MBA Semester 3

MB0050 Research Methodology- 4 Credits

(Book ID: B1206 )
ASSIGNMENT- Set 1

NAME: SREEKUMAR S NAIR

COURSE : MBA MARKETING

ROLL NO. : 541011102

1.a. Differentiate between nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales, with an example of
each.
Measurement may be classified into four different levels, based on the characteristics of order,
distance and origin.
1. Nominal measurement
This level of measurement consists in assigning numerals or symbols to different categories of a
variable. The example of male and female applicants to an MBA program mentioned earlier is an
example of nominal measurement. The numerals or symbols are just labels and have no
quantitative value. The number of cases under each category are counted. Nominal
measurement is therefore the simplest level of measurement. It does not have characteristics
such as order, distance or arithmetic origin.
2. Ordinal measurement
In this level of measurement, persons or objects are assigned numerals which indicate ranks with
respect to one or more properties, either in ascending or descending order.
Example
Individuals may be ranked according to their socio-economic class, which is measured by a
combination of income, education, occupation and wealth. The individual with the highest score
might be assigned rank 1, the next highest rank 2, and so on, or vice versa.

The numbers in this level of measurement indicate only rank order and not equal distance or
absolute quantities. This means that the distance between ranks 1 and 2 is not necessarily equal
to the distance between ranks 2 and 3.
Ordinal scales may be constructed using rank order, rating and paired comparisons. Variables
that lend themselves to ordinal measurement include preferences, ratings of organizations and
economic status. Statistical techniques that are commonly used to analyze ordinal scale data are
the median and rank order correlation coefficients.
3. Interval measurement
This level of measurement is more powerful than the nominal and ordinal levels of measurement,
since it has one additional characteristic equality of distance. However, it does not have an
origin or a true zero. This implies that it is not possible to multiply or divide the numbers on an
interval scale.
Example
The Centigrade or Fahrenheit temperature gauge is an example of the interval level of
measurement. A temperature of 50 degrees is exactly 10 degrees hotter than 40 degrees and 10
degrees cooler than 60 degrees.
Since interval scales are more powerful than nominal or ordinal scales, they also lend themselves
to more powerful statistical techniques, such as standard deviation, product moment correlation
and t tests and F tests of significance.

4. Ratio measurement
This is the highest level of measurement and is appropriate when measuring characteristics
which have an absolute zero point. This level of measurement has all the three characteristics
order, distance and origin.
Examples
Height, weight, distance and area.
Since there is a natural zero, it is possible to multiply and divide the numbers on a ratio scale.
Apart from being able to use all the statistical techniques that are used with the nominal, ordinal
and interval scales, techniques like the geometric mean and coefficient of variation may also be
used.
The main limitation of ratio measurement is that it cannot be used for characteristics such as
leadership quality, happiness, satisfaction and other properties which do not have natural zero
points.
The different levels of measurement and their characteristics may be summed up.
In the table below

Levels of measurement

Characteristics

Nominal

No order, distance or origin

Ordinal

Order, but no distance or origin

Interval

Both order and distance, but no origin

Ratio

Order, distance and origin

b. What are the purposes of measurement in social science research?

Measurement has several purposes
The researcher constructs theories to explain social and psychological phenomena (e.g. labor
unrest, employee satisfaction), which in turn are used to derive hypotheses or assumptions.
These hypotheses can be verified statistically only by measuring the variables in the hypotheses.
Measurement makes the empirical description of social and psychological phenomena easier.
Example When conducting a study of a tribal community, measuring devices help the
researcher in classifying cultural patterns and behaviors.
Measurement also makes it possible to quantify variables and use statistical techniques to
analyze the data gathered.
Measurement enables the researcher to classify individuals or objects and to compare them in
terms of specific properties or characteristics by measuring the concerned variables.
Examples
Comparison of male and female students performance in college exams or of length of stay on
the job of older and younger employees.

