B2.1 How do our bodies resist infection?

Symptoms of an infectious disease are caused by damage done to cells by

microorganisms directly or the poisons (toxins) they produce.
In suitable conditions such as those inside a human body, microorganisms (e.g.
bacteria and viruses) can reproduce rapidly to produce very large numbers. (They
need a source of nutrients, warm, moist conditions so chemical reactions can take
place)
White blood cells are part of the bodys immune system and can destroy
microorganisms by engulfing and digesting them or by producing antibodies.
Antibodies recognize microorganisms by the antigens that they carry on their
surface, that different microorganisms have different antigens, and that a different
antibody is therefore needed to recognize each different type of microorganism.
They either mark the microorganism so the other white blood cells can engulf and
digest them, bind/neutralize the toxin or attach themselves to the bacteria and kill
them directly.
Once the body has made the antibody to recognize a particular microorganism,
memory cells can make that antibody again very quickly, therefore protecting
against that particular microorganism in the future (immunity).
B2.2 What are vaccines and antibiotics and how do they work?
Vaccinations provide protection from microorganisms by establishing memory cells
that produce antibodies quickly on reinfection.
A vaccine usually contains a dead or inactive form of a disease-causing
microorganism. (Immunization)
In order to prevent epidemics of infectious diseases, it is necessary to vaccinate a
high percentage of a population.
Vaccines and drugs (medicines) can never be completely risk-free, since individuals
have varying degrees of side effects to them. Due to genetic differences, people
react differently to drugs and vaccines.
Chemicals called antimicrobials (penicillin) can be used to kill, or inhibit, bacteria,
fungi and viruses. Antibiotics are a type of antimicrobial that are effective against
bacteria but not viruses.
Over a period of time bacteria and fungi may become resistant to antimicrobials.
Random changes (mutations) in the genes of these microorganisms sometimes lead
to varieties, which are less affected by antimicrobials. (Common cold) (MRSA)
To reduce antibiotic resistance we should only use antibiotics when necessary and
always complete the course.
New drugs and vaccines are first tested for safety and effectiveness using animals
and human cells grown in the laboratory.
Human trials may then be carried out: a. on healthy volunteers to test for safety b.
on people with the illness to test for safety and effectiveness.
Open-label: both the patient and research scientists are aware of the purpose of
the treatments.
Blind the patient doesnt know whether he is being given a placebo or not, this
eliminates psychologically convincing himself he feels better.
Double-blind human trials: Both the patient and scientist doesnt know who has

been given the placebo so that subconsciously their results arent influenced by
this knowledge.
B2.3 What factors increase the risk of heart disease?
The heart is a double pump in the circulatory system: the left side pumps
oxygenated blood around the body and the right side pumps deoxygenated blood
to the lungs to collect oxygen and remove CO2.
Heart muscle cells need their own blood supply since muscle cells in the heart need
a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients, and for their waste products to be
removed.
Blood vessels called the coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscles. If they
become blocked, a heart attack can happen.
Some heart muscle cells do not get the oxygen and nutrients they need
The structure of arteries, veins and capillaries is related to their function.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the body cells at high pressure so the
artery walls must be strong and elastic. Thicker than veins.
Veins carry blood back to the heart, at a lower pressure, therefore have a bigger
lumen to help blood flow more easily, also have valves to keep blood flowing in
correct direction.
Capillaries are tiny branches of arteries that have permeable walls so substances
can diffuse in and out of them. They supply nutrient, oxygen and take away CO2
waste. Their walls are one cell thick which increases the rate of diffusion by
decreasing the surface area.
Heart rate can be measured by recording the pulse rate. BPM (beats per minute)
Blood pressure measurements record the pressure of the blood on the walls of the
artery. It is given as two numbers, the higher value when the heart is contracting
and the lower value when the heart is relaxed.
Normal measurements for factors such as heart rate and blood pressure are given
within a range because individuals vary.
Fatty deposits in the blood vessels supplying the heart muscle can produce a heart
attack.
Fatty deposits build up in the coronary arteries, which restrict blood flow
A blood clot can form on a fatty deposit
The blood clot can block a coronary artery
Heart disease is usually caused by lifestyle factors and/or genetic factors. High
blood pressure increases the risk of heart disease.
Lifestyle factors that can increase the risk of heart disease include
a) Poor diet
b) Stress
c) Cigarette smoking
d) Misuse of drugs
Carbon monoxide reduces the amount of oxygen the blood can transport
Regular moderate exercise reduces the risk of developing heart disease.
Factors that can increase the risk of heart disease are identified via epidemiological
and large-scale genetics studies.
Misuse of drugs (eg Ecstasy, cannabis, nicotine and alcohol) can have an adverse
effect on health, including heart rate and blood pressure, increasing the risk of a
heart attack.

