for C.
Hygienic Applications, High-Purity Welding for W. Roth,
R. Campbell, B. Henon, and D. Avery, (Nov) 54
Improving GMAW Efficiency through Shielding Gases D.
Sarma, (Dec) 40
Improving Welder Safety D. Thornton, (March) 36
Induction Technology Provides Steady Heating, Rolling J.
Ryan, (Sept) 44
In-Line Inspection of Resistance Spot Welds for Sheet Metal
Assembly R. Gr. Maev, A. M. Chertov, W. Perez Regalado, A. Karloff, A. Tchipilko, P. Lichaa, D. Clement, and T.
Phan, (Jan) 58
John Stropki, Business Briefs Profile: (Feb) 34
Lights, Camera...Welding S. Skrjanc and G. Coleman,
(April) 42
Making Sense of Welding Procedure Qualification R. L.
Holdren, (May) 50
Making the Switch from Manual to Automated Pipe Cutting
Manganese Exposure Means to You, What the Recent
Recommendation on D. Clark, (Aug) 36
Manufacturing, Taking the Next Step in Additive R. Martukanitz and J. Hollingsworth, (March) 40
Meeting the Demand for Welding Engineers D. Phillips,
A. Benatar, and J. C. Lippold, (Oct) 52
Monitoring, A Must in Todays Workplace: Weld-Quality
M. Albright, (Dec) 48
NASA, Welding Technology Takes Flight with C. Russell,
J. Ding, A. Nunes, and K. Lawless, (May) 38
New Years Eve Ball Done!, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1... Getting the K.
Campbell, (March) 90
Nickel-Based Filler Metals, Dissimilar Welding Utilizing
B. Gaal, M. Caruso, and S. Kiser, (Nov) 50
Orbital Welding Consistency, Digital Systems Deliver S.
Cole and K. Beardsley, (Sept) 50
Pairing Galvanized Steel with Metal-Cored Wire A.
DArcy, (Oct) 44
Pharmaceutical Industries, High-Purity Welding in the
Biotechnology and R. Campbell, J. Dvorscek, C. Elkins,
and W. Roth, (Nov) 44
Pipe Cutting, Making the Switch from Manual to Automated
Positioner, Tips for Selecting a C. White, (Feb) 34
Positioner Do for You?, What Can a Welding Ditteinrich
II, (Feb) 42
Preheating 4130?, What is the Best Method for J. Walker,
D. Hebble, and R. Holdren, (Jan) 52
Preventing Rust on Stainless Steel Pipes W. C. LaPlante,
(Sept) 100
Procedure Qualification, Making Sense of Welding R. L.
Holdren, (May) 50
Qualification the European Way, Welding Personnel L.
Questions You Need to Ask about Fume Control C. Brodnick and J. Lange, (Aug) 56
Repair Historic Navy Ship, Volunteers M. Gomez, (Sept)
96
Resistance Spot Welds for Sheet Metal Assembly, In-Line Inspection of R. Gr. Maev, A. M. Chertov, W. Perez Regalado, A. Karloff, A. Tchipilko, P. Lichaa, D. Clement, and T.
Phan, (Jan) 58
Robotic Welding Supervisors, Tips for R. Lizotte, (June)

126
Rolling Induction Technology Provides Steady Heating J.
Ryan, (Sept) 44
Rust on Stainless Steel Pipes, Preventing W. C. LaPlante,
(Sept) 100
Safer Workplace, Grinding Pointers for a (July) 40
Safety, Improving Welder D. Thornton, (March) 36
Safety, The Basics of Thermal Spray D. Hayden, (July) 29
SAW Productivity, A Technology to Increase H.
Raudsepp, (Dec) 46
Selecting GMAW Equipment for Comfort and Efficiency
J. Wells, (June) 122
Selecting Materials for Brazing a Honeycomb in Turbine Engines D. Sporer and D. Fortuna, (Feb) 44
Sheet Metal Assembly, In-Line Inspection of Resistance Spot
Welds for R. Gr. Maev, A. M. Chertov, W. Perez Regalado, A. Karloff, A. Tchipilko, P. Lichaa, D. Clement, and T.
Phan, (Jan) 58
Sheet Metal Grades and Gauges, Spot Welding Different
E. Biro, L. Cretteur, and T. Dupuy, (Jan) 38
Shielding Gases, Improving GMAW Efficiency through D.
Sarma, (Dec) 40
Software Benefits, Business S. Leavitt, (Aug) 62
Software is Best for Your Business?, Which Nesting D.
Wood, (Aug) 42
Spot Welding Different Sheet Metal Grades and Gauges
E. Biro, L. Cretteur, and T. Dupuy, (Jan) 38
Stainless Steel, Heat Tint Poses Corrosion Hazard in M.
Fletcher, (Dec) 80
Stainless Steel Pipes, Preventing Rust on W. C. LaPlante,
(Sept) 100
Stainless Steel to Carbon Steel, Tips for Successfully Welding
D. Benson, (May) 54
Stainless Steels, Codes and Standards that Deal with R.
Standards that Deal with Stainless Steels, Codes and R.
Study of Underwater Friction Welding Technology G.
Hui, J. Xiang-Dong, X. Ya-Guo, and Z. Can-Feng, (Sept)
54
Taking the Next Step in Additive Manufacturing R. Martukanitz and J. Hollingsworth, (March) 40
Teaches Teamwork, Going beyond the Arc: Welding Program
B. Wehrman, (April) 48
The Art of Upcycling: Welding Trash into Treasure M.
Gomez, (March) 86
The Basics of Thermal Spray Safety D. Hayden, (July) 29
The Control System for a DC Pulse Welding Machine H.
Zheng-Xiang, Y. Yan-Yan, X. Guo-Jian, and Z. Jing-Quan,
(July) 36
The Future of Welding Education W. R. Polanin, (April) 38
Theres More to See and Do at FABTECH Canada H. M.
Woodward, (March) 46
Thermal Spray Safety, The Basics of D. Hayden, (July) 29
Tips for HVAC Technicians, Brazing Best Practices: 12 C.
Tips for Robotic Welding Supervisors R. Lizotte, (June)
126
Tips for Selecting a Positioner C. White, (Feb) 34
Tips for Selecting an Abrasive Flap Disc T. Hufford, (July)
32
Tips for Successfully Welding Stainless Steel to Carbon Steel
D. Benson, (May) 54
Titanium, Exploring Arc Welding for Additive Manufacturing of N. Kapustka and I. D. Harris, (March) 32
Titanium Using Amorphous Filler Metal, Brazing Ceramics
to Y. H. Liu, J. D. Hu, Z. X. Guo, and J. C. Li, (Nov) 66
Tracing Our Welding Genealogy A. F. Manz, (June) 72
Turbine Engines, Selecting Materials for Brazing a
Honeycomb in D. Sporer and D. Fortuna, (Feb) 44
Underwater Friction Welding Technology, Study of G.
Hui, J. Xiang-Dong, X. Ya-Guo, and Z. Can-Feng, (Sept)
54
Volunteers Repair Historic Navy Ship M. Gomez, (Sept)
96
Weld Fume Management in Your Shop A. Felicijan and S.
Lowney, (Aug) 46
Welding for Unique Industries M. R. Johnsen and K.
Campbell, (July) 44
Welding Personnel Qualification the European Way L.
Welding Program Revitalized A. Cullison, (Dec) 84
What Can a Welding Positioner Do for You? D. Heinrich
II, (Feb) 42
Welding Technology Takes Flight with NASA C. Russell, J.
Ding, A. Nunes, and K. Lawless, (May) 38
What Is the Best Method for Preheating 4130? J. Walker,
D. Hebble, and R. Holdren, (Jan) 52
What Matters Most in Vacuum Aluminum Brazing C.
Moller and J. Grann, (Feb) 50
What the Recent Recommendation on Manganese Exposure
Means to You D. Clark, (Aug) 36
Wheel Manufacturing Operation, Automating a J. C.
Dutra, N. G. Bonacorso, D. Erdmann Dos Santos, M. H.
Hemmer, and R. H. Gonalves E Silva, (June) 76
Which Nesting Software is Best for Your Business? D.
Wood, (Aug) 42
AUTHORS FOR FEATURE ARTICLES

Albright, M. A Must in Todays Workplace: Weld-Quality
Monitoring, (Dec) 48
Avery, D., Roth, W., Campbell, R., and Henon, B. HighPurity Welding for Hygienic Applications, (Nov) 54
Beardsley, K., and Cole, S. Digital Systems Deliver Orbital
Welding Consistency, (Sept) 50
Benatar, A., Lippold, J. C., and Phillips, D. Meeting the Demand for Welding Engineers, (Oct) 52
Benson, D. Tips for Successfully Welding Stainless Steel to
Carbon Steel, (May) 54
Biro, E., Cretteur, L., and Dupuy, T. Spot Welding
Different Sheet Metal Grades and Gauges, (Jan) 38
Bonacorso, N. G., Erdmann Dos Santos, D., Hemmer, M. H.,
Gonalves E Silva, R. H., and Dutra, J. C. Automating a
Wheel Manufacturing Operation, (June) 76
Brasher, D. G., and Butler, D. J. Explosion Welding of Dissimilar Metals, (Nov) 40
Brodnick, C., and Lange, J. Questions You Need to Ask
about Fume Control, (Aug) 56
Butler, D. J., and Brasher, D. G. Explosion Welding of Dissimilar Metals, (Nov) 40
Campbell, K. 5, 4, 3, 2, 1...Getting the New Years Eve Ball
Done!, (March) 90
Campbell, K. AWS International Agents Gather, (May) 59
Campbell, K. Hollywood Spotlight Shines on Welding,
(April) 32
Campbell, K., Gomez, M., Cullison, A., Johnsen, M. R., and
Woodward, H. Anniversary Special: AWS at 95, (June)
60
Campbell, K., and Johnsen, M. R. Welding for Unique Industries, (July) 44
Campbell, K., Johnsen, M. R., and Cullison, A. FABTECH
2013, (Jan) 44
Campbell, R., Sturgill, L., and Roth, W. Codes and
Standards that Deal with Stainless Steels, (May) 44
Campbell, R., Henon, B., Avery, D., and Roth, W. HighPurity Welding for Hygienic Applications, (Nov) 54
Campbell, R., Dvorscek, J., Elkins, C., and Roth, W. HighPurity Welding in the Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical
Industries, (Nov) 44
Can-Feng, Z., Hui, G., Xiang-Dong, J., and Ya-Guo, X.
Study of Underwater Friction Welding Technology, (Sept)

54
Caruso, M., Kiser, S., and Gaal, B. Dissimilar Welding Utilizing Nickel-Based Filler Metals, (Nov) 50
Chertov, A. M., Perez Regalado, W., Karloff, A., Tchipilko, A.,
Lichaa, P., Clement, D., Phan, T., and Maev, R. Gr. InLine Inspection of Resistance Spot Welds for Sheet Metal
Assembly, (Jan) 58
Clark, D. What the Recent Recommendation on
Manganese Exposure Means to You, (Aug) 36
Clement, D., Phan, T., Maev, R. Gr., Chertov, A. M., Perez Regalado, W., Karloff, A., Tchipilko, A., and Lichaa, P. InLine Inspection of Resistance Spot Welds for Sheet Metal
Assembly, (Jan) 58
Cole, S., and Beardsley, K. Digital Systems Deliver Orbital
Welding Consistency, (Sept) 50
Coleman, G., and Skrjanc, S. Lights, Camera...Welding,
(April) 38
Cordia, C., and Mitchell, G. Brazing Best Practices: 12 Tips
for HVAC Technicians, (Nov) 62
Cretteur, L., Dupuy, T., and Biro, E. Spot Welding
Cullison, A. FABTECH Canada Shows Growth, (June) 86
Cullison, A. Welding Program Revitalized, (Dec) 84
Cullison, A., Johnsen, M. R., Woodward, H., Campbell, K.,
and Gomez, M. Anniversary Special: AWS at 95, (June)
60
Cullison, A., Campbell, K., and Johnsen, M. R. FABTECH
2013, (Jan) 44
DArcy, A. Pairing Galvanized Steel with Metal-Cored
Wire, (Oct) 44
Detty, R., and Kuhn, K. K. Controlled-Atmosphere Induction Brazing Brightens Surface Finish, (Nov) 58
Ding, J., Nunes, A., Lawless, K., and Russell, C. Welding
Technology Takes Flight with NASA, (May) 38
Dull, M., and Forest, K. Effects of Buttering on HighCarbon-Equivalent In-Service Pipe, (Sept) 48
Dupuy, T., Biro, E., and Cretteur, L. Spot Welding
Dutra, J. C., Bonacorso, N. G., Erdmann Dos Santos, D.,
Hemmer, M. H., and Gonalves E Silva, R. H. Automat-
ing a Wheel Manufacturing Operation, (June) 76

Dvorscek, J., Elkins, C., Roth, W., and Campbell, R. HighPurity Welding in the Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical
Elkins, C., Roth, W., Campbell, R., and Dvorscek, J. HighPurity Welding in the Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical
Erdmann Dos Santos, D., Hemmer, M. H., Gonalves E Silva,
R. H., Dutra, J. C., and Bonacorso, N. G. Automating a
Wheel Manufacturing Operation, (June) 76
Felicijan, A., and Lowney, S. Weld Fume Management in
Your Shop, (Aug) 46
Fletcher, M. Heat Tint Poses Corrosion Hazard in Stainless Steel, (Dec) 80
Forest, K., and Dull, M. Effects of Buttering on HighCarbon-Equivalent In-Service Pipe, (Sept) 48
Fortuna, D., and Sporer, D. Selecting Materials for Brazing a Honeycomb in Turbine Engines, (Feb) 44
Gaal, B., Caruso, M., and Kiser, S. Dissimilar Welding Utilizing Nickel-Based Filler Metals, (Nov) 50
Gomez, M., Cullison, A., Johnsen, M. R., Woodward, H., and
Campbell, K. Anniversary Special: AWS at 95, (June)
60
Gomez, M. The Art of Upcycling: Welding Trash into
Treasure, (March) 86
Gomez, M. Volunteers Repair Historic Navy Warship,
(Sept) 96
Gonalves E Silva, R. H., Dutra, J. C., Bonacorso, N. G., Erdmann Dos Santos, D., and Hemmer, M. H. Automating
a Wheel Manufacturing Operation, (June) 76
Grann, J., and Moller, C. What Matters Most in Vacuum
Aluminum Brazing, (Feb) 50
Guo-Jian, X., Jing-Quan, Z., Zheng-Xiang, H., and Yan-Yan,
Y. The Control System for a DC Pulse Welding
Machine, (July) 36
Guo, Z. X., Li, J. C., Liu, Y. H., and Hu, J. D. Brazing
Ceramics to Titanium Using Amorphous Filler Metal,
(Nov) 66
Harris, I. D., and Kapustka, N. Exploring Arc Welding for
Additive Manufacturing of Titanium, (March) 32
Hayden, D. The Basics of Thermal Spray Safety, (July) 29
Hebble, D., Holdren, R., and Walker, J. What is the Best
Method for Preheating 4130?, (Jan) 52
Heinrich II, D. What Can a Welding Positioner Do for
You?, (Feb) 42
Hemmer, M. H., Gonalves E Silva, R. H., Dutra, J. C., Bonacorso, N. G., and Erdmann Dos Santos, D. Automating
a Wheel Manufacturing Operation, (June) 76
Henderson, J. Making the Switch from Manual to Automated Pipe Cutting, (Sept) 40
Henon, B., Avery, D., Roth, W., and Campbell, R. HighPurity Welding for Hygienic Applications, (Nov) 54
Holdren, R. L. Making Sense of Welding Procedure Qualification, (May) 50
Holdren, R., Walker, J., and Hebble, D. What is the Best
Hollingsworth, J., and Martukanitz, R. Taking the Next
Step in Additive Manufacturing, (March) 40
Hu, J. D., Guo, Z. X., Li, J. C., and Liu, Y. H. Brazing
(Nov) 66
Hufford, T. Tips for Selecting an Abrasive Flap Disc,
(July) 32
Hui, G., Xiang-Dong, J., Ya-Guo, X., and Can-Feng, Z.

54
Jing-Quan, Z., Zheng-Xiang, H., Yan-Yan, Y., and Guo-Jian,
X. The Control System for a DC Pulse Welding
Machine, (July) 36
Johnsen, M. R., Woodward, H., Campbell, K., Gomez, M.,
and Cullison, A. Anniversary Special: AWS at 95,
(June) 60
Johnsen, M. R., Cullison, A., and Campbell, K. FABTECH
2013, (Jan) 44
Johnsen, M. R., and Campbell, K. Welding for Unique Industries, (July) 44
Kapustka, N., and Harris, I. D. Exploring Arc Welding for
Additive Manufacturing of Titanium, (March) 32
Karloff, A., Tchipilko, A., Lichaa, P., Clement, D., Phan, T.,
Maev, R. Gr., Chertov, A. M., and Perez Regalado, W.
In-Line Inspection of Resistance Spot Welds for Sheet
Metal Assembly, (Jan) 58
Kiser, S., Gaal, B., and Caruso, M. Dissimilar Welding Utilizing Nickel-Based Filler Metals, (Nov) 50
Krieg, A. H. Considerations for Selecting Shop Grinders,
(Dec) 88
Krger, K., Mooren, F. C., Schubert, E., and Petermann, C.
Analyzing the Physical Stress Welding Guns Create,
(Aug) 50
Kuhn, K. K., and Detty, R. Controlled-Atmosphere Induction Brazing Brightens Surface Finish, (Nov) 58
Lange, J., and Brodnick, C. Questions You Need to Ask
about Fume Control, (Aug) 56
LaPlante, W. C. Preventing Rust on Stainless Steel Pipes,
(Sept) 100
Lawless, K., Russell, C., Ding, J., and Nunes, A. Welding
Leavitt, S. Business Software Benefits, (Aug) 62
Li, J. C., Liu, Y. H., Hu, J. D., and Guo, Z. X. Brazing
(Nov) 66
Lichaa, P., Clement, D., Phan, T., Maev, R. Gr., Chertov, A.
M., Perez Regalado, W., Karloff, A., and Tchipilko, A.
Lippold, J. C., Phillips, D., and Benatar, A. Meeting the
Demand for Welding Engineers, (Oct) 52
Liu, Y. H., Hu, J. D., Guo, Z. X., and Li, J. C. Brazing
(Nov) 66
Lizotte, R. Tips for Robotic Welding Supervisors, (June)
126
Lowney, S., and Felicijan, A. Weld Fume Management in
Your Shop, (Aug) 46
Maev, R. Gr., Chertov, A. M., Perez Regalado, W., Karloff, A.,
Tchipilko, A., Lichaa, P., Clement, D., and Phan, T. InLine Inspection of Resistance Spot Welds for Sheet Metal
Assembly, (Jan) 58
Manz, A. F. Tracing Our Welding Genealogy, (June) 72
Martukanitz, R., and Hollingsworth, J. Taking the Next
Step in Additive Manufacturing, (March) 40
Mitchell, G., and Cordia, C. Brazing Best Practices: 12
Tips for HVAC Technicians, (Nov) 62
Moller, C., and Grann, J. What Matters Most in Vacuum
Aluminum Brazing, (Feb) 50
Mooren, F. C., Schubert, E., Petermann, C., and Krger, K.
(Aug) 50
Nunes, A., Lawless, K., Russell, C., and Ding, J. Welding

Perez Regalado, W., Karloff, A., Tchipilko, A., Lichaa, P.,
Clement, D., Phan, T., Maev, R. Gr., and Chertov, A. M.
Pettermann, C., Krger, K., Mooren, F. C., and Schubert, E.
(Aug) 50
Phan, T., Maev, R. Gr., Chertov, A. M., Perez Regalado, W.,
Karloff, A., Tchipilko, A., Lichaa, P., and Clement, D.
Phillips, D., Benatar, A., and Lippold, J. C. Meeting the
Demand for Welding Engineers, (Oct) 52
Polanin, W. R. The Future of Welding Education, (April)
38
Postlethwaite, D. Dispelling Automation Myths, (June)
68
Quintino, L. Welding Personnel Qualification the
European Way, (April) 51
Raudsepp, H. A Technology to Increase SAW Productivity, (Dec) 46
Roth, W., Campbell, R., and Sturgill, L. Codes and
Roth, W., Campbell, R., Henon, B., and Avery D. High-Purity Welding for Hygienic Applications, (Nov) 54
Roth, W., Campbell, R., Dvorscek, J., and Elkins, C. HighPurity Welding in the Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical
Russell, C., Ding, J., Nunes, A., and Lawless, K. Welding
Ryan, J. Rolling Induction Technology Provides Steady
Heating, (Sept) 44
Sarma, D. Improving GMAW Efficiency through
Shielding Gases, (Dec) 40
Schubert, E., Petermann, C., Krger, K., and Mooren, F. C.
(Aug) 50
Skrjanc, S., and Coleman, G. Lights, Camera...Welding,
(April) 42
Sporer, D., and Fortuna, D. Selecting Materials for Brazing a Honeycomb in Turbine Engines, (Feb) 44
Sturgill, L., Roth, W., and Campbell, R. Codes and
Tchipilko, A., Lichaa, P., Clement, D., Phan, T., Maev, R. Gr.,
Chertov, A. M., Perez Regalado, W., and Karloff, A. InLine Inspection of Resistance Spot Welds for Sheet Metal
Assembly, (Jan) 58
Thornton, D. Improving Welder Safety, (March) 36
Walker, J., Hebble, D., and Holdren, R. What is the Best
Wehrman, B. Going beyond the Arc: Welding Program
Teaches Teamwork, (April) 48
Wells, J. Selecting GMAW Equipment for Comfort and
Efficiency, (June) 122
White, C. Tips for Selecting a Positioner, (Feb) 34
Wood, D. Which Nesting Software Is Best for Your Business?, (Aug) 42
Woodward, H., Campbell, K., Gomez, M., Cullison, A., and
Johnsen, M. R. Anniversary Special: AWS at 95, (June)
60
Woodward, H. M. Theres More to See and Do at
FABTECH Canada, (March) 46
Xiang-Dong, J., Ya-Guo, X., Can-Feng, Z., and Hui, G.
54
Ya-Guo, X., Can-Feng, Z., Hui, G., and Xiang-Dong, J.
54
Yan-Yan, Y., Guo-Jian, X., Jing-Quan, Z., and Zheng-Xiang,
H. The Control System for a DC Pulse Welding
Machine, (July) 36
Zheng-Xiang, H., Yan-Yan, Y., Guo-Jian, X., and Jing-Quan,
Z. The Control System for a DC Pulse Welding
Machine, (July) 36
Part 2 RESEARCH
SUPPLEMENT SUBJECT INDEX
VOLUME 93
A Study on the Surface Depression of the Molten Pool with
Pulsed Welding M. Yang, Z. Yang, B. Cong, and B. Qi,
(Aug) 312-s
Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced Droplet
Oscillation Part 1: Experimental Study J. Xiao, G. J.
Zhang, W. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang, (Aug) 292-s
Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced Droplet
Oscillation Part II: Modeling and Analysis J. Xiao, G. J.
Zhang, W. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang, (Sept) 321-s
Aluminum Alloy 2-mm-Thick Sheets Using Ultrasonic Spot
Welding, Joining 5754 Automotive C. Y. Zhang, D. L.
Chen, and A. A. Luo, (April) 131-s
Aluminum to Magnesium with Zn-Coated Steel Interlayers,
Dissimilar Resistance Spot Welding of P. Penner, L. Liu,
A. Gerlich, and Y. Zhou, (June) 225-s
Aluminum to Steel, Pulsed Double-Electrode GMAW-Brazing
for Joining of Y. Shi, G. Zhang, Y. Huang, L. Lu, J.
Huang, and Y. Shao, (June) 216-s
Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 1 Grain Morphology Dependent upon Alloy Composition and Grain Refiner Content, Solidification of GTA P. Schempp, C. E. Cross, A. Pittner, G.
Oder, R. S. Neumann, H. Rooch, I. Drfel, W. sterle, and
M. Rethmeier, (Feb) 53-s
Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 2 Thermal Conditions and
Model for Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition, Solidification
of GTA P. Schempp, C. E. Cross, A. Pittner, and M. Rethmeier, (March) 69-s
Analysis of the Local Stresses at Laser-Welded Lap Joints
K. D. Lee, K. I. Ho, and K. Y. Park, (Sept) 351-s
Arcs by the Schlieren Measuring Technique, Visualization of
Gas Flows in Welding E. Siewert, G. Wilhelm, M. Hssler,
J. Schein, T. Hanson, M. Schnick, and U. Fssel, (Jan) 1-s
Barium Titanate Ceramics, Wettability by Liquid Metals, Metalization, and Brazing of T. V. Sydorenko and Yu. V.
Naidich, (Jan) 6-s
Boron Steels with Various Coatings, Weldability of CMT Join-
ing of AA6061-T6 to R. Cao, J. H. Sun, J. H. Chen, and

P.-C. Wang, (June) 193-s
Brazing for Joining of Aluminum to Steel, Pulsed DoubleElectrode GMAW- Y. Shi, G. Zhang, Y. Huang, L. Lu, J.
Brazing Joints, The Microstructure and Strength of Copper
Alloy A. Hasap, N. Noraphaiphipaksa, and C.
Kanchanomai, (April) 116-s
Brazing of Barium Titanate Ceramics, Wettability by Liquid
Metals, Metalization, and T. V. Sydorenko and Yu. V.
Naidich, (Jan) 6-s
Brazing of CMSX-4 with a Boron- and Silicon-Free Ni-Co-ZrHf-Cr-Ti-Al Brazing Alloy X. Huang, (July) 233-s
Brazing Metallurgy of IN718/Ni-Cr-Si-B-Fe/IN718, Diffusion
M. Pouranvari, A. Ekrami, and A. H. Kokabi, (Feb) 60-s
Carbon Steel-Duplex Stainless Steel GTA Weld Pool, Modeling
of A. Bahrami and D. K. Aidun, (July) 262-s
Ceramic Abrasive in Cutting Discs, Evaluation of Triangular,
Engineered-Shape J. Badger, (April) 107-s
Ceramics, Wettability by Liquid Metals, Metalization, and
Brazing of Barium Titanate T. V. Sydorenko and Yu. V.
Naidich, (Jan) 6-s
Characterization of CSC-GMAW Titanium-Rich Weld
Overlays J. E. Ramirez, (Sept) 338-s
Characterization of High-Strength Weld Metal Containing
Mg-Bearing Inclusions A. P. Gerlich, H. Izadi, J. Bundy,
and P. F. Mendez, (Jan) 15-s
Characterization of Multilayered Multipass Friction Stir Weld
on ASTM A572 G50 Steel Y. C. Lim, S. Sanderson, M.
Mahoney, X. Yu, D. Qiao, Y. Wang, W. Zhang, and Z. Feng,
(Dec) 443-s
Coatings, Weldability of CMT Joining of AA6061-T6 to Boron
Steels with Various R. Cao, J. H. Sun, J. H. Chen, and P.C. Wang, (June) 193-s
Compressive Residual Stresses, Low Transformation Welding
Consumables for Residual Stress Management: A Numerical Model for the Prediction of Phase TransformationInduced T. Alghamdi and S. Liu, (Dec) 458-s
Consumable Electrode of High-Nickel Alloys, Flux-Coating
Development for SMAW K. Sham and S. Liu, (Aug)
271-s
Consumables for Residual Stress Management: Consumables
Development and Testing Qualification, Low-Transformation-Temperature (LTT) Welding T. Alghamdi and S. Liu,
(July) 243-s
Convection on Weld Pool Formation in Laser Cladding, Influence of Fluid Y. S. Lee, M. Nordin, S. S. Babu, and D. F.
Farson, (Aug) 292-s
Copper Alloy Brazing Joints, The Microstructure and
Strength of A. Hasap, N. Noraphaiphipaksa, and C. Kanchanomai, (April) 116-s
Corrosion Resistance Studies, Flux-Assisted Gas Tungsten Arc
and Laser Welding of Titanium with Cryolite-Containing
Fluxes: Arc Spectroscopy and T. AlSabti, A. AlShawaf,
and S. Liu, (Oct) 379-s
Cracking in Pulsed-Tandem Gas Metal Arc Welding of Naval
Steels, Weld-End Solidification Z. Sterjovski, C. Bayley,
J. Donato, N. Lane, and D. Lang, (May) 145-s
Cracking Tendency of a Blast-Resistant Steel, Effect of Welding Parameters on the Heat-Affected Zone HydrogenInduced X. Yue, X.-L. Feng, and J. C. Lippold, (March)
98-s
Current in Electrical Arc An Initial Study, Separation of Arc
Plasma and S. J. Chen, F. Jiang, Y. S. Lu, and Y. M.
Zhang, (July) 253-s