2. a. What are the sources from which one may be able to identify research problems?
The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires
evaluation of those alternatives against certain criteria, which may be grouped into:
A.
Internal Source Internal Criteria consists of:
1) Researchers interest: The problem should interest the researcher and be a challenge to him.
Without interest and curiosity, he may not develop sustained perseverance. Even a small difficulty
may become an excuse for discontinuing the study. Interest in a problem depends upon the
researchers educational background, experience, outlook and sensitivity.
2) Researchers competence: A mere interest in a problem will not do. The researcher must be
competent to plan and carry out a study of the problem. He must have the ability to grasp and
deal with int. he must possess adequate knowledge of the subject-matter, relevant methodology
and statistical procedures.
3) Researchers own resource: In the case of a research to be done by a researcher on his
won, consideration of his own financial resource is pertinent. If it is beyond his means, he will not
be able to complete the work, unless he gets some external financial support. Time resource is
more important than finance. Research is a time-consuming process; hence it should be properly
utilized.

B.

External Source

1) Research-ability of the problem: The problem should be researchable, i.e., amendable for
finding answers to the questions involved in it through scientific method. To be researchable a
question must be one for which observation or other data collection in the real world can provide
the answer.
2) Importance and urgency: Problems requiring investigation are unlimited, but available
research efforts are very much limited. Therefore, in selecting problems for research, their relative
importance and significance should be considered. An important and urgent problem should be
given priority over an unimportant one.
3) Novelty of the problem: The problem must have novelty. There is no use of wasting ones
time and energy on a problem already studied thoroughly by others. This does not mean that
replication is always needless. In social sciences in some cases, it is appropriate to replicate
(repeat) a study in order to verify the validity of its findings to a different situation.
4) Feasibility: A problem may be a new one and also important, but if research on it is not
feasible, it cannot be selected. Hence feasibility is a very important consideration
5) Facilities: Research requires certain facilities such as well-equipped library facility, suitable
and competent guidance, data analysis facility, etc. Hence the availability of the facilities relevant
to the problem must be considered.
6) Usefulness and social relevance: Above all, the study of the problem should make significant
contribution to the concerned body of knowledge or to the solution of some significant practical
problem. It should be socially relevant. This consideration is particularly important in the case of
higher level academic research and sponsored research.
7) Research personnel: Research undertaken by professors and by research organizations
require the services of investigators and research officers. But in India and other developing
countries, research has not yet become a prospective profession. Hence talent persons are not
attracted to research projects.
Each identified problem must be evaluated in terms of the above internal and external criteria and
the most appropriate one may be selected by a research scholar.

b. Why literature survey is important in research?

Frequently, an exploratory study is concerned with an area of subject matter in which explicit
hypothesis have not yet been formulated. The researchers task then is to review the available
material with an eye on the possibilities of developing hypothesis from it. In some areas of the
subject matter, hypothesis may have been stated by previous research workers. The researcher
has to take stock of these various hypotheses with a view to evaluating their usefulness for further
research and to consider whether they suggest any new hypothesis. Sociological journals,
economic reviews, the bulletin of abstracts of current social sciences research, directory of
doctoral dissertation accepted by universities etc afford a rich store of valuable clues. In addition
to these general sources, some governmental agencies and voluntary organizations publish
listings of summaries of research in their special fields of service. Professional organizations,
research groups and voluntary organizations are a constant source of information about
unpublished works in their special fields.

3.a. What are the characteristics of a good research design?

Characteristics of a Good Research Design

1. It is a series of guide posts to keep one going in the right direction.
2. It reduces wastage of time and cost.
3. It encourages co-ordination and effective organization.
4. It is a tentative plan which undergoes modifications, as circumstances demand, when the study
progresses, new aspects, new conditions and new relationships come to light and insight into the
study deepens.
5. It has to be geared to the availability of data and the cooperation of the informants.
6. It has also to be kept within the manageable limits

b. What are the components of a research design?

