Members of the Architectural Cladding Association

Histon Concrete Products

Wisbech Road, Littleport, Ely Cambs CB6 1RA
Tel: 01353 861416
Fax: 01353 862165
Email: sales@histonconcrete.co.uk
www.histonconcrete.co.uk
Redland Precast Concrete Products
15/F Kaiseng Commercial Centre,
4-6 Hankow Road,TST, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Tel: 00 852 2590 0328
Fax: 00 852 2562 9428
Email: master@redlandprecast.com.hk
www.redlandprecast.com.hk

CAST IN
CONCRETE
A guide to the design of precast concrete and reconstructed stone
By Susan Dawson

Techrete (UK)
Station Road, Scawby, Brigg, Lincs DN20 9AA
Tel: 01652 659454
Fax: 01652 659458
Email:reception@techrete.com
www.techrete.com
The Marble Mosaic Company
Winterstoke Road,Weston-super-Mare BS23 3YE
Tel: 01934 419941
Fax: 01934625479
Email: sales@marble-mosaic.co.uk
www. marble-mosaic .co.uk
Trent Concrete
Colwick, Nottingham NG4 2BG
Tel: 0115 987 9947
Fax: 0115 987 9948
Email: quality@trentconcrete.co.uk
www. trentconcrete.co.uk
Architectural Cladding Association
60 Charles Street, Leicester, LE1 1FB
Tel: 0116 253 6161
Fax: 0116 251 4568
Email: aca@britishprecast.org
www. britishprecast.org/aca

The Architectural Cladding Association

CAST IN
CONCRETE
A guide to the design of precast concrete and reconstructed stone

By Susan Dawson

The Architectural Cladding Association

A short history of precast materials

Foreword

Foreword

A short history of

Foreword
For me, concrete has its own rhetoric. In architectural and structural terms it is unique. It can
achieve structural strength with very low porosity and can be moulded to create threedimensional shapes and finished with textures which range from rugged to highly refined and
polished.The practice has explored the potential of precast concrete; at St. Johns College,
Oxford, we created an underworld of enclosed spaces, suggesting the idea that they were hewn
out of the ground; precast concrete was the material which allowed us to achieve this.
Concrete has a complex cultural status. It was a key material in the early days of the Modern
Movement; Frank Lloyd Wright used desert concrete for the base of Taliesin in Arizona.These
days Tadao Ando has demonstrated its potential for sculptural form; it is also now associated with
the industrial aesthetic of conspicuous thrift.
Yet it suffered from decades of unpopularity.Why was this? It was associated with cheap, badly
designed social housing, poorly specified and not designed to cope with problems of water runoff.The key to weathering is to use cornices or concealed drainage, as we did in our office
building at Crown Place, to throw water back from the faade and to prevent rain falling on a
horizontal surface and draining onto a vertical surface.
Precast concrete is not a substitute.The term reconstructed, although used commonly to
describe a finish with similar characteristics to stone, implies a material pretending to be
something else. Precast is more than that; it is a refinement of concrete, achieving a dimensional
precision and surface quality by off site manufacture, enabling architects to create components in
a way that no other material allows them to do.
Architectural solutions arise from the potential of a material: in the case of precast it is its
three dimensional adaptability, its strength, and the quality of its surface textures. Understanding
these potentialities is the key to achieving an architectural language of concrete.
Sir Richard MacCormac

The Architectural Cladding Association

The Architectural Cladding Association (ACA) is a product association within the national body of
the precast industry, the British Precast Concrete Federation.
The members of the ACA are the major providers of precast concrete cladding and special
architectural products for structural applications in the UK, together with one international
member who is based in Hong Kong.The members are fully resourced and experienced to
provide a complete service of advice, design development, manufacture and site erection.
ACA member companies lead the way in top quality factory engineered concrete solutions.
Precast fabrication is safe and sustainable. Both cost and programme are predictable and the use
of just in time delivery is much faster than traditional construction methods.
The overriding objective of ACA members is to provide quality with true value.
Members of the Architectural Cladding Association
Histon Concrete Products
Redland Precast Concrete Products, Hong Kong
Techrete (UK)
The Marble Mosaic Company
Trent Concrete
Published by the Architectural Cladding Association,
60 Charles Street, Leicester, LE1 1FB
Tel: 0116 253 6161
ISBN: 0 9536773 3 8
Susan Dawson, 2003
All rights, including translation, reserved. Except for fair copying, no part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written consent of the ACA. Every
effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed in this
publication provide a safe and accurate guide; however no liability or responsibility of any kind can
be accepted by the publishers, the authors or the Architectural Cladding Association.
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Brown & Son, Hampshire.

An imprint of the British Precast Concrete Federation.

ACA acknowledges the valued support of the British Cement Association in the publication of this book.

Contents

Contents
6

Introduction

Case studies
44 Armagh arts centre, Northern Ireland

Design

48 St George Wharf, London

Principles of faade design

52 Merrill Lynch headquarters, London

Design and the manufacturing process

57 Clearwater Court, Reading

12 Structural design

60 Central Library, Hong Kong

13 Transport restrictions

62 St Anthonys primary school, Singapore

14 Fixings

64 Office campus, Leatherhead, Surrey

17 Joints and sealants

66 Office buildings, Slough

18 Design development and drawing process

68 St Johns College, Oxford

19 Precast concrete finishes

71 The Lawn Building, Paddington Station, London

21 Brick and stone-faced precast concrete

74 Office conversion, London

76 Paribas headquarters, London

Design for construction

78 Office building, Paternoster Square, London

22 The construction process

80 Toyota headquarters, Epsom, Surrey

25 Precast and sustainability

82 Housing,Timber Wharf, Manchester

26 Health and safety issues

84 Sainsbury headquarters, Holborn, London

86 North stand, Ipswich Football Club

Weathering
27 Causes and types of weathering
28 Weathering and design

87 Extension, Royal College of Obstetricians &

Gynaecologists, London
88 Office building, Crown Place, London
89 Swimming pool, Oxfordshire

A short history of precast materials

33 The beginnings of concrete
34 The discovery of Portland cement
36 The development of precast materials

93 J C Decaux headquarters and warehouse, London

95 Bibliography
96 Acknowledgements

Introduction

A short history of

Introduction
Precast concrete is a building material with gravitas. It has
solidity and strength, factors which recall traditional
concepts of enclosure, yet it has all the advantages of a
modern prefabricated product.
Precast is uniquely versatile. Its composition, based on
stone aggregate mixes, can be altered to produce a variety
of colours, textures and finishes; in addition, as a cast
product with high strength, it can be shaped and used as
cladding panels to enclose a building, used to create
loadbearing structural panels and components, whole
structures or hybrid structures.
The most common use of precast on buildings is as
6

cladding panels and this is reflected in the contents of this

book. As a structural material, precast is ideal for this use
it can be shaped to form mullions and spandrels or
storey-height panels. In most cases precast cladding panels
are cast from a mix which will produce the appearance
and texture of natural stone a specification generally
known as reconstructed stone. Such mixes make the
material acceptable in environmentally sensitive areas
where new projects are required to blend in with existing
traditional stone buildings. Precast cladding panels can also
be faced with brick, natural stone and terracotta tiles.

Precast cladding panels and components offer many practical advantages compared to other materials:
quality achieved by prefabricated manufacture in
controlled environment, unaffected by weather and labour
shortages.This permits rigorous selection and inspection
before installation, removing causes of delay on site
prefabrication and phased delivery to site accelerates
the construction programme and achieves a weathertight
building enclosure at the earliest opportunity

on-site wet trades are minimised; if internal precast

elements are prefinished, wet trades can virtually be
eliminated

site installation by skilled teams, usually without scaffold.

dense precast concrete gives excellent sound

attenuation and inherent fire resistance

glazing, fixings, thermal insulation and vapour control

layer can be incorporated in the factory before delivery to
site

fabric energy storage potential of precast; thermal mass,

especially when used as exposed precast floor slab, helps
to control building temperatures

precast cladding panels produce a thinner external wall

than conventional double-skin walls, increasing the lettable
floor area.

long-term durability - concrete has a design life of well

over 60 years

security
7

Design

Design
Principles of faade design
Even at the basic design stage, of a faade, the decision to use
precast panels has important implications. To realise the
faade design in a creative way the architect should be aware
of potential pitfalls. For example, the design decision to place
a panel joint in a certain position sets up a chain of
implications - how the panel is made, how it is fixed on site
and how the contract is managed; these in turn will have
important results on cost and speed of construction.
Key stages in the design of a precast concrete faade are
determining where joints between panels will be positioned,
and whether windows will be set within the panel or framed
by spandrels and mullions. As the panels have to be
supported and restrained by the structure, floor levels and
column grids will determine to a large extent where joints
will fall. The most economic design results come from the
use of panels as large as practically possible the lowest
number of panels, joints and fixing hardware giving the
fastest construction programme. But this must be balanced

by the limitations of site cranage capacity, transport and, in

exceptional circumstances, factory resources.
Precast offers the opportunity to prefabricate the
external faade in the factory rather than on the site, with
all the advantages of economy and speed of construction
which that entails. Design decisions on window positions will
affect this. A panel with inset punched windows gives the
opportunity for factory-installed window frames and glazing,
whereas windows set between spandrels and mullions need
window openings which have to be formed by at least 2 and
often 4 panels; frames and glazing would have to be installed
on site.
Insulation, when detailed to be applied to the inside face
of the cladding, is also best fixed at the factory. This avoids
site work and the difficulties of fixing insulation around edge
beams and columns.

Holistic approach to design & procurement methods

Too often in the past, with traditional procurement
methods leading to sequential appointment of trade
contractors, it was impossible to arrange for design
issues to be addressed in a holistic manner.The result
was technical problems with compromised details,
wasted time and money. In the end it was the client
who paid. Sir Michael Lathams 1994 report
Constructing the Team addressed this inefficiency and
called for a radical change in attitudes and culture.The
industry must change from confrontation to cooperation. By driving out inefficiency and waste, Latham
reported, construction costs could be cut by 30%.
Partnering was a key recommendation in the report; it
was a way to manage the design process more
effectively, with all the key players being appointed early
enough to exchange information and ideas.These
proposals were further emphasised in Sir John Egans
1998 report, Rethinking Construction. The targets set by
Egan are well known and include a demand for more
effective procurement using strategic alliances. Both

Latham and Egan demand higher quality and greater

certainty of cost and time.Two principles emerge, which
are relevant to all specialist contractors, not only to the
precast cladding industry.
1 Abandon lowest capital cost as the value comparator
2 Involve specialist contractors and suppliers in design
from the outset.
For precast cladding the key interfaces are with
structure
windows/curtain wall
M & E services
material suppliers eg brick, stone etc
No matter what procurement route is followed, it is
vital to have the interface specialist appointed early
enough to enable detailed design meetings at which
materials, specifications and design decisions can be
taken against a background of expert knowledge. In this
way the architect, engineer, precaster, glazing contractor
and services engineer can contribute to achieving a
more effective result for themselves individually and
ultimately for the client.

Design and the manufacturing process

It makes sense for an architect involved in the design of

Design

precast components to understand how they are

manufactured. Understanding leads to an efficient and
buildable design; it may also inspire a creative approach.
The economies of mould use
Precast units are cast in purpose - built moulds which may
be constructed of steel, GRP, timber and even concrete.
Some manufacturers use tilting steel vibrating tables as
part of their mould strategy. These are very suitable for
casting flat panels and the mould can be tilted to a vertical
position to act as a strong back for handling, reducing
stress and allowing panels to be thinner.
Timber is the material most frequently used. A single
timber mould can be used to cast about 30 identical units
(tolerances are difficult to maintain after 30 castings).As a
typical mould for a complex cladding unit costs several
thousand pounds, efficient mould use is important.
A steel mould is capable of casting several hundred
units but costs about three times dearer than that of a
timber mould. Therefore to achieve a similar cost
amortisation, the steel mould would need to cast at least
90 units. Manufacturers seldom come across projects with
90 or more units sufficiently alike to justify a steel mould,
nor do they see lead time programmes which would allow
90 casting days - assuming a daily casting cycle.
In any manufacturing operation, repetition is the key
to economy. 30 identical casts from a timber mould would
give an optimum unit cost, but in practice precasters work
with much lower repetition and frequently have only a
handful of identical panels.
Design of precast cladding elements should aim for an
average repetition of more than 10.Although any complex
project will have elements with few or no repeats, the
objective is to raise the average. Similar factors apply to

The graph illustrates the effect of repetition of casting on cost. For a

typical unit cast in a timber mould, the cost of 30 identical units is
taken as unity. As repetition reduces to 10 castings the cost rises
gently; below 10 castings it rises rapidly.

precast units clad with granite or other stone slabs; the

slabs must be easy to handle and of simple design. To
reduce the effects of low repetition, precast elements can
be designed to form groups of relatively similar units, able
to be cast by making small alterations to the mould. A
typical example of how a basic mould can be adapted is
shown (above top). A more complex example, the steel
mould for floor units of Michael Hopkins & Partners
Inland Revenue building in Nottingham, is shown in (above
lower). The mould was made so that a series of different
timber ends could be inserted where required. Precasters
prefer to cast in a sequence of largest to smallest: this may
have cost and lead-time implications.
Finishing processes affect panel costs and where
possible alternative acceptable finishes should be
compared (see section on precast finishes).
9

Design

The manufacturing process

In general precast mixes will contain aggregates of less
than 20mm diameter and a higher than average fines
content to allow a relatively smooth surface finish.
Commonly used aggregates, selected from sources in the
UK and abroad, include granite, limestone and basalt. All
precast works have a large aggregate store with
computer-controlled batching plants to give precise
control of the mix.

10

The precast production process starts in the CAD

drawing office where every unit is drawn and the
reinforcement is designed. The drawings then go to the
mould shop, a key stage in the process which requires a
high degree of skill, as the mould must be strong enough
to resist deflection under the strain of the casting process.
Some manufacturers also use vibrating tables as the
basis of the mould unit. These are smooth-polished steel
tables which act as the base of the mould; the sides are

Precast units are detailed in the drawing office

Stone facings are positioned face-down in the base of the mould

A timber mould under construction

The bending of steel reinforcement has been automated

The reinforcement is laid in the mould

Stainless steel fixings are fabricated for cladding components

Design

formed by timber moulds clamped with jacks.The amount

of carpentry work is reduced, and units with common
features can be produced by altering the positions of the
timber sides.
The completed mould is then fitted with its
reinforcement cage, which is usually in the form of
deformed high-tensile steel bars.
Cast-in threaded lifting and fixing sockets are also
positioned at this stage.The mix is poured in and vibrated

to fully compact the concrete.