Cutting Discs, Evaluation of Triangular, Engineered-Shape
Ceramic Abrasive in J. Badger, (April) 107-s
Development of High-Cr, Ni-Based Filler Metals Using Combined Computational and Experimental Techniques E.
W. Fusner, A. T. Hope, and J. C. Lippold, (May) 171-s
Diffusion Brazing Metallurgy of IN718/Ni-Cr-Si-B-Fe/IN718
M. Pouranvari, A. Ekrami, and A. H. Kokabi, (Feb) 60-s
Dissimilar Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum to Magnesium with Zn-Coated Steel Interlayers P. Penner, L. Liu,
Distortion, Material Strength Effect on Weld Shrinkage and
Y. P. Yang, R. Dull, H. Castner, T. D. Huang, and D. Fanguy, (Nov) 421-s
Double-Electrode GMAW-Brazing for Joining of Aluminum to
Steel, Pulsed Y. Shi, G. Zhang, Y. Huang, L. Lu, J. Huang,
and Y. Shao, (June) 216-s
Duplex Stainless Steel GTA Weld Pool, Modeling of Carbon
Steel- A. Bahrami and D. K. Aidun, (July) 262-s
Effect of Inserted Strips on Electrode Degradation in Resistance Spot Welding Y. Y. Zhao, Y. S. Zhang, X. M. Lai, and
P.-C. Wang, (Nov) 411-s
Effect of the Purging Gas on Properties of 304H GTA Welds
E. Taban, E. Kaluc, and T. S. Aykan, (April) 124-s
Effect of Welding Parameters on the Heat-Affected Zone Hydrogen-Induced Cracking Tendency of a Blast-Resistant
Steel X. Yue, X.-L. Feng, and J. C. Lippold, (March) 98-s
Electrode Degradation in Resistance Spot Welding, Effect of
Inserted Strips on Y. Y. Zhao, Y. S. Zhang, X. M. Lai, and
P.-C. Wang, (Nov) 411-s
Electrode GMAW-Brazing for Joining of Aluminum to Steel,
Pulsed Double- Y. Shi, G. Zhang, Y. Huang, L. Lu, J.
Energy Applications, Welding of Nickel-Based Alloys for J.
N. DuPont, (Feb) 31-s
Evaluation of Triangular, Engineered-Shape Ceramic Abrasive
in Cutting Discs J. Badger, (April) 107-s
Fatigue Performance of Spot Welds in Advanced HighStrength Steels, Improving S. K. Vanimisetti and D. R.
Sigler, (May) 153-s
Filler Metals Using Combined Computational and Experimental Techniques, Development of High-Cr, Ni-Based E. W.
Fusner, A. T. Hope, and J. C. Lippold, (May) 171-s
Flux-Assisted Gas Tungsten Arc and Laser Welding of
Titanium with Cryolite-Containing Fluxes: Arc
Spectroscopy and Corrosion Resistance Studies T.
AlSabti, A. AlShawaf, and S. Liu, (Oct) 379-s
Flux-Coating Development for SMAW Consumable Electrode
of High-Nickel Alloys K. Sham and S. Liu, (Aug) 271-s
Friction Stir Weld on ASTM A572 G50 Steel, Characterization
of Multilayered Multipass Y. C. Lim, S. Sanderson, M.
Mahoney, X. Yu, D. Qiao, Y. Wang, W. Zhang, and Z. Feng,
(Dec) 443-s
Friction Stir Welding of Extruded Powder Metallurgy Al Alloy
A. Elrefaey, K. Anders, H. Kilian, F. Ellermann, and W.
Khlein, (Dec) 451-s
Galvanized DP780 Steel, Improvement of Process Robustness
in Weld Bonding of Y. S. Zhang, H. T. Sun, P.-C. Wang,
and G. L. Chen, (Dec) 472-s
Gas Flows in Welding Arcs by the Schlieren Measuring Technique, Visualization of E. Siewert, G. Wilhelm, M.
Hssler, J. Schein, T. Hanson, M. Schnick, and U. Fssel,
(Jan) 1-s
Gas Metal Arc Welding Enhanced by Using a Pulsed Laser
Y. Shao and Y. M. Zhang, (June) 205-s

Gravity Forces in Spot GTA Weld Pool, Interaction of A.
Bahrami, D. K. Aidun, and D. T. Valentine, (April) 139-s
GTA Weld Pool, Modeling of Carbon Steel-Duplex Stainless
Steel A. Bahrami and D. K. Aidun, (July) 262-s
GTAW Process, The Effect of Materials on Radiation
Exposure during the A. Gursel and A. Kurt, (Nov) 439-s
Hardness-Tensile Property Relationships for HAZ in 6061T651 Aluminum P. A. Stathers, A. K. Hellier, R. P. Harrison, M. I. Ripley, and J. Norrish, (Aug) 301-s
HAZ in 6061-T651 Aluminum, Hardness-Tensile Property Relationships for P. A. Stathers, A. K. Hellier, R. P.
Harrison, M. I. Ripley, and J. Norrish, (Aug) 301-s
Heat-Affected Zone Hydrogen-Induced Cracking Tendency of
a Blast-Resistant Steel, Effect of Welding Parameters on
the X. Yue, X.-L. Feng, and J. C. Lippold, (March) 98-s
Heat Source Modeling and Analysis of Submerged Arc Welding D. Podder, N. R. Mandal, and S. Das, (May) 183-s
Heat Treatment and Yb-Fiber Laser Welding of a Maraging
Steel L. Fanton, A. J. Abdalla, and M. S. Fernandes de
Lima, (Sept) 362-s
High-Cr, Ni-Based Filler Metals Using Combined
Computational and Experimental Techniques,
Development of E. W. Fusner, A. T. Hope, and J. C. Lippold, (May) 171-s
High-Nickel Alloys, Flux-Coating Development for SMAW
Consumable Electrode of K. Sham and S. Liu, (Aug)
271-s
High-Strength Steel for Pipelines, Weldability of NiobiumContaining I. I. Frantov, A. A. Velichko, A. N. Bortsov,
and I. Y. Utkin, (Jan) 23-s
High-Strength Steels, Improving Fatigue Performance of Spot
Welds in Advanced S. K. Vanimisetti and D. R. Sigler,
(May) 153-s
High-Strength Weld Metal Containing Mg-Bearing
Inclusions, Characterization of A. P. Gerlich, H. Izadi, J.
Bundy, and P. F. Mendez, (Jan) 15-s
Human Welder Intelligence Modeling and Control: Part 1
Modeling, Skilled Y. K. Liu, Y. M. Zhang, and L. Kvidahl,
(Feb) 46-s
Human Welder Intelligence Modeling and Control: Part II
Analysis and Control Applications, Skilled Y. K. Liu, Y.
M. Zhang, and L. Kvidahl, (May) 162-s
Imperfections in GMAW, Quality Level Assessment for G.
Senthil Kumar, U. Natarajan, T. Veerarajan, and S. S. Ananthan, (March) 85-s
Improvement of Process Robustness in Weld Bonding of Galvanized DP780 Steel Y. S. Zhang, H. T. Sun, P.-C. Wang,
and G. L. Chen, (Dec) 472-s
Improvement of Weldability of 1 GPa Grade Twin-Induced
Plasticity Steel J. Yu, D. Choi, and S. Rhee, (March) 78-s
Improving Fatigue Performance of Spot Welds in Advanced
High-Strength Steels S. K. Vanimisetti and D. R. Sigler,
(May) 153-s
Inclusions, Characterization of High-Strength Weld Metal
Containing Mg-Bearing A. P. Gerlich, H. Izadi, J. Bundy,
and P. F. Mendez, (Jan) 15-s
Influence of Fluid Convection on Weld Pool Formation in
Laser Cladding Y. S. Lee, M. Nordin, S. S. Babu, and D. F.
Farson, (Aug) 292-s
Intelligence Modeling and Control: Part II Analysis and
Control Applications, Skilled Human Welder Y. K. Liu,
Y. M. Zhang, and L. Kvidahl, (May) 162-s
Interaction of Gravity Forces in Spot GTA Weld Pool A.

Joining 5754 Automotive Aluminum Alloy 2-mm-Thick
Sheets Using Ultrasonic Spot Welding C. Y. Zhang, D. L.
Chen, and A. A. Luo, (April) 131-s
Joining of Aluminum to Steel, Pulsed Double-Electrode
GMAW-Brazing for Y. Shi, G. Zhang, Y. Huang, L. Lu, J.
Laser Cladding, Influence of Fluid Convection on Weld Pool
Formation in Y. S. Lee, M. Nordin, S. S. Babu, and D. F.
Farson, (Aug) 292-s
Laser Welded-Brazed Mg Alloy-Stainless Steel Joint,
Microstructural Characteristics and Mechanical Properties
of Fiber C. W. Tan, L. Q. Li, Y. B. Chen, A. M. Nasiri, and
Y. Zhou, (Oct) 399-s
Laser-Welded Lap Joints, Analysis of the Local Stresses at
K. D. Lee, K. I. Ho, and K. Y. Park, (Sept) 351-s
Laser Welding of a Maraging Steel, Heat Treatment and YbFiber L. Fanton, A. J. Abdalla, and M. S. Fernandes de
Lima, (Sept) 362-s
Laser Welding of Titanium with Cryolite-Containing Fluxes:
Arc Spectroscopy and Corrosion Resistance Studies, FluxAssisted Gas Tungsten Arc and T. AlSabti, A. AlShawaf,
Laser Welding of Zinc-Coated Steels in a Zero Root Opening,
Lap-Joint Configuration, Semi-Cutting-Assisted S.
Yang, Z. Chen, W. Tao, C. Wang, J. Wang, and B. E. Carlson,
(Sept) 331-s
Learning Human Welder Movement in Pipe GTAW: A Virtualized Welding Approach Y. K. Liu, Z. Shao, and Y. M.
Zhang, (Oct) 388-s
Low-Transformation-Temperature (LTT) Welding
Consumables Development and Testing Qualification T.
Alghamdi and S. Liu, (July) 243-s
Low Transformation Temperature Welding Consumables for
Residual Stress Management: A Numerical Model for the
Prediction of Phase Transformation-Induced Compressive
Residual Stresses T. Alghamdi and S. Liu, (Dec) 458-s
Magnesium with Zn-Coated Steel Interlayers, Dissimilar Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum to P. Penner, L. Liu,
Maraging Steel, Heat Treatment and Yb-Fiber Laser Welding
of a L. Fanton, A. J. Abdalla, and M. S. Fernandes de
Lima, (Sept) 362-s
Material Strength Effect on Weld Shrinkage and Distortion
Mechanical Behavior of Titanium-Clad Steel Welded Joints
J. E. Ramirez, (Oct) 369-s
Metal Transfer with Force Analysis in Consumable and Nonconsumable Indirect Arc Welding Process J. Wang, Y.
Huang, J. Xiao, J. Feng, C. Y. Tian, and J. Wang, (Nov)
431-s
Metallurgy Al Alloy, Friction Stir Welding of Extruded Powder
A. Elrefaey, K. Anders, H. Kilian, F. Ellermann, and W.
Khlein, (Dec) 451-s
Microstructural Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of
Fiber Laser Welded-Brazed Mg Alloy-Stainless Steel Joint
C. W. Tan, L. Q. Li, Y. B. Chen, A. M. Nasiri, and Y. Zhou,
(Oct) 399-s
Modeling and Analysis of Submerged Arc Welding, Heat
Source D. Podder, N. R. Mandal, and S. Das, (May) 183-s
Modeling of Carbon Steel-Duplex Stainless Steel GTA Weld
Pool A. Bahrami and D. K. Aidun, (July) 262-s
Morphology Dependent upon Alloy Composition and Grain

Refiner Content, Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld
Metal: Part 1 Grain P. Schempp, C. E. Cross, A.
Pittner, G. Oder, R. S. Neumann, H. Rooch, I. Drfel, W.
sterle, and M. Rethmeier, (Feb) 53-s
Multilayered Multipass Friction Stir Weld on ASTM A572
G50 Steel, Characterization of Y. C. Lim, S. Sanderson,
M. Mahoney, X. Yu, D. Qiao, Y. Wang, W. Zhang, and Z.
Feng, (Dec) 443-s
Naval Steels, Weld-End Solidification Cracking in PulsedTandem Gas Metal Arc Welding of Z. Sterjovski, C.
Bayley, J. Donato, N. Lane, and D. Lang, (May) 145-s
Nickel-Based Alloys for Energy Applications, Welding of
J. N. DuPont, (Feb) 31-s
Niobium-Containing High-Strength Steel for Pipelines, Weldability of I. I. Frantov, A. A. Velichko, A. N. Bortsov, and
I. Y. Utkin, (Jan) 23-s
Oscillation Part 1: Experimental Study, Active Metal Transfer
Control by Utilizing Enhanced Droplet J. Xiao, G. J.
Oscillation Part II: Modeling and Analysis, Active Metal
Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced Droplet J. Xiao,
G. J. Zhang, W. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang, (Sept) 321-s
Overlays, Characterization of CSC-GMAW Titanium-Rich
Weld J. E. Ramirez, (Sept) 338-s
Pipe GTAW: A Virtualized Welding Approach, Learning
Human Welder Movement in Y. K. Liu, Z. Shao, and
Y. M. Zhang, (Oct) 388-s
Pipelines, Weldability of Niobium-Containing High-Strength
Steel for I. I. Frantov, A. A. Velichko, A. N. Bortsov, and
Plasma and Current in Electrical Arc An Initial Study, Separation of Arc S. J. Chen, F. Jiang, Y. S. Lu, and Y. M.
Zhang, (July) 253-s
Plasticity Steel, Improvement of Weldability of 1 GPa Grade
Twin-Induced J. Yu, D. Choi, and S. Rhee, (March) 78-s
Pulsed Double-Electrode GMAW-Brazing for Joining of Aluminum to Steel Y. Shi, G. Zhang, Y. Huang, L. Lu, J.
Pulsed Laser, Gas Metal Arc Welding Enhanced by Using a
Y. Shao and Y. M. Zhang, (June) 205-s
Pulsed-Tandem Gas Metal Arc Welding of Naval Steels, WeldEnd Solidification Cracking in Z. Sterjovski, C. Bayley, J.
Donato, N. Lane, and D. Lang, (May) 145-s
Pulsed Welding, A Study on the Molten Pool with M. Yang,
Z. Yang, B. Cong, and B. Qi, (Aug) 312-s
Purging Gas on Properties of 304H GTA Welds, Effect of the
E. Taban, E. Kaluc, and T. S. Aykan, (April) 124-s
Quality Level Assessment for Imperfections in GMAW G.
Senthil Kumar, U. Natarajan, T. Veerarajan, and S. S. Ananthan, (March) 85-s
Radiation Exposure during the GTAW Process, The Effect of
Materials on A. Gursel and A. Kurt, (Nov) 439-s
Resistance Spot Welding, Effect of Inserted Strips on
Electrode Degradation in Y. Y. Zhao, Y. S. Zhang, X. M.
Lai, and P.-C. Wang, (Nov) 411-s
Semi-Cutting-Assisted Laser Welding of Zinc-Coated Steels in
a Zero Root Opening, Lap-Joint Configuration S. Yang,
Z. Chen, W. Tao, C. Wang, J. Wang, and B. E. Carlson,
(Sept) 331-s
Separation of Arc Plasma and Current in Electrical Arc An
Initial Study S. J. Chen, F. Jiang, Y. S. Lu, and Y. M.
Zhang, (July) 253-s
Shrinkage and Distortion, Material Strength Effect on Weld

Silicon-Free Ni-Co-Zr-Hf-Cr-Ti-Al Brazing Alloy, Brazing of
CMSX-4 with a Boron- and X. Huang, (July) 233-s
Skilled Human Welder Intelligence Modeling and Control:
Part 1 Modeling Y. K. Liu, Y. M. Zhang, and L.
Kvidahl, (Feb) 46-s
Skilled Human Welder Intelligence Modeling and Control:
Part II Analysis and Control Applications Y. K. Liu,
Y. M. Zhang, and L. Kvidahl, (May) 162-s
Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 1 Grain
Morphology Dependent upon Alloy Composition and
Grain Refiner Content P. Schempp, C. E. Cross, A.
Pittner, G. Oder, R. S. Neumann, H. Rooch, I. Drfel, W.
sterle, and M. Rethmeier, (Feb) 53-s
Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 2 Thermal Conditions and Model for Columnar-to-Equiaxed
Transition P. Schempp, C. E. Cross, A. Pittner, and M.
Rethmeier, (March) 69-s
Spot GTA Weld Pool, Interaction of Gravity Forces in A.
Spot Welding of Aluminum to Magnesium with Zn-Coated
Steel Interlayers, Dissimilar Resistance P. Penner, L. Liu,
Spot Welds in Advanced High-Strength Steels, Improving Fatigue Performance of S. K. Vanimisetti and D. R. Sigler,
(May) 153-s
Stainless Steel Joint, Microstructural Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of Fiber Laser Welded-Brazed Mg
Alloy- C. W. Tan, L. Q. Li, Y. B. Chen, A. M. Nasiri, and Y.
Zhou, (Oct) 399-s
Stress Management: Consumables Development and Testing
Qualification, Low-Transformation-Temperature (LTT)
Welding Consumables for Residual T. Alghamdi and S.
Liu, (July) 243-s
Stress Management: A Numerical Model for the Prediction of
Phase Transformation-Induced Compressive Residual
Stresses, Low Transformation Temperature Welding Consumables for Residual T. Alghamdi and S. Liu, (Dec)
458-s
Submerged Arc Welding, Heat Source Modeling and Analysis
of D. Podder, N. R. Mandal, and S. Das, (May) 183-s
Surface Depression of the Molten Pool with Pulsed Welding,
A Study on the M. Yang, Z. Yang, B. Cong, and B. Qi,
(Aug) 312-s
The Effect of Materials on Radiation Exposure during the
GTAW Process A. Gursel and A. Kurt, (Nov) 439-s
The Microstructure and Strength of Copper Alloy Brazing
Joints A. Hasap, N. Noraphaiphipaksa, and C.
Kanchanomai, (April) 116-s
Thermal Conditions and Model for Columnar-to-Equiaxed
Transition, Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal:
Part 2 P. Schempp, C. E. Cross, A. Pittner, and M. Rethmeier, (March) 69-s
Titanium-Clad Steel Welded Joints, Mechanical Behavior of
J. E. Ramirez, (Oct) 369-s
Titanium-Rich Weld Overlays, Characterization of CSCGMAW J. E. Ramirez, (Sept) 338-s
Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced Droplet Oscillation
Part 1: Experimental Study, Active Metal J. Xiao, G. J.
Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced Droplet Oscillation
Part II: Modeling and Analysis, Active Metal J. Xiao, G.
J. Zhang, W. J. Zhang, and Y. M. Zhang, (Sept) 321-s
Transfer with Force Analysis in Consumable and Nonconsumable Indirect Arc Welding Process, Metal J. Wang, Y.
Huang, J. Xiao, J. Feng, C. Y. Tian, and J. Wang, (Nov)
431-s
Tungsten Arc and Laser Welding of Titanium with CryoliteContaining Fluxes: Arc Spectroscopy and Corrosion Resistance Studies, Flux-Assisted Gas T. AlSabti, A. AlShawaf,
Ultrasonic Spot Welding, Joining 5754 Automotive
Aluminum Alloy 2-mm-Thick Sheets Using C. Y. Zhang,
D. L. Chen, and A. A. Luo, (April) 131-s
Virtualized Welding Approach, Learning Human Welder
Movement in Pipe GTAW: A Y. K. Liu, Z. Shao, and Y. M.
Zhang, (Oct) 388-s
Visualization of Gas Flows in Welding Arcs by the Schlieren
Measuring Technique E. Siewert, G. Wilhelm, M.
Hssler, J. Schein, T. Hanson, M. Schnick, and U. Fssel,
(Jan) 1-s
Weld-End Solidification Cracking in Pulsed-Tandem Gas
Metal Arc Welding of Naval Steels Z. Sterjovski, C. Bayley, J. Donato, N. Lane, and D. Lang, (May) 145-s
Weldability of 1 GPa Grade Twin-Induced Plasticity Steel, Improvement of J. Yu, D. Choi, and S. Rhee, (March) 78-s
Weldability of CMT Joining of AA6061-T6 to Boron Steels
with Various Coatings R. Cao, J. H. Sun, J. H. Chen, and
P.-C. Wang, (June) 193-s
Weldability of Niobium-Containing High-Strength Steel for
Pipelines I. I. Frantov, A. A. Velichko, A. N. Bortsov, and
Welding of Nickel-Based Alloys for Energy Applications
J. N. DuPont, (Feb) 31-s
Wettability by Liquid Metals, Metalization, and Brazing of
Barium Titanate Ceramics T. V. Sydorenko and Yu. V.
Naidich, (Jan) 6-s
Zinc-Coated Steels in a Zero Root Opening, Lap-Joint Configuration, Semi-Cutting-Assisted Laser Welding of S.
Yang, Z. Chen, W. Tao, C. Wang, J. Wang, and B. E. Carlson,
(Sept) 331-s
Zn-Coated Steel Interlayers, Dissimilar Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum to Magnesium with P. Penner, L. Liu,
AUTHORS FOR RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT

Abdalla, A. J., Fernandes de Lima, M. S., and Fanton, L.
Steel, (Sept) 362-s
Aidun, D. K., Valentine, D. T., and Bahrami, A. Interaction of
Gravity Forces in Spot GTA Weld Pool, (April) 139-s
Aidun, D. K., and Bahrami, A. Modeling of Carbon SteelDuplex Stainless Steel GTA Weld Pool, (July) 262-s
Alghamdi, T., and Liu, S. Low-Transformation-Temperature
(LTT) Welding Consumables Development and Testing
Qualification, (July) 243-s
Alghamdi, T., and Liu, S. Low Transformation Temperature
Welding Consumables for Residual Stress Management: A
Numerical Model for the Prediction of Phase
Transformation-Induced Compressive Residual Stresses,
(Dec) 458-s
AlSabti, T., AlShawaf, A., and Liu, S. Flux-Assisted Gas Tungsten Arc and Laser Welding of Titanium with CryoliteContaining Fluxes: Arc Spectroscopy and Corrosion Resistance Studies, (Oct) 379-s
AlShawaf, A., Liu, S., and AlSabti, T. Flux-Assisted Gas Tungsten Arc and Laser Welding of Titanium with CryoliteContaining Fluxes: Arc Spectroscopy and Corrosion Resistance Studies, (Oct) 379-s
Ananthan, S. S., Senthil Kumar, G., Natarajan, U., and Veerarajan, T. Quality Level Assessment for Imperfections in
GMAW, (March) 85-s
Anders, K., Kilian, H., Ellermann, F., Khlein, W., and Elrefaey,
A. Friction Stir Welding of Extruded Powder Metallurgy
Al Alloy, (Dec) 451-s
Aykan, T. S., Taban, E., and Kaluc, E. Effect of the Purging
Gas on Properties of 304H GTA Welds, (April) 124-s
Babu, S. S., Farson, D. F., Lee, Y. S., and Nordin, M. Influence
of Fluid Convection on Weld Pool Formation in Laser
Cladding, (Aug) 292-s
Badger, J. Evaluation of Triangular, Engineered-Shape
Ceramic Abrasive in Cutting Discs, (April) 107-s
Bahrami, A., Aidun, D. K., and Valentine, D. T. Interaction of
Gravity Forces in Spot GTA Weld Pool, (April) 139-s
Bahrami, A., and Aidun, D. K. Modeling of Carbon Steel104 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2014
Duplex Stainless Steel GTA Weld Pool, (July) 262-s

Bayley, C., Donato, J., Lane, N., Lang, D., and Sterjovski, Z.
Metal Arc Welding of Naval Steels, (May) 145-s
Bortsov, A. N., Utkin, I. Y., Frantov, I. I., and Velichko, A. A.
Pipelines, (Jan) 23-s
Bundy, J., Mendez, P. F., Gerlich, A. P., and Izadi, H. Characterization of High-Strength Weld Metal Containing MgBearing Inclusions, (Jan) 15-s
Cao, R., Sun, J. H., Chen, J. H., and Wang, P.-C. Weldability
of CMT Joining of AA6061-T6 to Boron Steels with Various
Coatings, (June) 193-s
Carlson, B. E., Yang, S., Chen, Z., Tao, W., Wang, C., and Wang,
J. Semi-Cutting-Assisted Laser Welding of Zinc-Coated
Steels in a Zero Root Opening, Lap-Joint Configuration,
(Sept) 331-s
Castner, H., Huang, T. D., Fanguy, D., Yang, Y. P., and Dull, R.
Material Strength Effect on Weld Shrinkage and Distortion,
(Nov) 421-s
Chen, D. L., Luo, A. A., and Zhang, C. Y. Joining 5754 Automotive Aluminum Alloy 2-mm-Thick Sheets Using
Ultrasonic Spot Welding, (April) 131-s
Chen, G. L., Zhang, Y. S., Sun, H. T., and Wang, P.-C.
Improvement of Process Robustness in Weld Bonding of
Galvanized DP780 Steel, (Dec) 472-s
Chen, J. H., Wang, P.-C., Cao, R., and Sun, J. H. Weldability
Chen, S. J., Jiang, F., Lu, Y. S., and Zhang, Y. M. Separation
of Arc Plasma and Current in Electrical Arc An Initial
Study, (July) 253-s
Chen, Y. B., Nasiri, A. M., Zhou, Y., Tan, C. W., and Li, L. Q.
of Fiber Laser Welded-Brazed Mg Alloy-Stainless Steel Joint,
(Oct) 399-s
Chen, Z., Tao, W., Wang, C., Wang, J., Carlson, B. E., and Yang,
S. Semi-Cutting-Assisted Laser Welding of Zinc-Coated
(Sept) 331-s
Choi, D., Rhee, S., and Yu, J. Improvement of Weldability of
1 GPa Grade Twin-Induced Plasticity Steel, (March) 78-s
Cong, B., Qi, B., Yang, M., and Yang, Z. A Study on the Surface Depression of the Molten Pool with Pulsed Welding,
(Aug) 312-s
Cross, C. E., Pittner, A., Oder, G., Neumann, R. S., Rooch, H.,
Drfel, I., sterle, W., Rethmeier, M., and Schempp, P.
Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 1
Grain Morphology Dependent upon Alloy Composition and
Grain Refiner Content, (Feb) 53-s
Cross, C. E., Pittner, A., Rethmeier, M., and Schempp, P. Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 2 Thermal Conditions and Model for Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition, (March) 69-s
Das, S., Podder, D., and N. R. Mandal Heat Source Modeling
and Analysis of Submerged Arc Welding, (May) 183-s
Donato, J., Lane, N., Lang, D., Sterjovski, Z., and Bayley, C.
Drfel, I., sterle, W., Rethmeier, M., Schempp, P., Cross, C. E.,
Pittner, A., Oder, G., Neumann, R. S., and Rooch, H. Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 1 Grain
Refiner Content, (Feb) 53-s
Dull, R., Castner, H., Huang, T. D., Fanguy, D., and Yang, Y. P.
Material Strength Effect on Weld Shrinkage and Distortion, (Nov) 421-s
DuPont, J. N. Welding of Nickel-Based Alloys for Energy
Applications, (Feb) 31-s
Ekrami, A., Kokabi, A. H., and Pouranvari, M. Diffusion
Brazing Metallurgy of IN718/Ni-Cr-Si-B-Fe/IN718, (Feb)
60-s
Ellermann, F., Khlein, W., Elrefaey, A., Anders, K., and Kilian,
H. Friction Stir Welding of Extruded Powder Metallurgy
Elrefaey, A., Anders, K., Kilian, H., Ellermann, F., and Khlein,
W. Friction Stir Welding of Extruded Powder Metallurgy
Fanguy, D., Yang, Y. P., Dull, R., Castner, H., and Huang, T. D.
Fanton, L., Abdalla, A. J., and Fernandes de Lima, M. S.
Steel, (Sept) 362-s
Farson, D. F., Lee, Y. S., Nordin, M., and Babu, S. S.
Laser Cladding, (Aug) 292-s
Feng, J., Tian, C. Y., Wang, J., Wang, J., Huang, Y., and Xiao, J.
Metal Transfer with Force Analysis in Consumable and
Nonconsumable Indirect Arc Welding Process, (Nov) 431-s
Feng, X.-L., Lippold, J. C., and Yue, X. Effect of Welding Parameters on the Heat-Affected Zone Hydrogen-Induced
Cracking Tendency of a Blast-Resistant Steel, (March) 98-s
Feng, Z., Lim, Y. C., Sanderson, S., Mahoney, M., Yu, X., Qiao,
D., Wang, Y., and Zhang, W. Characterization of
G50 Steel, (Dec) 443-s
Fernandes de Lima, M. S., Fanton, L., and Abdalla, A. J.
Steel, (Sept) 362-s
Frantov, I. I., Velichko, A. A., Bortsov, A. N., and Utkin, I. Y.
Fusner, E. W., Hope, A. T., and Lippold, J. C. Development

of High-Cr, Ni-Based Filler Metals Using Combined Computational and Experimental Techniques, (May) 171-s
Fssel, U., Siewert, E., Wilhelm, G., Hssler, M., Schein, J.,
Hanson, T., and Schnick, M. Visualization of Gas Flows
in Welding Arcs by the Schlieren Measuring Technique,
(Jan) 1-s
Gerlich, A. P., Izadi, H., Bundy, J., and Mendez, P. F. Characterization of High-Strength Weld Metal Containing MgBearing Inclusions, (Jan) 15-s
Gerlich, A., Zhou, Y., Penner, P., and Liu, L. Dissimilar
Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum to Magnesium with
Zn-Coated Steel Interlayers, (June) 225-s
Gursel, A., and Kurt, A. The Effect of Materials on
Radiation Exposure during the GTAW Process, (Nov) 439-s
Hanson, T., Schnick, M., Fssel, U., Siewert, E., Wilhelm, G.,
Hssler, M., and Schein, J. Visualization of Gas Flows in
Welding Arcs by the Schlieren Measuring Technique, (Jan)
1-s
Harrison, R. P., Ripley, M. I., Norrish, J., Stathers, P. A., and
Hellier, A. K. Hardness-Tensile Property Relationships
for HAZ in 6061-T651 Aluminum, (Aug) 301-s
Hasap, A., Noraphaiphipaksa, N., and Kanchanomai, C. The
Microstructure and Strength of Copper Alloy Brazing
Joints, (April) 116-s
Hssler, M., Schein, J., Hanson, T., Schnick, M., Fssel, U.,
Siewert, E., and Wilhelm, G. Visualization of Gas Flows
(Jan) 1-s
Hellier, A. K., Harrison, R. P., Ripley, M. I., Norrish, J., and
Stathers, P. A. Hardness-Tensile Property Relationships
for HAZ in 6061-T651 Aluminum, (Aug) 301-s
Ho, K. I., Park, K. Y., and Lee, K. D. Analysis of the Local
Stresses at Laser-Welded Lap Joints, (Sept) 351-s
Hope, A. T., Lippold, J. C., and Fussner, E. W. Development
Huang, J., Shao, Y., Shi, Y., Zhang, G., Huang, Y., and Lu, L.
Pulsed Double-Electrode GMAW-Brazing for Joining of Aluminum to Steel, (June) 216-s
Huang, T. D., Fanguy, D., Yang, Y. P., Dull, R., and Castner, H.
Huang, X. Brazing of CMSX-4 with a Boron- and SiliconFree Ni-Co-Zr-Hf-Cr-Ti-Al Brazing Alloy, (July) 233-s
Huang, Y., Xiao, J., Feng, J., Tian, C. Y., Wang, J., and Wang, J.
Huang, Y., Lu, L., Huang, J., Shao, Y., Shi, Y., and Zhang, G.
Izadi, H., Bundy, J., Mendez, P. F.,and Gerlich, A. P. Characterization of High-Strength Weld Metal Containing MgBearing Inclusions, (Jan) 15-s
Jiang, F., Lu, Y. S., Zhang, Y. M., and Chen, S. J. Separation
Study, (July) 253-s
Kaluc, E., Aykan, T. S., and Taban, E. Effect of the Purging
Kanchanomai, C., Hasap, A., and Noraphaiphipaksa, N. The
Kilian, H., Ellermann, F., Khlein, W., Elrefaey, A., and Anders,
K. Friction Stir Welding of Extruded Powder Metallurgy