Components of Research Design1. Dependent and Independent variables: A magnitude that varies is known as a variable.
The concept may assume different quantitative values, like height, weight, income, etc.
Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of objectivity. However, the
qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the
attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in
decimal points are known as continuous variables. But, all variables need not be
continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called non-continuous
variables. In statistical term, they are also known as discrete variable. For example, age
is a continuous variable; where as the number of children is a non-continuous variable.
When changes in one variable depends upon the changes in one or more other variables,
it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the
changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or
exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a
dependent variable, while price is the independent variable.
And if, more variables determine demand, like income and prices of substitute commodity,
then demand also depends upon them in addition to the own price. Then, demand is a
dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables like own price,
income and price of substitute.
2. Extraneous variable: The independent variables which are not directly related to the
purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables.
For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is
relationship between childrens school performance and their self-concepts, in which case
the latter is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. In this
context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not
directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be
known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the
dependent variable is technically called as an experimental error. Therefore, a research
study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely
influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous variable or
variables.

3. Control: One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the
effect of extraneous variable. Technically, the term control is used when a researcher
designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous independent
variables. The term control is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in
experimental conditions.
4. Confounded relationship: The relationship between dependent and independent
variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable
is not free from its effects.
Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting
scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive
statement which relates a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research
hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable.
Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not be tested are predictive statements that are
not to be objectively verified are not classified as research hypothesis.
Experimental and control groups: When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an
experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as control group. On the other hand,
when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an experimental
group. In the afore-mentioned example, the Group A can be called a control group and the
Group B an experimental one. If both the groups A and B are exposed to some special feature,
then both the groups may be called as experimental groups. A research design may include
only the experimental group or the both experimental and control groups together.
Treatments: Treatments are referred to the different conditions to which the experimental and
control groups are subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with
regular earnings and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to
examine through an experiment regarding the comparative impacts of three different types of
fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers would be treated as the three
treatments.
Experiment: An experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical
hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, experiment may be conducted to
examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be
categorized into two types namely, absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If a
researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular
variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes
to determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the
experiment is known as a comparative experiment.
Experiment unit: Experimental units refer to the predetermined plots, characteristics or the
blocks, to which the different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such
experimental units must be selected with great caution.

4. a. Distinguish between Doubles sampling and multiphase sampling.

Double Sampling and Multiphase Sampling
Double sampling refers to the subsection of the final sample form a pre-selected larger
sample that provided information for improving the final selection. When the procedure is
extended to more than two phases of selection, it is then, called multi-phase sampling.

This is also known as sequential sampling, as sub-sampling is done from a main sample in
phases. Double sampling or multiphase sampling is a compromise solution for a dilemma
posed by undesirable extremes. The statistics based on the sample of n can be improved
by using ancillary information from a wide base: but this is too costly to obtain from the
entire population of N elements. Instead, information is obtained from a larger preliminary
sample nL which includes the final sample n. extraneousDouble sampling refers to the
subsection of the final sample form a pre-selected larger sample that provided information
for improving the final selection. When the procedure is extended to more than two phases
of selection, it is then, called multi-phase sampling. This is also known as sequential
sampling, as sub-sampling is done from a main sample in phases. Double sampling or
multiphase sampling is a compromise solution for a dilemma posed by undesirable
extremes. The statistics based on the sample of n can be improved by using ancillary
information from a wide base: but this is too costly to obtain from the entire population of N
elements. Instead, information is obtained from a larger preliminary sample nL which
includes the final sample n.

b. What is replicated or interpenetrating sampling?

Replicated or Interpenetrating Sampling
It involves selection of a certain number of sub-samples rather than one full sample from a
population. All the sub-samples should be drawn using the same sampling technique and
each is a self-contained and adequate sample of the population. Replicated sampling can
be used with any basic sampling technique: simple or stratified, single or multi-stage or
single or multiphase sampling. It provides a simple means of calculating the sampling
error. It is practical. The replicated samples can throw light on variable non-sampling
errors. But disadvantage is that it limits the amount of stratification that can be employed.