The units must then be left in the mould for at least
16 hours or until they have developed sufficient strength
for handling. Their final strength will range from 40 to 70
2
N/mm .
Most precast units are finished to remove surface
laitance and to expose slightly the underlying
aggregate/cement matrix. This is done by acid etching,
rubbing or by grit blasting (see precast finishes).

The mix is poured into the mould...

After casting, precast units are craned into the yard

A mock- up unit is
propped in the yard

and vibrated to fully compact the concrete

Definitions: What is precast, reconstructed and cast stone?

Precast is also described as reconstructed stone or reconstituted stone. It should not be confused with what is generally
known as cast stone.
Precast is produced by the wet-cast method, as described above, and is an extremely strong structural material with a
low absorption rate and a variety of finishes and textures.
Cast stone is generally produced by the semi-dry method, also known as the 'moist earth' mix method. As the name
implies, the material has a low water content and has the same texture as moist earth when freshly mixed. It is
consolidated in the mould by ramming or tamping. Semi-dry cast stone has a surface texture and colour closely
resembling those of some natural stones. It tends to have relatively lower strength and higher porosity, and can only be
manufactured in fairly small unit sizes.
11

Design

4metre high and 3metre-wide storey-height panel would

usually be 150-180mm thick; a spandrel 4 - 6metres long
would be 140-160mm thick. Panels with applied finishes
such as brick or stone will be correspondingly thicker.
Loadbearing panels

Top: structural panels

with integrated insulation
at J.C. Decaux Right: a
structural component
with a high quality finish.
Below: hybrid
construction at Toyota
headquarters building

Precast concrete is of a very high specification and its

structural properties can be used to advantage either as load
bearing wall units or as part of a complete structure. Load
bearing units are designed in accordance with BS8110:1997
The structural use of concrete.
Precast structural wall panels can provide an efficient
structure solution and increase lettable floor area in office
buildings. Precast crosswalls were used at Timber Wharf,
Manchester (see case study), to form party walls between
apartments. The walls were cast with integrated service
ducts and a smooth surface finish so that they did not need
to be concealed behind a secondary lining but could be left
exposed.
Precast panels can also be used to provide bracing in
framed structures. (See J. C. Decaux case study where the
panels are also cast with integral insulation in a sandwich
construction).
Precast structures

Structural design
The most common use of precast on a building is as nonstructural cladding panels, but it can also be used as
loadbearing structural panels and components and as whole
hybrid structures.
Cladding panels

The panel must be strong enough to resist site-applied

loads (in most cases from wind) and handling stresses
(which are usually the greater force).
The panel connections, joint widths and sealants must
accommodate both movements in the structure and
thermal movements of the panel.
Design responsibility rests with the precast specialist
who will design in accordance with BS 8297:2000 Design
and installation of precast concrete cladding.
Panel thickness is determined by structural design, by
the need to provide adequate cover to the reinforcement,
and by the need for sufficient thickness to contain and
retain fixings and lifting devices. As a general guide, a
12

Precast combines the potential to be used as a structural

components with the ability to achieve a high quality finish
which needs no additional treatment or fire-proofing. (see
precast structure case studies)
Hybrid structures

Hybrid structures are those in which structural precast

component are combined with structural steel or with insitu concrete.
In the case of steel hybrid structures, steel stanchions
and beams are pre-encased, in most cases with a
reconstructed stone mix, and used in combination with
precast components with the same mix.
Concrete hybrids are those in which precast
components are combined with cast in-situ concrete.The
precast, with its high quality finish, is exposed.The cast insitu concrete, which is generally in the form of beam strips
to give structural continuity, is hidden.
Both forms of hybrid structures are accurate and fast
to build. Hybrid structures allow fabric energy storage
principles to be used, contributing to the energy
management of the building.

Design

Transport restrictions
The method by which panels and components are
transported to site will limit their size.The maximum height
that can be transported on principal roads within the UK is
4.9metres overall. This leaves approximately 4 metres
available for the panel.As panels invariably travel in a slightly
less than vertical position, the height saved usually
compensates for seating bearers etc, giving a maximum panel
height of 4metres, although length, weight and stability will
also affect this height.
There are no restrictions on loads up to 2.89metres
wide. For 2.89 to 4.1metres wide loads, the police force of
each county through which the load passes must be notified
(usually by fax) not less than two days beforehand.
For 4.1 to 5 metres wide loads, the police force of each
county must be notified at least seven days beforehand.
Police permission is required before the load is moved, and
the load requires a police escort. An extendable trailer can
accommodate lengths of up to 18metres, usually without
police permission.

Thermal and acoustic insulation

Reconstructed stone, being dense concrete, is a relatively
poor thermal insulator and external walls will require some
other form of thermal insulation to meet Building Regulation
requirements.
Thermal insulation can be fixed directly to the structure
or factory-applied to the back of a precast panel.The latter
method is particularly useful for parts of the structure, for
instance column casings, where it is difficult to fix insulation
on site.
Composite precast panels with a thermal insulation
core have rarely been specified in the UK due to problems
with cold bridges. This has now changed with the
introduction of new proprietary systems such as Hardwall,
which allow the energy storage capacity of the inner skin to
be exploited.
As reconstructed stone panels are dense and heavy, they
offer very good sound reduction properties. Windows
within the panel will reduce their effectiveness. Loss through
joints is small.

Most panels are carried on A-frames

Method of transporting a single large unit

13

Design

Isometric view showing positions of loadbearing and restraint fixings

on one side of a precast cladding panel

Fixings
The primary purpose of fixings is to support the dead load
of a precast cladding panel and to restrain it from the
directional movement caused by applied loads.
Although the design of fixings varies widely depending
on the type of cladding, the size of the panel and the
structure of the building, it follows a number of general
principles. In order to achieve a safe, efficient and costeffective fixing scheme, a number of basic factors should
be addressed at an early stage.
The support of a panel is provided by loadbearing
fixings which transfer its weight on to the structural
frame. Loadbearing fixings can take the form of concrete
nibs cast integrally with the panel. If the raised access floor
zone has insufficient depth to accommodate nibs, the
panel can be supported on a pair of stainless steel angles,
each set on shim packs to allow for any adjustment of
level. To reduce the tendency for the panel to fall
outwards, it should be supported in line with its centre of
gravity. It is also better to support panels at their bases
rather than to top-hang them, as concrete when
supported remains in compression.
Restraint fixings are intended primarily to resist wind
loads and allow adjustment for both line and plumb. Four
restraint fixings per panel are usually used, set as close to
the corner as is practical. Restraint fixings can take the
form of a grouted dowel, but are more often designed
with an angle, or plate, which allows the panel to be
attached positively to the structural frame as soon as
possible after installation.
14

A precast balcony unit with projecting bars for stitching into the
reinforcement of the main structural slab

The design of restraint fixings must also allow for

permissible deviations in the manufacture and erection
of the panels and the construction of the structural
frame. Each restraint fixing must allow for adjustments
of typically + or - 25mm in all three dimensional planes.
The adjustment may be achieved by the use of shim
packs, cast-in channels and/or slotted holes in the steel
fixing angles or plates.A structural frame of concrete or
concrete-encased steelwork may also incorporate castin channels. The pair of restraint fixings furthest from
the panels support fixings should allow for movement
caused by thermal effects and deflection, by using PTFE
washers. Angles, plates and washers with inter-locking
serrated faces will be required in situations where any
load acts in line with a slotted hole.
The support and restraint functions of a fixing can
be combined. A concrete nib may include a hole for a
doweled connection, and a support angle may be bolted
to a cast-in channel, socket or drilled hole in the
structural frame.
Grade 1.4301 (previously Grade 304) austenitic
stainless steel is generally used for both support and
restraint fixings. Grade 1.4401 (previously Grade 316)
stainless steel is more suited for use in industrial, highly
corrosive or marine environments. Mild steel fixings may
only be considered where conditions are permanently
dry, such as on the warm side of a vapour barrier. In
such circumstances steel angles should be galvanised
and nuts and bolts sherardised for extra protection.

Loadbearing fixings

Loadbearing and restraint fixing to a concrete structure. A simple

concrete bearing corbel with dowel restraint is the most economical
detail but the height of the corbel may interfere with the raised
access floor detail

Loadbearing fixing to a concrete structure. A steel bearing angle takes

up less height than a corbel, so is more suitable for use with raised
access floors

Loadbearing fixing to a steel structure. The corbel is dropped into a

pocket in the floor slab

Loadbearing fixing to a steel structure with composite floor slab, with

steel bearing angle

Loadbearing fixing to a steel structure with composite floor slab, with

concrete bearing corbel

Loadbearing fixing to a steel structure; a support bracket bolted or

welded to the steel column carries the weight of the cladding panel

15

Design

Restraint fixings

Restraint fixing to a concrete structure. A simple concrete bearing

corbel with dowel restraint is the most economical detail but the
height of the corbel may interfere with the raised access floor detail

Angle restraint fixing to a steel structure. See

notes to angle restraint fixing above right.

Angle restraint fixing to a concrete structure. Slotted holes in the

angles give tolerance. The stainless steel studs screwed into the socket
in the panel have washers and nuts on both sides of the angle. These
are used as a push-pull device to position the panel accurately.

Angle restraint fixing to a steel structure,

with restraint socket cast into floor deck.

Detail (as shown above right) of threaded

and drop dowel restraint fixing

Restraint fixing to a steel structure. The steel plate is welded to

the column at the fabricators works, and the detail requires
accurate positioning of panels and structure.

16

Restraint fixing using

stainless steel threaded
dowel pins between panels.

Restraint fixing using

stainless steel drop dowel
pins between panels. The
pins are held inside stainless
steel tubes until required.

Joints and sealants

A precast concrete cladding panel can be considered as
being practically impervious. But this serves little
purpose if the weather can penetrate at the joints
between the units. It is essential to pay the closest
attention to the specifying and treatment of joints, from
initial design to installation and maintenance of sealants.
As the maximum overall height that can be
transported by road is about 4.9 metres, one dimension
of a panel should not exceed about 4 metres. However,
since this is greater than the typical storey height of
about 3.9metres, panels will usually be wide enough in
the other direction to match the column grid.
Width of joints

In order to remain attached to the two faces of a joint,

the sealant has to be able to accommodate movement
due to thermal or other factors. This capacity is
commonly termed the movement accommodation
factor (MAF) and varies between different sealant
materials. A typical sealant might be able to stretch
about 25% of its nominal width. Thus for an anticipated
movement of say 4mm, a nominal joint width of 16mm
is suggested.The minimum joint width is generally 10mm
plus appropriate allowances for thermal and differential
movement.
If units are stacked, all thermal movement has to be
accommodated at the top of the stack, and this could
mean a much wider joint than normal.
Even if panels and hence movements, are small, it is
not good practice for primary joints to be less than
12mm wide - narrow joints make small dimensional
variations apparent.

is interrupted by lifting devices; it could collect

moisture and cause problems with freezing.
If moisture does get through the outer seal, it will
eventually reach a vertical joint and descend. It is good
practice to allow for drainage at the bottom of vertical
joints. This would also cater for any condensation
forming on the inner face of cladding. A properly
designed faade and insulation should deal with
condensation risks so that no moisture forms in the first
place.
Shadow gaps and recesses

Recessing joints into the surface of the panel can

enhance the simple profile advocated above. This will
disguise the actual line of the joint by making it a
deliberate feature of the faade. It also provides a
natural route for rainwater to flow down, enabling dirt
to be concentrated in predefined areas.
Even within a shadow gap, the sealant should be
recessed a further 3mm or so back from the front face
of the concrete. This minimises the risk of primer
getting on to the front face and also helps ensure that
the concrete against which the seal is acting is sound,
especially if the surface has been textured.When sealing
panels with a front facing of stone or brick, the second
seal should be against the backing concrete and not the
facing material.
Priming

Concrete and stone should normally be primed before

applying the sealant to improve adhesion. Success is
largely dependent on thorough preparation and careful
priming.

Joint profile

Sealant materials

The simplest profile is a straight square joint. This has

several advantages: the panel is easier to cast; it allows
full horizontal adjustment during erection; it gives full
space for the sealant; it allows inspection of the inner
seal; it does not interfere with other aspects.
A double seal is usually specified at the front
surface. Occasionally a third inner seal of impregnated
foam material is also used on the inner face.
Sometimes a joggle joint is specified. While this
looks a good solution in theory, in practice it should be
avoided as it presents many problems. It is more difficult
to cast; it restricts adjustment; it does not provide
enough space for a double seal; it prohibits inspection; it

There are several types of sealant available on the market.