Kokabi, A. H., Pouranvari, M., and Ekrami, A. Diffusion
60-s
Khlein, W., Elrefaey, A., Anders, K., Kilian, H., and Ellermann,
F. Friction Stir Welding of Extruded Powder Metallurgy
Kurt, A., and Gursel, A. The Effect of Materials on
Radiation Exposure during the GTAW Process, (Nov) 439-s
Kvidahl, L., Liu, Y. K., and Zhang, Y. M. Skilled Human
Welder Intelligence Modeling and Control: Part 1 Modeling, (Feb) 46-s
Kvidahl, L., Liu, Y. K., and Zhang, Y. M. Skilled Human
Welder Intelligence Modeling and Control: Part II Analysis and Control Applications, (May) 162-s
Lai, X. M., Wang, P.-C., Zhao, Y. Y., and Zhang, Y. S. Effect of
Inserted Strips on Electrode Degradation in Resistance Spot
Welding, (Nov) 411-s
Lane, N., Lang, D., Sterjovski, Z., Bayley, C., and Donato, J.
Lang, D., Sterjovski, Z., Bayley, C., Donato, J., and Lane, N.
Lee, K. D., Ho, K. I., and Park, K. Y. Analysis of the Local
Lee, Y. S., Nordin, M., Babu, S. S., and Farson, D. F.
Li, L. Q., Chen, Y. B., Nasiri, A. M., Zhou, Y., and Tan, C. W.
of Fiber Laser Welded-Brazed Mg Alloy-Stainless Steel
Joint, (Oct) 399-s
Lim, Y. C., Sanderson, S., Mahoney, M., Yu, X., Qiao, D., Wang,
Y., Zhang, W., and Feng, Z. Characterization of Multilayered Multipass Friction Stir Weld on ASTM A572 G50 Steel,
(Dec) 443-s
Lippold, J. C., Fussner, E. W., and Hope, A. T. Development
Lippold, J. C., Yue, X., and Feng, X.-L. Effect of Welding Parameters on the Heat-Affected Zone Hydrogen-Induced
Liu, L., Gerlich, A., Zhou, Y., and Penner, P. Dissimilar
Liu, S., AlSabti, T., and AlShawaf, A. Flux-Assisted Gas
Tungsten Arc and Laser Welding of Titanium with CryoliteContaining Fluxes: Arc Spectroscopy and Corrosion Resistance Studies, (Oct) 379-s
Liu, S., and Sham, K. Flux-Coating Development for SMAW
Consumable Electrode of High-Nickel Alloys, (Aug) 271-s
Liu, S., and Alghamdi, T. Low-Transformation-Temperature
(LTT) Welding Consumables Development and Testing
Qualification, (July) 243-s
Liu, S., and Alghamdi, T. Low Transformation Temperature
Welding Consumables for Residual Stress Management: A
Numerical Model for the Prediction of Phase
Transformation-Induced Compressive Residual Stresses,
(Dec) 458-s
Liu, Y. K., Shao, Z., and Zhang, Y. M. Learning Human
Welder Movement in Pipe GTAW: A Virtualized Welding
Approach, (Oct) 388-s
Liu, Y. K., Zhang, Y. M., and Kvidahl, L. Skilled Human
Welder Intelligence Modeling and Control: Part 1 Modeling, (Feb) 46-s

Liu, Y. K., Zhang, Y. M., and Kvidahl, L. Skilled Human
Welder Intelligence Modeling and Control: Part II Analysis and Control Applications, (May) 162-s
Lu, L., Huang, J., Shao, Y., Shi, Y., Zhang, G., and Huang, Y.
Lu, Y. S., Zhang, Y. M., Chen, S. J., and Jiang, F. Separation
Study, (July) 253-s
Luo, A. A., Zhang, C. Y., and Chen, D. L. Joining 5754 Automotive Aluminum Alloy 2-mm-Thick Sheets Using
Ultrasonic Spot Welding, (April) 131-s
Mahoney, M., Yu, X., Qiao, D., Wang, Y., Zhang, W., Feng, Z.,
Lim, Y. C., and Sanderson, S. Characterization of Multilayered Multipass Friction Stir Weld on ASTM A572 G50
Steel, (Dec) 443-s
Mandal, N. R., Das, S., and Podder, D. Heat Source Modeling and Analysis of Submerged Arc Welding, (May) 183-s
Mendez, P. F., Gerlich, A. P., Izadi, H., and Bundy, J. Characterization of High-Strength Weld Metal Containing MgBearing Inclusions, (Jan) 15-s
Naidich, Yu. V., and Sydorenko, T. V. Wettability by Liquid
Metals, Metalization, and Brazing of Barium Titanate
Ceramics, (Jan) 6-s
Nasiri, A. M., Zhou, Y., Tan, C. W., Li, L. Q., and Chen, Y. B.
Joint, (Oct) 399-s
Natarajan, U., Veerarajan, T., Ananthan, S. S., and Senthil
Kumar, G. Quality Level Assessment for Imperfections
in GMAW, (March) 85-s
Neumann, R. S., Rooch, H., Drfel, I., sterle, W., Rethmeier,
M., Schempp, P., Cross, C. E., Pittner, A., and Oder, G.
Noraphaiphipaksa, N., Kanchanomai, C., and Hasap, A. The
Nordin, M., Babu, S. S., Farson, D. F., and Lee, Y. S.
Norrish, J., Stathers, P. A., Hellier, A. K., Harrison, R. P., and
Ripley, M. I. Hardness-Tensile Property Relationships for
HAZ in 6061-T651 Aluminum, (Aug) 301-s
Oder, G., Neumann, R. S., Rooch, H., Drfel, I., sterle, W.,
Rethmeier, M., Schempp, P., Cross, C. E., and Pittner, A.
sterle, W., Rethmeier, M., Schempp, P., Cross, C. E., Pittner,
A., Oder, G., Neumann, R. S., Rooch, H., and Drfel, I.
Park, K. Y., Lee, K. D., and Ho, K. I. Analysis of the Local
Penner, P., Liu, L., Gerlich, A., and Zhou, Y. Dissimilar
Pittner, A., Oder, G., Neumann, R. S., Rooch, H., Drfel, I.,
sterle, W., Rethmeier, M., Schempp, P., and Cross, C. E.

Pittner, A., Rethmeier, M., Schempp, P., and Cross, C. E. Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 2 Thermal Conditions and Model for Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition, (March) 69-s
Podder, D., Mandal, N. R., and Das, S. Heat Source Modeling and Analysis of Submerged Arc Welding, (May) 183-s
Pouranvari, M., Ekrami, A., and Kokabi, A. H. Diffusion
60-s
Qi, B., Yang, M., Yang, Z., and Cong, B. A Study on the Surface Depression of the Molten Pool with Pulsed Welding,
(Aug) 312-s
Qiao, D., Wang, Y., Zhang, W., Feng, Z., Lim, Y. C., Sanderson,
S., Mahoney, M., and Yu, X. Characterization of
Ramirez, J. E. Characterization of CSW-GMAW TitaniumRich Weld Overlays, (Sept) 338-s
Ramirez, J. E. Mechanical Behavior of Titanium-Clad Steel
Welded Joints, (Oct) 369-s
Rethmeier, M., Schempp, P., Cross, C. E., Pittner, A., Oder, G.,
Neumann, R. S., Rooch, H., Drfel, I., and sterle, W. Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 1 Grain
Rethmeier, M., Schempp, P., Cross, C. E., and Pittner, A. Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 2 Thermal Conditions and Model for Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition, (March) 69-s
Rhee, S., Yu, J., and Choi, D. Improvement of Weldability of
Ripley, M. I., Norrish, J., Stathers, P. A., Hellier, A. K., and
Harrison, R. P. Hardness-Tensile Property
Relationships for HAZ in 6061-T651 Aluminum, (Aug)
301-s
Rooch, H., Drfel, I., sterle, W., Rethmeier, M., Schempp, P.,
Cross, C. E., Pittner, A., Oder, G., and Neumann, R. S. Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 1 Grain
Sanderson, S., Mahoney, M., Yu, X., Qiao, D., Wang, Y.,
Zhang, W., Feng, Z., and Lim, Y. C. Characterization of
Schein, J., Hanson, T., Schnick, M., Fssel, U., Siewert, E.,
Wilhelm, G., and Hssler, M. Visualization of Gas
Flows in Welding Arcs by the Schlieren Measuring Technique, (Jan) 1-s
Schempp, P., Cross, C. E., Pittner, A., Oder, G., Neumann, R.
S., Rooch, H., Drfel, I., sterle, W., and Rethmeier, M.
Grain Morphology Dependent upon Alloy Composition
and Grain Refiner Content, (Feb) 53-s
Schempp, P., Cross, C. E., Pittner, A., and Rethmeier, M. Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part 2 Thermal Conditions and Model for Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition, (March) 69-s
Schnick, M., Fssel, U., Siewert, E., Wilhelm, G., Hssler, M.,
Schein, J., and Hanson, T. Visualization of Gas Flows
(Jan) 1-s
Senthil Kumar, G., Natarajan, U., Veerarajan, T., and Ananthan, S. S. Quality Level Assessment for Imperfections
in GMAW, (March) 85-s
Sham, K., and Liu, S. Flux-Coating Development for SMAW
Consumable Electrode of High-Nickel Alloys, (Aug) 271-s
Shao, Y., and Zhang, Y. M. Gas Metal Arc Welding Enhanced
by Using a Pulsed Laser, (June) 205-s
Shao, Y., Shi, Y., Zhang, G., Huang, Y., Lu, L., and Huang, J.
Shao, Z., Zhang, Y. M., and Liu, Y. K. Learning Human
Shi, Y., Zhang, G., Huang, Y., Lu, L., Huang, J., and Shao, Y.
Siewert, E., Wilhelm, G., Hssler, M., Schein, J., Hanson, T.,
Schnick, M., and Fssel, U. Visualization of Gas Flows in
Welding Arcs by the Schlieren Measuring Technique, (Jan)
1-s
Sigler, D. R., and Vanimisetti, S. K. Improving Fatigue Performance of Spot Welds in Advanced High-Strength Steels,
(May) 153-s
Stathers, P. A., Hellier, A. K., Harrison, R. P., Ripley, M. I., and
Norrish, J. Hardness-Tensile Property Relationships for
HAZ in 6061-T651 Aluminum, (Aug) 301-s
Sterjovski, Z., Bayley, C., Donato, J., Lane, N., and Lang, D.
Sun, H. T., Wang, P.-C., Chen, G. L., and Zhang, Y. S.
Sun, J. H., Chen, J. H., Wang, P.-C., and Cao, R. Weldability
Sydorenko, T. V., and Naidich, Yu. V. Wettability by Liquid
Metals, Metalization, and Brazing of Barium Titanate
Ceramics, (Jan) 6-s
Taban, E., Kaluc, E., and Aykan, T. S. Effect of the Purging
Tan, C. W., Li, L. Q., Chen, Y. B., Nasiri, A. M., and Zhou, Y.
Joint, (Oct) 399-s
Tao, W., Wang, C., Wang, J., Carlson, B. E., Yang, S., and Chen,
Z. Semi-Cutting-Assisted Laser Welding of Zinc-Coated
(Sept) 331-s
Tian, C. Y., Wang, J., Wang, J., Huang, Y., Xiao, J., and Feng, J.
Utkin, I. Y., Frantov, I. I., Velichko, A. A., and Bortsov, A. N.
Valentine, D. T., Bahrami, A., and Aidun, D. K. Interaction
of Gravity Forces in Spot GTA Weld Pool, (April) 139-s
Vanimisetti, S. K., and Sigler, D. R. Improving Fatigue Performance of Spot Welds in Advanced High-Strength Steels,
(May) 153-s
Veerarajan, T., Ananthan, S. S., Senthil Kumar, G., and Natarajan, U. Quality Level Assessment for Imperfections in
GMAW, (March) 85-s
Velichko, A. A., Bortsov, A. N., Utkin, I. Y., and Frantov, I. I.

Wang, C., Wang, J., Carlson, B. E., Yang, S., Chen, Z., and Tao,
W. Semi-Cutting-Assisted Laser Welding of Zinc-Coated
(Sept) 331-s
Wang, J., Huang, Y., Xiao, J., Feng, J., Tian, C. Y., and Wang, J.
Wang, J., Wang, J., Huang, Y., Xiao, J., Feng, J., and Tian, C. Y.
Wang, J., Carlson, B. E., Yang, S., Chen, Z., Tao, W., and Wang,
C. Semi-Cutting-Assisted Laser Welding of Zinc-Coated
(Sept) 331-s
Wang, P.-C., Cao, R., Sun, J. H., and Chen, J. H. Weldability
Wang, P.-C., Chen, G. L., Zhang, Y. S., and Sun, H. T.
Wang, P.-C., Zhao, Y. Y., Zhang, Y. S., and Lai, X. M. Effect of
Inserted Strips on Electrode Degradation in Resistance Spot
Welding, (Nov) 411-s
Wang, Y., Zhang, W., Feng, Z., Lim, Y. C., Sanderson, S.,
Mahoney, M., Yu, X., and Qiao, D. Characterization of
Wilhelm, G., Hssler, M., Schein, J., Hanson, T., Schnick, M.,
Fssel, U., and Siewert, E. Visualization of Gas Flows
(Jan) 1-s
Xiao, J., Zhang, G. J., Zhang, W. J., and Zhang, Y. M. Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced
Droplet Oscillation Part I: Experimental Study, (Aug)
282-s
Xiao, J., Zhang, G. J., Zhang, W. J., and Zhang, Y. M. Active
Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced Droplet Oscillation Part II: Modeling and Analysis, (Sept) 321-s
Xiao, J., Feng, J., Tian, C. Y., Wang, J., Wang, J., and Huang, Y.
Yang, M., Yang, Z., Cong, B., and Qi, B. A Study on the Surface Depression of the Molten Pool with Pulsed Welding,
(Aug) 312-s
Yang, S., Chen, Z., Tao, W., Wang, C., Wang, J., and Carlson, B.
E. Semi-Cutting-Assisted Laser Welding of Zinc-Coated
(Sept) 331-s
Yang, Y. P., Dull, R., Castner, H., Huang, T. D., and Fanguy, D.
Yang, Z., Cong, B., Qi, B., and Yang, M. A Study on the Surface Depression of the Molten Pool with Pulsed Welding,
(Aug) 312-s
Yu, J., Choi, D., and Rhee, S. Improvement of Weldability of
Yu, X., Qiao, D., Wang, Y., Zhang, W., Feng, Z., Lim, Y. C.,
Sanderson, S., and Mahoney, M. Characterization of
Yue, X., Feng, X.-L., and Lippold, J. C. Effect of Welding Parameters on the Heat-Affected Zone Hydrogen-Induced
Zhang, C. Y., Chen, D. L., and Luo, A. A. Joining 5754 Automotive Aluminum Alloy 2-mm-Thick Sheets Using Ultrasonic Spot Welding, (April) 131-s
Zhang, G., Huang, Y., Lu, L., Huang, J., Shao, Y., and Shi, Y.
Pulsed Double-Electrode GMAW-Brazing for Joining
of Aluminum to Steel, (June) 216-s
Zhang, G. J., Zhang, W. J., Zhang, Y. M., and Xiao, J. Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced
282-s
Zhang, G. J., Zhang, W. J., Zhang, Y. M., and Xiao, J. Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced
Droplet Oscillation Part II: Modeling and Analysis, (Sept)
321-s
Zhang, W., Feng, Z., Lim, Y. C., Sanderson, S., Mahoney, M.,
Yu, X., Qiao, D., and Wang, Y. Characterization of Multilayered Multipass Friction Stir Weld on ASTM A572
Zhang, W. J., Zhang, Y. M., Xiao, J., and Zhang, G. J. Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced
282-s
Zhang, W. J., Zhang, Y. M., Xiao, J., and Zhang, G. J. Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced
321-s
Zhang, Y. M., Xiao, J., Zhang, G. J., and Zhang, W. J. Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced
282-s
Zhang, Y. M., Xiao, J., Zhang, G. J., and Zhang, W. J. Active Metal Transfer Control by Utilizing Enhanced
321-s
Zhang, Y. M., and Shao, Y. Gas Metal Arc Welding
Enhanced by Using a Pulsed Laser, (June) 205-s
Zhang, Y. M., Liu, Y. K., and Shao, Z. Learning Human
Zhang, Y. M., Chen, S. J., Jiang, F., and Lu, Y. S.
Separation of Arc Plasma and Current in Electrical Arc
An Initial Study, (July) 253-s
Zhang, Y. M., Kvidahl, L., and Liu, Y. K. Skilled Human
Welder Intelligence Modeling and Control: Part 1
Modeling, (Feb) 46-s
Zhang, Y. M., Kvidahl, L., and Liu, Y. K. Skilled Human
Welder Intelligence Modeling and Control: Part II
Analysis and Control Applications, (May) 162-s
Zhang, Y. S., Lai, X. M., Wang, P.-C., and Zhao, Y. Y. Effect
of Inserted Strips on Electrode Degradation in Resistance
Spot Welding, (Nov) 411-s
Zhang, Y. S., Sun, H. T., Wang, P.-C., and Chen, G. L. Improvement of Process Robustness in Weld Bonding of
Zhao, Y. Y., Zhang, Y. S., Lai, X. M., and Wang, P.-C. Effect
of Inserted Strips on Electrode Degradation in Resistance
Spot Welding, (Nov) 411-s
Zhou, Y., Penner, P., Liu, L, and Gerlich, A. Dissimilar Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum to Magnesium with
Zhou, Y., Tan, C. W., Li, L. Q., Chen, Y. B., and Nasiri, A. M.
Microstructural Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of Fiber Laser Welded-Brazed Mg Alloy-Stainless
Steel Joint, (Oct) 399-s
Where the art of invention

meets the industry of America
February 24-26, 2015
George R. Brown
Convention Center
Houston, Texas
HOUSTEXONLINE.COM
For free registration,

use Promo Code
HT15AWS online
or bring this ad to
HOUSTEX.
HOUSTEX is your exclusive

manufacturing showroom in the
Southhundreds of world-class
exhibitors demonstrating the latest in
advanced manufacturing technologies
and solutions. Attend to explore
evaluateconnectsucceed!
HOUSTEX is produced by SME
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

continued from page 19
This test is performed on a computerized Leco RC612 analyzer that reveals the percentage of moisture in a variety of
inorganic materials, including welding flux. Also, the lab
has added contamination control certification services to
be provided by LTI Metrology, a division of the company.
Christian Brothers High School, Memphis, Tenn., has
honored distinguished alumnus Robert McEniry and his
wife Paula by dedicating a new building for ground-breaking science, technology, engineering, math, and medicine
programs in their name. McEniry is chairman of nexAir, a
large distributor of industrial gases and welding supplies.
TRUMPF, Inc., Farmington, Conn., recently presented its
2014 sales achievement awards. Mid Atlantic Machinery,
Inc., Harrisburg, Pa., received the Outstanding Representative Performance Award. FabMore Machinery, Carmel,
Ind., was the recipient of the Most Improved Performance
Award. The Sustained Excellence Award went to ICON Machine Tool, Inc., St. Louis, Mo.
$6450.3&13*/54
$6450.3&13*/54
$VTUPNSFQSJOUQSPEVDUTPGBSUJDMFTBOEGFBUVSFTGSPN
8FMEJOH+PVSOBMDSFBUFQPXFSGVMNBSLFUJOHUPPMTUIBUU
TFSWFBTJOTUBOUMZDSFEJCMFFOEPSTFNFOUT
5BLF"EWBOUBH
PGZPVS&EJUPSJB
&YQPTVSF
6TFSFQSJOUTUPNBYJNJ[F
ZPVSNBSLFUJOHJOJUJBUJWFTBOE
TUSFOHUIFOZPVSCSBOETWBMVF
Ready Welder Corp., Los Angeles, Calif., has been

awarded a GSA Schedule 51-V contract and is now certified
to supply its portable battery-powered gas metal arc welding machine along with supplies to the federal government
through its electronic ordering system, GSA Advantage!
Roanoke-Chowan Community College, Ahoskie, N.C.,

will be awarded $20,000 to develop and maintain a virtual
welding program. Its one of more than 100 schools and institutions to get grants from the Dominion Foundation.

The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio, has been

granted an exclusive worldwide license for the Helical Robotics, LLC, proprietary magnetic robotic technology.
Also, the company recently teamed up with the Girl
Scouts of Northeast Ohio for a science, technology, engineering, and math learning program to introduce many of
these girls to the welding and manufacturing fields.
COLE-TUVE, Inc., White Marsh, Md., has been appointed as the exclusive distributor for the U.S. and Canada by
Apollo s.r.l., an Italian manufacturer of high-speed CNC
tube and pipe punching along with drilling machines.

Marlin Steel, Baltimore, Md., has received a new medium-frequency welding machine. This automated device
from IDEAL Welding Systems is one of five in the world,
and the only one outside of Germany. It supports welding
in three dimensions and has rotating heads that can weld
along curved or irregular shapes.
Moraine Park Technical College, Fond du Lac, Wis.,
graduated two more classes from the Manufacturing Skills
Academy. Ten students finished welding training and nine
completed computer numeric control machinist training.
The boot camps combine a 72-h paid internship with
coursework. WJ
Call 866.879.9144 or
sales@fosterprinting.com
WELDING JOURNAL
2015 EDITORIAL CALENDAR
Editorial
Deadline
Editorial Profile
FABTECH Recap
Shielded Metal Arc Welding Update
Nov. 21, 2014 Dec. 1, 2014
February
Resistance Welding
Understanding Heat Treatment
Bonus: The American Welder
Dec. 19, 2014 Jan. 5, 2015
March
Brazing & Soldering Today

Fabricating Machinery for Cold
Environments
Jan. 23
Todays Welding Education and Training

Choosing the Right Filler Metals and
Electrodes
Feb. 20
Shipbuilding Developments
Mar. 20
Apr. 6
Pipe & Tube

Apr. 20
How Metal Composition Affects Weldability
Challenges Welding Engineers Face
May 4
Job Challenges Welders Face

Whats New in Robot Technology
May 22
June 1
Thermal Spray Update

Welding Guns and Torches
June 19
July 6
January
For those engaged in
welding-related activities,
Welding Journal provides
current news, features,
research reports, practical
data, and advertisements
from industry leaders around
the world. Also featured are
welding-related metalworking
activities such as design,
testing and inspection,
maintenance and repair,
and training.
April
May
June
Other Editorial
Features of
Welding Journal
News of the Industry

New Products
New Literature
Aluminum Q&A
Welding Workbook
Washington Watchword
Brazing Q&A
Peer-Reviewed
Welding Research
Book Reviews
Press Time News
Society News
Personnel
Editorial
Coming Events
International Update
Resistance Welding Q&A
Business Briefs
Advertising
Deadline
July
August
Feb. 2
Advertising
Bonus
Brazing Company
Profiles
Bonus Distribution
at IBSC
Mar. 2
Welding School
Profiles
Bonus Distribution
at GAWDA Spring
Conference
Readership
Survey
Thermal Spray
Company
Profiles
Employment Issues in the Welding Industry July 20

Allied Processes: Bending and Forming
Cutting Update
Aug. 3
2015 FABTECH Preview
Aug. 21
Sept. 7
Bonus
Distribution at
FABTECH
November
Safety & Health

Brazing & Soldering Today
Weld Inspection
Sept. 21
Oct. 5
Red Hots
for Safety
Welding in the Power Industry

Tips for Small Businesses
Oct. 23
Nov. 2
December
September
October
Welding Journal is the official monthly publication of the American Welding Society.
About 69,000 AWS members depend on it every month for news of products,
technology, and people in the welding/metalworking industry. This planner provides
advertising rates for Welding Journal, Inspection Trends, Welding Marketplace, the
Welding Journal en Espaol, the AWS website, and FABTECH advertising.
CLASSIFIEDS
CAREER OPPORTUNITIES
Place Your
Classified Ad Here!
Welding/Pipefitting
Instructors
Lee College of Baytown Texas needs
to hire a pipefitting and welding instructor part time, with possible full
time later on. Welding position
requires knowledge in SMAW,
GTAW, GMAW, Flux Core, and Oxyfuel processes. Requires testing and
competency testing for both
positions. Apply on line at lee.edu or
call Industrial Studies office @ 281425-6460
adelagrange@aws.org
Call the AWS sales team at:

(800) 443-9353
Rob Saltzstein, ext. 243
salty@aws.org
Sandra Jorgensen, ext. 254
sjorgensen@aws.org
Annette Delagrange, ext. 332
adelagrange@aws.org
JOE FULLER LLC
6 T F S F Q S J O U T U P
NB YJ NJ [F ZPVS
NBSLFUJOHJOJUJBUJWFT
BOETUSFOHUIFOZPVS
CSBOETWBMVF
We manufacture tank turning rolls

3-ton through 120-ton rolls
www.joefuller.com
email: joe@joefuller.com
Phone: (979) 277-8343
Fax: (281) 290-6184
Our products are made in the USA
SERVICES
Call 866.879.9144
or sales@fosterprinting.com
Generate new sales leads by showcasing

your full-color product photo with a product description, website, or other sales
literature. The Welding Marketplace
reaches 80,000 qualified buyers. Its great
exposure for just pennies per contact.
Closing date is
February 14, 2015
Call the AWS sales team at:

(800) 4439353
Sandra Jorgensen at ext. 254
sjorgensen@aws.org
Annette Delagrange, ext. 332
adelagrange@aws.org
FOR SALE OR RENT
$
$6450.3&13*/54
6450.3&13*/54
Put Your Products and

Services to Work in
April 2015
CLASSIFIEDS
FOR SALE OR RENT (CONTINUED)
MITROWSKI RENTS
Made in U.S.A.
Welding Positioners
1Ton thru 60Ton
Tank Turning Rolls
Hawkeye
H
awkeye B
Borescopes
orescopes
BIG
ON
80
keye
d, Flexible
Video
scopes
ock!
SAVINGS
USED EQUIPMENT
An Excellent Selection of Used
Welders, Welding Positioners,
Welding-Related Specialty
Equipment and Generators.
Used Equipment for Sale

www.mitrowskiwelding.com
gradientlens.com/welding
800.536.0790
View available equipment on our

website or call us toll-free.
reddarc.com
1-866-733-3272
sales@mitrowskiwelding.com
(800) 218-9620
(713) 943-8032
CERTIFICATION & TRAINING

Professionals Sought for
IIW Training Courses
The American Welding Society, the
Gesellschaft fr Schweisstechnik
International (German Welding
Institute, GSI), and the National
Center for Welding Education and
Training (Weld-Ed) are seeking
candidates interested in obtaining the
IIW International Welding
Engineer or International Welding
Technologist diploma. Courses are
being planned that will blend
Internet-delivered training with classroom training conducted in the United
States.
The 440-hour course will be offered
during the next two summers and
is designed to promote career
development for busy welding
professionals.
Please contact Jeff Hufsey at:
hufsey@aws.org for more details.
2014/
2015
CWI PREPARATORY
80+ HOUR COURSE
MORE HANDSON/PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Ellijay, GA Nov. 24Dec. 5, Feb. 1627

Pascagoula, MS Jan. 26Feb. 7, May 4-15
Houma, LA Jan. 1223
Alexandria, LA Mar. 213, June 1-12
Temple, TX Mar. 1627
Port Arthur, TX May 1829
Houston, TX June 1526
+ Includes additional self study for weekend
FOR DETAILS CALL OR EMAIL:

(800) 4892890
info@realeducational.com
Also offering: RT Film Interpretation, MT/PT/UT
Thickness, CWS, SCWI,
Welding Procedure Fundamentals,
And Advanced Inspection Courses
ADVERTISER INDEX
ALM Materials Handling Positioners
www.almmh.com
18
(800) 5445438
Hodgson Custom Rolling, Inc.

www.hcrsteel.com
1
(905) 3566025
ArcOne
www.arc1weldsafe.com
13
(800) 2234685
HOUSTEX 2015
www.houstexonline.com
109
(800) 7334763
I.M.P.A.C.T. (Ironworkers)
www.ironworkers.org/www.impactnet.org
27
(800) 5454921
1415
web contac only
Intercon Enterprises, Inc.

www.intercon1978.com
26
(800) 6656655
89
(800) 9629353
J. P. Nissen Co.
www.nissenmarkers.com
37
(215) 8862025
Arcos Industries, LLC

www.arcos.us
Astaras
www.e3tungsten.com
Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc.
www.atlaswelding.com
Inside Back Cover

(800) 2338460
AWS Education Services

www.aws.org/education/
82, 83, 95
(800) 4439353, ext. 455
K.I.W.O.T.O., Inc.
www.rodguard.net
38
(269) 9441552
AWS Foundation
www.aws.org/foundation/
3233
(800) 4439353, ext. 250
KMT Saw
www.kmtsaw.com
53
(269) 3218860
AWS Membership Services

www.aws.org/membership/
58, 93
(800) 4439353, ext. 480
Lincoln Electric Co.