5. a. How is secondary data useful to researcher?

Use of Secondary Data
The second data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specific information
from secondary sources may be used for reference purpose. For example, the general statistical
information in the number of co-operative credit societies in the country, their coverage of villages,
their capital structure, volume of business etc., may be taken from published reports and quoted
as background information in a study on the evaluation of performance of cooperative credit
societies in a selected district/state.
Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of research
may be tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared with the national
averages; the performance indicators of a particular bank may be tested against the
corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole; and so on.
Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research project.
Such studies as securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis of companies, Trade in credit
allocation in commercial banks, sociological studies on crimes, historical studies, and the like,
depend primarily on secondary data. Year books, statistical reports of government departments,

report of public organizations of Bureau of Public Enterprises, Censes Reports etc, serve as
major data sources for such research studies.
Advantages of Secondary Data
Secondary sources have some advantages:
1. Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once their source of
documents and reports are located, collection of data is just matter of desk work. Even the
tediousness of copying the data from the source can now be avoided, thanks to Xeroxing
facilities.
2. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much cost.
Thus, the use of secondary data extends the researchers space and time reach.
3. The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific generalizations can be
made.
4. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study.
5. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on primary data. It
readily meets the need for additional empirical support. The researcher need not wait the time
when additional primary data can be collected.
Disadvantages of Secondary Data
The use of a secondary data has its own limitations.
1. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our specific needs. The
definitions adopted by those who collected those data may be different; units of measure may not
match; and time periods may also be different.
2. The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their accuracy we need to
know how the data were collected.
3. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in print,
because of time lag in producing them. For example, population census data are published tow or
three years later after compilation, and no new figures will be available for another ten years.
4. Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all social
scientists. Even if the location of the source is known, the accessibility depends primarily on
proximity. For example, most of the unpublished official records and compilations are located in
the capital city, and they are not within the easy reach of researchers based in far off places.
b. What are the criteria used for evaluation of secondary data?
Evaluation of Secondary Data
When a researcher wants to use secondary data for his research, he should evaluate them before
deciding to use them.
1. Data Pertinence
The first consideration in evaluation is to examine the pertinence of the available secondary data
to the research problem under study. The following questions should be considered.
What are the definitions and classifications employed? Are they consistent ?
What are the measurements of variables used? What is the degree to which they conform to the
requirements of our research?
What is the coverage of the secondary data in terms of topic and time? Does this coverage fit
the needs of our research?

On the basis of above consideration, the pertinence of the secondary data to the research on
hand should be determined, as a researcher who is imaginative and flexible may be able to
redefine his research problem so as to make use of otherwise unusable available data.
2. Data Quality
If the researcher is convinced about the available secondary data for his needs, the next step is to
examine the quality of the data. The quality of data refers to their accuracy, reliability and
completeness. The assurance and reliability of the available secondary data depends on the
organization which collected them and the purpose for which they were collected. What is the
authority and prestige of the organization? Is it well recognized? Is it noted for reliability? It is
capable of collecting reliable data? Does it use trained and well qualified investigators? The
answers to these questions determine the degree of confidence we can have in the data and their
accuracy. It is important to go to the original source of the secondary data rather than to use an
immediate source which has quoted from the original. Then only, the researcher can review the
cautionary ands other comments that were made in the original source.
3. Data Completeness
The completeness refers to the actual coverage of the published data. This depends on the
methodology and sampling design adopted by the original organization. Is the methodology
sound? Is the sample size small or large? Is the sampling method appropriate? Answers to these
questions may indicate the appropriateness and adequacy of the data for the problem under
study. The question of possible bias should also be examined. Whether the purpose for which the
original organization collected the data had a particular orientation? Has the study been made to
promote the organizations own interest? How the study was conducted? These are important
clues. The researcher must be on guard when the source does not report the methodology and
sampling design. Then it is not possible to determine the adequacy of the secondary data for the
researchers study.

6. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data
collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or
interviewing would be more appropriate.
Observation vs Interviewing as Methods of Data Collection
Collection of data is the most crucial part of any research project as the success or failure of the
project is dependent upon the accuracy of the data. Use of wrong methods of data collection or
any inaccuracy in collecting data can have significant impact on the results of a study and may
lead to results that are not valid. There are many techniques of data collection along a continuum
and observation and interviewing are two of the popular methods on this continuum that has
quantitative methods at one end while qualitative methods at the other end. Though there are
many similarities in these two methods and they serve the same basic purpose, there are
differences that will be highlighted in this article.
Observation
Observation, as the name implies refers to situations where participants are observed from a safe
distance and their activities are recorded minutely. It is a time consuming method of data
collection as you may not get the desired conditions that are required for your research and you

Observation vs Interviewing
Data collection is an integral part of any research and various techniques
are employed for this purpose.
Observation requires precise analysis by the researcher and often
produces most accurate results although it is very time consuming
Interviewing is easier but suffers from the fact that participants may not
come up with honest replies.

may have to wait till participants are in the situation you want them to be in. Classic examples of
observation are wild life researchers who wait for the animals of birds to be in a natural habitat
and behave in situations that they want to focus upon. As a method of data collection, observation
has limitations but produces accurate results as participants are unaware of being closely
inspected and behave naturally.
Interviewing
Interviewing is another great technique of data collection and it involves asking questions to get
direct answers. These interviews could be either one to one, in the form of questionnaires, or the
more recent form of asking opinions through internet. However, there are limitations of
interviewing as participants may not come up with true or honest answers depending upon
privacy level of the questions. Though they try to be honest, there is an element of lie in answers
that can distort results of the project.
Though both observation and interviewing are great techniques of data collection, they have their
own strengths and weaknesses. It is important to keep in mind which one of the two will produce
desired results before finalizing.

Interview format:
Interviews take many different forms. It is a good idea to ask the organisation in advance
what format the interview will take.
Competency/criteria based interviews:
These are structured to reflect the competencies or qualities that an employer is seeking for a
particular job, which will usually have been detailed in the job specification or advert. The
interviewer is looking for evidence of your skills and may ask such things as: Give an example of
a time you worked as part of a team to achieve a common goal.
Technical interviews:
If you have applied for a job or course that requires technical knowledge, it is likely that you will
be asked technical questions or has a separate technical interview. Questions may focus on your
final year project or on real or hypothetical technical problems. You should be prepared to prove
yourself, but also to admit to what you do not know and stress that you are keen to learn. Do not

worry if you do not know the exact answer - interviewers are interested in your thought process
and logic.
The Screening Interview:
Companies use screening tools to ensure that candidates meet minimum qualification
requirements. Computer programs are among the tools used to weed out unqualified candidates.
(This is why you need a digital resume that is screening-friendly. See our resume centre for help.)
Sometimes human professionals are the gatekeepers. Screening interviewers often have honed
skills to determine whether there is anything that might disqualify you for the position.
Remember they do not need to know whether you are the best fit for the position, only whether
you are not a match. For this reason, screeners tend to dig for dirt. Screeners will hone in on gaps
in your employment history or pieces of information that look inconsistent. They also will want to
know from the outset whether you will be too expensive for the company.
The Informational Interview:
On the opposite end of the stress spectrum from screening interviews is the informational
interview. A meeting that you initiate, the informational interview is underutilized by job-seekers
who might otherwise consider themselves savvy to the merits of networking. Jobseekers
ostensibly secure informational meetings in order to seek the advice of someone in their current
or desired field as well as to gain further references to people who can lend insight. Employers
that like to stay apprised of available talent even when they do not have current job openings, are
often open to informational interviews, especially if they like to share their knowledge, feel
flattered by your interest, or esteem the mutual friend that connected you to them. During an
informational interview, the jobseeker and employer exchange information and get to know one
another better without reference to specific job opening.