Of these the most commonly used is the one-part, low
modulus, silicone or ciloxane rubber sealant. These are
gun-applied against a backing strip of foam polyethylene to
fill the gap.The outer surface cures on exposure to air to
give a smooth finish.
When seals are applied to a stone-faced panel, there
is an increased risk of staining of the stone by the
sealant. Recently a range of more advanced hybrid
sealants has become available. All these materials come
in a range of colours allowing a near match to many
concrete and stone finishes. When properly installed by
skilled operators, sealants should give a life in excess of
17

Design

25 years. If the seal is damaged, the simplest repair

method is removal and replacement of the strip affected.
Mix and specification
The mix for a precast element with a reconstructed stone
finish is complex. Compared to the mixes used for
standard in-situ concrete, it has a higher cement content
and low water/cement ratio, with minimal slump and the
proportion and size of the aggregates are closely related to
finish and texture. ACA members have extensive sample
libraries, and will make samples to order before tendering.
Reconstructed stone mixes should be specified against a
sample approved at pre-tender stage, so that a true
comparison of colour and texture can be obtained from
manufacturers. Members of the ACA are prepared to agree
a quality of specification with the client on every contract.
Architects should be aware that not all manufacturers will
be capable of comparable quality management.

as builders work.This covers interface details with other

key specialist contractors. On cladding contracts, a key
interface is with the structural frame contractor and the
opportunity to have support brackets, restraint fixing
plates and holes formed during fabrication saves time and
cost during site erection. Equally valuable interfacing
should take place with the window/curtain wall
contractor and the M & E specialist.
A series of detailed drawings is then prepared by the
precaster to communicate and agree the details.
Obviously this process can only take place if the
interfacing specialist contractors have been appointed.
Sequential procurement largely destroys the opportunity
for such valuable interfacing.
Ultimately the precast drawings become a definitive
source of information enabling the architect and, to a lesser
extent, the engineer to review the full detail of the scheme.
Shop drawings

The design development and drawing process

To develop the design of a precast concrete faade
project, co-operation is needed from all concerned in
providing information, in making decisions and in
providing approvals at the right time.
Initially the precaster needs basic dimensioned
drawings from the architect and engineer of elevations,
plans and sections, together with access to the key
interfacing specialist contractors.
The precasters drawing office will prepare initial
general arrangement drawings (GAs). These are issued
to the architect and engineer in the first instance and
meetings are held to discuss the development of design
principles and particular details.
A common system for indicating approval status is: Status C Architects and engineers comments must be
implemented and the drawings re-issued.
Status B The work can proceed taking account of all
comments.
Status A Fully approved with no comments. This is a
construction status drawing.
As this process proceeds every aspect of the faade is
defined and detailed in co-ordination with other
specialists who may give and receive ideas and make
detailed improvements. A vital element of the precasters
design development is the preparation of what is known
18

Part way through the GA approval process, i.e. when

sufficient drawings are at B and A status, the precasters
drawing office begins to prepare shop drawings. Shop
drawings are only usually circulated within the precast
factory. These are created by extracting each faade
panel from the GAs and producing manufacturing details
from which the mould is fabricated, the reinforcement
cut, bent and assembled and the cast-in hardware e.g.
lifting and fixing sockets, is positioned. Finishes and
concrete mix specification are defined.
GA preparation may involve many design meetings;
provision of information and speedy decisions and
approvals are vital to the efficient progress of
manufacturing to enable the factory to manufacture in
the necessary sequence and volume to satisfy the site
construction programme. If the GAs become more
complicated, the unit types are certain to increase
which, in turn, generates more shop drawings. This
results in more moulds and more mould alterations.
The GAs are key drawings used by planners for
production and construction programming and later by
the erection team to assemble the cladding panels
correctly and accurately on the structure.
For the ACA member, every project is unique and
programme times are planned carefully to suit a particular
project. However to give guidance on a typical 1 to 1.5
million project the following periods are reasonable, as

TYPICAL PROGRAMME
Weeks
Operation

0 1 2 3 4

5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

Precaster receives instruction to proceed

Design development inclusive of G.A. plans
Issue of builders work information
Shop drawings
Initial moulds
Manufacture
Site start

shown in the typical programme opposite. Clearly the

precaster must have good, basic, thoroughly dimensioned
design drawings from the architect and the engineer with the
instruction to proceed. A reasonable turnaround of
comments on GAs and approvals is essential to start the
shop drawing preparation; two weeks is the industry
standard. Changes of mind or last minute decision-making
can result in lengthy delays and rapidly escalating costs.
Precast concrete finishes
The way in which a precast surface is finished will have a
distinct effect on its appearance. Some techniques expose
the aggregate in its natural state; others physically change
the appearance by abrading or fracturing the surface.
Within each technique the degree of exposure can be
varied, with the result that a considerable variety of effects
can be achieved.
Finishing processes can be divided into two basic
categories: wet and dry. Common techniques used to
finish precast concrete components are described below.
Wet techniques

Acid etching

Acid etching is a method of removing the very thin layer

of laitance, formed by fine aggregate and cement
particles from the concrete surface, exposing the
texture and colour of the matrix beneath. Hydrochloric
acid in either diluted or gel form is used to etch the
surface.The depth of exposure is controlled by the level
of dilution and/or the length of time the acid remains in
contact with the concrete before it is washed off with
water. Surfaces may also be etched more than once if a
greater degree of exposure is required.
Care should be taken when acid etching vertical
surfaces to avoid streaking. Very light degrees of
exposure should be avoided as this often fails to remove

Top: polished columns on a grit blasted plinth. The corner panels

behind were tooled to give horizontal rusticated bands.
Below: an acid-etched surface is washed down with water

19

Design

A selection of grit blasted precast units

all the laitence; the residue may tend to craze in time as

it is exposed to the weather.
Ideally etching should be undertaken three to four
days after casting, when the concrete has attained
sufficient surface hardness but not to the extent that it
is difficult for the acid to penetrate. After etching, minor
blowholes exposed by the removal of the laitance may
have to be rubbed in.
Retarding

There are three main methods of retarding: a retarding

agent is painted on to the formwork surfaces; retarder
paper is laid in the formwork; surface retarders are
applied after casting. In each case the retarder prevents
the surface of the concrete from hardening and allows it
to be removed by either high pressure washing with water
or by brushing. The depth of retardation is controlled by
using different strengths of proprietary products.

20

Dry techniques
Grit blasting

Grit blasting can produce a finish similar to acid etching or

it can be used as a more aggressive means of exposing the
coarse aggregates. Different grades of grit - from fine to
coarse will determine the depth of exposure revealed.
In its most aggressive form grit blasting will physically
abrade and fracture aggregate particles. The equipment is
driven by compressed air and the force at which the grit
particles hit the concrete surface is controlled by
adjustment of the air pressure.
Tooling

Tooling is undertaken with a variety of pneumatic or

electric hand-held equipment, ranging from needle guns to
bush hammers and chisel point tools. The points within a
needle gun may be varied in length depending upon the
depth of exposure required.This will also be influenced by
the pressure used and the duration of the treatment.The

same applies to the use of other tools.Tooled finishes give

a more rustic appearance due to the aggressive nature of
the finishing techniques.
Polishing

Precast panels can be polished to varying degrees of

smoothness; from a honed matt finish to a high gloss
polish which can resemble that of granite. Polishing of
small components, or those with rebated surfaces, is best
carried out by hand; large, flat precast units can be
polished mechanically.
A typical polishing machine will move over the precast
unit with a preset polishing and pressure programme.
Using a diamond-tipped plate, it will grind about 3mm off
the face of the panel; this may reveal a coloured aggregate.
A series of abrasives is then applied to the surface. The
final finish depends on the fineness of the polishing heads
and the number of times they are passed over the panel
surface.

all the bricks for that panel being available.

Panel size and thickness

Panels should ideally be sized in normal brick modules

as with any wall.There is no practical limit to the size of
panel other than that of transport. When designing the
panel to take loads, including self-weight, the thickness
of the bricks is not taken into account.
Brick layout

Any normal brick bond can be provided, although

excessive use of headers should be avoided. Edges of
panels, particularly at returns and reveals, should be

Brick and stone-faced precast concrete panels

Brick-faced precast panels
Traditional brickwork is a popular and successful facing
material, combining a traditional appearance with the
quality, strength, speed and durability of precast concrete.
Brick: properties and selection

A brick with good uniformity of colour will minimise the

risk of colour changes on different panels. The ideal type
is a brick perforated with three holes; a clean cut through
the holes will provide a secure anchorage for fixing into
the panel. Solid bricks can be cut to give a dovetail anchor.
The tolerances set out in BS3921 are not really tight
enough. A measured length of 24 bricks will vary from
5235mm to 5085mm, or 3mm per brick. Most suppliers
will improve on these figures by arrangement. Ideally
bricks should be made with a tolerance of +1to 2mm.
Ideally a maximum water absorption figure of 12%
should be specified.
A brick manufacturer should be chosen who is able to
supply all the bricks including any specials and who is able
to cut standard bricks.
Delivery period

Bricks with an extended delivery period for specials

should be avoided; the production of a panel depends on

Top: a polishing machine in action Below: two examples of polished

finishes

21

Design

Top, left and right: brick and Portland stone-faced precast panels Below, left to right: knapped flint-faced precast panels, brick-faced precast
panels and terracotta-faced precast panels

examined to ensure that no unfinished faces are visible.

Patterns can be formed on panels without difficulty.
Joints

The joint between bricks is usually detailed as a nominal

10mm. These can be pointed at the precast factory, using
standard cementitious materials, with the finish to the
joint being the same as for any hand finished pointing.
Alternatively they can be left recessed to allow hand
pointing on site after erection. But the joints between
bricks will not look the same as the joints between the
precast cladding panels. The latter must accommodate
tolerances in manufacture and erection as well as thermal
movements.These will normally be finished with a gunnedin sealant to provide a fully weathertight envelope. and
cannot normally be as narrow as 10mm.
The high standard of workmanship used in producing
a brick faced panel reflects factory conditions. Although
there is a degree of latitude, the joints will all be true and
22

horizontal, and the perpends will all line up. This is

achieved by placing each brick in a pre-set grid in the
mould.Any in-situ brickwork that adjoins this will need to
be of a similarly high standard.
The treatment works as well on columns and
spandrels as on flat panels. Brick-faced structural columns
can be erected on site as a single element ready to accept
loading. At the Inland Revenue Centre in Nottingham,
over a thousand storey-height piers support the precast
floor plates. Spandrels can also be structural, spanning
between supports and even carrying central mullions.The
ability to span removes the need for falsework,
particularly with overhangs and arches, which can be
delivered and erected as a complete unit. Brick faced
precast can be erected with speed without the need for
scaffolding. Since it is fabricated off-site there is a huge
saving in site programme time, unaffected by weather or
labour.

Stone-faced precast concrete panels

The methods of attaching natural stone or granite to a
precast concrete cladding panel were developed in the
early 1970s, in particular for the faade of the EMI
centre in Tottenham Court Road, London. It was a
buoyant building period for the commercial sector
which highlighted the many advantages of off-site
prefabrication, such as the achievement of a speedy
scaffold-free enclosure, using large components with an
engineering quality of accuracy. Since then nearly all
natural stones have been used with precast systems,
including limestone (both hard and soft), sandstone,
granite, slate and marble. The major challenge faced by
the precast concrete cladding industry and natural stone
suppliers was that the natural facings are fairly thin
compared to the concrete panel and have different rates
of thermal movement. A method of attachment was
required which would not only support the
considerable weight of the facing but also allow
sufficient independent movement to eliminate thermal
cracks or even worse, damage to the mechanical fixing
system.
The following method of attachment has proved to
be so efficient and durable that, on more that one
occasion after a terrorist bomb attack, the stone facings
have remained in position on the precast concrete
panels even when the latter have been totally dislodged.
Preparation of stone facings

The stone supplier prepares the stone facings in

accordance with the concrete panel drawings or cutting
schedules. Tolerances are tight and it is common to
specify plus or minus 2mm in every direction. Codes of
Practice state the minimum thickness for each type of
stone; the supplier will slice the stone two millimetres
thicker than the minimum requirement.
The stone supplier drills holes in the back face of
the stone; these are to accommodate 6mm diameter
stainless steel pins inclined at an angle of between 45 to
60 degrees at a rate of approximately 11 to the square
metre or whatever is demanded by other influences.The
pin will project approximately 60mm into the concrete
panel and will be glued into the stone to a depth of at
least two thirds of its thickness. Neoprene grommets

approximately 15mm long are added to the pins to take

up differential movement between the two materials.
Laying the facings in the mould

The stone facing panels are positioned face-down in the

mould; this is normally a conventional timber mould
though, in some cases, the stone facings may span an open
grid of support timbers as the seal is at the back face of
the stone.
Joints

The joints between the stone facings are usually 6 to

10mm wide to facilitate the application of either hard or
mastic pointing after casting. The joints are then sealed
with a waterproof tape to eliminate ingress from the
backing concrete. Sometimes a polyethylene rod is
placed between the modules as an added precaution, for
instance when the rear face of the stone is uneven.
Movement

To allow for differential thermal movement, it is

necessary to provide a bond breaker between the stone
and the concrete, the most common form being a
simple polythene sheet; liquid applied silicone or a PVA
solution has also been used to good effect.
Casting

The backing concrete (usually approximately 150mm

thick) and reinforcement cage is put in place and the
mould is vibrated in the usual manner.Apart from pointing
between the stone facings, very little attention is required
to the unit, except for a clean down.
This is the only method of support for natural stone
and its success is endorsed by its inclusion in BS 8298.
The same process is adopted for attaching natural
stone to complex features such as arches; an example is
shown in the case study of the new Merrill Lynch
headquarters in London. In most respects the design
and manufacturing requirements of stone-faced
concrete panels are identical to any other category of
precast concrete cladding. When produced in a
punched panel arrangement, windows can be fixed at
the precasters factory and insulation can be provided as
an integral part of the system.

23

Design for construction

Design for construction

The construction process
Precast concrete panels are ordered before construction
starts on site. Early agreement on panel design enables the
precaster to undertake manufacture, while on site
activities begin in earnest; the two activities then continue
in parallel. Precast manufacture allows a phased delivery,
so units can be delivered to site to an achievable and
agreeable programme that is pre-arranged with the main
contractor or construction manager.
Panels are delivered in a near vertical position
(depending on height) supported by A frames fixed to a
trailer or, in the case of very large panels or small units,
delivered flat on a trailer bed.
Once on site, panels are fixed by the manufacturers
own team or a specialist precast erector. They are fitted
with cast-in lifting devices so that the panel can be lifted in
a single crane movement from the delivery vehicle and
placed directly on to the building a form of just in time
construction. This makes for faster construction, avoids
double handling (taking up hook time on the site crane)
and eliminates the need for storage on site. Erection takes
place immediately after the structural frame has been
completed to give (together with the roof) a
weatherproof envelope for following trades. Scaffolding is
not usually required other than when fixing panels on to
the face of plain walls, for example shear walls, where the
rear of the panel is inaccessible.
Pre-levelled shims support the panels in a level
position and restraint fixings secure them. When the
panels are safely in place, the crane hook is released as
quickly as is safe to do so.After a group of panels has been
fixed, they are plumbed and lined in together. About 30
panels can be fixed in a typical working week, which
includes preparation (e.g. bolting on brackets) and finishing
tasks such as applying fire-stopping. Very little exterior
finishing work is required, apart from sealing joints
between panels (frequently done from mobile cradles).
The external skin is completed with thermal insulation
and dry lining.
Co-ordination with other trades
Great saving in costs can be made by co-ordinating design
24

and detailing of the cladding with interface contractors

structure, glazing and M&E.
Co-ordination of panels and glazing
Although windows may be fitted on site, it is also possible
for entire glazing units to be fitted at the precast factory.
Factory-fixed window frames and glazing require the
window contractor to be appointed early enough for
frames to be fabricated and supplied to the precaster for
installation. More interest is being shown in the time and
cost benefits that this brings.
Co-ordination of fixings and structure
Restraint fixings to cladding panels generally consist of
stainless steel angles and plates bolted to the structure
with stainless bolts (for details see Fixings section). A
single panel might have over 100 worth of stainless steel
hardware.Traditionally restraint fixings were applied after
the panel had been positioned. But with early cooperation between the cladding precaster and the
designer of the structure, it is frequently possible to
arrange for fixings to be built into the structure. Sockets
or channels can be cast into a concrete frame, avoiding the
need for site drilling; fabricated fixing plates can be welded
to a steel structure, with the additional advantage that
they are then regarded as primary structure and can be
formed of mild steel rather than stainless.
If mild steel is used, stainless steel securing bolts must
be suitably isolated to avoid bi-metal reaction, and the
fixings would have to be positioned on the inside of the
insulation and vapour control layer.
If the fixing position is pre-determined, site erection of
the panels is easier and therefore faster and considerable
cost savings can be achieved. A pre-drilled fixing hole in a
steel member costs a fraction of a site-drilled hole. Exactly
the same is true of casting fixings in to concrete frames.
The design of the superstructure should take account
of the need for consistency at all levels so that the
positions of fixing angles, plates, bolts and packers are
repeated. Edge details in particular should be as consistent
as possible; this could mean, for instance, the use of an
edge beam of similar dimensions on all levels, even though

Design for construction

Top left: roof panels for Armagh arts centre were delivered flat on a
trailer bed. Top right, bottom left and right: cladding panels are

delivered to site on a just in time basis so as to speed up

construction and avoid double handling.

this is not justified by the span.