www.lincolnelectric.com
Outside Back Cover

(216) 4818100
AWS Publications
www.aws.org/wj/
481s
(800) 4439353
Mathey Dearman
www.matheycnc.com
Camfil Air Pollution Control

www.camfilapc.com
2
(800) 4796801
Maverick Testing Laboratories

www.mavericktestinglabs.com
CDA Technical Institute

www.commercialdivingacademy.com
35
(888) 9742232
OTC Daihen, Inc.

www.daihenusa.com
23
(888) 6827626
Champion Welding Alloys

www.championwelding.com
78
(800) 3219353
RedDArc Welderentals
www.reddarc.com
24
(866) 7333272
CorMet
www.cormet.com
30
(800) 8482719
Revco Industries, Inc.

www.BlackStallion.com/www.BSXgear.com
Diamond Ground Products, Inc.

www.diamondground.com
45
(805) 4983837
Robovent Products Group, Inc.

www.robovent.com
55
(888) 7626836
Divers Academy International

www.diversacademy.edu
39
(800) 2383483
Schaefer Ventilation Equipment

www.schaeferfan.com
52
(800) 7793267
Dynabrade
www.dynabrade.com
53
(800) 8287333
Select Arc, Inc.

www.selectarc.com
Electron Beam Technologies, Inc.

www.electronbeam.com
36
(815) 9352211
Superflash Compressed Gas Equipment/IBEDA, Inc.

www.oxyfuelsafety.com
5
(888) 3277306
Triangle Engineering, Inc.

www.trieng.com
52
(781) 8781500
FABTECH Mexico
www.fabtechmexico.com
87
8004322832 ext. 267
51
(918) 4471288
53
(281) 8888210
31
(800) 5273826
Inside Front Cover

(937) 2955215
Fischer Technology
www.fischertechnology.com
38
(860) 6830781
TRUMPF
www.us.trumpf.com
Fronius USA, LLC

www.froniususa.com
19
(877) 3766487
TWI North America

www.twosoftware.com
25
(281)6802000
Greiner Industries
www.greinerindustries.com
9
(800) 7822110
Weld Aid
www.weldaid.com
17
(800) 9353243
Gullco International, Inc. U.S.A.

www.gullco.com
19
(440) 4398333
Weld Engineering
www.weldengineering.com
7
(508) 8422224
Harris Products Group

www.harrisproductsgroup.com
57
(800) 7334043
WEMCO/An Association of Welding Manufacturers

7677
www.aws.org/wemco
(800) 4439353, ext. 444
H&M Pipe Beveling Machine Co., Inc.

www.hmpipe.com
29
(918) 5829984
Hobart Inst. of Welding Technology

www.welding.org
36
(800) 3329448
11
web contact only
Visit the AWS Interactive Ad Index: www.aws.org/adindex
WELDING RESEARCH
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, DECEMBER 2014

Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Characterization of Multilayered Multipass Friction

Stir Weld on ASTM A572 G50 Steel
Multilayered multipass friction stir welding was made on A572 G50 steel, resulting in
improvement of mechanical properties and grain refinement in the stir zone
BY Y. C. LIM, S. SANDERSON, M. MAHONEY, X. YU, D. QIAO, Y. WANG, W. ZHANG, AND Z. FENG,
ABSTRACT
A multilayered multipass friction stir weld (MMFSW) on ASTM A572 Grade 50
steel was characterized to understand its potential application for thicksection struc
tures. The 15mmthick section was fabricated by stacking three steel plates and then
friction stir welding the plates together in a total of five passes. The unique butt/lap
joint configuration encountered in the multilayer weld was examined to understand
the effect of tool rotation direction on the joint quality, especially the formation of
hooking defect. Charpy Vnotch impact toughness tests showed generally higher im
pact toughness energy for the stir zone than the base metal with a ductile fracture
mode. The microhardness value was measured from 195 to 220 HV in the stir zone,
while the base metal showed an average value of 170 HV. The microstructure in the
stir zone and the adjacent heataffected zone was quantified using optical and scan
ning electron microscopy (SEM) including electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). The
increased toughness and hardness were correlated with the refined microstructure in
the stir zone, resulting from severe plastic deformation and subsequent dynamic re
crystallization during friction stir welding.
KEYWORDS
Friction Stir Welding Multilayer HighStrength LowAlloy Steel
Mechanical Properties Microstructure
Introduction
Due to its advantages over conventional fusion welding, including low
distortion and improved mechanical
properties (Ref. 1), friction stir welding (FSW), a solid-state joining
process, has experienced increasingly
broad applications in relatively soft
materials such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys (Refs. 25).
With the rapid development of new

tool materials, such as polycrystalline
cubic boron nitride (PCBN) and tungsten-based alloys (Ref. 6), FSW has
been recently applied to highstrength, high-temperature (or hard)
materials, such as steel and Ti alloys
(Refs. 1, 79). Thomas et al. (Ref. 8)
were among the first to investigate the
feasibility of FSW of both 12%
chromium alloy and low-carbon (0.1%
C) steels evaluating mechanical properties and weld nugget morphologies.

Similarly, Lienert and coworkers (Ref.
1) studied the joining of hot-rolled
AISI 1018 mild steel (0.18% C) using
FSW. Both researchers identified grain
refinement in the stir zone (SZ) and
improved weld mechanical properties
as compared to parent steels (i.e., base
metals). Furthermore, Fujii and colleagues (Ref. 9) researched the mechanical properties and
microstructural evolution of friction
stir welds in three carbon steels with
different carbon contents (i.e., ultralow carbon, 0.12% C, and 0.34% C
steels) using different welding conditions. Both alloy composition and
temperature resulting from different
welding conditions significantly affected the microstructure and mechanical properties in this study.
Khodri et al. (Ref. 10) also evaluated
microstructures and mechanical properties of a high-carbon steel (0.95% C)
with different FSW parameters. Different process parameters were shown to
affect the evolution of microstructures, resulting in different microhardness values and fracture modes.
Finally, Taendl et al. (Ref. 11) studied
FSW of a multilayered steel sheet composed of 15 alternating layers of
austenitic stainless steel and a martensitic stainless steel roll-bonded to a
total thickness of 1.2 mm. The softening of martensitic layers after welding
was alleviated by postweld heat treat-
Y. C. LIM, X. YU, D. QIAO, Y. WANG, W. ZHANG, and Z. FENG (fengz@ornl.gov) are with Materials Science & Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Oak Ridge, Tenn. S. SANDERSON is with MegaStir Technologies LLC, Provo, Utah. M. MAHONEY is a consultant, Midway, Utah.
DECEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 443-s
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 1 A Optical image showing mi

crostructures of the BM, consisting of
ferrite (white) and pearlite (dark); B
magnified scanning electron microscope
(SEM) image; C magnified SEM image
illustrating the pearlite structure, con
sisting of lamellar cementite, and ferrite
in the BM (F: ferrite, P: pearlite).
buildup approach to produce a thick

structure with a conventional pin
length.
In the present study, a friction stir
welded multilayer structure of A572
Grade 50 steel, previously fabricated
(Ref. 14), was characterized to understand its potential application for
thick-section structures. In particular,
the multilayered structure used corner
joints; a unique joint configuration
having both butt and lap features. Different tool rotation directions on the
butt and lap joint configuration were
applied and compared to understand
the effect on friction stir weld quality
especially the formation of hooking
defect at the joint interface. Also, MMFSW sample was characterized to understand the correlation between
microstructure and mechanical properties. Specifically, optical and electron
microscopy were used to understand
the microstructural evolution in both
the stir zone (SZ) and heat-affected
zone (HAZ). Different regions in the
friction stir welds were studied by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) for
microstructural analysis and by microindentation test for hardness distribution. Charpy V-notch impact tests
were performed in the SZ, HAZ, and
base metal (BM) as a function of temperature. Fracture surfaces from the
impact tests were evaluated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to assess the failure mode.
Experimental Methods
Fig. 2 Cross sections showing A Premachined A572 Grade 50 plate for MMFSW; B
buttjoint weld for the bottom layer; C insertion and FSW of the first weld plate
above the root weld; D insertion and FSW of the second weld plate above the first
weld plate and the final welded structure. Thickness of both top and middle layers was
4.6 mm and the bottom layer was 6.1 mm. The total thickness of the MMFSW structure
was 15.2 mm. The combination of tool rotation direction (counter clockwise) and tool
travel direction puts the advancing side of the weld at the lap interface.
ment to achieve 95% joint efficiency.

One shortcoming of FSW is the
thickness of the workpiece that can be
joined, especially for hard materials
such as steels. That is, the length of
the pin limits the thickness of material
that can be friction stir welded. Only a
few studies have reported FSW of steel
plates thicker than 10 mm (Refs. 8,
12). Although double-sided welding
has been attempted to make thick
welds (up to 12 mm thick), it is still
difficult to make thick structures with

a thickness greater than 15 mm. To
overcome this limitation, a new
method of FSW that can be applied to
a thick section is needed.
A thick-section steel structure, fabricated by a novel multilayer and multipass FSW (MM-FSW) method, was
demonstrated in the authors recent
work (Refs. 13, 14). Unlike the traditional multipass FSW (Ref. 15), the
MM-FSW is based on a layer-by-layer
444-s WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2014, VOL. 93
Friction Stir Welding Procedure

Detailed procedures for MM-FSW
can be found in the authors recent
publication (Ref. 14). To provide the
necessary background for the detailed
characterization results (e.g., hooking
defect and toughness) presented later,
salient features of MM-FSW are described in the following:
A three-layered structure, with five
multipass friction stir welds, was made
using flat plates of high-strength lowalloy (HSLA) steel (ASTM A572 Grade
50; chemistry: 0.23C-1.35Mn-0.04P0.05S-0.3Si-0.2Cu in wt-%) resulting
in a total thickness of 15.2 mm. As
shown in Fig. 1A, the base metal contains mainly equiaxed ferrite (F) and a
small amount of pearlite (P). The mag-
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 3 Convex scroll shoulder step spiral pin (CS4

tool design) MS80 tool. The shoulder diameter was
36.8 mm with pin height and radius of 5.94 and
3.79 mm, respectively.
nified SEM image in Fig. 1B also indicates distinct ferrite and pearlite microstructures in the BM. Figure 1C
shows the pearlite microstructure illustrating a lamellar structure consisting of alternate layers of ferrite and
cementite. The width of the cementite
lamellar layer was measured to be approximately 100 nm with a uniform
spacing of slightly more than 100 nm.
A brief description of each step for
MM-FSW is illustrated in Fig. 2. A
stepped assembly was machined to accommodate MM-FSW. To avoid overlapping with weld(s) in the previous
layer, friction stir welds in the subsequent layer were offset transversely by
a distance of 38.1 mm. For FSW, a tool
with a convex scroll shoulder step spiral pin (CS4 tool design) was used and
was fabricated from an MS80 grade of
PCBN, as shown in Fig. 3. MS80 grade
is a PCBN material made of Al-based
ceramic binder phases with 80 vol-%
of the ultrahard CBN phase. For FSW,
the plunge was performed at 1100
rev/min followed by a 6-s dwell at 250
rev/min. Following the dwell, the tool
rotation rate was maintained at 250
rev/min and the tool travel speed was
1.27 mms1. The FSW was performed
using load control with normal loads
ranging from 32 to 35.6 kN.
Metallography and Hardness

Testing
To reveal the microstructure at the
weld zone for each layer, multilayered
samples were cut and mounted for
metallography. Diamond solutions (6,
3, and 1 mm) were used for final pol-
Fig. 4 Notch location and dimensions of specimen for Charpy impact test.
ishing of the mounted samples. A 5%

Nital solution was used to etch the
samples. An optical microscope (Nikon
Epiphot) and field emission scanning
electron microscope (FE-SEM) (Hitachi S4800) were used to characterize
microstructures of the weld samples.
To characterize the original microstructure of the steel and the microstructural evolution in the SZ and
HAZ, a JEOL 6500 scanning electron
microscope equipped with an EBSD
camera was used. This microscope has
an accelerating voltage of 20 kV and a
spot diameter of 5 nm with a scanning
step size of 0.1 mm. EBSD maps were
analyzed using OIM analysis software.
Vickers hardness of each welded
sample was measured by a Leco microhardness tester (LM 100AT) with 200
mm spacing, 200 g of load, and 13 s of
dwell time. The measured hardness
data were transferred to Origin software (Origin Pro 8.1) for visualizing
hardness maps.
Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact
toughness tests were conducted per
ASTM E23 to study the fracture
toughness of the SZ, HAZ, and BM at
each of the three layers. Due to the different thicknesses at each layer, subsized samples were prepared for
impact testing with the following dimensions (10 4 55 mm) with the
notch tip oriented parallel to the welding (or longitudinal) direction, as
shown in Fig. 4. Charpy tests were performed at six different temperatures
for the SZ, i.e., 50, 30, 20, 10,
0, and 20C. Similarly, samples located in the HAZ and BM were tested
at 50, 0, and 20C. Triplicate samples were tested at each temperature
at the Laboratory Testing Industry

(LTI) facility. After Charpy impact
tests, the fracture surfaces were studied by SEM imaging.
Results and Discussion

Characterization of MMFSW
Structure
One characteristic of MM-FSW is a
combination of butt and lab joint configurations that involved inserting a
metal plate to stack up the next layer.
For this reason, it is referred to as a
butt/lap joint. Such a butt/lap joint
feature is likely to incur the interface
defect called hooking. This defect is
typically formed at a lap joint due to
upward bending or flow of the metal
horizontal interface when the tool
penetrates into the bottom layer (Refs.
1619). Figure 5 shows optical images
at a butt/lap joint interface with two
different process conditions. The first
condition was with the FSW tool positioned on the retreating side of the lap
interface, as shown in Fig. 5A. The latter condition positioned the FSW tool
on the advancing side of the lap interface, as depicted in Fig. 5C. In the first
condition, uplift of the interface occurred even though the weld nugget
was free from volumetric defects, as
shown in Fig. 5B. Conversely, Fig. 5D
displays the top layer weld where interfacing hooking was minimized.
That is, hooking was minimized by positioning the tool advancing side on
the lap interface side of the corner
joint. The difference in results is due
to the difference in material flow
DECEMBER 2014/ WELDING JOURNAL 445-s
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 5 A When the FSW tool was positioned with the retreating side located on the
lap interface; B optical image showing hooking defect at the lap interface (red color
arrows); C a corner weld with the FSW tool advancing side positioned on the lap inter
face; D optical image showing minimal (or no) uplift of the lap interface. (Note: Adv is
advancing side and Ret is retreating side.)
Fig. 6 Charpy Vnotch impact test results for each layer at different temperatures (Ref. 14).
caused by the different combinations

of tool rotation direction and tool
travel direction. The uplift of the lap
interface in a corner joint is undesirable because it can result in a decrease
in strength and potentially premature
failure (Ref. 20). An alternative way to
prevent a hooking defect is to use a
specially designed lap joint tool, which
has a feature at the tool tip that creates horizontal metal flow (Ref. 21),
as opposed to threads or the step spiral that create vertical flow. With hori-
zontal metal flow, there is expected to

be little uplift of the lap interface, thus
minimizing hooking. This different approach is beyond the scope of work for
the present paper.
Charpy Impact Toughness Test

Result
Impact toughness of the SZ, HAZ,
and BM of each layer was studied by
Charpy V-notch impact tests at different temperatures. The Charpy impact
test results for each zone, with different layers at different test temperatures, are summarized in Fig. 6. For
example, the average absorbed energy
of the BM at the bottom layer (butt
joint) was found to be 15.8 J at 50C.
The average impact toughness of the
SZ at the bottom layer at 50C was
87.7 J, i.e., almost 5.5 times higher
than the BM. Toughness of the SZ at
the bottom layer and the top layer was
much higher than the BM at all tested
temperatures. However, the absorbed
energy of the SZ at the middle layer
was higher for all temperatures up to
0C but was lower at 20C. One possible explanation is that the welds were
not fully consolidated at this location,
i.e., small voids and defects were observed in the SZ at the middle layer
potentially lowering the impact toughness. In addition, the SZ at the top,
middle, and bottom layers showed an
average of 79.1, 74.1, and 81% shear
fracture area. Next, the toughness of
the HAZ at the bottom layer was 61.9
J, again considerably higher than the
base metal at 50C. The toughness of
the HAZ at the top and middle layer
was higher than the BM up to 0C. The
HAZ at top, middle, and bottom layers
showed an average of 68.9, 68.9, and
78.3% shear fracture area. Konkol and
Mruczek studied the toughness of friction stir welded HSLA-65 steel using
subsized Charpy specimens (Ref. 22).
They also found the toughness for the
SZ and HAZ to be higher than the BM.
Similar observations were obtained for
aluminum alloys in previously reported studies (Refs. 23, 24). This substantial increase in the absorbed
impact energy can be related to the
fine grain size of the SZ and HAZ. The
grain size of each zone is discussed
below with the microstructure images.
For comparison, the BM showed an
average of 20, 72, and 80% shear fracture area at 50, 0, and 20C test
temperatures, respectively.
The SEM images, which illustrate
fracture surfaces from the impact
toughness tests for each zone at the
bottom layer, are shown in Fig. 7. For
the SZ, the failure mode at all temperatures was found to be ductile fracture
with the presence of dimples at the
fracture surface Fig. 7AC. Similarly, the fracture mode was ductile for
the HAZ with dimples at the fracture
surface at all temperatures. Finally, the
WELDING RESEARCH
BM shows two different failure modes
as a function of temperature. At 20C
test temperatures, the fracture mode
was found to be ductile with the presence of dimples at the fracture surface
Fig 7G. Mostly ductile with small
brittle fracture surface was found at
0C test temperature Fig 7H. A brittle failure mode was found at 50C
where a cleavage fracture surface was
identified, as shown in Fig. 7I.
Microhardness and
Metallography
Microhardness of each weld at the
bottom, middle, and top layer was
measured to correlate with the
strength of each weld zone. Figure 8A
illustrates the hardness distribution
for the friction stir weld region at the
bottom layer, where the x direction is
transverse to the weld direction. The
hardness profiles along the two
dashed lines in Fig. 8A are further
plotted in Fig. 8B. The average measured hardness of the BM was approximately 170 HV. For the HAZ, the
measured Vickers hardness value
ranged from 175 to 185 HV. In the SZ,
the highest hardness ranges from 195
to 220 HV. Similar hardness values
were measured at the middle and top
layer. Based on the hardness values in
the SZ, it is expected that a bainitic
microstructure formed upon cooling.
Variations in hardness results are
likely due to differences in the grain
size and microstructures sampled by
indentation grids. The hardness variation is fairly small between the different weld zones in MM-FSW when
compared to a multipass flux cored arc
welded pipe steel (X-80) where hardness variations up to 200 HV are common (Ref. 25). Moon et al. (Ref. 26)
also used multipass gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) on HSLA-100 steel
with various heat inputs ranging from
1200 to 4300 kJm1. They found the
hardness of the weldment varied from
199 to 400 HV and was greatly dependent on heat input and cooling
rate.
One of the advantages of FSW is
achieving high strength in the weld
through grain refinement in the stir
zone. However, due to the complexity
of refined ferrite grains in the stir region, it is difficult to quantify grain
Fig. 7 SEM images showing fracture surfaces after Charpy Vnotch impact toughness
testing (SZ, HAZ, and BM samples at the bottom layer) at different temperatures.
Fig. 8 A Mapped Vickers microhardness values for the bottom layer (butt joint)
weld area; B crosssectional hardness plots at the height of 4 and 5 mm locations
[dashed line in A). (Adv: advancing side, Ret: retreating side) (Ref. 14).
size using optical microscopy and secondary electron microscopy. The current study applied EBSD to study the
microstructures and grains of the friction stir welds. EBSD maps for the SZ,
HAZ and unaffected BM are shown in
Fig. 8. The base metal orientation map
(Fig. 9C) shows large polygonal ferrite

with small islands of pearlite similar to
that shown in Fig. 1. Significant grain
refinement was found in the SZ (Fig.
9A), as compared with the BM Fig.
9C. Grain refinement has been observed previously in the SZ due to dyDECEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 447-s
WELDING RESEARCH
A
B
Fig. 10 Grain size distribution of all three regions (SZ, HAZ, and BM).

T
=K
4
Tm
V 10
2
(1)
where T is the temperature
during welding (C), Tm is
C
the liquidus temperature of
the alloy (C), is the tool
rotational rate, V is the
weld travel speed, (range
of 0.040.06) and K (range
of 0.650.75) are two empirical material constants,
respectively. The liquidus
of A572 Grade 50 steel is
about 1504C (2740F) and
Fig. 9 EBSD maps of different weld zones. A Stir
the transverse tool speed
zone (some bainite plates were pointed out); B
heataffected zone [Note: finegrained heataffected
used in the experiment was
zone (FGHAZ) and intercritical heataffected zone
1.27 103 ms1. The tool
(ICHAZ); C unaffected base metal.
rotation speed was 250
rev/min (26.18 radians1).
Based on different combinamic recrystallization and severe
nations of and K values, the estiplastic deformation during FSW (Ref.
mated peak temperature ranged from
1). In the SZ, the grains are not
1147 to 1433C, which is lower than
equiaxed. Wedge-shaped plate feathe liquidus temperature of steel.
tures, which are an indication of a
When and K are 0.04 and 0.65, rebainitic microstructure, were also obspectively, the calculated peak temperserved (Ref. 27). The hardness measature is 1133C. This estimated peak
ured in the SZ ranged from 195 to 220
temperature is in reasonable agreeHVN, showing agreement with the miment with the peak temperature
crostructure observations.
(ranged from 1000 to 1200C) reDuring FSW, heat generation is inported by previous researchers (Refs.
fluenced by the tool rotation rate and
1, 8). Similarly, Ghosh et al. (Refs. 29,
weld travel speed as well as material
30) used Equation 1 to estimate the
properties. Due to the difficulty of
peak temperature (calculated ranged
temperature measurements in the SZ,
from 1030 to 1090C) at the weld
the empirical expression developed by
nugget for friction stir welded M190
Arbegast (Ref. 28) is used to estimate
steel. This estimated peak temperature
the peak temperature in the weld
in the SZ was well above the A3 temnugget.
perature of the steel, 824C, which was
calculated using Thermo-Calc and
TCFE database (Ref. 31). Therefore,

for the stir zone, it is expected that the
base metal mixture of ferrite and
pearlite transforms to single-phase
austenite during the heating cycle.
Furthermore, the estimated peak temperature in the SZ supports the postulated peak temperature in the
intercritical temperature range experienced by the HAZ.
The highest temperature, which is
estimated about 1100C based on the
above calculation, can be used to explain the two distinct regions observed in the HAZ, i.e., the
intercritical HAZ (ICHAZ) and the
fine-grained HAZ (FGHAZ) shown in
Fig. 9B.
In the ICHAZ, there coexists fine
and coarse ferrite grains. The peak
temperature experienced by this region during welding is between A1 and
A3. As a result, the ferrite to austenite
transformation during heating is incomplete due to the low peak temperature, producing fragmented and thus
smaller austenite grains mixed with
original ferrite grains. Upon cooling,
the austenite transforms back into ferrite, resulting in a microstructure in
this region that is composed of newly
formed fine ferrite surrounded by untransformed ferrite (Ref. 32).
On the other hand, the FGHAZ experiences a local peak temperature
that is above A3, thus producing a full
austenite microstructure albeit with
smaller grain size than the parent ferrite upon heating (Ref. 27). However,
as the highest temperature in the entire weld is capped at 1100C, the
austenite grain growth was limited in
the FGHAZ. The small austenite trans-
WELDING RESEARCH
forms back into ferrite during cooling,
resulting in a final microstructure that
is composed of fine ferrite grains. In
addition, the kernel average misorientation (KAM), a parameter that is used
to evaluate the strain or the stored energy for a given point (Refs. 3335),
shows a very small value and no significant preferred orientation for regions
in Fig. 9B. Therefore, it is believed that
this region is not significantly influenced by the mechanical deformation
common to the thermal mechanically
affected zone.
Figure 10 shows the grain size distribution in the SZ, HAZ (both FGHAZ
and ICHAZ) and BM from EBSD data
for the bottom layer. The average grain
sizes of the FGHAZ and ICHAZ are
slightly lower than that of SZ, both of
which are less than 10 m. As a result,
the peak temperature of the FGHAZ
observed in the current EBSD study is
expected to be lower than 1000C (Ref.
36). Conversely, the BM has the
largest grain size, i.e., ~30 m. Similar
grain sizes and microstructures were
found in the SZ, HAZ, and BM for the
middle and top layers. For brevity,
those microstructures are not repeated in the current paper.
Finally, the grain size was different
in the SZ, HAZ, and BM with the
smallest grain size found in the HAZ.
If average grain diameters (9 m for
the HAZ, 10 m for the SZ and 28 m
for the BM) were plugged into the following Hall-Petch relationship,
g = KyD1/2
(2)
where Ky is 0.363 MPa m1/2 (Ref. 36),

g is the strength contribution from
grain boundaries, and D is average
grain diameter. The estimated
strength contribution from grain
boundaries for the SZ, HAZ, and BM
are 114.8, 121, and 68.6 MPa, respectively. Since bainite, which has more
dislocations than ferrite, is also observed in the SZ, additional strength
in the SZ is expected. Nevertheless,
the grain boundary strengthening has
a significant effect in the current friction stir weld. Additionally, a refinement in grain size can increase the
impact toughness.
By taking advantage of the MMFSW method, a potential application
for the present work could be fabrication of multilayer high-pressure stor-
age vessels. Multilayer pressure vessels

or storages are often preferred over
heavy thick single-wall structures due
to lower cost and manufacturing efficiency (Refs. 37, 38).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the use of MM-FSW
enables fabrication of thick structures
in high-strength low-alloy steel. This
technique can be potentially used for
multilayer high-pressure storage/
vessel applications. Strengths in the
SZ and HAZ were higher than the BM
based on microhardness measurements. Also, CVN results indicate that
impact toughness in the SZ and HAZ
are generally higher than BM. Both the
SZ and HAZ have fine-grained microstructures, although the mechanism for it is expected to be different
for the SZ (i.e., dynamic recrystallization) vs. the HAZ (i.e., intercritical
temperature). Taken together, with all
the mechanical tests and hardness
measurements, the present work indicates that the overall mechanical
strength of the MM-FSW steel samples were comparable or superior to
the base metal. For future work, hooking that occurs due to the butt/lap
joint configuration should be avoided
by either using a special tool to produce horizontal metal flow or by using
an alternate joint design.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of the U.S.
Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
Fuel Cell Technologies Office and Advanced Manufacturing Office. Oak
Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) is
managed by UT-Battelle, LLC, for the
U.S. Department of Energy under Contract DE-AC05-00OR22725.
References
1. Lienert, T. J., Stellwag, W. L., Grimmett, B. B. Jr., and Warke, R.W. 2003. Friction stir welding studies on mild steel
Process results, microstructures, and mechanical properties are reported. Welding
Journal 82(1): 1-s to 9-s.
2. Dawes, C. J., and Thomas, W. M.

1996. Friction stir process welds aluminum alloys. Welding Journal 75(3): 41-s
to 45-s.
3. Yu, Z. Z., Zhang, W., Choo, H., and
Feng, Z. 2012. Transient heat and material
flow modeling of friction stir processing of
magnesium alloy using threaded tool. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A:
Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science
43A (2): 724 to 737.
4. Woo, W., Balogh, L., Ungar, T., Choo,
H., and Feng, Z. 2008. Grain structure and
dislocation density measurements in a friction-stir welded aluminum alloy using Xray peak profile analysis. Materials Science
and Engineering A- Structural Materials
Properties Microstructures and Processing
498(12): 308 to 313.
5. Park, H. S., Kimura, T., Murakami, T.,
Nagano, Y., Nakata, K., and Ushio, M.
2004. Microstructures and mechanical
properties of friction stir welds of 60% Cu40% Zn copper alloy. Materials Science and
Engineering A- Structural Materials Properties Microstructures and Processing
371 (12): 160 to 169.
6. Rai, R., De, A., Bhadeshia, H. K. D.
H., and DebRoy, T. 2011. Review: friction
stir welding tools. Science and Technology of
Welding and Joining 16(4): 325 to 342.
7. Park, S. H. C., Sato, Y. S., Kokawa, H.,
Okamoto, K., Hirano, S., and Inagaki, M.
2003. Rapid formation of the sigma phase
in 304 stainless steel during friction stir
welding. Scripta Materialia 49(12): 1175 to
1180.
8. Thomas, W. M., Threadgill, P. L., and
Nicholas, E. D. 1999. Feasibility of friction
stir welding steel. Science and Technology of
Welding and Joining 4(6): 365 to 372.
9. Fujii, J., Cui, L., Tsuji, N., Maeda, M.,
Nakata, K., and Nogi, K. 2006. Friction stir
welding of carbon steels. Materials Science
and Engineering A- Structural Materials
Properties Microstructures and Processing
429(1-2): 50 to 57.
10. Khodir, S. A., Morisada, Y., Ueji, R.,
and Fujii, H. 2012. Microstructures and
mechanical properties evolution during
friction stir welding of SK4 high carbon
steel alloy. Materials Science and Engineering A- Structural Materials Properties Microstructures and Processing. 558: 572 to
578.
11. Taendl, J., Nambu, S., Inoue, J., Enzinger, N., and Koseki, T. 2012. Friction
stir welding of multilayered steel. Science
and Technology of Welding and Joining.17(3):
244 to 253.
12. Matsushita, M., Kitani, Y., Ikeda, R.,
Endo, S., and Fujii, H. 2012. Microstructure and toughness of friction stir weld of
thick structural steel. ISIJ International.
52(7): 1335 to 1341.
13. Feng, Z., David, S. A., and Frederick, D. A. 2010. Multiple pass and multiple
WELDING RESEARCH
layer friction stir welding and material enhancement processes. U.S. patent
7762447.
14. Lim, Y. C., Sanderson, S., Mahoney,
M., Qiao, D., Wang, Y., Zhang, W., and
Feng, Z. 2013. Mechanical Properties and
Microstructural Characterization of a Multilayered Multipass Friction Stir Weld in Steel.
Friction Stir Welding and Processing VII. eds
R. Mishra, M. W. Mahoney, Y. Sato, Y. Hovanski, and R. Verma. pp. 8190. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, N.J.
15. Brown, R., Tang, W., and Reynolds,
A. P. 2009. Multi-pass friction stir welding
in alloy 7050-T7451: Effects on weld response variables and on weld properties.
Materials Science and Engineering A- Structural Materials Properties Microstructures
and Processing 513-14: 115 to 121.
16.Badarinarayan, H., Yang, Q., and Zhu,
S. 2009. Effect of tool geometry on static
strength of friction stir spot-welded aluminum alloy. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 49(2): 142 to 148.
17. Ericsson, M., Jin, L. Z., and Sandstrom, R. 2007. Fatigue properties of friction stir overlap welds. International
Journal of Fatigue 29(1): 57 to 68.
18. Badarinarayan, H., Shi, Y., Li, X.,
and Okamoto, K. 2009. Effect of tool
geometry on hook formation and static
strength of friction stir spot welded aluminum 5754-O sheets. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 49(11):
814 to 823.
19. Yin, Y. H., Sun, N., North, T. H., and
Hu, S. S. 2010. Influence of tool design on
mechanical properties of AZ31 friction stir
spot welds. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 15(1): 81 to 86.
20. Yadava, M. K., Mishra, R. S., Chen,
Y. L., Carlson, B., and Grant, G. J. 2010.
Study of friction stir joining of thin aluminum sheets in lap joint configuration.
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining. 15(1): 70 to 75.
21. Fuller, C. B., Mahoney, M. W., and
Bingel, W. H. 2005. Friction Stir Weld Tool
and Method. U.S Patent 20050121497 A1.
22. Konkol, P. J., and Mruczek, M. F.