B2.4 how do our bodies keep a healthy water balance?

Nervous and hormonal communication systems are involved in maintaining a
constant internal environment (homeostasis).
Automatic control systems throughout the body maintain a range of factors at
steady levels and that this is required for cells to function properly.
These control systems have:
a) Receptors to detect changes in the environment
b) Processing centers to receive information and coordinate responses automatically
c) Effectors to produce the response
The principle of negative feedback. Negative feedback keeps our body temperature
at a constant 37C. If we get too hot, blood vessels in our skin vasodilate (become
larger) and we lose heat and cool down. If we get too cold blood vessels in our skin
vasoconstrict (become smaller), we lose less heat and our body warms up.
Negative feedback makes sure this happens.
The other factors also controlled in the body by negative feedback are:
Blood oxygen levels
Salt levels
Negative feedback between the effector and the receptor of a control system
reverses any changes to the systems steady state.
A balanced water level is important for maintaining the concentration of cell
contents at the correct level for cell activity.
Water levels are controlled by balancing gains from drinks, food and respiration and
losses through sweating, breathing, faeces and the excretion of urine.
The kidneys play a vital role in balancing levels of water, waste and other chemicals
in the blood.
The kidneys balance water levels by producing dilute or concentrated urine as a
response to concentration of blood plasma, which is affected by external
temperature, exercise level and intake of fluids and salt.
Concentration of urine is controlled by a hormone called ADH, which is released into
the bloodstream by the pituitary gland.
ADH secretion is controlled by negative feedback.
Alcohol results in the production of a greater volume of more dilute urine, due to
ADH suppression, which can lead to dehydration and adverse effects on health.
The drug Ecstasy results in a smaller volume of less dilute urine, due to increased
ADH production

B3.1 Systems in balance how do different species depend on each other?

a species is a group of organisms that can breed together to produce fertile
offspring.
Adaptation of living organisms to their environment increases the species chance of
survival by making it more likely that individuals will survive to reproduce.
Cactus: Rounded shape, smaller surface area, reduces water loss. Thick waxy layer
(cuticle) spiny leaves to reduce water loss. Store water in their thick stem. Shallow
extensive roots ensure water is absorbed quickly over a large area.
Living organisms are dependent on the environment and other species for their
survival.
There is competition for resources between different species of animals or plants in
the same habitat.
One species in a food web impact on other species that are part of the same food
web.
Interdependence of living organisms by using food webs.
a change in the environment may cause a species to become extinct, for example,
if:
a) The environmental conditions change beyond its ability to adapt
b) A new species that is a competitor, predator or disease organism of that species
is introduced
c) Another species (animal, plant or microorganism) in its food web becomes extinct
Nearly all organisms are ultimately dependent on energy from the Sun. Plants
absorb a small percentage of the Suns energy for the process of photosynthesis.
This absorbed energy is stored in the chemicals, which make up the plants cells.
Energy is transferred between organisms in an ecosystem:
a) When organisms are eaten
b) When dead organisms and waste materials are fed on by decay organisms
(decomposers and detritivores)
Energy passes out of a food chain at each stage via heat, waste products and
uneaten parts, limiting the length of food chains.
Efficiency = energy transferred/energy available x 100
The Carbon Cycle: carbon is recycled through the environment to include the
processes of combustion, respiration, photosynthesis and decomposition.

1. Carbon enters the atmosphere as

carbon dioxide from respiration
and combustion.
2. It is absorbed by producers to
make carbohydrates in
photosynthesis.
3. Animals feed on the plant passing
the carbon compounds along the
food chain. Most of the carbon
they consume is exhaled as
carbon dioxide formed during
respiration. The animals and
plants eventually die.
4. The dead organisms are eaten by
decomposers and the carbon in
their bodies is returned to the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide. In
some conditions decomposition is
blocked. The plant and animal
material may then be available as fossil fuel in the future for combustion.
5. In the sea, marine animals may convert some of the carbon in their diet to
calcium carbonate, which is used to make their shells. Over time the shells of
dead organisms collect on the seabed and form limestone. Due to Earth
movements this limestone may eventually become exposed to the air where it's
weathered and the carbon is released back into the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide. Volcanic action may also release carbon dioxide.
Making nitrogen compounds from nitrogen in the air is called nitrogen fixation.
Nitrogen fixation happens in three ways:

The energy in lightning splits nitrogen molecules into individual nitrogen atoms.
These react with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen oxides are washed to
the ground by rain, where they form nitrates in the soil
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in the soil and in the root nodules of leguminous
plants, such as peas, beans and clover, fix nitrogen gas into nitrogen compounds
The Haber process is used by industry to produce ammonia from nitrogen and
hydrogen. Ammonia is used to make nitrogen compounds that are used as fertilizer
by farmers.