The same principles apply to the design of fire stops;
and sealants should be straightforward and simple. Simple
details ensure speed and quality.

activities to be minimised (see JC Decaux case study).

Pre-fixing insulation to precast panels

By fixing thermal insulation to the inside face of the
cladding at the precast factory, site work is avoided and it
is easy, rather than difficult, to ensure that the insulation
passes edge beams and columns. The use of insulated
sandwich panels (where insulation is included within the
precast cladding) further enables these tricky site

Positive procurement
An increasing number of activities carried out traditionally
by following trades on site are being relocated to the
precast factory, where work (often multi-skilled) can be
carried out in much more tightly controlled conditions. In
addition, precast concrete offers other major benefits
such as faster speed of construction on site, less waste
and better long-term building performance.The successful
realisation of such benefits in practice depends on the
whole project team working together towards what the
25

Design for construction

client sees as best value. Precast concrete is only one

product amongst many that make up a building, but it is
important to optimise the processes involved in its design,
procurement and manufacture. The following section
highlights the role that precast concrete can play in
improving the efficiency, quality, performance, safety and
sustainability of the construction industry, thereby
working towards best value for its clients.
Specialist trade contractors such as precast concrete
manufacturers possess a significant amount of knowledge
and experience about the design, installation and use of
their product. For this reason, early involvement of
precasters in the decision-making process can yield a
wide range of benefits such as expediting the
construction programme, eliminating the risk of
unbuildable connections and improving the long-term
performance of the building envelope. Precast concrete is
a factory-manufactured product and the precaster is well
placed to influence planning and design to give greater
manufacturing efficiency, which can and does reduce costs
by achieving more efficient use of moulds. Advice from
any such experts should emerge early enough to benefit
26

the buildings design, detailing and construction

programme accordingly.
In order to facilitate this early sharing of ideas, the
procurement regime must allow such a fruitful exchange
to happen bringing the precaster into close contact with
the design team. Non-adversarial project management
methods should be used to provide an atmosphere of
trust where people can share ideas without fear of their
intellectual capital being compromised later on by cutthroat tendering methods. Good early liaison will yield the
greatest return to all parties and so it comes as no
surprise that the most successful precast projects are
those in which a close-knit, integrated team has worked
together well from the outset. Partnering and strategic
alliancing regimes in which the design team has an early
relationship with specialist suppliers are also useful.
For example, unlike conventional projects using a
competitive tendering arrangement, a precast cladding
manufacturer and a steel frame contractor involved in a
complex multi-storey central London office development
discussed fixing details at an early stage. The steelworker
was able to incorporate a fixing detail for the precast

Design for construction

Facing page left: glazing units can

be fitted at the precast factory,
saving time and cost compared
to site fixing.
Facing page right: brick faced
precast cladding eliminates
problems of skilled labour
shortage.

cladding panels, taking a tricky task off site and reducing

the risk of misalignment between cladding and structure.
The precast panels were also installed on site much faster
than might otherwise have been the case.
Targeting the Egan agenda
The release of the Rethinking Construction report (by
Sir John Egan; DETR, 1998) created a very significant
change in the industry as a whole and it is still influencing
decision-making processes for building projects. The
report established a series of Key Performance Indicators
(KPIs) against which construction clients could measure
the success (or otherwise) of their projects covering
aspects such as construction time, cost, waste, defects,
safety and client satisfaction.
It is now commonplace for construction clients (in
particular large, serial clients) to use KPIs not only as a
method of measuring on a building project but also as a
means of evaluating previous performance of design
teams, contractors and suppliers. Project teams may
choose to emphasise particular KPIs on certain projects,
but in all cases the early involvement of the precaster will

This page top and bottom:

precast concrete is used for its
fabric energy storage benefits at
Toyota headquarters and Armagh
arts centre.

ensure the team has the best chance to achieve its targets.
Precast concrete fares well against the Egan targets for a
number of reasons, many of which are associated with the
removal of risk by shifting activities off site; in fact, many
people note how closely Egans agenda matches precast
concrete construction.
Faster construction: manufacture in the controlled
environment of the factory is not affected by weather and
the construction programme is accelerated by offering
production in parallel with site activities, just in time
delivery to a pre-agreed programme and the single crane
movement that takes the unit to its final position.
Zero defects: precast concrete is manufactured to high
standards under strictly controlled quality processes; its
use can also eliminate doubts about the availability of wall
construction materials or labour.The latter has become a
particular issue in the UK due to a decline in skilled
bricklayers and masons many precasters offer brickfaced cladding as an alternative.
As a vehicle for publicising best practice within the
UK construction industry, the Movement for Innovations
M4I Demonstration Projects have proved a remarkably
successful way of proving that the industry as a whole can
comply with Egans targets. Precast concrete cladding is
featured in many Demonstration Projects (see St. George
Wharf case study).
New efforts under the Rethinking Construction:
Accelerating Change banner emphasise the need for the
construction industry at large to address client leadership,
integrated teams and people issues, especially health and
safety, in its efforts to drive the Egan agenda forward.
Precast and sustainability
Like the Egan agenda, government strategies for
sustainable development and sustainable construction
released in 1998 and 2000 respectively have also affected
UK building design and construction. Sustainability
requires us to consider more fully the economic,
environmental and social impacts of development to
prevent compromising the quality of life of our
27

Design for construction

descendants.Although not yet obligatory, the construction

industry as creator of buildings has been strongly
encouraged to assess what it does with a view to
improving its performance against ten sustainability action
points that include reducing waste and increasing
recycling. The Movement for Innovation has produced a
series of environmental performance indicators (EPIs) for
sustainable construction, another example of a tool with
which clients and contractors can benchmark and
measure their performance.
Environmental protection starts at the precast factory
where water recycling, energy recovery from waste
formwork and the use of reinforcement that uses only
recycled steel are all commonplace. Indeed, most
precasters have now introduced procedures fully in line
with ISO 14001. Materials are ordered from sustainable
sources in strict quantities to minimise waste. Waste
management continues through the supply chain with
formwork re-used as much as possible and precast units
transported directly to site with no wasted journeys and
no double handling. Pollution from dust and noise is
consequently minimised on site.
But it is in the application of precast concrete in
buildings that major environmental benefits can be seen.
Precast concretes thermal mass acts as a control for
building temperatures, helping to iron out the peaks and
troughs. There are many examples of precast concrete
being used for its fabric energy storage benefits (see
Toyota headquarters and Armagh arts centre case
studies). Using concrete means that, in buildings such as
offices, schools and theatres, air conditioning can be
eliminated, saving equipment, energy and maintenance
costs for the client. In addition, the precise manufacture
and installation possible with precast concrete cladding
ensures a close-fitting building envelope that makes the
standards of airtightness required by UK Building
Regulations easy to achieve.With buildings accounting for
50% of UK energy use, it is clear why sustainable
construction is becoming more important.
Health and safety issues: respect for people
The UKs Health and Safety Executive is keen to see
improvements at all stages in the supply chain for buildings
and the manufacture and installation of precast concrete
is no exception. Improved safety is part of the Egan agenda

28

and the care of people in the precast factory and on site

is of prime importance: the safety record of the precast
industry is very good.
Maintaining the good health and safety of workers in
the clean, safe and weatherproof environment of a factory
is an inherent outcome of producing precast concrete.
This is in addition to the fact that the planning that goes
into precast concrete projects means that the design team
can work everything out on paper in the safety of the
office, rather than risk working it out on site.
Every contract has a prepared method statement,
agreed with the main contractor and other specialists as
appropriate, before work starts. During installation of
precast concrete units, protection of workers is the first
concern and it is customary to see safety netting systems
used on all sites. Small teams of on-site operatives are
permanently employed, fully trained and certified by the
industrys training council (RBPTC).
The British Precast Concrete Federation works
closely with the HSE to ensure its members operate to
the highest possible standards and has introduced its
Concrete Targets campaign to further safeguard all
workers from the shop floor to sub-contractors.
Members of the Architectural Cladding Association have
comprehensive procedures to comply with the
requirements and spirit of the CDM regulations. These
may be summarised as:
consider safety at the design stage, to ensure that all

risks encountered during construction and in the life of

the building are identified and appropriate measures
provided
as far as is reasonably practicable, comply with the
rules of the Health and Safety Plan
provide the principal contractor with any
information regarding any risks not included in the
Safety Plan
report
to the principal contractor all
injuries/dangerous occurrences, in accordance with the
RIDDOR regulations 1995.
Further information can be found in the ACAs own publication,
Guide to the safe erection of precast concrete cladding,
British Precast Concrete Federation, Leicester, UK.

Weathering

Weathering
Weathering is the alteration of a buildings appearance as
a result of exposure to atmospheric and environmental
conditions. Over time all buildings weather and it is
important for designers to understand what causes
weathering and try to minimise its negative effects
through their designs.
Causes and types of weathering
Controlling and predicting weathering requires a clear
understanding of the factors that cause changes to a
buildings appearance and the processes involved.The main
factors causing weathering are;
environmental factors (climate and pollution),
design and construction factors (architectural detailing
and workmanship),
intrinsic properties of materials (porosity, texture,
colour and solubility of materials).
All these factors contribute to a certain extent to
changes in the appearance of buildings.
There are three different types of weathering:
physical weathering, attributed to frost, temperature
fluctuation and the action of wind and rain, is
demonstrated by the appearance of cracks, erosion and
the staining / soiling of surfaces.
chemical weathering, generally caused by the chemical
reaction between water, elements present in the
atmosphere and the constituents of the material, results in
phenomena such as oxidation, corrosion, sulphate attack
and efflorescence on surfaces.
biological weathering, consisting of the growth of
organisms on surfaces, is caused by extensive exposure to
wet conditions and light.
Weathering tends to become noticeable on building
facades when it starts detracting from the buildings
original design concept and appearance. These changes
tend to be more accentuated on buildings with simple
facades and not many design details.
Concrete has been strongly associated with uneven
weathering which becomes noticeable over a relatively
short time say 10 years. The prejudice that has
developed against concrete in the past few decades is

based to a great extent on the manner in which concrete

surfaces weather. Unnaceptable changes on a concrete
surface is often due to the notion amongst designers that
it does not require excessive design detailing. This has
resulted in buildings whose elements do not have
adequate protection from the external environment,
making them more vulnerable to unsightly appearance
changes.
Cost and time available for construction are very
closely linked to the quality of finishes and the
susceptibility of surfaces to weathering. Generally, more
problems tend to be associated with in-situ concrete
construction than with precast, because in the former
environmental conditions are usually less controlled. A
good understanding of manufacturing and mixing
methods, better quality control and improved pigments
are all factors that can improve the performance of
concrete surfaces. In the case of precast concrete it is the
producers responsibility to provide a product which is
colour stable and of uniform appearance and physical
characteristics.
Apart from production, detailing and workmanship,
most of concretes weathering problems are related to the
presence of water and the absorption capacity of the
material. Water redistributes any impurities on surfaces
creating tidemarks and stains, contributes to the
appearance of cracks (freezing action), reacts with the
constituents of the material (chemical weathering) and
encourages organic growth (biological weathering). It is
normally where water collects that problems associated
with weathering start appearing.
Rain run-off is mainly responsible for the movement
of dirt on a building's facade and, in combination with the
porosity of the material, determines whether the surface
will be soiled or washed clean. Usually rain run-off acts as
a cleaning agent for the top of the building but as it moves
across the facade it acts as a carrier of dirt from the
higher to the lower parts of the facade. At the point
where this rain run-off stops, soiling stains tend to be
created, due to accumulated dirt transferred from the
surface above.The basic mechanism of soiling is shown on
page 30.
29

Weathering

Top left: run off from in-situ concrete leading

to calcium carbonate streaks. The precast
panels, in contrast, have resisted staining.
(Hayward Gallery, London)

30

Top right: diagrammatic sketch of soiling

process
Below: strong washing and deposition of dirt
on St. Pauls cathedral. Unlike concrete,