2007. Comparison of friction stir weldments
and submerged arc weldments in HSLA-65
steel. Welding Journal 86(7): 187-s to 195-s.
23. Arora, K. S., Pandey, S., Schaper, M.,
and Kumar, R. 2010. Microstructure Evolution during friction stir welding of aluminum alloy AA2219. Journal of Materials
Science & Technology 26 (8): 747 to 753.
24. Mochizuki, M., Inuzuka, M.,
Nishida, H., Nakata, K., and Toyoda, M.
2006. Fracture toughness of structural aluminum alloy thick plate joints by friction
stir welding. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 11(3): 366 to 370.
25. Song, H. Y., Zhang, W., Babu, S. S.,
and Feng, Z. 2013. Toward understanding
of mechanical property degradation of
steel welds in high-pressure hydrogen
transmission pipeline Role of microstructure. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Trends in Welding
Research. Eds. DebRoy, T., S. A. David, J. N.
Koseki, and H. K. Bhadeshia. pp. 461468.
ASM International.
26. Moon, D. W., Fonda, R. W., Spanos,
G. 2000. Microhardness variations in
HSLA-100 welds fabricated with new ultralow-carbon weld consumables. Welding
Journal 79(10): 278-s to 285-s.
27. Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H. 2001. Bainite
in Steels: Transformations, Microstructures
and Properties, IOM Communication Ltd.,
London, pp.19.
28. Arbegast, W. J., in: Z. Jin, A. Beaudoin, T. A. Bieler, B. Radhakrishiman
(Eds.), Hot Deformation of Aluminum Alloys
III, TMS, San Diego, Calif., 2003, pp.
313327.
29. Ghosh, M., Kumar, K., and Mishra,
R. S. 2010. Analysis of microstructural
evolution during friction stir welding of ultrahigh-strength steel. Scripta Materialia
63(8): 851 to 854.
30. Ghosh, M., Kumar, K., and Mishra,
R. S. 2011. Friction stir lap welded advanced high strength steels: Microstructure and mechanical properties. Materials
Science and Engineering A- Structural Mate-
rials Properties Microstructures and Processing 528(28): 8111 to 8119.

31. www.thermocalc .com/start/
32. Zhang, W., Elmer, J. W., and
DebRoy, T. 2002. Modeling and real time
mapping of phases during GTA welding of
1005 Steel. Materials Science and Engineering A Structural Materials Properties Microstructures and Processing. 333(1-2): 320
to 335.
33.Bingert, J. F., Livescu, V., Cerreta,
and E. K., in: A. J. Schwartz, M. Kumar, B.
L. Adams (Eds.), Electron Backscatter Diffraction in Materials Science, 2nd Ed.,
Springer, New York, N.Y., 2009, pp.
301315.
34. Khan, A. S., Baig, M., Choi, S. H.,
Yang, H. S., and Sun, X. 2012. Quasi-static
and dynamic responses of advanced high
strength steels: Experiments and modeling. International Journal of Plasticity,
3031: 1 to 17.
35. Badji, R., Chauveau, T., and Bacroix,
B. 2013. Texture, misorientation and mechanical anisotropy in a deformed dual
phase stainless steel weld joint. Materials
Science and Engineering A- Structural Materials Properties Microstructures and Processing 515: 94 to 103.
36. Yu, X., Caron, J. L., Babu, S. S., Lippold, J. C., Isheim, D., and Seidman, D. N.
2010. Characterization of microstructural
strengthening in the heat-affected zone of
a blast-resistant naval steel. Acta Materialia
58 (17): 5596 to 5609.
37. Zhen, L., Jiang, N., and Liu, S. J.
2011. Experimental study of integrated
multilayer clamping high pressure vessel.
Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology-Transactions of the ASME 133(6): 061206-1 to
061206-6.
38. Zhang, W., Ren, F., Feng, Z., Wang,
J.-A., Jawad, M., Kelly, M., and Vossoughi,
F. 2012. Design analysis of steel concrete
composite vessel for stationary storage of
high-pressure hydrogen. International Hydrogen Conference: Hydrogen-Materials Interactions. Eds. B. P. Somerday and P.
Sofronis, pp. 479488. ASME.
Call for Presentations

National Robotic Arc Welding Conference
The National Robotic Arc Welding Conference will take
place June 13, 2015, in Milwaukee, Wis. This years theme
is Future Tools Future Workforce in recognition of the
fact that new technology will not work well without trained
and motivated people.
We are looking for speakers who have addressed robotic
and automatic arc welding-related challenges and succeeded
through innovation in part design, tooling, process optimization, workforce training, or other means. Submissions
are welcomed from end users, equipment suppliers, or a
combination of both. If you are interested, please submit
your presentation title, short paragraph discussing what it

is about, and who will give the 30-min talk to j.noruk@servorobot.com. Deadline for consideration is December 31,
2014.
This premier conference traces its roots to 1983 when
John Hinrichs, who passed away in 2012, started it with the
purpose of helping the fledgling robotic welding industry
grow by sharing new technology and ideas. Proceeds from
the conference will go to the John Hinrichs Memorial Endowment, which is currently funded in an amount to provide more than $10,000 annually in scholarships.
WELDING RESEARCH
Friction Stir Welding of Extruded Powder

Metallurgy Al Alloy
Friction stir welding was used successfully to join an extruded powder metallurgy Al alloy
without discontinuities, voids, or defects
BY A. ELREFAEY, K. ANDERS, H. KILIAN, F. ELLERMANN, AND W. KHLEIN
ABSTRACT
Friction stir welding (FSW) of an extruded powder metallurgy (PM)
aluminum alloy was performed to produce a rotary engine housing. The mi
crostructure, phase constituents, and mechanical properties of FSW joints
were studied by metallography, tensile, and fatigue tests. The results indicated
the process achieved sound joints without voids or discontinuities. The mi
crostructure of welded area (stir zone) was finer and more homogeneous than
the base metal, while the average yield strength value was 2.3% higher than
the base metal. Meanwhile, the average tensile strength was 95% that of the
base metal. Furthermore, statistical evaluation at 10, 50, and 90% probabilities
of survival of the fatigue test stresses were calculated as 81.94, 81.01, and
80.09 MPa, respectively, at room temperature. Meanwhile, the fatigue limit
decreased approximately 25% due to raising the temperature to 240C.
KEYWORDS
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) Aluminum Microstructure Tension
Fatigue Powder Metallurgy (PM)
Introduction
As the automotive industry addresses environmental concerns, the
problems of fuel consumption and
weight reduction have come to the
fore. Reducing the weight of automobiles is one of the primary means by
which their fuel consumption is lowered. In addition to saving fuel, weight
reduction is a very effective way to improve the cars driving and drifting
abilities. It improves just about everything a car has to offer: acceleration,
braking, handling, and CO2 emission.
To comply with all of the previously

mentioned changes, automotive manufacturers worldwide are exploring alternative lightweight materials such as
aluminum.
Aluminum alloys are not only lightweight materials, but they also have
excellent corrosion resistance, high
workability, good thermal conductivity, and highly recyclable properties.
For these reasons, aluminum is expected to replace many parts in the automotive industry. The processing and
manufacturing process plays a vital
role in the final properties of alu-
minum and aluminum alloys. For example, liquid phase processes such as
conventional casting are cost effective
but cannot be used to make components for critical applications since low
mechanical property levels can be obtained as a result of coarser microstructural features commonly associated with conventionally cast materials. Alloys produced by atomization
followed by powder metallurgy (PM)
consolidation and extrusion to the final shape overcome the formation of
coarse grains, coarse constituents, and
macrosegregation because of the high
cooling rates. Therefore, these PM alloys are characterized by very fine, homogeneous, and segregation-free microstructures combined with a fine
distribution of intermetallic particles.
Powder metallurgy alloys are now a
potential alloy for the Wankel rotary
engine housing and the single rotary
piston to reduce weight of these components compared with the heavier
conventional quench and tempered
steel. Reducing the weight of these
components would, in turn, reduce the
amount of necessary counterweight,
and therefore reduce acceleration losses (Refs. 1, 2).
The PM alloys help to realize superior properties but have limitations related to the dimensions of the component and, in addition, involve high
costs (Refs. 37). As the component
size increases, the extrusion process
becomes difficult to perform, the power needed is proportionally increased,
A. ELREFAEY (ahmed.elrefaei@ait.ac.at), K. ANDERS, and H. KILIAN are with Mobility Dept., LKR Leichtmetallkompetenzzentrum, Ranshofen GmbH (Light
Metals Technologies Ranshofen), Austrian Institute of Technology, Ranshofen, Austria. F. ELLERMANN and W. KHLEIN are with Hammerer Aluminium Indus
tries Extrusion GmbH, Ranshofen, Austria.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 Samples of extruded sections and the joint configuration before welding.
Fig. 2 The workpiece clamped in the

jig before FSW.
and the cost becomes unaffordable.

Therefore, a need for a joining process
to assemble different extruded parts is
necessary.
Friction stir welding has the potential to join PM Al alloys since it has been
systematically developed for joining aluminum alloys. It is proving to be far
more forgiving to use than arc welding
techniques and can consistently produce long welds, especially between extrusions of high quality, low cost, and
with very low distortion since the weld
is made in the solid phase (Refs. 8, 9).
Additionally, PM processed aluminum
alloys suffer from three major microstructural problems that limit their
full potential: prior-particle boundaries
with an aluminum oxide film, microstructural inhomogeneity, and remnant porosity. These microstructural
features particularly hamper the ductility in very high-strength aluminum alloys and impede the welding process as
well. Therefore, in addition to the need
for a welding process to join the materi-
al, a microstructure homogenization

process is also required. The unique advantages of FSW, in respect to welding
and microstructure homogenization,
can easily overcome the limitations of
welded PM aluminum alloys and enhances their mechanical properties
(Refs. 8, 1013).
In recent years, several studies have
been concentrated on friction stir processing of aluminum alloys, PM alloys,
and composites to homogenize and refine the microstructure (Refs. 1316).
However, as far as we know, little or
no studies have been reported on PM
aluminum alloys after final forming by
the extrusion process. In this study, a
eutectic PM Al-Si alloy after extrusion
has been welded by the FSW process.
Therefore, this research has been
aimed at investigating the microstructural features, phase analysis, and mechanical properties of the joints.
Experimental Work
Material
The starting material was an airatomized powder aluminum alloy sieved
to <150 m (Mepura Metallpulvergesellschaft m.b.H, Austria) with a density
of 2.775 g/cm3. Consolidation was done
by cold compaction using an external
pressure of 200 MPa. The bulk material,
having 300 mm diameter and 750 mm
length, was hot extruded into two half
sections with a reduction ratio of 9:1 after holding for 12 h at 450C. None of
the extruded bars showed blistering or
cracking on the surface. The chemical
analysis of the alloy after extrusion is
given in Table 1. Two 20-mm-thick extruded sections were assembled by tack

welding before FSW to produce the rotary engine housing. Figure 1 shows a
sample of the extruded sections and the
configuration of the joint before
welding.
FSW Process
The workpiece was placed on a
backup plate and the whole geometry
was rigidly clamped with a jig to prevent lateral movements during FSW.
Figure 2 shows the workpiece clamped
in the jig before the FSW process.
A welding tool having a 16-mm pin
diameter made from tool steel was
used. The tool axis was tilted by 2 deg
with respect to the vertical axis of the
plate surface. The applied rotation
speed was 500 rev/min, with a traveling speed of 200 mm/min, and a compressive force of 35 kN. The FSW tool,
fixed in the holder, was slowly pushed
into the PM Al plate and then forcibly
traversed along the joint until the end
of the weld was reached. The welding
tool was then retracted while the tool
continued to turn.
Microstructure and Mechanical

Testing
The cross sections of the joints
were prepared for metallographic
analysis with standard grinding and
polishing techniques. Selected samples
were subsequently etched for 30 s with
a solution comprised of 50% water,
15% HCl, 25% HNO3, and 10% HF.
The microstructure of the joints was
WELDING RESEARCH
examined with a light optical microscope and grain size measurements
were performed with digital image
analysis software. A scanning electron
microscope (SEM), equipped with an
energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), was
used for chemical analysis.
For the tensile tests, 140-mm-long
flat samples and 115-mm-long round
samples were prepared in accordance
with DIN 50125 at room temperature
(Ref. 17). The weld was centered in the
gauge section and the loading axis,
normal to the welding direction, was
applied. Sixteen round and flat samples were used to calculate the average
yield strength, tensile strength, and
ductility of the joints. Tensile strength
was determined by dividing the maximum load required during testing by
the cross-sectional area. It is worth
noting that transverse weld specimens
normally provide a measure of joint efficiency in terms of strength, but do
not provide a good ductility measurement of the weld.
Since engineered parts are frequently
subjected to stress by dynamic forces,
especially alternating or cyclic loads,
which act periodically in the same manner on the structural part, it is necessary to evaluate the behavior of a material under such loads by fatigue tests up
to very high load-cycle rates. The results
are presented in what are known as
Whler diagrams or an S-N curve obtained by plotting the applied stress (S)
against the number of cycles to failure
(N). The fatigue strength or endurance
limit is defined as the stress level a sample can withstand for at least 107 cycles.
The high cycle fatigue specimens
were tested using a sinusoidal wave
form in accordance with DIN 50100
(Ref. 18) in air at room temperature and
240C on a RUMUL AG Testronic 100kN tester. A test frequency between 70
and 90 Hz and a load ratio of 1 were
used. The stress concentration factor is
equal to 1, and the tests were terminated at 107 cycles. Fatigue tests were comparatively and statistically evaluated according to the arcsin p-method (Ref.
19). Using this method, the fracture
probabilities of 10, 50, and 90% were
estimated. The fatigue crack initiation
site and crack propagation mechanisms
were examined on the fracture surfaces
of failed samples via SEM. Hardness
measurement was performed with the
help of a Vickers hardness testing ma-
Fig. 3 A Microstructure of the extruded alloy; EDX mapping of, respectively,

B Al; C Si; D Fe.
chine at 0.1-kgf loads and an indentation time of 25 s.

Microstructure of Joints
The microstructure of the extruded
alloy is shown in Fig. 3A. The PM Al-Si
alloys presented a fragmented eutectic
(a-aluminum + silicon) microstructure. Owing to the processing history
of the alloy, the microstructure is composed of very fine silicon particles
scattered in the a-Al matrix. The presence of these phases is in accordance
with the equilibrium microstructural
phases predicted by the binary Al-Si
phase diagram (Ref. 20). The average
Si size in the extruded section is 2.9
mm. This structure is necessary to
achieve good mechanical performance
of the consolidated material. Furthermore, the Al-Si alloy has some other
coexisting elements such as iron, copper, magnesium, manganese, and zinc.
The solubility of these elements in aluminum usually increases with increasing temperature. At room tempera-
ture, these elements usually constitute

precipitation of Si, Mn, and Fe, and
forms an Al12(Fe,Mn)3Si phase. The
wide variety of intermetallic phases in
aluminum alloys occurs because aluminum is highly electronegative and
trivalent, which has been the subject
of several studies (Refs. 2123).
Therefore, very fine precipitation was
scattered in the aluminum matrix. Figure 3BD shows EDX mapping of Al,
Si, and Fe, respectively, in the Al alloy.
It is obvious that aluminum constituted the matrix and disappeared at the
presence of Si particles. Owing to the
low Si measuring sensitivity in the
case of very fine particles, concentration of silicon seemed depleted (see
fine green area at the microstructure,
Fig. 3C) at the regions where fine particles were formed. Iron was detected
with less concentration at random
places throughout the microstructure,
as shown in Fig. 3D.
The macrostructure of the joint after FSW is shown in Fig. 4A. The flash
is only released on the retreating side,
where the direction of the tool rotation moves in the opposite direction to
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 4 A Macrostructure of the joint after FSW; B geometry of rotary engine

housing after grinding and cleaning.
Fig. 5 Characteristic microstructure of the joint: A Crosssection macrostructure; B

microstructure of the stir zone I; C microstructure at the stir zone/HAZ interface II; D
microstructure of the HAZ III; E microstructure of the onion ring zone IV; F microstruc
ture of base metal V.
the travel direction. The geometry of

the rotary engine housing after grinding and cleaning is shown in Fig. 4B.
Macrostructures of the traverse sections of the joints are shown in Fig.
5A. It is worth noting that there are

no pores or unbounded areas, and a
sound weld was achieved. One of the
main joint features is the observed
small onion ring structure at the top
area of the weld, close to the advancing side. Previous studies reported the
presence of this onion ring in the
whole weld nugget and clear thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ) at
both sides of the joint on FSW of aluminum alloys (Refs. 2426).
The microstructure of the joint stir
zone (area I in Fig. 5A) was characterized by the silicon particles in the a-Al
matrix Fig. 5B. As clearly shown
from the microstructure without etching at the top right of Fig. 5A, F, the
structure of the stir zone is finer and
more homogeneous than the structure
of the base metal. The Si particles
showed an average grain size of 2.1 mm,
which is approximately 28% finer than
the base metal. This is partially due to
the amount of plastic strain caused by
the FSW pin and shoulder, which leads
to more disruption of the silicon and
consequently smaller grain size (Refs.
2730). There was a very smooth transition area in between the stir zone and
the adjacent regions at both sides of the
joints. Figure 5C shows this area at the
advancing side, which is hard to detect;
therefore, a dashed white line was
drawn to distinguish this area. A TMAZ
with a slightly deformed structure was
observed beside this area at both sides
of the joints. Furthermore, adjacent to
the TMAZ, a HAZ characterized by a
microstructure similar to the base metal
was formed, as shown in Fig. 5D.
As mentioned previously, an onion
ring pattern was observed at the top
area of the weld close to the advancing
side. Figure 5E shows the microstructure of this zone. It is generally known
that the onion ring pattern results
from the interaction between the material flow driven by the rotating pin
and the shoulder-driven flow. This interaction is observed by the deformation of the onion rings in the advancing side of the weld. Several studies
have focused on the formation of
these patterns. However, detailed explanations and discussions of this phenomenon is out of the scope of the
present study. Furthermore, there has
been no reported correlation between
the phenomenon and the resulting
quality of the weld nugget (Ref. 8).
Figure 6 shows SEM micrographs of
the base metal (A) and the stir zone
(B). In addition to the finer and more
homogeneous distribution of silicon in
the stir zone, fragmented particles of
WELDING RESEARCH
eutectic were crushed in the matrix of
the stir zone as clearly shown by arrows at the top right of Fig. 6B. There
was almost no difference in chemical
compositions between the components of microstructure of stir zone
and base metal.
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of the
FSW joints and the base metal are given
in Table 2. Surprisingly, the offset yield
point (Rp0.2) of welded joints is 2.3%
higher than the base metal. Meanwhile,
the average maximum tensile strength
of the welded joints is 95% that of the
base metal. The reason for the improved
mechanical properties of the welded
joints is the severe plastic deformation
offered by the FSW process in addition
to the grain size refinement in the weld
metal area. These strengthening mechanisms hinder dislocation motion and
render the material stronger than it was
previously (Refs. 31, 32). The reduction
in area of the welded joints was almost
half of the values reported for the base
metal, and all welded samples showed
failure outside the welded region, which
is an indication of defect-free joints.
Figure 7 shows a tension sample after
testing in addition to a fatigue test sample that will be discussed later. Further
investigations were performed by analyzing the fracture surface of the samples. Figure 8A shows a general view of
the tensile fracture surface whose fracture featured a lot of tears, ridges, and a
few cracks at different areas. The rough
topography is due to the macroscopic
fracture process occurring on a plane
that is at some angles to the applied
stress direction in the tensile specimen.
A closer observation of the rectangular
area in Fig. 8A is shown in Fig. 8B. A
dimple-like structure is prominent in
the morphology. However, some Si particles and voids originated by the unattached silicon were clearly observed in
the second close-up view in Fig. 8C. The
Si particles, confirmed by EDX analyses,
and corresponding voids are indicated
by black and light arrows, respectively.
The presence of these areas close to the
crack is an indication of the initiation of
the crack owing to the Si particles. It is
reported that damage and failure of AlSi alloys is generally associated with initiation and growth of cracks in the Si
particles (Refs. 27, 33).
Fig. 6 SEM micrographs of the following: A Base metal; B stir zone.
Fig. 7 Macrograph of fractured samples in tensile and fatigue tests.
Fig. 8 SEM of fracture tension sample: A General view of the surface; B magni
fied view of the propagated crack; C dimplelike fracture surface.
Statistical evaluation of the fatigue

test stresses for 10, 50, and 90% probabilities of survival was estimated at
room temperature and also at 240C.
Figure 9 shows the plotted SN curves.
The obtained data for the fatigue limit
are listed in the graph. Fatigue test
stresses at room temperature for 10, 50
and 90% probabilities of survival were
calculated as 81.94, 81.01, and 80.09
MPa, respectively. All samples were fractured outside the joined area as shown
in Fig 7. The fatigue limit decreased approximately 25% due to raising the temperature to 240C. Additionally, the
base metal fatigue test stresses at room
temperature for 10, 50, and 90% probabilities of survival were 82.32, 81.27,
and 79.92 MPa, respectively. It is also
noted that (not included in Fig. 9) the
fatigue characteristics of welded sam-
ples, at room temperature, are quite

similar to base metals, which is an indication of sound welded joints.
Figure 10A shows the postfatigued
fracture surface of sample failed after
877706 cycles under a stress of 81.25
MPa and at room temperature. Crack
initiation sites were at or near the surface as shown by arrows in Fig. 10A, D.
Since the silicon particles are stiffer
than the matrix, the stress concentration created in this area is enough to
cause microslips in the matrix close to
the silicon particles, which leads to the
particle debonding and then crack initiation (Ref. 34). Under a condition of
relatively high stress levels, especially
in aluminum alloys, quite large numbers of microcracks were formed (Refs.
33, 35). At a later stage, linking up of
these cracks occurred to form one sinDECEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 455-s
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 9 SN curves for the fatigue samples at room tempera

ture and 240C.
Fig. 10 Postfatigued fracture surface: A Overview of the frac

ture surface of sample tested at room temperature; B magnified
view of one of the crackinitiation areas and the propagation direc
tion at room temperature; C magnified view of the flat and tear
areas at room temperature; D overview of the fracture surface of
the sample tested at 240C; E magnified view of one of the crack
initiation areas and the propagation direction tested at 240C; F
magnified view of the tear area tested at 240C.
The microhardness distributions

across the welded
joint including the
base metal, HAZ,
Fig. 11 Microhardness distributions at the top, middle, and
TMAZ, and stir
bottom of the FSW joint.
zone are shown in
Fig. 11. The differgle larger crack. A flat fracture surface
ence in hardness values at the top,
is observed at some parts; meanwhile,
middle, and bottom of the joint is very
the main fracture area was fairly ducsmall. The HAZ and TMAZ areas at
tile. Figure 10B shows a magnified
both the advancing and retreating
view of one of the crack-initiation arsides of the joints were found to have
eas and the propagation direction.
the minimum hardness compared to
Meanwhile, Fig. 10C shows both flat
the other regions of the weld. Probably
and tear areas at high magnification. It
this is caused by the annealing effect
is also worth noting that striation feaduring processing (Refs. 36, 37). Also,
tures were not detected at the fracture
the highest hardness values were
surface probably because of the very
achieved in the stir zone because of
fine microstructure.
the fine grain size and the severe plasAt high temperature, voids were obtic deformation at these areas (Refs.
served at the sample edges that are be37, 38). The average hardness value of
lieved to be the origin of the crack inistir zone, HAZ, and base metal were
tiation. The formation mechanism of
89, 74, and 79 HV0.1, respectively.
these voids is not clear but it could be
the result of interactions of very small
Conclusions
silicon particles, which act as micronotches with cyclic stress. Figure 10D
A 20-mm-thick PM aluminum alloy
shows these voids at the edges of the
has been welded by FSW to produce a
fracture surface area, which initiated
rotary engine housing after the extruthe cracks. The crack propagation dision process. Detailed characteristic
rection at high magnification is clearly
microstructure and mechanical invesobserved in Fig. 10E, meanwhile, the
tigation were evaluated. The following
rest of the fracture surface is comconclusions were reached:
posed of the dimple-like structure and
1) FSW was successfully used to
tear areas as shown in Fig. 10F.
join the extruded PM Al alloy without

discontinuities, voids, or defects. Compared to the base metal microstructure, fine and more homogeneously
distributed structures were detected
after joining. The microstructure of
the welded joint at all regions was
composed of very fine silicon particles
scattered in the a-Al matrix.
2) The achieved yield point of the
welded joints is 2.3% higher than the
base metal, while the maximum tensile strength is 95% that of the base
metal. Additionally, the fatigue limit
decreased approximately 25% due to
raising the temperature from room
temperature to 240C. Fracture of
joints after tensile and fatigue tests
was always in the base metal.
3) Failure of Al-Si alloys was associated with initiation and growth of
cracks at the Si particles. The morphology of the fracture was mainly
ductile after tension and fatigue tests.
4) The maximum hardness of the
joint was observed in the stir zone because of its fine grain size. Meanwhile,
the HAZ and TMAZ areas achieved the
lowest hardness level in the joint.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG)
and the Federal Ministry for Transport,
WELDING RESEARCH
Innovation and Technology (bmvit) for
financial support in the framework of
A3plus from the program IV2Splus
(Project 824182, Hybrid Rotary Engine
Components in Aluminium Alloy). Additionally, the authors would like to express their appreciation to the project
partners AVL List GmbH, Mepura Metallpulvergesellschaft m.b.H., Rbig
GmbH & Co KG.
References
1. Atzwanger, M., Hubmann, C.,
Kometter, B., Friedl, H., and Schffmann,
W. 2010. Two cylinder gasoline engine concept for highly integrated range extender
and hybrid powertrain applications. SAE
Technical Paper 2010-32-0130,
doi:10.4271/2010-32-0130.
2. Chimani, C. M., and Uggowitzer, P. J.
2012. Innovative preparation methods for
components of a range extender rotary engine. Tagungsband, 7. Ranshofener Leichtmetalltage, pp. 172184, Austurian Institute of Technology, Munderfing.
3. Van Vlack, L. H. 1989. Elements of
Materials Science and Engineering. 6th ed.
pp. 418421. Prentice Hall, USA.
4. Davis, J. R. 1993. ASM Specialty
Handbook: Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys.
pp. 143159, Materials Park, Ohio: ASM
International.
5. Neubing, H. C. 1981. Production and
properties of aluminum powder for powder metallurgy. Powder Metallurgy International 3: 7478.
6. Salaci, E. 2002. Mechanical properties of spray cast 7XXX series aluminium
alloys. Turkish Journal of Engineering and
Environmental Sciences 26: 345352.
7. Hanlon, T., Kwon, Y. N., and Suresh,
S. 2003. Grain size effects on the fatigue
response of nanocrystalline metals. Scripta
Materialia 49: 675690.
8. Mishra, S. R., and Mahoney, M. W.
2007. Friction Stir Welding and Processing.
pp. 16. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM
International.
9. Elrefaey, A., Gouda, M., Takahashi, M.,
and Ikeuchi, K. 2005. Characterization of
aluminum/steel lap joint by friction stir
welding. Journal of Materials Engineering and
Performance 14: 19.
10. Berbon, P. B., Bingel, W. H., Mishra,
R. S., Bampton, C. C., and Mahoney, M. W.
2001. Friction stir processing: A tool to homogenize nanocomposite aluminum alloys. Scripta Materialia 44: 6166.
11. Jata, K. V. 2001. Friction Stir Welding
and Processing. Warrendale, Pa.: TMS - The
Minerals, Metals & Materials Society, pp.
235242.
12. Jata, K.V. 2003. Friction Stir Welding
and Processing II. Warrendale, Pa.: TMS The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society.
pp. 234252.
13. Mishra, R. S., and Ma, Z. Y. 2005.
Review Article: Friction stir welding and
processing. Materials Science and Engineering R 50: 178.
14. Wang, W., Shi, Q., Liu, P., Li, H., and
Li, T. 2009. A novel way to produce bulk
SiCp reinforced aluminum metal matrix
composites by friction stir processing.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology
209: 20993003.
15. El-Rayes, M. M., and El-Danaf, E. A.
2012. The influence of multi-pass friction
stir processing on the microstructural and
mechanical properties of aluminum Alloy
6082. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 212: 11571168.
16. Mazaheri, Y., Karimzadeh, F., and
Enayati, M. H. 2011. A novel technique for
development of A356/Al2O3 surface
nanocomposite by friction stir processing.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology
211: 16141619.
17. Testing of metallic materials Tension test. 2009. German Institute for Standardization DIN 50125, Berlin, Germany.
18. Material testing; Fatigue test, words,
symbols, implementation, evaluation. 1978.
German Institute for Standardization DIN
50100, Berlin, Germany.
19. Dengel, D. 1975.The arcsinP transformation A simple method of graphical
and computational evaluation of planned
Whler fatigue tests. Journal of Materials
Engineering 8: 253288.
20. Massalski, T. B. 2001. ASM Binary
Alloy Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed. Materials
Park, Ohio: ASM International. pp. 3146.
21. Davis, J. R. 1993. ASM Specialty
Handbook: Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys.
Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International.
22. Mondolfo, L. F. 1976. Aluminum Alloys: Structure and Properties. London, UK:
Butterworths. pp. 173175.
23. Ye, H. 2003. An overview of the development of Al-Si-alloy based material for
engine applications. Journal of Materials
Engineering and Performance 12: 288297.
24. Raoa, D., Huber, K., Heerens, J., dos
Santos, J. F., and Huber, N. 2013. Asymmetric mechanical properties and tensile
behaviour prediction of aluminium alloy
5083 friction stir welding joints. Materials
Science and Engineering A 565: 4450.
25. Lee, W., Yeon, Y., and Jung, S. 2003.
The joint properties of dissimilar formed
Al alloys by friction stir welding according
to the xed location of materials. Scripta
Materialia 49: 423428.
26. Li, B., and Shen, Y. 2012. A feasibility research on friction stir welding of a
new-typed lap-butt joint of dissimilar Al

alloys. Materials and Design 34: 725731.
27. Tutunchilar, S., Besharati Givi, M.
K., Haghpanahi, M., and Asadi, P. 2012.
Eutectic Al-Si piston alloy surface transformed to modified hypereutectic alloy via
FSP. Materials Science and Engineering A
534: 557567.
28. Asadi, P., Mahdavinejad, R. A., and
Tutunchilar, S. 2011. Eutectic Al-Si piston
alloy surface transformed to modified hypereutectic alloy via FSP simulation and
experimental investigation of FSP of AZ91
magnesium alloy. Materials Science and Engineering A 528: 64696477.
29. Elangovan, K., and Balasubramanian, V. 2007. Influences of pin profile and
rotational speed of the tool on the formation of friction stir processing zone in
AA2219 aluminium alloy. Materials Science
and Engineering A 459: 718.
30. Hong, S., and Suryanarayana, C.
2005. Mechanical properties and fracture
behavior of an ultrafine-grained Al-20 wt
pct Si alloy. Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions A 36: 715723.
31. Totten, G. E., and MacKenzie, D. S.
2003. Handbook of Aluminum: Vol. 1: Physical Metallurgy and Processes. New York,
N.Y.: CRC Press. pp. 81210.
32. Banerjee, S., and Ramanjan, R. V.
1996. Advances in Physical Metallurgy. New
York, N.Y.: CRC Press. pp. 345350.
33. Kung, C. Y., and Fine, M. E. 1979.
Fatigue crack initiation and microcrack
growth in 2024-T4 and 2124-T4 aluminum
alloys. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 10: 603609.
34. Shivkumar, S., Wang, L., and
Apelian, D. 1991. Molten metal processing
of advanced cast aluminum alloys. JOM
43: 2632.
35. Sigler, D., Montpetit, M. C., and Haworth, W. L. 1983. Metallography of fatigue crack initiation in an overaged high
strength aluminium alloy. Metallurgical and
Materials Transactions A 14: 931938.
36. Ren, S. R., Ma, Z. Y., and Chen, L. Q.
2008. Effect of initial butt surface on tensile
properties and fracture behavior of friction
stir welded Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloy. Materials Science and Engineering A 479: 293299.
37. Bisadia, H., Tavakolib, A., Tour
Sangsarakia, M., and Tour Sangsaraki, K.
2013. The influences of rotational and
welding speeds on microstructures and
mechanical properties of friction stir welded Al5083 and commercially pure copper
sheets lap joints. Materials & Design 43:
8088.
38. Cerri, E., and Leo, P. 2010. Warm
and room temperature deformation of friction stir welded thin aluminium sheets.
Materials & Design 31: 13921402.
WELDING RESEARCH
Low Transformation Temperature Welding