Nitrogen is recycled through the environment in the processes of:

a) Nitrogen fixation to form nitrogen compounds including nitrates (HT only)

b) Conversion of nitrogen compounds to protein in plants and animals (HT only)
c) Transfer of nitrogen compounds through food chains
d) Excretion, death and decay of plants and animals resulting in release of nitrates
into the soil
e) Uptake of nitrates by plants
f) Denitrification (HT only)
The role of microorganisms in the nitrogen cycle, including decomposition, nitrogen
fixation and denitrification.
Environmental change can be measured using non-living indicators;
Nitrate levels (increase in nitrate levels in water indicates polluted water

(sewage/fertilizers)
Temperature (over long periods of time could indicate climate change/global
warming)
Carbon dioxide levels. (Increase in CO2 could indicate global warming, too many
fossil fuels being burnt)
Climate and environmental change can be measured using living indicators;
Phytoplankton (populations increase when nitrate and phosphate levels increase
(algal bloom), this is used to indicate water pollution)
Lichens (sensitive to levels of sulphur dioxide, indicate air pollution from cars/power
stations)
Aquatic river organisms (fly nymphs.), (bacterial population increases when raw
sewage enters water, and because these fly nymphs are sensitive to oxygen levels
in water, clean water will contain more of them.
B3.2 How has life on Earth evolved?
Life on Earth began approximately 3500 million years ago.
Life on Earth (including species that are now extinct) evolved from very simple living
things.
There is variation between individuals of the same species and that some of this
variation is genetic so can be passed on to offspring.
Genetic variation is the result of changes that occur in genes (mutations).
Mutated genes in sex cells can be passed on to offspring and may occasionally
produce new characteristics.
The process of natural selection in terms of the effects of genetic variation and
competition on survival and reproduction, leading to an increase in the number of
individuals displaying beneficial characteristics in later generations.
The combined effect of mutations, environmental changes, natural selection and
isolation can produce new species in the process of evolution.
Evidence for evolution is provided by the fossil record and from analysis of
similarities and differences in the DNA of organisms
Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection was the result of many
observations and creative thought and why it is a better scientific explanation than
Lamarcks (eg fits with advances in understanding of genetics, no evidence or
mechanism for inheritance of acquired characteristics).
B3.3 What is the importance of biodiversity?
Organisms are classified into groups according to similarities and differences in
characteristics including:
a) Physical features (e.g. flowers in flowering plants and the skeleton in vertebrates)
b) DNA
Organisms are classified at different levels, and that these levels can be arranged in
an order progressing from large groups containing many organisms with a small
number of characteristics in common (eg kingdom) to smaller groups containing
fewer organisms with more characteristics in common (eg species).
The classification of living and fossil organisms can help to:
a) Make sense of the enormous diversity of organisms on Earth

 b) Show the evolutionary relationships between organisms

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth including:

a) The number of different species
b) The range of different types of organisms, eg plants, animals and microorganisms
c) The genetic variation within species

Biodiversity is important for the future development of food crops and medicines.
The rate of extinction of species is increasing and why this is likely to be due to
human activity.
Maintaining biodiversity to ensure the conservation of different species is one of the
keys to sustainability.
Sustainability means meeting the needs of people today without damaging the
Earth for future generations.
Large-scale monoculture crop production is not sustainable because it does not
maintain biodiversity.
Sustainability can be improved, for example in the use of packaging materials, by
considering the materials used, energy used and pollution created.
It is preferable to decrease the use of some materials, including packaging
materials, even when they are biodegradable, because of:
a) Use of energy in their production and transport
b) Slow decomposition in oxygen deficient landfill sites.

Unit B4.1 How do chemical reactions take place in living things?

The basic processes of life carried out by all living things depend on chemical
reactions within cells that require energy released by respiration
Understand the role of photosynthesis in making food molecules and energy
available to living organisms through food chains.
Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions that use energy from sunlight to
build large food molecules in plant cells and some microorganisms (eg
phytoplankton)
Respiration as a series of chemical reactions that release energy by breaking down
large food molecules in all living cells (transformation of food into chemical energy
for the body)
Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions
Cells make enzymes according to the instructions carried in genes
Molecules have to be the correct shape to fit into the active site of the enzyme (the
lock and key model)
Enzymes need a specific constant temperature to work at their optimum, and that
they permanently stop working (denature) if the temperature is too high
Enzyme activity at different temperatures is a balance between:
a) Increased rates of reaction as temperature increases
b) Changes to the active site at higher temperatures, including denaturing
Changes in pH also alter an enzymes shape. Different enzymes work best at

different pH values. The optimum pH for an enzyme depends on where it normally

works. For example, intestinal enzymes have an optimum pH of about 7.5.
Enzymes in the stomach have an optimum pH of about 2.