Portland stone has rarely been criticised for

the way it weathers

Weathering and design

The three-dimensional geometry of buildings tends to
lead to complex weathering patterns and surface run-off
problems. Several aspects have to be considered in order
to produce a building that has a good weathering
performance. At the initial stage of design, the overall
massing, orientation and exposure of the building, its
geometrical form and its relationship to neighbouring
buildings and other local topographic features, require
consideration. Surface finishes used on the external parts
of the building are also of great importance, as they
determine the manner and the extent to which the
building weathers.
Not all parts of a building weather in the same way, as
they are not exposed to the same amounts of rain and
wind. Stains on a facade tend to concentrate on specific
areas of a surface. The degree of staining is influenced by
the provision and size of projections, e.g. sills and
downpipes and by the way a surface slopes.
The forms that encourage greater water and dirt
concentration (e.g. window sills) or which are generally
more exposed to the elements (e.g. spires, finials and
parapets) appear to have concentrated soiling patterns
and accelerated decay. Vertical arrises, such as pilasters
and columns, are mainly affected on their leeward
surfaces and often reveal common soiling patterns; these
depend on their orientation and the prevailing wind.
The impact of weathering can be anticipated and
controlled to a certain extent, and even on occasion be
used positively. Unfavourable weathering of concrete and
other materials has led architects to be conscious of the
way facades are detailed. Irregular water flow over a
surface can lead to unsightly weathering.This flow may be
controlled through detailing, e.g. projections and sills, and
the effects optimised by selecting appropriate building
material quality and textures, or applying protective
sealant to surfaces.
Selecting the size, texture and colour of concrete
surfaces
Concrete generally requires more care in detailing than
other materials such as brick and stone, because it is often
used in relatively large uninterrupted areas. These are
more sensitive to change than equivalent brick or stone
surfaces, which are frequently broken up with vertical and
horizontal joints. Dirt or any streaking and staining

created on brick or stone surfaces does not seem as

unsightly as the equivalent staining on larger and plainer
concrete surfaces. Designers might consider the
subdivision of the faade into horizontal and vertical
sections, which will mask the signs of weathering.
The quality and texture of concrete can be specified
to reduce weathering. Smooth and light-coloured finely
textured surfaces can be more susceptible to weathering,
especially in polluted environments. Coarse and dark
surfaces tend to be more resistant to weathering. Striated
and patterned finishes tend to conceal weathering more
successfully than smoother surfaces when used on large
uninterrupted surfaces. However, even when coarse
surfaces are used, design elements and detailing are still
important and influence the weathering characteristics of
the building.
The use of sealants on concrete surfaces reduces
penetration of potentially harmful agents such as water
and chlorides into the building material, as it changes the
porosity of the surface of the material.These sealants are
usually silicone based. This way of protecting surfaces has
been successfully used on Tadao Andos concrete buildings,
which seem to have good weathering performance even in
extremely humid environments. Sealants require periodic
maintenance and are prone to crack, bringing further
visual changes to the surface.The performance of sealants
also depends on the quality of the underlying material.
Getting water on to surfaces
If sufficient amounts of water fall on a surface, it will be
clear of impurities and stains.The designer can encourage
water to fall on a surface by creating a backward slope.
Special care should be taken in the selection of the slope
so that the surface does not prevent water from reaching
the surface below. When this design feature is used on
large surfaces, it is advisable to break the faade with
horizontal gullies so that water is collected and thrown off
at intermediate positions.
Shedding water off surfaces.
Projections, copings and sills can be provided on a building
faade so that water is thrown off the faade and the
amount of water running on a surface is controlled. Every
projection generally needs to be of at least 250300mm
and have a drip groove on its underside to prevent water
flowing back on to the vertical surface. This prevents the
31

Weathering

Top left: the weathering pattern is affected by

height
Top right: careful detailing, including water

32

drainage, at the corner of a building

Bottom left: the effect of rain on surfaces set
at different angles

Bottom right: projections create rain shadow

effects

Top left: projecting sill detail

Above: St. Antonys College Oxford
Left: Detail from St. Antonys College, Oxford

staining of the surface below. Details such as sills and

copings can influence the flow of water on the faade and
can help in shedding water. Forward sloping or protruding
surfaces can also serve as a means of shedding water.The
problem with any projection on a vertical surface is that it
creates a rain shadow, where little rain will fall and
streaking is likely. John Partridge of HKPA Architects
designed some of St. Annes and St. Antonys college
buildings in Oxford with sculptured facades, using both
backward and forward sloping surfaces to ensure that
weathering was negligible.

Collecting water from surfaces

Water can be collected and moved away from the
surface in horizontal channels or gutters, and discharged
away from the faade by pipes or systems of vertical
channels or grooves. The areas of a concrete building
that need special detailing are junctions, edges or
parapets, windows or windowsills and any other position
on a wall where water tends to collect. Down-pipes and
gutters collecting water may be visible on the elevation
or concealed within or behind the cladding. Areas below
windows always need special care, as they tend to
33

Weathering

Top: A positive use of weathering. The concrete end wall of Hertzog de

Meurons factory in Mulhouse has been profiled to allow rainwater to
create strong vertical patterns
Right: water movement on a parapet

become streaked by water running down the glass.

Horizontal surfaces normally acquire a lot of dirt.
When large amounts of water flow on to horizontal
surfaces, there is a danger that this dirt can be washed on
to the faade, creating stains and streaks. It is important to
avoid build-up of dirt and water on horizontal surfaces.
Examples of parapet details which successfully control
accumulation of dirt and the flow of water on concrete
facades, are shown on the left.
Designers should be aware of the conditions
surrounding the building and design accordingly. Rainwater
run off will either clean the elevation positively or stain it.
Water that is intercepted should be either thrown off the
facade or collected and directed away from it.
Consideration of the flow of water over facades,
providing suitable details, surface finishes and specifying
good quality materials, will lead to concrete buildings that
weather favourably and retain and reinforce their
aesthetic value within the environment.

34

A short history of precast materials

A short history of precast materials

Concrete was used extensively in Roman times but only
emerged as a significant building material in the late 19th
century with the invention of Portland cement.
Originally it was seen as a substitute for natural stone
and was used extensively in precast reconstructed stone
blocks. Later, as the building industry became more
mechanised, larger precast units were developed which
could be lifted by crane.Todays precast can combine the
structural properties of concrete with the appearance
of natural stone.
The beginnings of concrete
Concrete based on Portland cement is a relatively
recent innovation, but early forms of binding material
based on lime date back to around 7000 BC. Hydrated
lime was used for the construction of Babylon, and a
lime kiln dating from 2450 BC has been found. This
process was known to the Egyptians it was illustrated
in a mural from Thebes, of about 2000 BC.
It was the Romans who really developed concrete
the very word comes from the Latin concretus
meaning grown together or compounded. The
development was largely based on the discovery, in the
second century BC, of pozzolana, a fine volcanic ash
containing silica and alumina which when mixed with
lime resulted in a stronger material than anything
produced previously.The result was used as a mass infill
material for stone and brick-faced walls and for
foundations, but also for daring and innovative structural
elements, particularly vaults and domes. One of the
greatest achievements in concrete construction was the
Pantheon in Rome, built in AD 127, whose dome, 43
metres in diameter, was formed of lightweight pumice
aggregate concrete. These concrete domes and vaults
were monolithic and had no lateral thrust; they acted
like an inverted saucer, and supported their own dead
weight, which was considerable as some were more
than 2 metres thick.
One of the earliest uses of precast concrete can be
traced to Roman times; a breakwater made of concrete
blocks which had been allowed to harden before use
was built at Naples in the reign of Caligula (AD 37- 41).

Top: an Egyptian mural shows stages in the manufacture and use of

mortar and concrete.
Bottom: the Pantheon, Rome, has a domed roof of concrete with
lightweight pumice aggregate

Pozzolanic cement was also combined with other

materials to simulate stone one of the first examples
of this use is lintels cast from sandstone, aggregate and
lime/pozzolana cement used in the repair of the Visigoth
walls at Carcassonne, south-west France, in AD 1135.
Although the Romans had introduced the art of
concrete-making to Britain, and there is evidence that it
was re-introduced by the Normans, little concrete,
apart from some burnt limestone products used in
35

A short history of precast materials

Eleanor Coade and her daughter from 1769 to about

1840 in Lambeth, on the site of what is now the Festival
Hall, and was used by many eminent architects (Robert
Adam, Sir John Soane and James Wyatt). In fact it was
not stone at all: Alison Kelly (Mrs Coade's Stone, Self
Publishing Association, 1990) has established that it was
a ceramic body, or type of stoneware. Its composition
included fine sand, flint, crushed glass and crushed
stoneware or 'grog'. The latter, pre-fired clay, was the
vital ingredient which reduced the shrinkage rate of the
pieces on firing to just over 8 per cent. (Mrs Coade
advertised her product as Lithodipyra, 'stone twice fired'
in Greek). Pieces were cast in plaster moulds and fired
continuously for four days and nights in a 3metre long
muffle kiln. Coade stone was frost-resistant and had a
pleasant stone-like texture and buff or light grey colour.
It was used to embellish London brick terraces with
crisp stone-like details. Sir John Soanes Portman Square
houses (177376) have Coade stone plaques, paterae
and string courses. James Wyatt's Coade stone Ionic
capitals at Heaton Park, Manchester, are so crisp and
well-preserved that they were formerly thought to be
cast metal.The Coade stone factory did not long survive
the death of Miss Eleanor Coade in 1821. Its decline may
also have been due to the parallel discovery of Portland
cement.

Above top: Coade stone details from the front entrance to a 18th
century London terrace house
Above below: Aspdins cement works at Gateshead, 1852, was the
largest in the world

foundations and wall cores, was used in medieval and

renaissance periods.
The search for a stone substitute
Interest in stone substitutes revived in the eighteenth
and early nineteenth centuries. One example, Coade
stone, looks remarkably like stone and its provenance
was a mystery for many years. It was manufactured by
36

The discovery of Portland cement

Many experiments were made to re-invent the binding
material used by the Romans. In 1756 John Smeaton, a
Leeds engineer, was commissioned to rebuild the
Eddystone Lighthouse, set on a rocky outcrop in the
English channel; previous timber structures had blown
away in gales. He chose to use stone blocks, and tested
many different limestone products in an attempt to find
a mortar which might set underwater. The material he
ultimately used was a combination of burnt limestone
and Italian trass (a material similar to pozzolana) but his
research, published in A narrative of the Eddystone
Lighthouse, had much wider implications. In 1813 a copy
was bought by young Leeds bricklayer, Joseph Aspdin. It
changed his life. Inspired by Smeatons example he
continued the research and in 1824 took out a patent
for the manufacture of 'Portland Cement' (so called
because it resembled Portland stone in colour). Aspdin
saw his invention as a method of producing a rendered

imitation of stone over brickwork, like the

contemporary Roman Cement (lime stucco and oil
mastic) renderings of the time.These renders were lined
out in imitation of fine-jointed ashlar and sometimes
rusticated heavily or cast in moulds.
It was Aspdin's son William who recognised the real
potential of the new product and refined it. He set up a
cement works with beehive kilns at Rotherhithe and
subsequently at Gateshead which produced the first
genuine cement as we know it today. Isambard Kingdom
Brunel sought his help when the Thames tunnel between
Whitechapel and New Cross collapsed during
construction. Aspdin claimed that his cement sealed the
break in the tunnel roof, and was subsequently used
(182545) to reline it. (The tunnel is still used to carry
underground trains.)
Portland cement was used initially only in mortars
and renders; in the mid-1800s it began to be mixed with
aggregate to make mass concrete, usually cast in-situ. It
was used in this way in the construction of Queen
Victoria's country home, Osborne House, on the Isle of
Wight, designed and built by Thomas Cubitt in 184548.
In 1850 William Aspdin started to build himself a vast
concrete mansion, appropriately named Portland Hall, at
Gravesend in Kent. It was abandoned when only half
complete and only part of it has survived, including a
small section of boundary wall which is capped with
what must be some of the first commercially produced
precast elements.
The development of cast and reconstructed stone
A large number of stone substitutes was developed in
the latter half of the nineteenth century. These were
compositions of Portland cement, fine aggregates
including dust of the stone type to be matched, and
pigments. Cast blocks were sometimes carved while still
green, with paraffin oil and french chalk commonly used
as release agents. While a few of these materials were
good matches to the real thing, many were composed of
too strong a mix, and developed surface crazing. Two of
the earliest recorded buildings which used precast
materials as a substitute for stone are the Presbyterian
church at Loanhead near Edinburgh built in 1875, and
the medieval manor house at Baddesley Clinton,
Warwickshire, a National Trust property, where repairs
were carried out using a precast substitute stone in

Left: cast stone was

used extensively in
the 1920s on
commercial
buildings. This is
Regent Arcade,
designed by Gordon
Jeeves
Below left:
Wellington Court, a
1930s mansion block
with cast stone
ashlar masonary

about 1885.
By the early years of the twentieth century a reliable
material had been developed which could be cast in
blocks and which gave a good match to natural stone. It
consisted of a mix of crushed stone and cement, cast by
the semi-dry or moist earth method, and is the
material we know today as cast stone. Cast stone has a
lower strength and higher porosity than the material
which today we generally describe as reconstructed or
reconstituted stone and which is produced by the wetcast method.
37

A short history of precast materials

The revival of neo-classical forms in England in the

1920s and 30s gave a boost to the use of cast stone,
particularly in London where it was used to imitate, with
great economy, the natural Portland stone facades of
classical Georgian London. It was cast in blocks as a
75mm semi-dry facing mix backed with granite concrete
(also semi-dry mix) and incorporating reinforcement
where required for lintels and cornices.The blocks were
tied back to a load-bearing brick inner leaf, which, in the
case of large commercial buildings, usually enclosed a
steel frame encased in concrete.
The great department stores in Regent Street and
Oxford Street feature large areas of cast stone, often
above a ground floor constructed in natural Portland
stone, or on side elevations.The entire eastern facade of
the department store on the north-east corner of
Oxford Circus (Clarkson & Hall, 1924) is of cast stone,
as are the Regent Arcade, Argyll Street (Gordon
Jeeves), the Chapel Street facade of D. H. Evans (Louis
Blanc, 1936), and the rear of the Cafe Royal (Sir Henry
Tanner, 1924).A simple office building in Hatton Garden,
London, by Clifford, Tee and Gale, still survives in more
or less its original form, and provides a good example of
the durability of precast materials. (The materials were
produced by Empire Stone of Narborough,
Leicestershire, founded in 1900.)
Cast stone was also used during the short-lived
period of art deco: for instance on the facade the
Kensington Kinema, Kensington High Street, London;
the Princess Cinema, Dagenham (1930); and
Constantine & Vernon's 1927 shop facade at 100 Oxford
Street which still survives.
Many large 'mansion block' flats of the 1930s and
1940s had cast stone features such as Wellington Court,
St John's Wood, London, which was built with cast stone
ashlar masonry walls, bays and canopies.
Precast panels clad with other materials were
developed at this time. The Dorchester Hotel, Park
Lane, London, was built in the late 1920s with a faade
of precast terrazzo panels provided by the Marble
Mosaic Company, a Bristol-based manufacturer founded
in 1905.
The development of precast materials
It is ironic that at the same time as cast stone with
classical detailing was being used in imitation of real
38

stone, the pioneers of the Modern Movement were

exploring the potential of concrete as a structural
material.
A Newcastle builder, William Wilkinson, is credited
with the invention of reinforced concrete; in 1854 he
took out a patent for embedding a network of iron bars
in floors and beams, and seems to have been the first
person to appreciate the composite nature of the
material. Little interest was shown in his ideas, and it
was a Frenchman, Francois Hennebique, who developed
reinforced concrete on a commercial scale. In 1898 the
first multi-storey reinforced concrete framed building in
the UK, Weavers Mill in Swansea, was built using the
Hennebique system.
Architects and engineers in the early years of the
20th century soon recognised the potential of
reinforced and prestressed concrete, though in most
cases the material was cast in-situ rather than precast.
Frank Lloyd Wright was one of the first architects
to experiment with precast in the form of hollow
blocks made of a semi-dry mix cast in embossed wood
moulds. (Wright was also fond of adding earth and sand
found on site to the mix to give the blocks a natural
colour). The Storer House and Millard House, Los
Angeles, were built in 1923 using his Textile-block
system: the blocks were stacked up to form walls and
columns which support timber roof beams. Wright
textured the precast surface of the blocks: in his view
this demonstrated the poured character of the material
compared to wood and stone which, he suggested,
should have plain surfaces to bring out the qualities of
veining, grain and texture.The system did not flourish; it
was unable to compete economically with the timber
platform frame, the most popular method of house
construction in the US.
In 1930 Le Corbusier completed the Maison Suisse,
a university building on the outskirts of Paris. It is a
rectangular four-storey block built on pilotis, with a
lightweight curtain wall assembly on the two long
elevations and blank side-walls of precast concrete
panels. This was probably the first use of precast on a
large scale and it was a design which had a great
influence on subsequent tall buildings.
In England, one of the first buildings to pioneer the
use of both structural concrete and cast stone was
Frank Broadhead's 1932 Viyella House, Nottingham.The