A Numerical Model for the Prediction of Phase
TransformationInduced Compressive
Residual Stresses
Using a finite element software, numerical analysis of gas metal arc welding with
developed lowtransformation temperature welding wires was performed
BY T. ALGHAMDI AND S. LIU
ABSTRACT
Harmful tensile residual stresses are observed in structural steel weld
joints as a result of the thermal strains between the solidified weld metal
and surrounding base material. These harmful stresses, superimposed on
external stresses, make the welded joints more prone to fatigue failures.
Thus, the presence of compressive residual stresses, instead of the typical
tensile residual stresses, improves the fatigue resistance of the structural
welded joint. In this research work, numerical analysis of gas metal arc welding (GMAW) with developed low transformation temperature welding
(LTTW) wires was performed using Sysweld. Simulation of all-around fillet
welds on a structural steel plate clearly estimated the effects of the different
experimentally developed LTTW wires on residual stress generation and
welding distortion control. Alloys with higher chromium equivalent promoted greater control on out-of-plane distortion. Their effect on compressive
residual stress generation around the weld toes was not as evident and deserves further investigation. Simulation results agreed reasonably well with
the experimentally determined results. The weld made using the higher
chromium equivalent welding wire showed the maximum induced compressive residual stress in and around the weld joint (at the order of 600 MPa)
with relatively low transverse distortion values compared to the other welds.
Stress evolution with time plots from Sysweld simulation were able to show
the interaction between thermal contraction and phase transformationinduced expansion, and also the amount of martensite required to promote
overall residual compressive stresses in the fillet weld joint.
KEYWORDS
Low Transformation Temperature Welding Consumables Martensitic
Transformation PhaseInduced Volumetric Expansion Residual Stress
Management Compressive Residual Stress Numerical Analysis Residual
Stress Evolution with Time
Introduction
During the fabrication of steel
structures such as bridges, platforms,
and ships, welding is the most essential joining process. Upon completion
of solidification and after the weld is
cooled to room temperature, nonuniform strain distribution and tensile
residual stresses often result. Distortion may also occur in welded structural components. As tensile residual
stresses are deleterious to the integrity of the weld joint (Refs. 13), it is
important to be able to model and predict the residual stress distribution in
the weld toe region. Methods that can
reverse the residual stresses from tension to compression, and enhance fatigue performance of welded components, are also important.
Postweld heat treatment (PWHT)
and peening are known to reduce the
tensile residual stresses and possibly
induce a compressive stress state in a
weld joint. However, both methods are
costly and time consuming. A more attractive approach is to use a welding
consumable that can produce a compressive residual stress state in the
weld joint during welding. These are
the low transformation temperature
welding consumables (Refs. 26).
When martensite transformation initiates at a low temperature and finish-
T. ALGHAMDI is with the Consulting Services DepartmentSaudi Aramco, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. S. LIU (sliu@mines.edu) is with the
Center for Welding, Joining, and Coatings Research, Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering, Colorado School of Mines,
Golden, Colo.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 1 Isothermal contour map for the

martensitic transformation temperature
as a function of Cr and Ni equivalents.
The NieqCreq field shown corresponds to
the martensite field in the Schaeffler
constitution diagram (Refs. 19, 20).
es just above room temperature, the

shrinkage due to thermal contraction
can be counteracted and neutralized
by the volume expansion caused by
austenite-to-martensite transformation in the weld metal (Refs. 710). If
the magnitude of expansion is greater
than that of thermal contraction, net
residual compressive stresses result
(Refs. 1120). In case that the martensite transformation ends much below
room temperature, the martensite
transformation would be incomplete
resulting in a reduced total fraction of
martensite.
Eckerlid et al. (Ref. 4) and Darcis et
al. (Ref. 5) showed that fatigue properties are enhanced with these specially
designed consumables. Welding
process characteristics, e.g., multiple
pass sequence and interpass temperature, can affect the effectiveness of
these consumables (Ref. 21). Shirzadi,
Bhadeshia, and colleagues (Ref. 22) extended the concept developed by Ohta
et al. (Refs. 710, 12) by investigating
other stainless steel compositions that
would produce similar effects on residual stresses. Yamamoto et al. (Ref. 23)
also reported on the effects of martensitic transformation on weld residual
stress and distortion mitigation.
In summary, martensite transformation start (Ms) and finish (Mf) temperatures are essential parameters in
structural steel welding because of
their influences on residual stress de-
Fig. 2 Dilatometric curves of the welds made using the recently developed LTTW
wires with a cooling rate (CR) of 120C/s. A SO200A; B SO200B; C SO350A;
D SO350B.
velopment and distortion control in

the weld (Ref. 24).
The main objective of this study is
to develop welding consumables that
would reduce the tensile residual
stresses around the weld toe region
rather than the deleterious tensile
residual stresses of the structural
welded joints. Since cost and productivity was the main target, PWHT was
not the focus of this study. Anticipated
applications of the low transformation
temperature welding consumables can
be in steel structures such as bridges
and ships. The scale of these welded
components may make PWHT unfeasi-
Table 1 Chemical Composition (in wt%) of the Base Metal, Welding Wires, and AsWelded Metal
C
Mn
Cr
Ni
Si
Mo
0.11
0.80
0.15
0.11
0.06
0.02
Wire
0.1
1.0
1.0
10.0
0.10
2.0
Aswelded
0.11
1.07
0.97
5.83
0.26
2.11
Wire
0.04
1.25
10.0
4.0
0.15
0.5
Aswelded
0.11
1.09
9.04
2.98
0.29
0.50
Base Metal
A36 Structural Steel
SO200A
SO200B
SO350A
SO350B
ER70S3
Wire
0.10
1.0
1.0
2.0
0.1
2.0
Aswelded
0.08
1.28
1.12
1.92
0.25
1.74
Wire
0.05
1.0
4.0
0.50
0.10
2.0
Aswelded
0.06
1.19
3.57
0.45
0.24
1.79
0.09
1.02
0.05
0.03
0.41
<0.01
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 3 The outofplane distortions of in.thick barpanel

assembly following single pass fillet welding using convention
al welding wires, ER70S3.
Fig. 4 Different transverse displacement (distortion) produced by

various LTT welding consumables and the commercial welding wire.
structural steel
plates were welded
with four developed
welding wires (designated as SO200A, SO-200B,
SO-350A, and SO350B) with low
martensitic transFig. 5 The dimensions of the Tjoint welded structure in inch
formation
temperaes (in.) of an allaround welded panelbar assembly.
tures (LTT) using
semiautomatic gas
metal arc welding
ble for stress relief or attainment of
(GMAW). The compositions of the
ductility. Therefore, the development
welding wires were selected from a sizof welding wires that transform to
able matrix that spanned across the
martensite close to room temperature
entire martensite field on the Schaefwith maximum weld expansion and
fler constitution diagram (Ref. 18) as
eventually compressive residual stressshown in Fig. 1 where the Ms isotherm
es is highly desirable. Experimental
contours were mapped according to
measurement and welding simulation
the Self and Olson equation (Ref. 25).
using finite element code Sysweld were
In Fig. 1, it can be easily recognized
conducted to determine martensitic
that different alloy compositions may
transformation temperatures and betexhibit similar Ms temperature inditer characterize the effects of phase
cating that Ms temperature may not be
transformation on the evolution of
the only indicator that may quantify
residual stresses in structural welded
the resulting compressive residual
joints.
stresses. The first set of the designed
filler metals have been selected along
Experimental Procedure
the 200C isotherm line, and the other
and Results
set was selected along the isotherm of
350C on the contour map. The four
For the experiments, ASTM A36
green lines were added to more easily
Table 2 The Experimental Ms Temperatures Compared with the Predicted Calculations

Welding Wire
Designation
SO200A
SO200B
SO350A
SO350B
Self and Olson

Methodology
(C)
Ghosh and Olson

Equation
(C)
Eichelmann and Hull

Ms Temperature
(C)
Experimental
200
200
350
350
163
219
157
177
446
528
935
985
155
160
370
400
(C)
show the Ms temperature ranges of the

two pairs of experimental alloys identified by the four circles (with xs). The
chemical compositions of the major alloying elements for the experimental
welding wires, conventional consumable, and base metal used in this work
are listed in Table 1.
Four sets of welding experiments
were conducted. The first was in the
bead-on-plate configuration to measure angular distortion and extract
dilatometric specimens. The second
one produced V-grooved butt welds
from which mechanical testing specimens were extracted. Multipass weld
pads were also produced to extract
dilatometric specimens for Ms determination.
Further distortion measurements
were conducted by fabricating doublesided single pass fillet welds in the
form of bar-panel assemblies on A36
structural carbon-steel base materials
using GMAW. The vertical bar was
first tack welded onto the panel plate
with zero root opening. No clamping
was used during welding; the heat input was 25 kJ/in. and shielding gas
was Ar + 25%CO2.
The fillet weld described in the last
paragraph was an all-around weld that
wrapped around the joint between the
vertical bar and flat panel. The weld
can be denoted weld 1 and weld 2 by
their order of deposition. Thus, the
heat from weld 2 would reheat weld 1.
The increase in temperature would reduce the cooling rate and amount of
compressive stresses in fillet weld 1.
Measurements of distortion and calculation of residual stresses would, however, be conducted for weld 2.
To ensure that filler metal was the
WELDING RESEARCH
only variable in the welding experiments, the welds were produced under
approximately identical conditions. The
bars and plates were cut to size and
ground flat for zero joint opening and
degreased prior to welding. The average
heat input was maintained constant
throughout the welding experiments,
and the welding sequence and direction
were also kept constant.
Standard metallographic techniques
were used to prepare the weld samples
for microscopy examination. The weld
microstructure was revealed using
Kallings No. 1 reagent. All experimental
welds exhibited martensitic microstructure (Refs. 19, 20, 36-38). The reference
ER70-S3 weld was predominantly ferritic (Refs. 19, 20, 36-38).
Tensile testing on the specimens
extracted from the welds (in the weld
length direction) collected the yield
and ultimate tensile strengths as well
as elongation data needed for the
Sysweld finite element code. In the
case of SO-200B wire, the room temperature yield and ultimate tensile
strengths are 60 and 95 ksi, respectively (Refs. 20, 38).
Using a Gleeble 3500 thermomechanical simulation system, dilatometric measurements were conducted to
experimentally measure the martensitic start temperature (Ms) of the designed alloys, SO-200A, SO-200B, SO350A, and SO-350B. Solid cylindrical
samples of 6.0 mm diameter and 80
mm length were extracted from multipass bead-on-plate welds deposited on
ASTM A36 grade structural steel. The
weld metal specimens were subjected
to thermal cycles that mimicked the
cooling behavior experienced by the
welds. All specimens were austenitized
at 1100C for 8 s, followed by cooling
at a constant rate of 120C.s1 to ambient temperature. The heating rate was
80C.s1. The heating and austenitization process was conducted under vacuum, and the cooling was achieved using a helium gas jet.
This test identifies the martensitic
start transformation temperature (Ms)
as the temperature at which the slope
changes from positive to negative during cooling on an elongation-temperature graph as shown in Fig. 2. This test
shows that martensitic transformation
occurred in all four developed LTT welding wires. Samples SO-200A and SO200B exhibited the lowest Ms tempera-
Fig. 6 Solid Tjoint finite element (Sysweld) model. Fine meshes near to heat flux
boundary and expanding away from it.
tures between 155 and 160C Fig.

2A, B. However, the largest amount of
expansion (+27 m) was exhibited by
the specimen SO-200B as shown in Fig.
2B. These results suggest that the maximum expected compressive residual
stresses induced in the vicinity of the
weld metal would likely occur in a welded joint with SO-200B welding wire.
The other samples made by the welding
wires, SO-200A, SO-350A, and SO350B, revealed expansive elongations of
+20, +13, and +5 m, respectively.
These findings again suggest that all the
experimental welding wires can produce
compressive residual stresses around
the weld toe.
Table 2 shows the Ms temperatures

experimentally determined compared
with the estimated values using Self
and Olson (SO) and Eichelmann and
Hull (EH) equations as well as the
Ghosh and Olson (GO) methodology
(Refs. 2528, 38). With these specific
chemical compositions, the SO equation appeared to better predict the Ms
temperatures for the experimental alloys than EH and GO equations. Details of the calculations have been reported in another publication.
The cumulative deflection for each
experimental fillet weld was measured
and compiled with an uncertainty of
0.004 in. (0.1 mm). Despite the fact
Table 3 The Measurements Taken for Transverse Displacements (Distortion) of DoubleSided Fillet
Welded Structures
Wire
Item
Measurement
Average(in.)
Average by Unit
Conversion (mm)
Displacement =
Thickness Height (mm)
SO200A
Thickness
Height
0.5000.004
0.5900.008
12.66
15.08
2.42
SO200B
Thickness
Height
0.5000.008
0.5900.008
12.57
14.95
2.38
SO350A
Thickness
Height
0.4900.008
0.5900.008
12.53
15.08
2.55
SO350B
Thickness
Height
0.5000.008
0.5900.008
12.60
15.10
2.50
ER70S3
Thickness
Height
0.5000.008
0.6300.008
12.62
15.94
3.33
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 8 Illustration of the groups necessary to define the weld path

(Ref. 34).
ble of reducing the distortion in the final weld.

Taking into account
the larger atomic radius of
chromium, 128 pm as comFig. 7 Goldak double ellipsoid heat source model.
pared with 126 pm (Fe) and
The arrow points to the welding direction (Refs. 26,
124 pm (Ni), alloys with
27).
higher chromium equivalent would promote greater
that all welding and structural paramexpansive strains and likely higher
eters such as heat input, joint design,
compressive residual stresses around
welding sequence and direction, weld
the weld toe than the higher nickel
start and stop, and weld length were
equivalent alloys for a similar Ms temkept relatively unchanged, the welded
perature. Moreover, a SO-200B weld
joints using the different LTT welding
joint in particular presented the miniconsumables showed different transmum cumulative transverse distorverse, out-of-plane distortions with retion, which implied the maximum
spect to the conventional wire such as
compressive residual stresses of the
ER70S-3. The thickness of the plate
four welds. It is obvious that atomic
and the elevation of the plate from the
radii difference should not be the only
table were measured using a pair of
factor considered in determining the
calipers. To calculate the cumulative
sign and magnitude of the resulting
displacement of the T-joint, the thickresidual stresses, bonding characterisness of the welded plate (H) is subtics (electronic interaction) between
tracted from the total height from the
chromium and iron, and nickel and
top surface of the workpiece to the flat
iron should be examined more in deground surface. The averages of three
tail in the future to provide greater inmeasurements for the T-joint displacesight. Preliminary ABINIT calculations
ment are plotted and compared.
showed that chromium additions in an
Figure 3 shows the out-of-plane
iron lattice caused changes to the comdisplacement of the T-joint fillet weld
pressibility and bulk modulus of the
made by the conventional wire,
crystal lattice (Refs. 39, 40).
ER70S-3. The out-of-plane distortions
Welding Simulation Using
would then be converted to angles using trigonometric relationships. While
Sysweld Code
the measurements were made in inches, the displacement values were exSysweld is a finite element software
pressed in millimeters.
dedicated for thermal analysis and
Both Table 3 and Fig. 4 show that
welding activities. Sysweld simulates
the SO-200B weld metal exhibits the
all common welding processes. It has
minimum cumulative transverse (outan excellent set of tools enabling reof-plane) distortion compared to the
searchers to control and optimize heat
other experimental wires, indicating
treatment and welding by taking into
possibly higher compressive residual
consideration all aspects of material
stresses around the weld toe. The
behavior, design, and process. It minitransformation plasticity associated
mizes the requirements for physical
with the formation of martensite has
prototypes with a reduction in cost
been shown experimentally to be capaand lead time (Ref. 23). In addition to
the data bank of mechanical and thermophysical properties for a sizable

materials specification, it allows the
user to upload all possible experimental properties from the tested materials such as welding parameters, traveling speed, elongations, Ms temperatures, etc. In this work, numerical
analysis was considered for single bead
T-joint weld, i.e., a continuous fillet
weld around a bar member, on an
ASTM A36 grade structural carbon
steel plate. The dimensions of the Tjoint are illustrated in Fig. 5.
As with any finite element model,
the first step in a weld analysis is the
creation of an assembly and finite element mesh. Because of the high peak
temperature and large temperature
gradient and fluctuations imposed by
the weld heat source, it is important to
have fine meshing around the weld
joint, i.e., very small element size, and
consistent time steps. The fine mesh
helps to capture thermal gradient in
small time steps to resolve the large
temperature variation for a given
mesh for the purpose of detailed and
accurate analysis in and near the weld
interfaces. Coarser meshes expanding
away from the boundary of the heat
flux can be applied to obtain good accuracy with reasonable computation
time.
Figure 6 shows the finite element
model and mesh established for the solid T-joint investigated. After the mesh is
created, it is necessary to apply the material properties (material database) and
apply thermal and mechanical boundary conditions. Next are the heat source
parameters and molten pool dimensions (length, width, and depth). Other
parameters such as the clamping condition, external loading, and heat transfer
behavior can be entered through the
welding advisor module before computation is initiated.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 9 A closeup view the first bead of the Tjoint showing the
weld path, weld line (trajectory), reference line, and start nodes.
Fig. 10 Concept of reduction of welding distortion by using

a lowtransformation welding wire (Ref. 35).
be easily changed to
model different
welding processes
and weld characterC
D istics, e.g., shallower
or deeper penetration. Heat flux disFig. 11 The transverse distortion (in mm) for the structural
tribution is Gausswelded joint made using LTTW wire. A SO200A; B SO
ian along the longi200B; C SO350A; D SO350B.
tudinal weld direction axis. If the cross
For modeling of the heat source,
section of the molten zone is known
Sysweld utilizes the three-dimensional
from the experiment, this information
double ellipsoid model for the welding
can be used to set the heat source diarc proposed by Goldak et al. (Ref. 30)
mensions. If precise data do not exist,
and shown in Fig. 7. The double ellipGoldak et al. suggest that it is reasonsoid geometry is used because the size
able to take the distance in front of
and the shape of the heat source can
the source equal to one-half the weld
width and the distance behind the

source equal to two times the weld
width (Ref. 31).
The heat source is applied along all
elements and can be extended to cover
the whole structure. The weld path includes the trajectory and reference
lines, start and end nodes, plus the
start element as shown in Fig. 8. The
trajectory line is the line that includes
all information to define the movement of the welding heat source in
space and describes the path of the
center of the power source (the local Yaxis coincident with the weld line element direction). This line is placed on
the skin of the joint and not in the
root. The reference line is another
Table 4 ThermoPhysical Material Properties for Welding Simulation
Temperature
(C)
20
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
Weld
Base
Youngs Modulus
(GPa)
195
188
182
175
169
160
150
138
125
114
99
87
72
7
1
200
198
196
178
163
u.a.
83
u.a.
37
u.a.
14
13
11
5
1
Weld
Base
Specic heat
(kJ/(kg.K))
0.494
0.520
0.548
0.562
0.578
0.590
0.599
0.607
0.613
u.a.
u.a.
u.a.
u.a.
0.690
0.800
0.486
0.486
0.532
0.574
0.630
0.705
0.800
1.432
0.556
0.565
u.a.
u.a.
u.a.
u.a.
0.620
Martensite
Phase
51.90
51.20
49.00
46.00
42.70
39.40
35.60
31.80
26.10
26.60
27.20
28.50
29.80
33.10
33.00
Weld
Base
Conductivity (W/(m.K))
Austenite
Martensite Austenite
Phase
Phase
Phase
14.88
16.50
18.00
19.50
21.00
22.10
23.00
25.00
26.50
27.69
29.25
30.29
31.85
33.20
28.00
51.90
51.20
49.00
46.00
42.70
39.40
35.60
31.80
26.10
26.60
27.20
28.50
29.80
33.10
33.00
15.00
u.a.
u.a.
u.a.
u.a.
u.a.
u.a.
u.a.
u.a.
25.00
u.a.
u.a.
u.a.
u.a.
32.00
u.a.unavailable.
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 12 Crosssectional view for allaround fillet welded joint using the SO200A electrode showing the stresses. A Along Xaxis; C
along Yaxis; and E along Zaxis. Residual stress distribution (along the white dotted line on the contour map) is along the follow
ing: B Xaxis of the weld; D Yaxis of the weld; and F Zaxis of the weld.
group of one-dimensional finite elements parallel to the welding trajectory. It is similar to the welding line used
to determine the normal to the trajectory and must have the same number
of elements as the weld line. The parameters that should be entered in
this group are identical to the parameters of the trajectory, i.e., start and
end nodes plus a start element. If no
reference data are entered, the source
must be axial-symmetric around the
trajectory. The start node is only one

node that defines the starting point of
the trajectory.
In case the reference line is applied,
another node should be set as the
starting point of the reference and
both nodes must be the first nodes in
this group (the starting side of the
weld). On the other hand, the end
nodes are the nodes defining the ending points of the trajectory and reference line (Ref. 29). A close-up view for
these parameters along the weld path

is illustrated in Fig. 9.
The temperature-dependent values
of thermal conductivity, specific heat
capacity, and Youngs modulus are
summarized in Table 4. Density was
assumed to be 7850 kg.m3 at room
temperature and 7290 kg.m3 at
1400C. The Poissons ratio was assumed to be 0.29 for the weld metal
and 0.26 for the base metal, independent of temperature. The thermal ex-
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 14 Schematic drawing shows

where the throughthickness stresses
are measured along the dotted line.
Fig. 13 Transverse residual stress distribution across the second bead of the fillet
weld. A SO200A; B SO200B; C SO350A; D SO350B.
pansion values were not listed in Table

4. The individual values of thermal expansion coefficient, when needed for
computation, are calculated for the
given T in Table 4, and the elongation of the deposited welds as plotted
in Fig. 2.
In this analysis, the latent heat of
fusion was not considered. The yield
strength is also defined as a temperature-dependent parameter as listed in
Table 5 for the weld and base metal,
respectively. The yield strength at
room temperature was taken from the
experimental tensile testing results.
However, the yield strengths at higher
temperatures were defined from the
literature for similar materials for
both the martensite and austenite
phases. The thermal strains and Ms
temperatures were input based on the
dilatometric results obtained for each
individual welding wire.