B4.2 How do plants make food?

Photosynthesis reaction word equation:

Carbon dioxide + water ==light energy==> glucose + oxygen
Photosynthesis reaction symbol equation:
6CO2 + 6H2O ==light energy==> C6H12O6 + 6O2

The main stages of photosynthesis:

a) Light energy absorbed by the green chemical chlorophyll
b) Energy used to bring about the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to
produce glucose (a sugar)
c) Oxygen produced as a waste product
Glucose may be:
a) Converted into chemicals needed for growth of plant cells, for example cellulose,
protein and chlorophyll
b) Converted into starch for storage
c) Used in respiration to release energy
The structure of a typical plant cell contains; Chloroplasts, Cell membrane, Nucleus,
Cytoplasm, Mitochondria, Vacuole and a Cell wall.
The functions of the structures in a typical plant cell that have a role in
photosynthesis, including:
a) Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and the enzymes for the reactions in
photosynthesis
b) Cell membrane allows gases and water to pass in and out of the cell freely while
presenting a barrier to other chemicals
c) Nucleus contains DNA which carries the genetic code for making enzymes and
other proteins used in the chemical reactions of photosynthesis
d) Cytoplasm where the enzymes and other proteins are made
Minerals taken up by plant roots are used to make some chemicals needed by cells,
including nitrogen from nitrates to make proteins
Diffusion is the passive overall movement of molecules from a region of their higher
concentration to a region of their lower concentration
The movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide in and out of leaves during
photosynthesis occurs by diffusion.
Osmosis (a specific case of diffusion) is the overall movement of water from a dilute
to a more concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane
The movement of water into plant roots occurs by osmosis
Active transport is the overall movement of chemicals across a cell membrane from
a region of lower concentration to higher concentration requiring energy from

respiration
Active transport is used in the absorption of nitrates by plant roots

The rate of photosynthesis may be limited by:

a) Temperature
b) Carbon dioxide
c) Light intensity
Techniques used in fieldwork to investigate the effect of light on plants, include:
a) Using a light meter
b) Using a quadrat
c. Using an identification key

1
B4.3 How do living organisms obtain energy?
All living organisms require energy released by respiration for some chemical
reactions in cells, including chemical reactions involved in:

a) Movement
b) Synthesis of large molecules
c) Active transport
Synthesis of large molecules includes:
a) Synthesis of polymers required by plant cells such as starch and cellulose from
glucose in plant cells
b) Synthesis of amino acids from glucose and nitrates, and then proteins from amino
acids in plant, animal and microbial cells
Aerobic respiration takes place in animal and plant cells and some microorganisms,
and requires oxygen
Aerobic respiration word equation:
Glucose + oxygen ==> carbon dioxide + water (+ energy released)
Aerobic respiration symbol equation:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ==> 6CO2 + 6H2O

Anaerobic respiration takes place in animal, plant and some microbial cells in
conditions of low oxygen or absence of oxygen, to include:
a) Plant roots in waterlogged soil
b) Bacteria in puncture wounds
c) Human cells during vigorous exercise

Anaerobic respiration in animal cells and some bacteria, word equation:

Glucose ==> lactic acid (+ energy released)
Anaerobic respiration in plant cells and some microorganisms including yeast,
Glucose ==> ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ energy released)
Aerobic respiration releases more energy per glucose molecule than anaerobic
respiration

The structure of typical animal and microbial cells (bacteria and yeast) limited to:

a) Nucleus
b) Cytoplasm
c) Cell membrane d. mitochondria (for animal and yeast cells)
e) Cell wall (for yeast and bacterial cells)
f) Circular DNA molecule (for bacterial cells)

The functions of the structures in animal, plant, bacteria and yeast cells that have a
role in respiration, including:
Mitochondria contain enzymes for the reactions in aerobic respiration (in animals,
plants and yeast)
b) Cell membrane allows gases and water to pass in and out of the cell freely while
presenting a barrier to other chemicals
c) Nucleus or circular DNA in bacteria contains DNA which carries the genetic code
for making enzymes used in the chemical reactions of respiration
d) Cytoplasm where enzymes are made and which contains the enzymes used in
anaerobic respiration
Examples of the applications of the anaerobic respiration of microorganisms are the
production of biogas and fermentation in bread making and alcohol production.
Plants use glucose in many ways:

Respiration
Converted into cellulose for making cell walls
Combined with nitrogen to make amino acids which form proteins
Turned into starch and stored for the winter