Facing page top:the

Cafe Royal has a
cast stone facade
built in 1924
Facing page bottom:
a contemporary
photo of the
installation of a rich
cast stone cornice
in Hanover Square
This page left:
worms eye
axonometric of
Frank Lloyd Wrights
Storer house, Los
Angeles, showing
how hollow
reconstructed stone
blocks were stacked
into colmns which
support the roof
beams
Below: Le
Corbusiers Maison
Suisse was the
protoype of many
later precast
buildings

39

A short history of precast materials

structure consisted of mushroom-headed concrete

columns which reduced the thickness of concrete floor
slabs. The exterior was clad in curtain walling, with
stainless steel mullions, between lightly tooled semi-dry
mix cast stone spandrel panels which were produced by
a local manufacturer, Trent Concrete, founded in 1917
on the banks of the River Trent.
During the late 1940s and 1950s a significant change
took place. Increasing mechanisation of the building
industry, particularly the development of cranes, led to
changes in the construction process. Architects wanted
to maximise glazed areas of the faade to create deepplan, column-free open-plan interiors for office use. A
demand was created for large precast cladding units to
achieve economies of labour and equipment and to
speed erection. The increase in size put greater stress
on the structural properties of precast and led to a
change in the type of material used. Compared with the
traditional semi-dry mix cast stone, with its low
strength and need for dry tamping, wet-cast, with its
high strength and easy compaction in moulds by
mechanical vibration, was a more suitable product for
large panels. In addition, crushed natural stone of the
types traditionally used in a semi-dry mix were rarely
suitable for high-strength concrete. Unlike semi-dry
mixes, the surfaces of these new wet-cast panels had to
be treated to remove surface laitance, either by
exposing the aggregate granite, flint, river gravel or
other hard material or by exposing only the finer
sands and aggregates to produce a finer texture, similar
to traditional cast stone.
In contrast with the successful appearance of cast
stone buildings of the 1920s and 1930s, some buildings
with precast panels of this period, particularly
prefabricated tower blocks produced by industrialised
methods, have suffered badly in appearance.The reasons
for this are complex; sometimes an unfortunate choice
of cement and aggregate was to blame, sometimes a lack
of awareness by the designer of how to design and detail
what was then a relatively new building product. But
several buildings of the 1960s prove that careful design
and detailing will produce cladding panels which
enhance a building and weather well. Skidmore Owing &
Merrill's Heinz Research Centre at Hayes Park,
Middlesex, 1965 has a two-storey colonnaded faade of
cruciform structural columns and fascias in exposed
40

An early modern concrete building, Viyella House, Nottingham

The Russell building, Wexham Springs, showed no signs of staining for

30 years

Little weathering or streaking can

be seen on the Heinz Research
Centre, designed by SOM in 1965

41

A short history of precast materials

Cornish granite aggregate. The colonnade shades a

deeply recessed window, and equally importantly, the
design avoids the condition which affected many
contemporary buildings water run-off from glazing
streaking the surface of cladding below it. Similarly, St
Anne's College, Oxford, (1966, by HKPA Architects), has
a strongly modelled facade of exposed granite and
Derbyshire spar aggregate panels and projecting
window balcony units which show no sign of streaking.
Even panels containing large-sized aggregate, a
particularly difficult medium to handle, can weather well.
The Russell Building, Wexham Springs, was designed by
Casson and Conder as part of the headquarters of the
then Cement and Concrete Association; the bold
facades of precast panels showed no signs of staining for
30 years (it has recently been demolished).
Recent developments in precast materials
Most architects today are aware of the difference
between wet-cast reconstructed stone and semi-dry
cast stone. But there is also a difference in the
perception of an architect who is looking for a material
to resemble natural stone reconstructed stone -and
one who sees it as a heavyweight structural material
with a variety of textures and finishes precast
concrete. In fact both wet-cast reconstructed stone and
precast concrete are terms which describe a material of
exactly the same specification and appearance.
The boom in office building in the 1980s led
architects to re-examine the potential of precast
cladding panels and, as many of the new buildings were
in historic sites in London, the panels were required to
have a stone-like appearance. The material used was a
precast material produced by the wet-cast process and
generally known as reconstructed stone. Reconstructed
stone can be produced with mixes which give a close
match to natural stones such as Portland stone and Bath
stone. Reconstructed stone cladding provides a faade
of solidity and gravitas which can relate to a historic
context yet has all the advantages of a fast track
construction product. Examples of its use are shown in
the accompanying case studies.
It was soon realised that a high-strength material
with an attractive appearance was not only suitable for
cladding panels, but could also be used for the structural
elements of a building. Michael Hopkins & Partners used
42

precast structural elements with exposed finishes in

Bracken House, London, 1992, Glyndebourne Opera
House. Sussex, 1994 and the Inland Revenue offices in
Nottingham, 1996. The radiating precast beams at
Bracken House are exposed as part of the ceiling to
make maximum use of the restricted height of the
building.The auditorium at Glyndebourne Opera House
is encircled with two horseshoe-shaped balconies
composed of wedge-shaped precast panels which butt
together to form a curved front. The exposed precast
finish of the soffits enhances the acoustic and allows
integral lighting to be incorporated.
MacCormac Jamieson Prichard has explored the use
of precast in the historic context of Oxford and
Cambridge colleges. Fitzwilliam College chapel,
Cambridge and the Garden Quadrangle of St. Johns
college, Oxford, are magical buildings of delicately
detailed precast elements, as finely crafted as a piece of
high quality furniture.
Precast can also be moulded into fluid forms and
given strong colours and patterns. Blitzcrete, a mix of
crushed brick aggregate and a coloured concrete
matrix, and Doodlecrete, coloured concrete inlaid with
undercut spiral grooves filled with white grout, were
developed by the architect John Outram. They are used
as logs and saddles which support the cornice of the
Judge Institute, Cambridge.
In the past few years perceptions about the design
of the workplace have changed to emphasise the
management of energy, with the aims of energy
efficiency, good environmental working conditions and
low running costs without the use of air-conditioning. A
heavyweight material such as precast concrete has the
ideal capacity for fabric energy storage (FES), in which
the building fabric is used to attenuate and modify peak
internal temperatures during the occupied period. The
undersides of precast floor slabs are particularly suitable
because they form the largest surface area. An example
of this is can be found in the case study of the Toyota
headquarters in Epsom, by architect Sheppard Robson.
The discovery of concrete is a remarkable story. In
the past decade the potential of precast concrete as
cladding and structure has been taken further. The case
studies included in this book give some idea of the
possibilities of this unique material.

Above and below: A giant order of columns runs across the facade of
the Judge Institute surmounted by black precast capitals and an
entablature of logs and saddles. The architect was John Outram

Above: precast balcony units at Glydebourne opera house, by Michael

Hopkins & Partners

Above and right: Fitzwilliam College chapel, Cambridge by MacCormac

Jamieson Prichard

43

Case study
Architect

Armagh arts centre

Glenn Howells Architects

Case study: Armagh arts centre

The roof of the arts centre is formed of exposed polished
precast concrete units; the walls are clad with polished
precast concrete panels. The result is a visually monolithic
structure with a consistently continuous material both inside
and outside. The centre won a Concrete Society Award as
a building that exemplifies all the positive attributes of
concrete.

44

Armagh, described as one of the finest Georgian cities in

the British Isles, has a new award-winning theatre and arts
centre. It has been inserted carefully into the historic
fabric of the old city, alongside the Market Square and on
the side of the historic hill in the centre of the city which
is dominated by the twin cathedrals of St. Patrick.
The smaller, cellular spaces of the centre gallery, art
studio and studio theatre which do not require natural
daylight, are set in the hillside to the west of the site while

the raked floor of the 400-seat theatre follows the natural

fall of the ground to the east. Between the smaller spaces
and the theatre runs the main concourse; it encompasses
three levels and opens out at its centre to a massively
scaled entrance canopy with a grand flight of steps which
connects Market Square to other parts of the city.
Apart from the fully glazed faade of the main
entrance, the walls of the centre are simple panels of
polished white precast concrete cladding; in appearance
they reflect the austere ashlar stonework of local
limestone used on the adjacent buildings.The roof to the
foyer is also of polished precast units each of which

Left: visitors enter the building by a double flight of steps to a

concourse shaded with precast roof slabs.
Above: the walls are washed with natural light from precast louvres

incorporates a row of precast louvres. Both wall and roof

panels were precast by Histon Concrete Products using a
mix of Derbyshire limestone coarse aggregate, Spanish
Dolomite fines and white cement.
The interior of the building has a steel frame
structure, with external walls of cavity construction; an
inner leaf of blockwork and an outer leaf of 100mm thick
precast panels stack-bonded with stainless steel bed-joint
reinforcement and tied back to the inner leaf.
45

Case study
Architect

Armagh arts centre

Glenn Howells Architects

Top: the arts centre has been inserted into the historic fabric of
Armagh
Above: exploded isometric of precast column and roof structure
Top right: the pristine interior of the cafe

46

The foyer roof comprises 22 polished white precast

units, each 7.2m x 3.6m x 350mm, weighing up to 12
tonnes. They rest at their corners on 350mm diameter
precast columns, each up to 8.1metres high, and along their
3.6metre long edges on steel beams set in the walls; the
internal roof panels are fixed to the steel frame structure.
The casting process
Roof units were cast from a single steel-lined timber
mould which was adapted as necessary to accommodate
the various unit types. Formers were used to create voids
for downlighters and wall washer luminaires, rainwater
disposal systems and fire detectors.
The precast louvres at the end of each roof unit were
cast in advance as individual pieces and placed into the
mould before the main unit was cast. Two days after
casting, the panel was ready to be lifted away from the
mould bed; it was then stored, covered and allowed to
cure for 3-4 days before further handling. Soffits and

exposed vertical faces were finished to match the wall

panels; the soffits were polished with a floor grinder fitted
with diamond-impregnated abrasive pads; less accessible
surfaces were hand-finished.
To erect the roof panels a mobile 24-tonne crane
lifted the panels directly from their low-loaders into their
locations. When each had been aligned and levelled
precisely, the panels were grouted around the locator
dowels.
The louvres are covered with pitched glazed
rooflights. The roof units are covered in an insulated ply
deck on treated timber spacers, 60mm insulation and
precast pavers on spacer pads. Rainwater is directed
through insulated pipes running between the timber
spacers to box gutters at the junction between roof units
and to downpipes fixed in the walls.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Histon Concrete Products
47

Case study
Architect

St. George Wharf, London

Broadway Malyan Architects

Case study: St. George Wharf, London

Precast cladding panels of reconstructed Portland stone and
precast balcony units were used in the construction of the
new apartment block and mixed-use development which
occupies a dominant riverside site at St. George Wharf,
London SW8.