Using the LTT welding wires with
the delayed austenite decomposition,
volume expansion of weld metal asso-
ciated with the martensitic transformation can cancel the thermal shrinkage of the weld and even create compressive residual stresses as proven by
many researchers and explained earlier
as shown in Fig. 10. Welding distortion is also expected to be reduced by
this mechanism.
Despite the heat input and geometry of the experimental welds were
similar, various out-of-plane distortion values were measured on plates
welded with single pass fillet weld on
both sides of the vertical plates as illustrated in Table 3 and Figs. 3 and 4.
The actual magnitude of the expansion varied with the composition of
the different alloying elements. This
behavior is illustrated by the different
deflection angles or displacements of
the welded plates. Despite similar Ms
temperatures, e.g., SO-200B and SO200A, the two welds exhibited different transverse distortions indicating
different residual stresses induced
around the welded joints. Smaller distortion, i.e., smaller deflection angle
or smaller displacement in a unit
length of thickness, would imply in
Fig. 15 Stress distribution through

the thickness of the panel plate.
larger expansion due to martensitic

transformation that offsets the thermal contraction during cooling.
Stress was also calculated using the
Sysweld code, taking into consideration phase transformations. Sysweld
simulation results agreed reasonably
well with the experimental analysis as
shown in Fig. 11, particularly regarding the comparison between highchromium equivalent and high-nickel
equivalent welds. The weld produced
using SO-200B wire, which has higher
chromium equivalent, resulted in
smaller out-of-plane distortion of 1.48
mm as compared with the 1.58 mm for
the SO-200A weld. The same explanation is for SO-350A and SO-350B as
shown in Fig. 11C and D where the Ms
temperature is 350C. The displacements in this case were 1.40 and 1.38
mm, respectively. In this case, the distortions were quite similar, suggesting
that higher martensite start temperaDECEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 465-s
WELDING RESEARCH
B
Fig. 16 Base metalweld nodal stress evolution with respect to time for the SO200B
weld. A Along the Xaxis; B along the Zaxis; C along the Yaxis (weld direction).
Residual stress is represented by the solid line and martensite fraction, the dashed line.
Table 5 Yield Strength Dependency on Temperature for the Weld and Base Metals for the Welding
Simulation
Temperature (C)
20
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
Weld
Yield Strength, MPa
(N/mm2)
Martensite
Austenite
Phase
Phase
450
450
450
428
360
270
203
90
45
23
23
23
8
5
5
ture was less effective in distortion

control.
Sysweld simulation, nonetheless,
was unable to corroborate the smaller
172
148
123
107
102
98
94
88
75
55
30
19
11
7
5
Base
Yield Strength, MPa
(N/mm2)
Martensite
Austenite
Phase
Phase
500
500
500
475
400
300
225
100
50
25
25
25
9
5
4
183
173
157
130
102
80
59
33
24
18
16
14
9
5
3
distortions experienced by the SO200

series welds. However, it is important
to point out that the measured distortions of the bar-panel assembly fillet
welds shown in Figs. 3 and 4 were cumulative that included the effects of
heat input, fillet weld design, welding
sequence and direction, plus weld start
and stop. Since not all these effects
could be incorporated into Sysweld,
some discrepancy of prediction is expected. Additionally, the numerical
model shows the nodal and not bulk
values, whether distortion or residual
stresses distribution, some discrepancy from the experimentally measured
(bulk) values can be expected.
Figure 12A, C, and E show the
cross-sectional views of the fillet weld
joints made using the SO-200A electrode and with the stresses along the
X-, Y-, and Z-axis, respectively. The
right-side weld specifies the first bead
made, and the left-side weld is the second part of the weld, in agreement
with the weld path of the all-around
fillet starting on the right side. These
two separate beads make one single
pass all-around fillet weld, and each
bead is modeled separately with 3 min
break-up time, i.e., 3 min between the
end of the first bead and the start of
the second bead. The effect of reheating on residual stress distribution can
be easily observed in Fig. 12. Reheating relieved the induced compressive
residual stress in the first weld.
Figure 12B, D, and F show the
stress distribution along the X-, Y-,
and Z-axis, respectively, as a function
of particular locations in and around
the weld calculated with the consideration of phase transformations taking
place. The plotting axis is along the
top of the base plate as indicated by
the white dashed lines on the contour
plots. This axis starts from the left end
of the dotted line (white line) crossing
the two beads of the fillet weld. For all
the three stress components, the weld
stresses were more compressive than
the weld-to-base plate interface where
the stress plots were created. Similar
findings were observed in the welds
made using the developed SO-200B,
SO-350A, and SO-350B wires.
The residual stresses tend to be
compressive at the weld toe in the developed welded joints. Figure 13AD
explains the stress distribution around
the T-weld joint toes. These stresses
are calculated along the X- and Z-axes
of the second bead of the all-around
single fillet weld starting from the
weld toes. The trends of these plots
WELDING RESEARCH
show how far compressive residual
stress exists around the welds in both
sides of the second bead of the T-joints
made using the developed welding
wires. It is clear that in the SO-200A
and SO-200B welds, the compressive
residual stresses exist for almost 3 mm
around the welds distributed along the
X- and Z-axes (across the weld bead).
However, compressive residual stresses extended only to approximately 2.0
mm around the welds made by SO350A and SO-350B.
Through-thickness stress distribution was also evaluated using Sysweld
for all experimental welds deposited
on 12.5-mm-thick panel plates as explained in Fig. 14. The through-thickness stresses were found to be compressive almost half way through the
plate and were tensile in the remaining
thickness of the plate. According to
Fig. 15, compressive residual stresses
for SO-200A and SO-200B welds are
observed within 5.25 to 6.25 mm from
the welded surface. In comparison,
compressive stress state is present
within 7.5 to 8.0 mm from the weld
surface for SO-350A and SO-350B
welds.
Residual Stresses Evolve

with Time
The basic reason for occurrence of
residual stresses in a welded component is thermal strain caused by heating and cooling. This thermal strain
causes internal constraint within the
welded workpiece. Immediately after
the end of the welding process, cooling
initiates the shrinkage stresses between a weld metal and the surrounding material because of thermal contraction. During the heating and cooling process, the weld and the area near
to the heat flux boundary go through
expansion and contraction against the
surrounding material undergoing compression and tension. This phenomenon has been observed in all welding
simulation analysis and in all directions, i.e., stress on the weld toes or
along the welding direction evolves
with time throughout the weld length.
Figure 16 is an example that explains
the nodal stress evolution with time for
welds made using the developed SO200B wire. These nodal stresses (denoted by solid lines) were computed on the
weld toes along the X- and Z-axes
Fig. 17 Base metalweld nodal stress evolution with respect to time for the SO350A
weld. A Along the Xaxis; B along the Zaxis; C along the Yaxis (weld direction).
Table 6 Nodal Stresses Observed on the Base MetalWeld Interfaces of the TJoint and Along the
Weld Centerline
Wire
SO200A
SO200B
SO350A
SO350B
Stress along
Xaxis (MPa)
140
150
80
90
(nodal transverse stresses) and along

the centerline of the weld in the Y direction (nodal longitudinal stresses). The
time of 210 s, which is measured from
the start of the first bead, corresponds
to the start time of the second bead.
This figure shows how the stresses
evolve with respect to time until room
temperature. At high temperature and
before approaching Ms temperature,
tensile residual stresses tend to form
along the centerline of the weld and in
the weld toes. However, taking martensitic transformation into account (denoted by dotted lines), it can be seen
that as the Ms temperature is reached
and past (with the beginning of martensite formation and increasing amount
Stress along
Zaxis (MPa)
250
275
205
180
Stress along the weld

direction (MPa)
610
650
150
250
of martensite) during cooling, immediate reduction in stresses occur then developing into compressive residual
stresses. The two dashed red lines cross
at the time when tension residual stress
reverses to compression.
Knowing that the weld pool solidifies by epitaxy from both sides of the
weld joint and toward the weld centerline, the nodal tensile stresses in the
base metal-weld interfaces (i.e., along
the X- and Z-axes) reach the maximum
point earlier than the nodal stresses
along the center of the weld (Y-direction) before approaching the Ms temperatures. Another observation is that
the weld made using the higher
chromium equivalent LTT welding
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 18 The nodal stress drops in the base metalweld inter

face along the Xaxis for the SO200B weld.
wires generally showed higher induced

compressive residual stresses in and
around the weld joint as listed in Table
6. Note that these stresses are nodal
stresses that do not necessarily represent the bulk stresses of the weld
joint. However, the higher compressive residual stresses reduced the cumulative distortion as shown in Fig.
11.
When the transformation completes at temperature higher than the
ambient temperature, subsequent
thermal contraction continues, but
with no further associated volume expansion. This thermal shrinkage after
Mf temperature tends to increase the
tensile residual stresses in the weld
joint or reduce the compressive stresses as shown in Fig. 17 for the weld
made using the SO-350B wire.
Using, as an example, the nodal
stress of the base metal-weld interface
along the X-axis for the SO-200B weld
as shown in Fig. 16A to study the
stress evolution with time, a close-up
view between 228 to 295 s shows that
stress dropped in this region even
though the temperature had not
reached the Ms temperature as shown
in Fig. 18. This decreasing tensile
stress is conceivable due to simultaneous accumulation of shrinkage and expansion in the surrounding of the
weld. The weld upon cooling undergoes shrinkage while the adjacent base
metal expands because of the heat
transferred from the heat source.
These counteracting actions of the
Fig. 19 The nodal stress drops in the base metalweld in

terface along the Xaxis for the SO350A weld.
workpiece dropped the stress to approximately 100 MPa at 273 s.

The decrease in tensile stress had a
distinct behavior between 1600 and
1080C. Several slope changes within
this temperature range were observed
with time. It is entirely likely that
these slope changes are related to the
several phases that formed during
transformation. For example, -ferrite
appeared to have begun to form between 16001510C in about 1.2 s.
According to this simulation, solidification would have completed by about
1510C and -ferrite remained the
predominating phase between
15101250C for about 1.2 s. Austenite appeared around 1250C to coexist
with -ferrite between 12501120C
for approximately 1s. The wide temperature range of -ferrite is possibly
associated to the high content of Cr in
the SO-200B welding wire (10 wt-%).
Finally, austenite remained stable until the martensite start temperature of
190C at 273 s. The austenite-tomartensite transformation is associated with volume expansion leading to
further drop in the tensile residual
stress. The drop took almost 14 s to
reach zero residual tensile stress, at
287 s. The zero residual stress was
achieved with approximately 32% of
martensite in the weld joint. As the
fraction of the martensite continued
to increase in the weld, the magnitude
of the compressive stresses also increased to further counteract the effect of contraction by cooling. While
the exact temperatures at which the

different phase transformations occurs should be better determined, the
sequence of phase transformation is
credible and the residual stresses evolution as a function of martensite as
outlined is conceivable. In situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction appears to
be the right technique to be considered with the experimental validation
of the observation extracted from
Sysweld analysis.
On the other hand, the tensile
stress drop prior to reaching Ms temperature (Ms = 380C) in the SO-350A
weld was quite different as shown in
Fig. 19. Nonetheless, at 241 s, the
martensite started to form at 380C
where the residual stress was still almost 200 MPa in tension. After only
0.8 s, the stress dropped to zero at
355C. Since martensite transformation completed quickly in this weld,
the compressive stress state originated
via phase transformation became less
effective in counteracting the effects
of contraction upon further cooling.
For the sake of evaluating the influence of residual stress on weld distortion, the SO-200B weld was selected for
further simulation studies, with and
without taking into account the phase
transformation effect. That is, the residual stresses and distortion were computed with and without considering
martensitic transformation. Without
the effect of solid-state phase transformation, no expansive strain due to the
volume change would occur along the
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 20 The longitudinal stresses (in the direction of the

weld) on the weld made using a SO200B wire with and with
out considering the effect of phase transformation.
thermal strain and, thereby, resulting in

tensile residuals stresses along the weld
and around the weld toe. This behavior
would be equivalent to a non-LTTW
consumable such as ER70S-3. These
tensile residual stresses would have resulted in a weld distortion at the order
of 1.92 mm based on Sysweld calculation. On the other hand, simulation
work showed that the compressive
residual stresses induced in the welded
joint, when taking the phase transformation into consideration, would have
reduced the transverse displacement to
1.47 mm along the Z-axis.
As expected, the induced residual
stresses were found sensitive to microstructural evolution. For a weld material consisted of almost a 100% ferrite/pearlite microstructure, the tensile residual stress state would have
developed in the weld in the presence
of thermal contraction alone.
Figure 20 shows the two residual
stress modes in the weld made using
the SO-200B wire along the weld direction. These (nodal) stresses were calculated with and without considering
the martensitic transformation. With
martensitic transformation, a residual
compressive stress (in the longitudinal
direction) at the order of 650 MPa
would have resulted instead of the 250
MPa tensile residual stress when
martensitic transformation is ignored.
Several factors contribute to the
formation of residuals stresses and deformation. The plastic deformation
produced in the base metal and weld
Fig. 21 The effect of martensite proportion in the weld made

using the SO200B wire on the residual stresses
distribution.
metal is a function of design (structure), material, and fabrication. However, keeping the above parameters
unchanged, the magnitude of the volumetric expansion in the weld and heataffected zone (HAZ) and, accordingly,
the amount of residual stresses in and
around the welded joint, will depend
on the volume fraction of martensite
that formed in the weld.
Using Sysweld as a predictive tool,
Fig. 21 shows that when welding with
the SO-200B welding wire, which contained 10 wt-% chromium and 4 wt-%
nickel (10.7 Creq and 5.8 Nieq), approximately 40% of martensite would be
present at the reversal of tensile to
compressive residual stresses in the
vicinity of the weld. As the martensite
fraction increased, the compressive
residual stresses also increased along
all three axes. Nevertheless, the significance of the amount of martensite at
the tension-compression reversion for
a particular welding consumable
should be examined more carefully.
Based on the findings in this work,
it is recommended that martensitic
transformation start temperature be
limited to below 350C. A higher Ms
temperature than 350C may lead to
tensile residual stresses due to the
thermal contraction of the weld after
the completion of martensitic transformation. By following this methodology, it is possible, in principle, to design cost-effective LTTW electrodes to
meet pre-established levels of compressive residual stress requirements
and at a predetermined depth and

width from the weld toe. Finally, the
effect of martensitic transformation
temperatures below 200C need to be
further investigated. Concerns about
incomplete martensitic transformation at room temperature must be
clarified such that a reduction in
martensite fraction in the weld does
not also result in reduced advantageous compressive residual stress created around the weld toe.
Conclusions
Some major reflections and conclusions achieved in this work are as
follows:
Despite similar heat input used
to weld with the newly developed LTT
welding wires, the welded joints
showed different transverse, out-ofplane distortions with respect to a
conventional welding wire, ER70S-3.
The LTTW consumables controlled
invariably better weld distortion.
Keeping all structural and welding parameters unchanged, the cumulative distortion was found to be
strongly affected by the Ms temperature and the content of the alloying
elements in the welding filler metal.
Alloys with similar Ms temperature exhibited different experimental
cumulative distortion and predicted
compressive residual stresses. This
observation points out that the Ms is
not a unique indicator for the prediction of the resulting transformationDECEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 469-s
WELDING RESEARCH
induced compressive residual stresses.
Alloys with higher chromium equivalent seemed to promote greater compressive residual stresses around the
weld toe as compared to the higher
nickel equivalent alloys for similar Ms
temperatures. The SO-200B weld joint,
in particular, presented the minimum
cumulative transverse distortion that
indicated the maximum compressive
residual stress. However, the effects of
chromium equivalent and nickel equivalent on distortion as well as residual
stresses should be further investigated.
The expansive strain measured for
all designed welding wires in the
dilatometric testing led to compressive
residual stresses (the highest modal
value at the order to 600 MPa) in the
vicinity of the welds as predicted by
Sysweld.
The stress evolution with time
study showed that increasing martensitic fraction can reverse tensile residual stresses to compressive stresses at
temperatures around and below the Ms
temperature.
Results of the Sysweld simulation
also showed that leaner and more economical welding wires, i.e., with tailored martensite faction in the weld
metal, can be designed to promote adequate compressive residual stresses
in welded structures.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of Saudi Aramco, Consulting Service Department (CSD) for
the conduction of this research program. The authors would also like to express their appreciation to Harald
Porzner and Brian Shula of ESI America
for their collaboration and great assistance in the numerical modeling of the
LTTW weld behavior using Sysweld. Finally, the authors appreciate the support received from the NSF-CIMJSEA
(Center for Integrative Materials Joining Sciences for Energy Applications).
References
1. Deng, D. 2009. FEM prediction of
welding residual stress and distortion in carbon steel considering phase transformation
effects. Materials and Design 30: 359366.
2. Zenitani, S., Hayakawa, N., Yamamo-
to, J., Hiraoka, K., Morikage, Y., Kubo, T.,

Yasuda, K., and Amano, K. 2007. Development of new low transformation temperature welding consumable to prevent cold
cracking in high strength steel welds. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
12(6): 516522.
3. Zenitani, S., Hayakawa, N., Yamamoto, J., Hiraoka, K., Shiga, C., Morikage, Y., Kubo, T., and Yasuda, K. 2002.
Prevention of cold cracking in high
strength steel welds by applying newly developed low transformation-temperature
welding consumables. 6th International
Trends in Welding.
4. Eckerlid, J., Nilsson, T., and Karlsson,
L. 2003. Fatigue properties of longitudinal
attachments welded using low transformation temperature filler. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 8: 353359.
5. Darcis, Ph.P., Katsumoto, H., Payares-Asprino, M. C., Liu, S., and Siewert,
T. A. November 2007. Cruciform fillet
welded joint fatigue strength improvements by weld metal phase transformations. Intl. Journal of Fatigue and Fracture of
Engineering Materials and Structures 31:
125136. DOI: 10.1111/j.14602695.2007.01205.x.
6. Martinez, F., and Liu, S. May 1620,
2005. Development of compressive residual stress in structural steel weld toes by
means of weld metal phase transformations. Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference on Trends in Welding Research.
7. Ohta, A., Watanabe, O., Matsuoka,
K., Siga, C., and Nishijima, S. 1999. Fatigue
strength improvement by using newly developed low transformation temperature
welding material. Welding in the World
43(6).
8. Ohta, A., Watanabe, O., Matsuoka,
K., Maeda, Y., Suzuki, N., and Kubo, T.
2000. Fatigue strength improvement of
box welds by low transformation temperature welding wire and PWHT. Welding in
the World 44.
9. Ohta, A., Suzuki, N., and Maeda, Y.
2001. Superior fatigue strength of welded
joints made with low transformation temperature welding material. National Institute for Materials Science, Japan.
10. Ohta, A., Maeda, Y., Suzuki, N.,
Watanabe, O., Kubo, T., and Matsuoka, K.
2002. Fatigue strength improvement of
box welds using low transformation temperature welding material. tripled fatigue
strength by post weld heat treatment.
Welding International 16(1): 4447.
11. Miki, C., and Anami, K. 2001. Improving fatigue strength by additional
welding with low temperature transformation welding electrodes. Steel Structures 1:
2532.
12. Ohta, A., Matsuoka, K., Nguyen, N.
T., Maeda, Y., and Suzuki, N. 2003. Fatigue
strength improvement of lap joints of thin
steel plate using low-transformation-temperature welding wire. Welding Journal

82(4): 78-s to 83-s.
13. Suzuki, N., Ohta, A., and Maeda, Y.
2004. Repair of fatigue cracks initiated
around box welds using low transformation temperature welding material. Welding
International: 112117.
14. Krauss, G. 1989. Steels: Heat Treatment and Processing Principles. ASM International. pp. 4387.
15. Martnez Dez, F. 2004. Development of compressive residual stress in
structural steel weld toes by means of weld
metal phase transformations. PhD thesis,
Colorado School of Mines.
16. Martnez Dez, F., and Liu, S. 2007.
Compositional boundary between primary
austenitic and ferritic Mn-Cr and Ni-Cr
steel weld metals. Materials Science and Engineering: 452453.
17. Payares-Asprino, M. C., Katsumoto,
H., and Liu, S. 2008. Effect of martensite
start and finish temperature on residual
stress development in structural steel
welds. Welding Journal 87(11): 279-s to
289-s.
18. Schaeffler, A. L. 1949. Constitution
diagram for stainless steel weld metal. Metal Progress 56(11): 680688.
19. Alghamdi, T., and Liu, S. 2010.
Low transformation temperature (LTT)
welding consumable: Different methods
for calculating martensitic transformation start temperature. Material Science
and Technology Conference, Houston, Tex.
20. Alghamdi, T., and Liu, S. 2012.
Newly developed low transformation temperature (LTT) welding consumables. Paper presented at the 14th Middle East Corrosion Conference (05-MS-01), Bahrain.
21. Ramjaun, T., Stone, H. J., Karlsson,
L., Kelleher, J., Moat, R. J., Kornmeier, J.
R., Dalaei, K., and Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H.
2014. Effect of interpass temperature on
residual stresses in multipass welds produced using low transformation temperature filler alloy. Science and Technology of
Welding and Joining 19: 4451.
22. Shirzadi, A., Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H.,
Karlsson, L., and Withers, P. J. 2009. Stainless steel weld metal designed to mitigate
residual stresses. Science and Technology of
23. Yamamoto, J., Hiraoka, K., and
Mochizuki, M. 2010. Analysis of martensite transformation behaviour in welded
joint using low transformation temperature welding wire. Science and Technology of
24. Mikami, Y., Morikage, M.,
Mochizuki, M., and Toyoda, M. 2009. Angular distortion of fillet welded T joint using low transformation temperature welding wire. Science and Technology of Welding
& Joining 14: 97105.
25. Self, A. J., Carpenter, B. F., Olson,
WELDING RESEARCH
D. L., and Matlock, D. K. 1986. Phase
transformations and alloy stability in FeMn-Ni-Cr-Al weld metal. Alternate Alloying for Environmental Resistance Warrenville: AIME-TMS.
26. Eichelmann, G. H., and Hull, F. C.
1953. The effect of composition on the
temperature of spontaneous transformation of austenite-to-martensite in 18-8type stainless steel. Transactions American
Society of Metallurgists 45: 7795.
27. Ghosh, G., and Olson, G. B. 1994.
Kinetics of F.C.C. to B.C.C. heterogeneous
martensitic nucleation-II, thermal activation. Acta. Metall. Mater. 42(10):
33713379.
28. Ghosh, G., and Olson, G. B. 2003.
The kinetics of lath martensitic transformation. Journal De Physique IV, France 112.
29. Sysweld Reference Manual. 2011. ESI
Group. ESI US, Inc. & ESI North America,
Inc., 32605 W. 12 Mile, Ste. 350, Farmington Hills, Mich., 48334-3379.
30. Goldak, J., Chakravarti, A., and
Bibby, M. 1984. A new finite element
model for welding heat sources. Metallurgical Transactions B 15B: 299305.
31. Francis, J. D. 2002. Welding simulation of aluminum alloy joints by finite ele-
ment analysis. Thesis for Master of Science

in Aerospace Engineering submitted to
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University.
32. Konig, G. 2003. Life Enhancement of
Aero Engine Components by Shot Peening:
Opportunities and Shot Peening. Edited by
Lother Wagner, DGM-Wiley-VCH, pp.
1322.
33. Richards, K. G. 1969. Fatigue
strength of welded structures. Cambridge:
The Welding Institute.
34. Welding Simulation-User Guide,
Sysweld, 2008. 2007. ESI US, Inc., and ESI
North America, Inc., 32605 W. 12 Mile, Ste.
350, Farmington Hills, Mich., 48334-3379.
35. Yasumasa, N., et al. 2005. Welding
distortion behavior of steel welds with
low-temperature transformation welding
wire. International Institute of Welding,
IIW-Doc. XV-119-05, Prague.
36. AlGhamdi, T., Liu, S., and Al-Abbas, F. 2012. Newly developed low transformation temperature (LTT) welding
consumables. Proceedings of the 14th Middle East Corrosion Conference & Exhibition,
Symposium on Materials Science, Paper 05MS-01-MECC, Manama, Kingdom of
Bahrain.
37. Alghamdi, T., and Liu, S. Development of phase transformationinduced compressive residual stresses
around the weld joint: Numerical modeling. Presented at the 10th International
Conference on Numerical Modelling of
Welding, Graz, Austria, Sep. 2426, 2012,
and published in Mathematical Modelling
of Weld Phenomena X, IOM Communications, 2013.
38. AlGhamdi, T. 2012. Development
of low transformation temperature welding (LTTW) consumables. PhD thesis, Colorado School of Mines.
39. Thomas, S. H. 2013. Analysis of low
transformation temperature welding
(LTTW) consumables Distortion control
and evolution of residual stresses. M.S.
thesis, Colorado School of Mines.
40. Thomas, S. H., and Liu, S. May
2014. Analysis of low transformation temperature welding (LTTW) consumables
Distortion control and evolution of stresses. Journal of Science and Technology of
Welding and Joining 19(5): 392401. Published online: DOI
10.1179/1362171814Y.0000000199.
Call for Papers

JOM-18
18th International Conference on Joining Materials
Institute for the Joining of Materials in association with the IIW
Helsingr, Denmark, April 2629, 2015

Download the brochure detailing topics, expenses, and registration form at:
www.aws.org/wj/JOM-18-CallForPapers.pdf
Review the brochure for conference topics. E-mail a title and short abstract of
your paper before Nov. 2, 2014. You will receive author guidelines for preparation
of the full paper by Nov. 30. The full paper for publication in the Conference Proceedings must be received by Jan. 15, 2015. E-mail to jom_aws@post10.tele.dk.
WELDING RESEARCH
Improvement of Process Robustness in

Weld Bonding of Galvanized DP780 Steel
A method based on variable electrode force was developed to widen the welding lobe in
weld bonding of advanced highstrength steels using a servo gun
BY Y. S. ZHANG, H. T. SUN, PEI-CHUNG WANG, AND G. L. CHEN
ABSTRACT
The development of the weld bonding process for lighter, stronger, and
more cost-effective vehicle structures requires a detailed understanding of
the process robustness (i.e., welding lobe, which is defined as the range of
the welding current and time under a given electrode force in which an
acceptable weld is produced) in weld bonding of steels. In this study, a variable electrode force and an orthogonal design-of-experiment approach were
employed to widen the welding lobe in weld bonding of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized DP780 steel. It was found that the optimized variable electrode force
not only significantly widened the weld lobe but minimized the weld expulsion. With application of a servo weld gun, weld bonding with a variable
electrode force can be readily applied to vehicle assembly.
KEYWORDS
Weld Bonding Welding Lobe Variable Electrode Force Weld Expulsion
Galvanized Steel
Introduction
The drive for increased fuel economy and mechanical performance requirements in the automotive industry make the higher strength and stiffness steel associated with weld bonding (i.e., a combination of resistance
spot welding (RSW) and adhesive
bonding) an attractive joining method
(Refs. 1, 2). It produces more desirable
joint performance when compared to
either spot welding or adhesive bonding (Ref. 3). It not only improves the
stiffness (Refs. 4, 5), crashworthiness
(Refs. 6, 7), and fatigue behavior (Ref.
8), but enables a reduction in the number of welds used in vehicle structures.
Therefore, this joining method has

been widely applied in vehicle body
structures such as front longitudinal
rails, A, B, and C pillars, and the bulkhead to inner wing. To facilitate the
use of weld bonding for lighter,
stronger, and more cost-effective vehicle structures, process guidelines for
weld bonding of structures are required (Refs. 911). The development
of these guidelines requires not only a
detailed understanding of the mechanical performance but also the manufacturing process of weld-bonded
joints. Epoxy-based structural adhesives have been widely employed for
automotive applications because they
have a relatively high modulus of elas-
ticity and strength (Refs. 12, 13).

However, weld bonding of advanced
high-strength steel with epoxy-based
adhesives is prone to exhibit weld expulsion as well as a narrow welding
lobe (Refs. 14, 15), which is defined as
the range of the welding current and
time under a given electrode force.
Figure 1 shows the weld lobe diagram
for producing an acceptable weld under a constant electrode force of 4.3
kN in resistance spot welding 1.6-mmthick hot-dipped galvanized (i.e.,
HDG60) DP780 steel. As shown in Fig.
1, the left boundary of the welding
lobe is determined by the combination
of the lowest weld current for a given
weld time required to produce the
minimum weld size (Ref. 16) while the
right boundary is determined by the
combination of the lowest weld current for a given weld time for which
weld expulsion occurs. The range of
the weld current (i.e., lobe width) under a given weld time and an electrode
force provides an indication of the robustness of the weld schedule. In general, the acceptable lobe width is 2 kA
according to the specification of American Iron and Steel Institute (Ref. 16).
If the welding lobe is too narrow, it
may result in a discrepant weld due to
typical process variations such as weld
current fluctuation or electrode cap
wear. Therefore, it is important to
have a wide welding lobe.
To improve the process robustness,
the weld current range can be widened
by extending the welding time (Ref.
17) or increasing the electrode force in
Y. S. ZHANG(zhangyansong@sjtu.edu.cn), H. T. SUN, and G. L.CHEN are with Shanghai Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacture for ThinWalled Structures,
Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, PR China. Pei Chung WANG is with Manufacturing Systems Research Lab, General Motors Research & Development
Center, Warren, Mich.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 2 Lapshear specimen configuration (dimensions in mm).
process robustness in weld

bonding of steel sheets.
The present study was
undertaken to apply a variable electrode force to
widen the welding lobe in weld bonding of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized DP780
steel. There are three main parts in
this study; the first presents the experimental procedure including materials, sample fabrication, measurment
of dynamic resistance, mechanical
testing, and design of experiment. In
the following section, the welding
lobes of resistance spot welding and
weld bonding of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized DP780 steel under a constant
electrode force were developed and a
method to optimize the variable electrode force that is used to widen the
welding lobe was proposed. Finally,
the effects of the optimized variable
electrode force on the dynamic resistance and process window were experimentally studied. This study provides
valuable guidelines to the application
of weld bonding to join the advanced
high-strength steels for vehicle manufacturing.
Fig. 1 Typical welding lobe of resistance spot weld

ing under a given electrode force.
resistance spot welding of steel sheets

(Ref. 18). However, in the case of weld
bonding, increasing the welding time
leads to excessive heat input because
of the presence of the adhesive layer,
i.e., greater faying interface resistance,
and consequently has little effect upon
widening of the welding lobe. Furthermore, the width of the welding lobe
exhibited little improvement by increasing the electrode force (Ref. 19).
Experimental observations indicated
that variable electrode force had an influence on the adhesive flow and thus
the contact resistance at the faying interfaces during the weld formation
process (Refs. 20, 21). Therefore, the
use of variable electrode force may inhibit weld expulsion and consequently
move the expulsion boundary to higher current levels. With the increased
application of servo welding guns in
the automotive body assembly
process, it may be feasible to apply
variable electrode force to improve the
Table 1 Chemical Compositions and Mechanical Properties of DP780 Steels

Chemical Composition (%)
Mechanical Properties
Steel
DP780
Mn
0.15
1.8
0.004 0.016
Si
Al
0.010
0.048
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
508
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
834
Elongation
(%)
26
Table 2 Material Properties of ToughenedEpoxy Adhesive (Ref. 22)

Adhesive
ToughenedEpoxy
Adhesive
Specic
Gravity
Viscosity
@50C (Pas)
Tensile Strength
(MPa)
Elongation at Break
(%)
1.051.20
3050
30
10
Experimental Procedure
Materials
Hot-dipped galvanized (i.e.,
HDG60) DP780 steel with 1.6 mm
thickness was used in this study. The
chemical compositions and mechanical
properties per our experimental measurements are listed in Table 1. A onecomponent, hot-cured, toughenedepoxy resin-based adhesive (Ref. 21),
was used in this study. Per the manufacturers data sheet, Table 2 lists the
material properties of the toughenedepoxy adhesive.
Specimen Fabrication
The weld-bonded specimen configuration shown in Fig. 2 was selected in
this study. The specimens were fabricated from 38 100 1.6-mm galvanized DP780 steel sheets. To simulate
resistance welding and weld bonding
on a vehicle body, an overlap area of
38 38 mm was selected. A spot weld
was centered on a 38-mm overlap region for the spot-welded and weldbonded specimens (Refs. 15, 22).
The weld bonding processes were
realized by use of a welding system
having an alternating current welding
machine. A Class II copper alloy with a
chromium and zirconium electrode
(Cr: >0.4%, Zr: 0.30.15%) was used in
the experiment. A fixture was used to
ensure consistent weld placement. The
weld nugget was measured from buttons remaining on the specimens that
were peel tested in a vise. In this
study, the target weld button diameter
was fabricated based on AWS recommended practice (Ref. 22).
The weld-bonded specimens were
WELDING RESEARCH
prepared as shown in Fig. 3 as follows:
1) Apply the adhesive through a
hand-held injection gun, on one of the
two contact surfaces. Bring the two
sheets together with an overlap distance of 38 mm and gap distance (i.e.,
adhesive layer thickness) of 0.3 mm
defined by a thickness gauge (illustrated in Fig. 3A);
2) After removing the gauge, the
specimens were spot welded using the
welding schedule recommended by the
weld specification (Ref. 22); and
3) The specimens were then cured
in an oven for 30 min at 180C per
manufacturers recommended procedures.
All finished specimens were examined for the presence of any defects.
Here it should be noted that step 3
was skipped in order to investigate the
mechanical properties of the weldbonded nugget (Refs. 15, 23).
Figure 4 shows the weld schedule
with three heat pulses under a constant
electrode force of 4.3 kN. Each pulse is
composed of a weld current of 8.5 kA
for the duration of 7 cycles (1 cycle = 20
ms) and a cool time of 1 cycle.
Fig. 3 Procedure of weldbonding: A