St. George Wharf is a large mixed-use development

occupying an 8-acre brownfield site (once a gas works)
at Vauxhall on the South Bank of the Thames, just
upstream of Vauxhall Bridge. It is scheduled to take
seven years to complete (December 1998 to December
2005) and will then have a 100,000m2 of floor area
comprising 750 apartments and offices, with shops,
restaurants and cafes, leisure facilities and an
international hotel. These will be set in communal
gardens with fountains, water features and mature trees,
48

with riverside courts and open areas leading to a new

riverside walkway. The scheme comprises five towers
rising in steps to up to 22 storeys, oversailed with gullwing roofs. The exterior is a mixture of sea-green glass
curtain walling and reconstructed precast stone panels.
The client, St. George, is an unusual company in that
it is both the developer and main contractor. As the five
towers of the project were erected in phases, the client
was able to alter the construction as it proceeded in line
with prevailing market conditions and technological
developments. Findings from the European Concrete
Building Project at Cardington were incorporated into
the second phase, with improvements in techniques and
a shorter frame programme.
The size and cost (200 million) of the project
necessitated a programme of phased construction and

49

Case study
Architect

St. George Wharf, London

Broadway Malyan Architects

sales, with consequential problems. Speed and

buildability were obviously essential. Access had to be
arranged for both residents and construction site
personnel and plant, and the site had to be managed in
a clean, tidy and quiet way that did not detract from the
first occupants enjoyment of their property or deter
prospective purchasers from viewing. An in-situ
concrete frame offered the advantage of short lead
times and also good acoustic properties, of particular
importance in a prestige residential development. The
use of precast concrete components, supplied by The
Marble Mosaic Company, was a further important
element in the solution of these problems.
Precast concrete was used for the balconies, where
the planners demanded a high standard of finish and
where advantage could be taken of the repetitive design.
Delivered on a just-in-time basis, they were craned into
place and landed on table forms, and the projecting
reinforcement was lapped in to the in-situ floor slabs.
50

Each balcony was delivered with cast-in spigots for

installing balustrades and with hoppers for rainwater
collection. The top surface was waterproofed and tiled
in the factory, minimising the need for finishing trades.
Reconstructed stone elements were also used in
external works such as the parapet cladding to the
riverside walk.
Precast concrete was chosen for the external wall
cladding for its well-known advantages of lowmaintenance, high-quality finish and precision of
construction. The size and proportion of the panels
were carefully detailed, in particular to provide drainage
and run-off for rainwater, avoiding staining. The panels
on the upper floors match the appearance of Portland
stone. On the two lowest floors the panels match the
appearance of pink sandstone to give visual strength to
the base of the building and to echo the colour of the
small-scale red-brick buildings in the vicinity.
The full-height panels were delivered with the

glazing already installed; the manufacturer (The Marble

Mosaic Company) arranged with a glazing subcontractor
to preframe and glaze the panels at the precast yard.The
panels were installed shortly after completion of the
cast in-situ frame. The use of scaffolding was largely
avoided; the panels were craned into position and
quickly made watertight with a temporary sealant
applied to the insides of the joints. To apply external
sealants, trained workers used abseiling techniques to
reach the external joints of the panels. By enclosing each
floor with the precast panels speedily, a clean dry
environment was provided for the following trades.
Insulation was fitted to the panels as part of a dry
lining package which was applied to the walls, ceilings
and floors. The panels are thin and are suspended
beyond the floor slab footprint, providing more living
space while achieving a high standard of heat and noise
insulation.
Further advantages of using precast panels instead of

bricks or blockwork are the reduction in on-site waste

and debris and a quicker finished appearance to the
building.
The panel fixings presented a serious challenge. As
most of the development is residential there are no
deep raised floors or suspended ceilings to provide
space to hide the fixings. The precaster developed a
special fixing method that could work in the restricted
depth available. Each panel is supported on a pair of
stainless steel bearing angles and laterally restrained by
being bolted to stainless steel plates which are fixed to
channels cast in the slab edge.
CREDITS
PRECASTER The Marble Mosaic Company

51

Case study
Architect

headquarter building, London

Swanke Hayden Connell

Case study: Merrill Lynch hq, London

The new seven-storey headquarters for Merrill Lynch in the
City of London has northern and internal courtyard faades of
precast panels faced with stack-bonded brickwork and a
southern faade of precast panels faced with Portland stone.

The site of the new headquarters, close to St. Pauls

cathedral, is a historic one with archeological remains of
the Roman wall and bastion and part of a much later
debtors prison. The height of the scheme was
determined by St. Pauls, and the basement depth by the
presence of Post Office underground railway tunnel
systems.The scheme consists of four main buildings; the
central seven-storey building provides trading space at
first and second floor levels for 2,400 traders, with
floors above for other departments and conference
rooms.
The building has a steel frame structure enclosed
with self-supporting facades of precast concrete column
and spandrel units. On the southern, public side the
units are faced with Portland stone; on the northern
side they are faced with stack-bonded brickwork.
52

The stack-bonded brickwork facade

The precast brick-faced panels are stack-bonded with
straight 3mm wide joints which proved difficult to achieve.
Traditional bricks are manufactured at up to +2mm
tolerance, and when stack-bonded, any minor variation in
jointing stands out. Rubber bricks are specially fired so
that they can be easily shaved or rubbed into shape and
these were specified. Unlike conventional bricks, rubber
bricks retain their durability and weather resistance if the
formed or kiln face is removed.
Hence the bricks were fired oversize and cut to size
to the tolerances required, namely +0.5mm on length and
height.They were then stacked like books in a bookcase in
timber moulds and clamped together with a closed or
butt joint brick to brick. Given the +0.5mm tolerance,
detailed statistical analysis showed that a 3mm saw could
cut a joint that covered each varying butt joint in the
brickwork.
Once joints were cut in the brick face of each precast
unit, the surface was flooded with white exterior quality
tiling grout. The panel face was then polished, yielding

53

Case study
Architect

Merrill Lynch headquarters building, London

Swanke Hayden Connell

perfectly straight 3mm white joints with no perceptible

variation in width. Over 200 brick specials were used on
the project.The basic brick - more Roman than modern in
its dimensions was 300mm long and 45mm high.
Spandrels were manufactured up to 12metres long,
each with about 1000 bricks. Once manufactured, panels
were despatched to site on a just-in-time basis.The entire
facade of spandrels and mullions was designed as part of a
stacked cladding system, the spandrels sitting on top of
mullions with the upper mullion capping or covering the
joint. The system allowed the 12metre spandrels
effectively to slide in behind the mullions they sat on. All
visible joints were pointed.
The precast Portland stone facade and colonnade
The southern facade consists of a series of storey-height
precast concrete columns which support precast
concrete spandrel panels. The columns are on a 12metre
grid, a width dictated by ground bearing problems,
including the presence of underground tunnels.
At ground floor level the faade is set back so that the
columns create a colonnade, with precast arches spanning
12metres between them. On the floors above, the spaces
between columns and spandrels are filled with doubleglazed windows.
The assembly was designed to maintain a constant
10mm wide mortar joint and avoid intrusive silicone
movement joints on the facades; joints between units are
54

positioned at the backs of the columns.

Each precast arch was cast as two separate units
spandrel and soffit. To accommodate the relatively long
span with the flat shape of the arch, the soffit is posttensioned by means of 50mm diameter cables housed in
cast-in plastic tubes.
Each ground floor precast column is U-shaped on
plan, forming a Portland stone-faced front and sides; the
rear Portland stone face is fixed by hand to a metal subframe. To provide lateral restraint the unit is bolted with
brackets to the main structural column, a 356 x 406mm
UC.
The 4 x 4metre windows to the upper floors are
supported and restrained by the precast structure; this
arrangement minimises potential movement to 3mm and
allows the windows to be installed from the inside site
restrictions prevented the use of scaffolding.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Techrete

55

Case study
Architect

Clearwater Court, Reading

Barton Willmore

Case study: Clearwater Court, Reading

The curved building has deep-set windows framed with precast
cladding in a light Portland stone colour and with a rubbed
finish. The cleanly detailed panels contribute to the appearance
and to the excellent BREEAM rating achieved by the building.

Clearwater Court is the new headquarters of Thames

Water. It is located in Reading on the south bank of the
Thames, next to Reading Bridge, on the site of the
company's former offices which were demolished to make
way for it in 1999. It houses 800 staff in open-plan offices
with a total of 7600m2 floor area, and parking for 160 cars.
It was completed in July 2001.
The brief was for a gateway building of unostentatious
form at the northern entrance to the town, with views of
the river, a masonry skin and, most importantly, energy
efficiency by way of heat conservation and maximum use of
natural light. It was to be possible, if necessary in the future,
to let part or all of it as office space.
The choice was for a building plan in the form of an
incomplete circle, about 100metres in diameter. A twostorey services and circulation block forms the main

entrance at the corner of the site. Symmetrically placed on

either side is a curved five-storey office wing in the form of
an arc, and there is a wedge-shaped gap at the rear opening
on to the river. A robust appearance is conveyed by the use
of reconstructed stone pre-cast panels for the external
cladding, deep-set windows and a pitched roof in rolled lead.
A striking visual feature of the building as seen from the river
is the pair of cylindrical towers at the ends of the office
wings. Built of clear frameless glass, they contain the stainless
steel fire-escape stairs.
A circular building is inherently more expensive than a
rectilinear one. However, studies showed that more users
would get a view of the river and green space, and problems
of noise from road traffic and the railway would be lessened.
The quiet half-enclosed courtyard is a bonus: it can be
reached from the wedge-shaped restaurant, which is at the
rear of the services block in a glazed atrium, and there is
access from it to the river.
The structural frame of the building is of cast in-situ
concrete, with exposed circular columns and coffered floor
slabs with exposed soffits to reduce temperature
57

Case study
Architect

Clearwater Court, Reading

Barton Willmore

fluctuations by means of fabric energy storage.

The following contributed to a BREEAM rating of
excellent.The precast concrete cladding, deep-set windows
and exposed in-situ concrete floor soffits were painted
white to distribute daylight and provide thermal mass
damping; a low velocity air-displacement system was used
and solar blinds were placed within the cavity of the doubleglazed window units.
The highlight of the external appearance of the building
is the reconstructed stone precast cladding, manufactured
and installed by Trent Concrete, in a light Portland stone
colour and with an impeccable rubbed finish. It was cast with
a mix of white cement and Horcott aggregates and fines.
The facade is faceted to follow the curve of the building.
The elevations of the two curved office blocks are formed
of precast mullions and spandrels. The facade panels have
been designed with rebated joint lines to reproduce the lines
of the floor slab behind them, and to modulate the relatively
plain surface. Other sections, such as cores to the atrium
and end lift shafts, adopt a wall panel scheme with false
joints, echoing the mullion and spandrel form and helping to
provide visual continuity. A total of 5700m2 of cladding was
used.
Precast cladding was chosen because of superior
buildability, with finished units delivered just-in-time for

immediate erection. This was particularly important on a

constricted site between the bridge, the river and the road.
Factory-controlled conditions also ensured the dimensional
accuracy and quality of finish required for this prominent
building.
The cladding panels were pre-insulated at Trents factory.
Maximising the use of prefabrication in this way offered a
number of advantages. It was more efficient than attaching
the insulation after panels had been fixed on site, when
access to the rear of the panel is often restricted. It also
reduced the need to use follow-on trades, and reduced the
overall construction time, enabling early enclosure of a dry,
weather-proof envelope.
The buildings precast cladding has low-maintenance
costs and the mass contributes to the thermal efficiency of
the building. In addition, the material itself is highly
sustainable. For example, precast production uses only
about 10% of the energy required for aluminium curtain
walling. On site, precast construction creates less air
pollution, noise and debris; road traffic is also reduced by
just-in-time delivery of complete components.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Trent Concrete

59

Case study
Architect

Hong Kong Central Library

Government of Hong Kong Architectural Services Department

Case study: Central Library, Hong Kong

The Central Library, beside Victoria Park in the Causeway Bay
area, is one of Hong Kongs most prominent modern public
buildings. It is clad with precast panels of glass fibre
reinforced concrete (GRC).

The Central Library was commissioned by the Hong Kong

Government in 1996. Construction commenced in 1997
and it was opened to the public in May 2001.The project
therefore straddled the hand-over of Hong Kong from
British to Chinese rule.The high profile of the building, the
timing of its construction and the prominence of its
location ensured that its design was under severe scrutiny
from all quarters.
60

The building is very different from a traditional library,

filled with dusty volumes and silent students. Central
Library is a resource centre where users access
information from a variety of media, many of which are
electronic and require distribution throughout the
building. It also serves as the headquarters of Hong Kongs
library administration services and offers gallery and
conference facilities. The design of the facade is intended
to convey a marriage of ancient and current knowledge
resources: the classical and the modern. The faade is
essentially western but the interior refers more to the
eastern experience: the two cultures meet at the library
entrance in a symbolic gate of knowledge.

Public access to the library is by means of a grand

staircase rising from the footpath or by means of a high
level walkway that crosses busy Causeway Road from
Victoria Park. The entrance is elevated above the traffic
and terraces at this level permit views of the park, of
sports facilities nearby and of the Kowloon peninsula in
the distance. The podium area is decorated with
astronomical maps and water features. Stairway risers are
engraved with quotations from eastern and western
writing.
The structure of the Central Library is a cast in situ
reinforced concrete frame of columns and beams with full
height reinforced concrete shear walls at the east and
west elevations of the building.
The selection of the glass fibre reinforced concrete
cladding system by the architect was a response to
government initiatives to reduce building site waste and
improve safety in the workplace.The aim was to minimize
site trades, speed construction and exploit the benefits of
factory-made quality.
The facades combine GRC (glass fibre reinforced
concrete) and a glass curtain wall.The GRC was originally
designed with a ceramic tile finish, ubiquitous in Hong
Kong architecture, but the architect changed to GRC after
comparing it favourably to tiled prototypes. GRC provides
a significantly higher quality of appearance appropriate to
such an important civic building. The use of GRC panels
gave the architect the opportunity to embellish the
building with a variety of classical and modern features
and replicated masonry finishes: sandstone for the general
body of the facades with limestone for window surrounds.
The faade embellishments have symbolic meaning: for
example, the library logo of a triangle, circle and square
represents sky, earth and learning.
The faade panels were 4.2 x 4.2 metres in size, quite
large for GRC, with a general thickness of 26mm,
increased locally for stiffening ribs and fixing zones. The
panels were further strengthened with galvanized steel
strong-back frames where required. High-performance
aluminum framed windows were cast in to the panels in
the factory. The panels were made in the manufacturers
production facility in China. The concrete face mix was
placed into the timber mould and GRC was sprayed on to

it and then compacted by rolling and tamping. The steel

strong-back frame, with flex anchors attached, was then
offered up to the back of the panel using jigs to ensure
that the flex anchors did not make contact with the
surface of the GRC. A GRC bonding pad was then formed
to incorporate the flex anchor into the GRC backing.
The cladding panels were de-moulded from the form
by an overhead gantry crane using the steel strong-back
frame. Complex mouldings had lifting sockets cast-into
them to enable them to be lifted out without
overstressing.The panels for the end walls did not require
the strong-back system: in their cases cast-in anchors
were incorporated.
The panels were cured for seven days. The surfaces
were acid-etched and treated with a clear sealer to ensure
long term durability, reduced maintenance, resistance to
staining and ease of cleaning.
The panel design mix included fine and coarse
aggregate, cement, water, acrylic polymers, pigment,
admixtures and alkaline resistant (AR) glass fibre.
The fixing of the panels to the main structure was
achieved with brackets connected to the steel strong-back
frames. Fixings varied between those required to connect
to the column and beam structure of the north and south
facades and those required for connection to the shear
walls on the east and west facades.The strong-back frames
were also used for the fixing of dry lining materials. The
interstices of the panels housed insulation cassettes and
cable reticulation.
The finished panels were transported from the
factory to Hong Kong by barge. Local transportation from
the wharf to the project site was by low-loader articulated
trucks equipped with tilted frames to support the panels
while letting them pass under tramway power lines. The
site upon which the library is built is tight, constrained by
roadways, a bus station and a sports facility. Construction
access to the site was made especially difficult by a low
flyover at the site entrance.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Redland Precast Concrete Products, Hong Kong

61

Case study
Architect

St Anthonys School, Singapore

Alfred Wong Partnership

Case Study: St Anthonys primary school, Singapore

Precast concrete panels were used to clad a series of new
buildings and extensions to a primary school on a restricted
site in Singapore.