Apply adhesive and assemble; B
spot weld; C curing the samples in
the oven.
Measurement of Dynamic
Resistance
In order to investigate the effect of
adhesive on the resistance between
the steel sheets, dynamic resistance
was measured in this study (Refs. 24,
25). Figure 5A is a photo of the experimental setup used to measure the dynamic resistance. The weld current
and voltage data between the steel
sheets were collected using the welding monitor (MM-370A) made by MIYACHI. Figure 5B is a schematic of the
measurement method where RD is the
dynamic resistance between the top
and bottom sheets. Five replicates
were performed for each type of weld
bonding, and the average dynamic resistances were reported. A detailed description can be found in Ref. 15.
Mechanical Testing
Quasi-static tests were performed
by loading each specimen to failure in
a tensile tester according to the standard ASTM D1002-01 (Ref. 26) for determination of the joint strength. To
minimize the bending stresses inherent in the testing of lap shear speci-
Fig. 4 Weld schedule for resistance welding and weld bonding of 1.6mmthick galva
nized DP780 steel.
Table 3 The Orthogonal Experiment Levels and Factors for Tests of Variable Electrode Force Shown
in Fig. 9
Control Factors
I
Weld force during the rst half of the weld cycle, FW1 (kN)
Weld force during the second half of the weld cycle, FW2 (kN)
Forging force during the hold cycle, Ff (kN)
mens, shims were attached to both

ends of the specimen using masking
tape to accommodate the specimen
offset, as shown in Fig. 2. Load vs. displacement curves were obtained as the
specimens were loaded at a stroke rate
of 2 mm/min. Five replicates were performed, and the average peak loads
3.5
4.3
4.3
Levels
II
3.9
4.7
4.7
III
4.3
5.1
5.1
[called lap-shear strength (Ref. 27)]

were recorded. Postfailure analysis was
performed using optical microscopy to
study the failure mechanisms. During
the metallographic analysis, the polished specimens were etched with a
4% Nital reagent and the weld nuggets
were examined by optical microscopy.
WELDING RESEARCH
B
Fig. 5 Experimental schematic for measurement of the following: A Test setup; B dynamic resistance between the steel and adhesive in
weld bonding of 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel.
Fig. 6 Comparison of resistance welding and weld bonding of 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel: A Process window; B lobe
width (i.e., weld current range for an acceptable weld).
Design of Experiment
A design of experiment on the variable electrode force was performed to

obtain the maximum weld strength and
least weld expulsion. The Taguchi approach incorporating orthogonal arrays
was used to perform the systematic
evaluation of the variable electrode
force (Ref. 28). Table 3 shows the orthogonal array with regard to three factors and three levels L9, where the subscript 9 denotes the number of experiments to be performed. Based on the
output response (i.e., the peak load in
all nine investigated cases), optimization of the variable electrode force
would be achieved by Taguchi experimental design. The design of orthogonal techniques, which can greatly reduce
the time and increase the accuracy of
prediction, have been widely used in the
optimization of welding parameters
(Refs. 2931).
Welding Lobe
Tests were conducted to determine
the welding lobe (i.e., welding current
and welding time under a constant
electrode force) for weld bonding
(WB) of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized
DP780 steel. For the purpose of comparison, resistance spot welding
(RSW) of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized
DP780 steel under the same electrode
force was also performed and the results are shown in Fig. 6A, B. The results show the overall welding lobe
for weld bonding was smaller than
that for resistance spot welding and
the minimum current level for an acceptable weld at a given time occurred
at lower current levels for weld bonding vs. resistance spot welding. This
difference is primarily attributed to
the fact that the insulating adhesive
at the faying interfaces acted as a barrier for conducting the welding current, and consequently more joule
heat was generated in WB compared
to that of RSW. The excessive heat input during welding caused both the
minimum nugget boundary and the
expulsion boundary to move to lower
current levels. Moreover, the expulsion limit had a more remarkable
trend toward lower current levels
than the minimum nugget boundary
resulting in an overall narrower welding lobe for weld bonding.
The WB lobe width is less than the
acceptable lobe width of 2 kA (Ref.
16). These results indicate a fluctuation in welding current or weld cap
wear may cause discrepant welds in
production. Therefore, a method to
widen the welding lobe for WB of 1.6mm-thick galvanized steels is needed
and will be presented in the following
section.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 7 Schematic of the effect of welding time on the weld expansion

force resulting from the molten liquid under a given electrode force.
Fig. 8 Schematic of the variable electrode force in weld

bonding of 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel.
Fig. 9 Schematic of the variable force vs. time for the weld bonding
process.
Fig. 10 The effect of variable electrode force on the peak

load of weld bonded 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel.
Widening of the Welding Lobe

In regard to widening the welding
lobe, a key question is how to move
the expulsion boundary to the right.
Figure 7 shows a schematic of the expansion force from the metal due to
joule heating as a function of welding
time under a given weld current in resistance spot welding. As shown, the
expansion force increases with the
welding time. In the early stage of the
welding cycle, joule heat is generated
at the faying interface. As the welding
time is increased, the molten metal
initiates and grows, and as a result,
the expansion force from molten weld
metal increases. As the welding
process continues, a free volume expansion of the molten weld nugget is
constrained by the surrounding solid
metal, and consequently, the growth
of the weld nugget slows down.
Weld expulsion occurs when the

electrode force is less than the expansion force resulting from the weld initiation and growth of the molten liquid (Ref. 32). To avoid weld expulsion,
the electrode force needs to exceed the
weld expansion force. Based on this
hypothesis, a variable electrode force
was adopted as a means to contain the
weld expulsion in WB of 1.6-mm-thick
galvanized DP780 steel.
Figure 8 presents a schematic of the
variable electrode force in weld bonding of the steels. Experimental observations showed the weld bonding
process generally can be divided into
four stages: 1) adhesive squeeze-out;
2) weld nugget initiation; 3) weld
nugget growth; and 4) quenching of
the molten weld pool. Corresponding
to these stages, the electrode force can
be also divided into four stages: 1)
squeeze force, FS; 2) weld force during
the first half of the weld cycle, FW2; 3)

weld force during the second half of
the weld cycle, FW2; and 4) forging
force, Ff . The effects of variable force
and weld time on the weld initiation
and growth are described below.
As presented in Fig. 8, to start the
weld bonding process a squeeze force
(FS) is applied to the workpieces. This
electrode force thins out the adhesive
bondline thickness between the workpieces, thereby enhancing the intimate
contact of the workpieces at the faying
interface. Once the workpieces are in intimate contact, the electrode force is
lowered to FW1 prior to conducting the
weld current. This decrease in electrode
force would result in an increased contact resistance at the faying interface.
Then, an electrical current is applied
through the electrodes and flows
through the workpieces. As a consequence of the current flow, the temper-
WELDING RESEARCH
A
Fig. 11 Effect of electrode forces at each stage on the peak

load of weld bonded 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel.
ature of the workpieces increases due to

the joule heating. To ensure the intimate contact at the faying interface
generates sufficient joule heating, it
may be necessary for the squeeze force
(FS) to be greater than the force (FW1).
Once a weld nugget is initiated, it continues to grow in volume with additional weld cycles. If the molten weld nugget
becomes too large relative to the contact
area of the workpieces, which is determined by the electrode diameter and
applied force, weld expulsion would occur. Therefore, to avoid weld expulsion
the electrode force (FW2) is increased after the onset of weld initiation. FW2 is
generally greater than FW1. As the welding process continues, the weld nugget
grows to reach the desired size and then
the current is shut off to start the hold
cycle. A high electrode force, Ff, during
weld cooling is desirable to reduce weld
discrepancies such as cracks and porosi-
ty (Ref. 32).
Based on the
above analyses, the
electrode force may
be effective in enhancing the process
robustness in the
weld bonding
process. In the first
half of the weld cycle, the decrease in
electrode force
would increase the
dynamic resistance, and conseFig.12 Effect of an optimized variable electrode force on dynamic
quently the joule
resistance in weld bonding of 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel
heat. The increase
under the following weld currents: A 9 kA; B 10 kA.
in joule heat
would result in
occurrence of weld expulsion. Therethe minimum boundary of the weld
fore, to widen the welding lobe in WB,
lobe shifting to the left. Similarly, an
the electrode force at each stage
increase in electrode force in the first
should satisfy the following inequality:
half of the weld cycle would inhibit the
Table 4 The Orthogonal Layout for the Variable Electrode Force in Weld Bonding of 1.6mmthick
Galvanized DP780 steel
Electrode Force
(kN)
Failure Loads
(kN)
Weld Expulsion
Specimen #
FW1
FW2
Ff
FT
Yes or Little
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
3.5
3.9
4.3
3.5
3.9
4.3
3.5
3.9
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.3
4.7
4.7
4.7
5.1
5.1
5.1
5.1
4.3
4.7
4.7
5.1
4.3
4.3
4.7
5.1
20.100
18.822
18.021
19.017
18.560
19.634
19.111
17.771
18.143
Yes
Yes
Yes
Little
Little
Little
Little
Little
Little
II
21.162
Little
Optimized parameter
Ff and FW2 > FS > FW1
(1)
Optimization of Variable
Electrode Force
To describe the optimization of the
variable electrode force, a schematic of
the variable force vs. time is presented
in Fig. 9. As shown, the welding electrode forces FW1, FW2, and Ff correspond to time intervals, tW1, tW2, and tf,
respectively. Table 4 lists the orthogonal layout for the variable electrode
force, FW1, FW2, and Ff . Weld bonding
1.6-mm-thick galvanized DP780 steel
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 13 Effect of an optimized variable electrode force on: A Process window; B lobe width (i.e., weld current range) in weld bond
ing of 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel.
Fig. 14 Effect of variable electrode force and weld current on the weld quality of the weld bonded 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780
steel: A 9 kA; B 10 kA under constant electrode force; C 9 kA; D 10 kA under variable electrode force.
was conducted with a welding current

of 8.5 kA, a welding time of 7 cycles (1
cycle = 20ms), and a cooling time of 1
cycle for 3 pulses, as shown in Fig. 4. It
should be noted that the time of
changing electrode force at each stage
was set as 1 cycle. Figure 10 presents
the effect of variable electrode force
on the peak load for weld bonding of
1.6-mm-thick galvanized DP 780 steel.
The welded specimens were then mechanically tested. Referring to Table 4
and Fig. 10, specimen #6 had a combi-
Table 5 Analysis of the Peak Load of the WeldBonded 1.6mmthick Galvanized DP780 Steel
Factor
kT1, (kN)
kT2, (kN)
kT3, (kN)
FW1
FW2
Ff
58.228
56.943
57.568
55.153
57.211
54.809
55.798
55.025
56.802
nation of peak load and minimal weld

expulsion. For each factor (i.e., electrode force at each stage), the sum of
the peak load results of each corresponding level was calculated, ex-
pressed as kTi, (i = 1,2,3). The relationship between each factor and peak
load is illustrated in Table 5 and Fig.
11. Based on the results shown in Fig.
11, the optimized variable electrode
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 15 Effect of variable electrode force on the force dis

placement of weld bonded 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780
steel with various welding currents.
force is composed of FW1 = 3.5 kN, FW2

= 4.7 kN, and Ff = 4.3 kN.
The results presented previously indicate control of the electrode force is
critical to change the expulsion boundary and thus widen the welding lobe.
The electrode force at the various
stages plays a different role in nugget
formation. In regard to this, it is critical to decide a proper FW1 in terms of
high contact resistance. On the other
hand, determining a proper FW2 is critical for balancing the quick nugget expansion in terms of inhibiting weld
expulsion.
Effect of Optimized Variable

Electrode Force
To understand the effect of the optimized variable force on the dynamic
resistances and lobe width in weld
bonding of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized
DP780 steel, test results conducted
under variable force (i.e., FS = 4.3 kN,
FW1 = 3.5 kN, FW2 = 4.7 kN, and Ff = 4.3
kN) were compared with those of constant electrode force (i.e., FS = Fw1 = Fw2
= Ff = 4.3 kN).
Dynamic Resistance
Figure 12A, B presents the dynamic
resistance measurements taken during
weld bonding of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized DP780 steel for the welding currents of 9 and 10 kA, respectively. As
shown in Fig. 12A, the initial dynamic
resistance under the optimized variable electrode force is greater than
that of the constant electrode force. As
Fig. 16 Effect of electrode force on the failure mode of the

weld bonded 1.6mmthick galvanized DP780 steel with a
weld current of 9 kA under: A Constant; B variable elec
trode force.
the weld time was

increased up to 1 cycle, the dynamic resistance dropped drastically and then
started to increase. These results suggest the resistance at the faying interface dropped quickly and the bulk steel
resistivity became dominant because
of joule heat generation. As a result of
joule heating, the weld nugget initiated and grew. As the weld time was increased to 12 cycles, the dynamic resistance under the optimized variable
force started to drop to a greater degree than that under a constant electrode force. This is primarily attributed to an increase in electrode force.
Furthermore, the dynamic resistance
gradually decreased during the weld
formation indicating the successive
weld growth occurred with a lower
propensity for weld expulsion. This is
primarily because variation of dynamic resistance is closely related to weld
initiation and growth. Since the resistance of the molten steel increased
with the temperature, a sudden decrease in dynamic resistance toward
the end of welding indicates significant molten metal (i.e., weld expulsion) was expelled. By varying the electrode force, the joule heat can be properly controlled, and consequently minimize weld expulsion. The aforementioned results indicate the weld nugget
initiated early and the molten pool
was contained by the increased electrode force toward the later stage of
the weld bonding process. As a result,
the desired weld nugget and minimal
weld expulsion were obtained under
the optimized variable electrode force.

Similar results for a welding current of
10 kA are shown in Fig. 12B.
Lobe Width
The effect of the optimized variable
electrode force on the welding lobe in
weld bonding of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized DP780 steel is presented in Fig.
13. While the welding lobe under an
optimized variable electrode force was
shifted to higher welding currents, the
total welding current range for a given
weld time was significantly increased.
This is primarily attributed to the result of low FW1 and high FW2 electrode
forces. While low electrode force (FW1)
resulted in early weld nugget initiation
and growth, high electrode force (FW2)
contained the molten pool while
reaching the desired weld size. As
shown in Fig. 13, a higher weld current
is required under a given weld time
when using the variable electrode
force. The average weld current range
(Iexpulsion Imin.weld) is increased by about
50% (from 1.5 to 2.3 kA) when compared to the results under a given weld
time and a constant electrode force of
4.3 kN. These results indicate the
process window meets the criteria
[i.e., weld current range >2 kA (Ref.
16)] for resistance spot welding.
The results found in this study are
of particular importance in regard to
the process robustness for weld bonding of steels. To obtain the acceptable
WELDING RESEARCH
process window, the application of
variable electrode force is recommended. The comparative results made with
variable and constant electrode force
proved that variable electrode force
has a satisfactory effectiveness for improving process robustness. With the
application of the servo gun, weld
bonding with a variable electrode force
can be applied readily to the vehicle assembly. However, the potential negative influences of variable electrode
force on other aspects of the weld
bonded nugget deserve careful study
such as nugget thickness and indentation on the surface of the sheet metal.
Weld Quality
Figure 14 shows the effects of
welding current and variable electrode force on the weld quality of the
weld bonded specimens. As shown in
Fig. 14A, B, the weld size increased
from 6.90 to 7.03 mm as the welding
current increased from 9 to 10 kA for
the specimens made with constant
electrode force. While the weld size
increased, severe weld expulsion occurred for the welding current of 10
kA. On the other hand, the weld size
increased with an increase of the
welding current from 9 to 10 kA, but
little weld expulsion was observed for
the specimens made with variable
electrode force. Comparing the results shown in Fig. 14A, B with that
in Fig. 14C, D revealed the specimens
made with variable electrode force
had slightly larger weld sizes than
those made with constant force (i.e.,
about 5 and 8% increase for the welding currents of 9 and 10 kA, respectively). Furthermore, little weld expulsion was observed at a welding
current of 10 kA with variable electrode force. Careful examination of
the test results indicated the reduction in weld expulsion was primarily
attributed to the increase in electrode
force that contained the molten steel
during the welding process. Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 14, the weld
microstructure and indentation (or
metal thinning) of the welds made
with variable electrode force were
similar to that of the welds fabricated
with constant electrode force. These
results suggest the application of
variable electrode force would not
likely degrade the strength of the
weld bonded 1.6-mm-thick galvanized DP780 steel.

Weld Strength
To examine the effect of variable
electrode force on the strength of the
weld bonded specimens, quasi-static
tests were conducted and the results
are shown in Fig. 15. As shown, the
use of variable electrode force increased slightly the force displacement
of the weld bonded DP780 steel
sheets. To further understand the quasi-static characteristics of the specimens, the failure modes of the tested
spot-welded and weld-bonded specimens made with a welding current of 9
kA were examined and the results are
shown in Fig. 16. As shown, the specimens made with constant and variable
electrode forces had the weld buttonpullout (Ref. 33). Since both specimens had similar failure modes, the
increase in weld strength shown in
Fig. 15 was likely related to the increased weld size resulting from the
extra joule heat introduced by the
presence of the small electrode force at
the first stage of the weld cycles.
It is emphasized that the results
presented in this study only illustrate
the improvement of process robustness (i.e., weld lobe width) for weld
DP780 steel by applying the variable
electrode force. The electrode conditions and alignment, and metal fitup
reported here are not indicative of the
production environment in a vehicle
body shop. Nevertheless, the present
results showed process robustness in
weld bonding of high-strength steel
can be improved significantly. With
the current servo gun technology, the
variable electrode force method can be
readily implemented.
Conclusions
1. Variable electrode force was adopted to improve the process robustness
(i.e., widening the weld lobe) in weld
DP780 steel. It not only widened the
weld current range by approximately
50% but minimized the weld expulsion
under a given weld time.
2. Via a design of experiments, the
optimum variable electrode force under a given weld time for weld bonding
of 1.6-mm-thick galvanized DP780

steel was developed. The variable electrode force was composed of a squeeze
force of 4.3 kN, the electrode forces of
3.5 and 4.7 kN for the first and second
halves of the weld cycles, respectively,
and a hold force of 4.3 kN.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the
General Motors Collaborative Research Laboratory at Shanghai Jiao
Tong University and by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
50905111, No. 51275304).
References
1. Messler, R. W. 2002. Weld-bonding:
The best or worst of two processes. Industrial Robot 29(2): 138148.
2. Chang, B. H., Shi, Y. W., and Dong, S.
J. 1999. A study on the role of adhesives in
weld-bonded joints. Welding Journal 78(8):
275-s to 279-s.
3. Darwish, S. M. 2003. Characteristics
of weld-bonded commercial aluminum
sheets (B.S.1050). International Journal of
Adhesion and Adhesives 23(3): 169176.
4. Goncalves, V. M., and Martins, P. A. F.
2006. Joining stainless steel parts by
means of weld bonding. International Journal of Mechanics and Materials in Design 3:
91101.
5. Smith, S., Vrenken, J., and van der
Veldt, T. 2013. Structural performance of
adhesive and weld-bonded joints. Welding
in the World 57: 147156.
6. Xia, Y., Zhou, Q., Wang, P. C., Johnson, N. L., Gayden, X. Q., and Fickes, J. D.
2009. Development of a high-efficiency
modeling technique for weld-bonded steel
in vehicle structures, Part I. Static Experiments and Simulation. International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 29: 414426.
7. Xia, Y., Zhou, Q., Wang, P. C., Johnson,
N. L., Gayden, X. Q., and Fickes, J. D. 2009.
Development of a high-efficiency modeling
technique for weld-bonded steel in vehicle
structures - Part II; Dynamic experiments
and simulations. International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 29: 427433.
8. Long, X., and Khanna, S. K. 2008. Fatigue performance of spot welded and weld
bonded advanced high strength steel
sheets. Science and Technology of Welding
and Joining 13(3): 241247.
9. Hayat, F., Demir, B., Acarer, M., and
Aslanlar, S. 2010. Adhesive weld bonding
of interstitial free steel at spot welding for
automotive application. Kovove Materialy
WELDING RESEARCH
48: 137143.
10.McCleary, S., and Hulting, F. 1995.
Weld bonding of aluminum automotive
body sheet. SAE Technical Paper No.
950715, Detroit, Mich.
11. Xu, W., Chen, D. L., Liu, L., Mori, H.,
and Zhou, Y. 2012. Microstructure and mechanical properties of weld-bonded and resistance spot welded magnesium-to-steel
dissimilar joints. Materials Science and Engineering A 537: 1124.
12. Zhang, F., Yang, X., Wang, H.P.,
Zhang, X.W., Xia, Y. and Zhou, Q. 2013.
Durability of adhesively-bonded single lapshear joints in accelerated hygrothermal
exposure for automotive applications, International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 44: 130137.
13. Morin, D., Haugou, G., Bennani, B.,
and Lauro, F. 2011. Experimental characterization of a toughened epoxy adhesive
under a large range of strain rates. Journal
of Adhesion Science and Technology 25(13):
15811602.
14. Senkara, J., Zhang, H., and Hu, S. J.
2004. Expulsion prediction in resistance
spot welding. Welding Journal 83(4): 123-s
to 132-s.
15. Zhang, Y. S., Shen, J., Zhao, Y. Y.,
Wang, P.-C., and Carlson, B. 2013. Effect of
adhesive characteristics on the weld quality in weld bonding multiple steel sheets.
Welding Journal 92(12): 363-s to 374-s.
16. Tawade, G., and Boudreau, G. 2004.
Robust schedules for spot welding zinc
coated high-strength automotive steels.
Great Designs in Steel Seminar Presentations, American Iron and Steel Institute,
Livonia, Mich.
17. Kim, E. W., and Eagar, T. W. 1988.
Parametric analysis of resistance spot
welding lobe curve. International Congress
and Exposition, SAE Technical Paper No.
880278, Detroit, Mich..
18. Tang, H., Hou, W., Hu, S. J., and
Zhang, H. 2000. Forging force in resistance
to 183-s.
19. Cho, Y., Li, W., and Hu, S. J. 2006.
Design of experiment analysis and weld
lobe estimation for aluminum resistance
to 51-s.
20. Ma, C., Bhole, S. D., Chen, D. L.,
Lee, A., Biro, E., and Boudreau, G. 2006.
Expulsion monitoring in spot welded advanced high strength automotive steels.
Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 11(4): 480487.
21. Shen, J., Zhang, Y. S., Lai, X. M., and
Wang, P. C. 2012. Adhesive placement in

weld-bonding multiple stacks of steel
sheets. Welding Journal 91(2): 59-s to 66-s.
22. AWS D8.9M: 2012, Recommended
Practices for Test Methods for Evaluating the
Resistance Spot Welding Behavior of Automotive Sheet Steel Materials. Miami, Fla.:
American Welding Society.
23. Darwish, S. M. H., and Ghanya, A.
2000. Critical assessment of weld-bonded
technologies. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 105: 221229.
24. Rogeona, P., Carrea, P., Costaa, J.,
Sibilia, G., and Saindrenanb, G. 2008.
Characterization of electrical contact conditions in spot welding assemblies. Journal
of Materials Processing Technology 195:
117124.
25. Cho, Y., and Rhee, S. 2002. Primary
circuit dynamic resistance monitoring and
its application to quality estimation during
resistance spot welding. Welding Journal
81(6): 104-s to 111-s.
26. American Society for Testing and
Materials Standard D1002-01. 2001. Standard Test Method for Apparent Shear
Strength of Single-Lap-Joint Adhesively
Bonded Metal Specimens by Tension Loading
(Metal-to-Metal), ASTM International.
27. Aslanlar, S., Ogur, A., Ozsarac, U.,
Ilhan, E., and Demir, Z. 2007. Effect of
welding current on mechanical properties
of galvanized chromided steel sheets in
electrical resistance spot welding. Materials
and Design 28(1): 27.
28. Roy, R. 1990. Designs with Interactions, A Primer on Taguchi Method. New
York, N.Y.: Van Nostrand Reinhold. p. 61.
29. Rowlands, H., and Antony, J. 2003.
Application of design of experiments to a
spot welding process. Assembly Automation
23(3): 273279.
30. Cao, R., Yu, J. Y., Chen, J. H., and
Wang, P. C. 2013. Feasibility of cold-metaltransfer welding magnesium AZ31 to galvanized mild steel. Welding Journal 92(9):
274-s to 282-s.
31. Anawa, E. M., and Olabi, A. G.
2008. Using Taguchi method to optimize
welding pool of dissimilar laser-welded
components. Optics and Laser Technology
40(2): 379388.
32. Zhang, H., and Senkara, J. 2006. Resistance Welding: Fundamentals and Applications. CRC press, Taylor & Francis Group.
33. Radakovic, D. J., and Tumuluru, M.
2008. Predicting resistance spot weld failure modes in shear tension tests of advanced high-strength automotive steels.
Welding Journal 87(4): 96-s to 105-s.
Publish Your
Research in the
WELDING
Journal
and Youll Get
%
Your research sent to more

than 69,000 American
Welding Society members
Your published paper

posted on the AWS Web
site for FREE access
worldwide
(www.aws.org/w/a/
research/index.html)
The most recent Impact

Factor of 1.143
No page charges
Your paper printed in

full color
Electronic submission and

tracking through Editorial
Manager
(www.editorial
manager.com/wj)
Every research paper

published in the Welding
Journal since 1970
available FREE on the
AWS Web site
(www.aws.org/wj/
supplement/supplementindex.html)
far,
at the
By fa
r, the most people, a
least cost, will be exposed to
your research when you
publish in the world-respected
world-respected
Welding
Welding Journal
Supplying the World with

Stainless for over 90 Years
Arcos Stainless Steel

Electrodes
Arcos produces
oduces a comprehensive
compr
line of premium
emium bare
bar wire,
covered
ed and tubular stainless steel alloy welding
electrodes.
odes. Whatever your demanding application from
fr
nuclear or military
military construction to power generation or
petrochemical
ochemical plants, pipelines to car exhaust systems,
shipbuilding to paper production,
production, and so many others
Arcos
cos has the right stainless steel electrode
electrode to meet your
exacting requirements.
Flux cored wires

es for at and
horizontal or out-of-position
work, with or without shielding gas.
U Metal cored
ed wires for use in GTAW
TA
AW
AW,
W GMA
W,
AW and
submerged
ged arc
ar processes.
These outstanding, made-in-America Arcos

Arcos electrodes
electr
aree available in a broad
broad range of compositions
consisting of austenitic, duplex and superduplex,
superduplex,
martensitic and ferritic grades and are
are manufactured
manufactur
to your specic needs. They include:
For moree information on the entire

entire spectrum of
Arcos
cos stainless steel electrode
electr
products,
oducts, contact us at
1-800-233-8460 or visit our website at www
www.arcos.us
w.arcos.us.
w.
And, of course, all Arcos

Ar
electrodes aree backed by our
experienced team of technical specialists and customer
service professionals.
ofessionals.
U Covered
ed electrodes
electr
in -15, -16 and -17
coating options.
U Solid wires for use in GTAW
GT
TA
AW,
W, GMAW
AW and
submerged
ged arc
ar processes.
DISCOVER THE POSSIBLE.

Setting the benchmark for performance, strength and brilliant welds in aluminum
with our PowerWave power sources and SuperGlaze consumables.
AR14-24 The Lincoln Electric Co. All Rights Reserved.

Aws WJ 201412

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aws WJ 201412

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

December 2014

For Info, go to www.aws.org/adindex

For all of your rolling, forming

For Info, go to www.aws.org/adindex

December 2014 Volume 93 Number 12

Improving GMAW Efficiency through Shielding Gases

A Technology to Increase SAW Productivity

A Must in Todays Workplace: WeldQuality Monitoring

THE AMERICAN WELDER

Heat Tint Poses Corrosion Hazard in Stainless Steel

Welding Program Revitalized

Considerations for Selecting Shop Grinders

WELDING RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT

451s Friction Stir Welding of Extruded Powder

A Numerical Model for the Prediction of Phase

472s Improvement of Process Robustness in Weld

458s Low Transformation Temperature Welding

R. W. Roth (At Large), RoMan Manufacturing, Inc.

On the cover: A welding operator oversees a

C. Coffey, Lincoln Electric

Design and Production

Welding Journal (ISSN 00432296) is published monthly by

For Info, go to www.aws.org/adindex

AWS Continues to Innovate

When I took office as president of the

6 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2014

measurement of research impact.

For Info, go to www.aws.org/adindex

CTE Legislation Introduced in the Senate

GAO Directed to Assess Federal

White House Announces Three New

New STEM Resource Released

Export Import Bank Renewed

8 WELDING JOURNAL / DECEMBER 2014

For Info, go to www.aws.org/adindex

PRESS TIME NEWS

The new nuclear welding systems program at Aiken Technical

Oak Ridge National Laboratory Research

Recreational Vehicles Maker Expanding,

For Info, go to www.aws.org/adindex

Welding Filler Metals for

voestalpine Bhler Welding

Welding Filler Metals for

voestalpine Bhler Welding

EuroBLECH 2014 Attracts International Audience

EuroBLECH 2014 hosted 59,600 trade visitors and exhibitors from

EuroBLECH 2014, the 23rd International Sheet Metal

Czech Republic, Spain, Great Britain, Belgium, and the U.S.

Program Helps Employers Resolve Skill Shortages

Shiloh Industries Expands Stamping

For Info, go to www.aws.org/adindex

For Info, go to www.aws.org/adindex

NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

Posing for a group portrait at the Sheet Metal Welding Confer

One-hundred and eighty attendees recently gathered to

Washington State Community College

Welding instructor Josh Horner is shown in the beginning process

Dr. Bradley Ebersole, president of Washington State

ing program, and has numerous years of experience working

Union Pacific Railroad Invests $29 Million

United States Naval Ship Fall River

DECEMBER 2014 / WELDING JOURNAL 17

Stevens. The addition of Fall River to the fleet will enhance