St Anthonys, a primary school on an urban site of 1.2

hectares in Singapore, has been extended and altered to
increase its size by 40 per cent, from 9571 to 15,835 m2,
within the restricted confines of the existing site.The new
design not only provides extra accommodation, it resolves
aesthetic and acoustic problems and improves the
legibility of circulation routes and the way spaces are
connected. The new project was designed and built to
minimise disruption to the school while achieving a high
level of construction quality and buildability.The 30-month
period from design to contract completion was split into
three construction phases to allow the school to operate
continuously without needing temporary relocation.
The design provides a series of independent buildings
62

and spaces linked by a distinct main circulation route and

a lesser, more meandering route. The buildings form an
architectural hierarchy which reflects the functions of the
school; at the same time they are less claustrophobic and
monolithic than the original structure.The two circulation
routes create journeys with visual contrasts of form,
texture, scale and space, achieving a more stimulating
environment with points of focus and interest acting as
navigational and visual markers.
A striking and dramatic change has been made to the
main road frontage of the school. A new faade,
comprising a four-storey specialist teaching block and an
administration block, is set back behind a sloped grass
bank -created by following the natural gradient of the site.
Children enter the school by means of a new entrance, a
dramatic staircase which rises from the pavement, follows
the slope of the bank and bridges a vehicular access road
before plunging into the building at first floor level

between the two new blocks.The staircase leads to a new

playground at first floor level which gives access to all
other spaces. In this way children walking into the building
are separated from the lower circulation, bus bays and car
parking area at ground level.
The specialist teaching block and the administration
block are clad with precast concrete panels. Although the
panels are similar in colour the buildings look very
different, reflecting their separate functions. The fourstorey faade of the teaching block is relatively simple;
horizontal bands of glazing with precast concrete
spandrels set between them. The administration block is
taller and curves on plan to follow the corner of the site;
the curved faade is clad with precast panels.
In contrast to the new playground, which is landscaped
with hard materials, the existing courtyard playground
has been soft-landscaped to provide a green heart
bounded by classrooms.A new extension to the main hall
takes the form of a curved precast paneled wall to one
side of the courtyard. The curve helps to diffuse
reverberated sound in the courtyard, improving its

acoustic environment.
The original school buildings were relatively
monolithic; the new design uses pre-cast concrete in
contrast with lighter prefabricated materials to give a
visual complexity of form and detail.
The architectural precast concrete cladding panels for
St Anthonys School were manufactured at Redland
Precasts main factory in Dongguan, China. The mix
included white cement, selected coarse and fine
aggregates and yellow pigment. The panels were cast in
timber moulds set on vibrating tables and the finish was
achieved by acid-etching, giving a sandstone-like effect.The
exposed surfaces of the panels were treated with
fluorosilane to help repel water and reduce the build-up
of dirt. The units were packed in containers and then
shipped to Singapore. Once on site, the panels were
clipped on to the building structure.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Redland Precast Concrete Products, Hong Kong

63

Case study
Architect

Office campus, Leatherhead

Blair Associates

Case study: office campus, Leatherhead

A new office campus for Halliburton, Brown & Root, in
Leatherhead, Surrey, has precast cladding panels of
reconstructed Portland stone.

Halliburton, Brown & Root is one of the worlds leading

consulting engineers, involved in energy services,
environmental, civil, and structural engineering and
construction management. Blair Eastwick Architecture
(now Blair Associates) won a limited competition to
design a purpose-built campus for the company on the
22ha National Power Research and Development site to
the north-west of Leatherhead town centre. The brief
demanded that the 28,000m2 of office space should be
housed in a series of stand-alone buildings rather than in
64

one monolithic block.The client wanted a green building,

which could avoid air-conditioning, while supporting a
large number of employees and intensive IT use.
The final masterplan comprises two buildings and a
multi-deck car park arranged around the central building
of approximately 13,000m2. The buildings are oriented
towards a central entrance to which they will be joined by
a covered concourse forming a central reception area
when the masterplan is completed.The buildings have flat
roofs and glazed faades with precast cladding panels of
reconstructed Portland stone.
The central building is on four floors arranged around
a central atrium with circulation cores at each corner.The
main entrance, at the south-west corner, is a four-storey

high rotunda. It is clad with a framework of columns and

spandrel panels in reconstructed Portland stone, with
metal louvre shades and windows deeply inset between
them.
Two flanking office buildings, both W-shaped on plan,
take full advantage of the north-west and south-west
aspects of the site. The 6000m2 south building has twostoreys; the 9000m2 west building is partly two-storey but
takes advantage of the sloping site to gain two additional
floors to the north while maintaining a consistent roof
line.
The high thermal mass of the concrete structure acts
as a heat sink, cooling at night to the point where it assists
in reducing ambient daytime temperatures. A floor
displacement air system relies upon opening windows and
opening vents located close to the soffit of the reinforced
concrete slab.
The facades of the flanking office buildings are largely

glazed with a curtain wall system sheltered from solar gain

by an overhanging eaves and external sun-screens. The
ground floors are clad with precast reconstructed
Portland stone panels. They are inlaid with grooves to
channel rainwater run-off and prevent random streaking.
Grooves are also placed to express the vertical and
horizontal joints between panels.The panels are fixed back
to the concrete frame with stainless steel channels.
The main entrances to both office buildings take the
form of three-storey glazed rotundas at the corner. At
ground and first floor the glazing is flanked by curved
storey-height panels of reconstructed Portland stone with
exposed panel joints.
CREDITS
PRECASTER The Marble Mosaic Company

65

Case study
Architect

Office buildings, Bath Road ,Slough

Nicholas Hare Architects

Case study: office buildings, Slough

The new offices at 190 - 200 Bath Road, Slough are clad with
precast column and spandrel units in an etched off-white
colour. The spandrel units are supported by the ground-floor
columns. The corners of the blocks are set back to reveal
11metre high fin-like concrete columns which frame the
entrances.

This competition-winning scheme for an 18 million

redevelopment for Slough Estates replaced four pre-war
commercial buildings. Nicholas Hare Architects was
selected in 1998 to develop a prestigious design that
would both resolve planning authority concerns regarding
the loss of the existing buildings while meeting the
aspirations of the client for a prestigious development on
one of their prime sites.
The three-phase masterplan comprises three buildings
(190, 200 and 208 Bath Road) providing a total of
13,800m2 of lettable floor space. Each of the buildings is
arranged around a three or four storey atrium and is
designed to allow full flexibility for single or multiple
tenancies.
Each of the two three-storey, flanking buildings (190
and 208 Bath Road) has an atrium which is oriented
north-south. The main entrance opens directly into the
atria, which contain the main staircase and which is
naturally lit by a glazed roof.The walls of the south facades
are inflected towards the entrances at a gentle angle.
Curved, precast concrete stair towers flank the glazed
faades.
The atrium of the larger, central building is oriented
east-west and accommodates a four-storey circulation
tower. On the third floor, a penthouse has been built
with stunning views to Windsor Castle.
The three buildings are set back from Bath Road to
allow for visitors parking. Generous landscaping, including
trees, formal lawns and hedges, provide a buffer between
the buildings and the busy road.
The buildings have a concrete-frame structure with
flat slab floors.They are clad with large pre-cast concrete
panels with aluminium windows, which run in a simple
repetitive system around the facades. A stacked system
was used for the cladding; the units are supported by the
ground-floor column panels at 9metre centres. The
9metre long spandrels bear directly on to the tops of the
main column cladding units and the joints between the
66

panels are scarfed to give maximum bearing. To

accommodate the horizontal movement of each spandrel
panel, one end was firmly anchored to the top of the
column cladding while the other was allowed to move
freely. Intermediate precast mullions at 3metre centres are
supported at sill level by the spandrel below and
restrained at the lower edge of the one above.
On the south facades the cladding is peeled away to
reveal a lighter, curtain wall faade with full-width glazed
panels and anodised aluminium spandrels. Each of the
buildings is shaded on the south side by means of a broad,
deep, over-sailing canopy supported on white, fin-like
precast columns. They were cast in one piece and are
secured with bolts to the foundations; each is restrained
at the tops with a steel outrigger clad with precast.
The precast elements are a rich off-white in tone. A
small proportion of mica-rich sand was added to the mix
to give sparkle on sunny days.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Techrete

67

Case study
Architect

St John's College, Oxford

MacCormac Jamieson Prichard

Case study: St John's College, Oxford

St. John's College.
Oxford
has
two
examples of the use of
pre-cast concrete. In
1976 Arup Associates
designed a student
residence for St. John's
of precast concrete and
glass. Its present appearance, twenty years later, is an
example of how good detailing produces good
weathering. Just to the east of the Arup building is St.
John's latest building, the Garden Quadrangle designed by
68

MacCormac Jamieson Prichard. It is also constructed of

pre-cast concrete, though the architect's approach, both in
concept and detail, is very different from Arups.
The site of the new building is restricted by ancient
walls and existing buildings, and the large public rooms an auditorium and a dining hall - had to be located at a
lower ground level, described by the architect as 'a top-lit
underworld'. The roof of these rooms forms a spacious
terrace -'the upper world'-which is lined on both sides by
groups of undergraduate rooms - 41 in total - arranged in
three-storey towers.
The construction of the building emphasises the

contrast between the lower and upper levels. The

structure at the lower level is conceived as a Classical
podium, formed of massive yet delicately detailed
components, not of stone, as would traditionally have
been the case, but of a warm shade of white precast
concrete.
It consists of three large top-lit drums, two of them
covered with saucer domes on pendentives and one open
to the sky, allowing natural light into the subterranean
level in a dramatic way. MacCormac's original inspiration
came from Sir John Soane's domed halls at the Bank of
England, but the stripped elemental forms and the use of
precast fuse the design into one coherent and
contemporary whole.
The dining hall and the auditorium are each roofed

with an 8.6metre diameter dome surmounted by a central

precast lantern which rises above terrace level.The domes
are supported on four 8.2tonne precast concrete
pendentives, each carried on a cluster of concrete
columns which stand on a precast concrete plinth. The
columns also support precast arches which frame the
edges of the domes and rise at their centres to massive
precast keystones, each weighing 8 tonnes.
The columns, plinths, pendentives and arches which
support the domes are composite structures; they consist
of hollow precast units whose cores were filled on site
with grey concrete to increase their strength. Some areas
of the core were framed with inserts before being filled;
these were then used as ducts to carry mechanical and
electrical services.
69

Case study
Architect

St John's College, Oxford

MacCormac Jamieson Prichard

The precast units have different surface textures to

emphasise different elements of the structure and to
simulate some of the surface finishes found in traditional
stone-built Classical architecture. Like Classical
architecture, the finishes express the supportive weights
carried by each element; at the highest level the concrete
is polished to a very fine finish not unlike terrazzo. This
was achieved by a wet process using several types of grit
with rotary and orbital polishing machines, and was
finished off by buffing with Italian marble polish.
Each soffit of the double arched section of the
pendentive was also polished to a very fine finish using the
same wet process. In contrast surfaces of the centre
section of the twin beams and the domed soffit of the
pendentive were needle gunned. The four supporting
columns at each pendentive were polished, and the plinths
which support them were grit blasted. The L-shaped
columns at the corner and the base of the external
staircase structure were heavily rusticated to simulate
blocks of stone, with point tooled edges and grit-blasted
grooves.
The architecture above the terrace is of a different
concept. The undergraduate rooms are stacked into light
70

and airy towers, which take their inspiration from the

Elizabethan Hardwick Hall.The rooms are arranged in the
collegiate system in small groups, each linked vertically by
a spiral stair of precast concrete units. The towers are
constructed of grit-blasted precast concrete frames
supporting brick infill walls.The proportion of window to
brickwork increases with height, so that the upper storeys
of the towers are almost entirely glazed, allowing
extensive views over adjacent leafy gardens.
The precast mix chosen for the building included an
aggregate in a warm shade of white made up from two
different grades of Ballidon limestone aggregate from
Derbyshire, and white cement. This mix was chosen as it
was virtually identical to that used by Arup Associates on
their building close by.
The design allowed the same moulds to be used
several times, with minor modifications from casting to
casting.The moulds were made of plywood; some moulds,
such as those used for the pendentives, were cast with
plastic inserts to provide service runs within the structure
after erection.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Histon Concrete Products

Case study
Architect

The Lawn Building, Paddington station

Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners

Case study:The Lawn Building, London

The structure of the Lawn Building at Paddington Station is a
true hybrid with fully composite steel-and-concrete columns
and concrete-cased steel beams structure.

Paddington station was built by Isambard Kingdom Brunel

in 1854 as the London terminus of the Great Western
Railway. Its three great arched sheds, now Grade 1 listed,
are concealed behind the Great Western Hotel. Over the
years the terminus had become blighted with alterations
to cope with increasing passenger numbers, and with
catering and information kiosks. Now the 42 million first
71

Case study
Architect

The Lawn Building, Paddington Station

Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners

The new precast structure has a precise hand etched finish

phase of a comprehensive reconstruction project by

Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners has been completed.
Known as the Lawn Building the site was once the
stationmasters garden it is a transparent glazed box,
seamlessly connected into a complex grid of original
buildings the hotel and two 1930s offices which adjoin
it on three sides. The fourth side is a frameless glass
72

screen with large glazed automatic doors which open on

to the main station concourse.
The Lawn Building houses a new check-in and waiting
area for the Heathrow Express service along one side,
with shops, cafes and restaurants at ground and
mezzanine levels on the other sides.The box-lid steel and
glass roof consists of 12 ridge and furrow trusses which
span 20metres on to a 4metre deep perimeter steel truss;
this in turn rests on a precast concrete structure.
The structure had to be free-standing and isolated
from the original Grade 1 listed buildings by movement
joints. Given the absence of shear walls and other
stiffening elements, all horizontal loads had to be taken by
moment connections. Individual loads on the structure
exceeded 1000kN vertically and 50kN horizontally.
The architects concept was a precast structure which
would be relatively light and delicate. However a
traditional reinforced concrete solution was impractical
because of the requirement for moment capacity at the
joints.Trent Concrete proposed a hybrid structure one
which would combine the benefits of steel and precast
concrete. Steel is slender and light but requires fire

Case study
Architect

The Lawn building, Paddington Station

Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners

protection: precast concrete is visually pleasing and has

inherent fire protection but is more bulky and heavier
than steel. Unlike composite construction where the
materials interact, a hybrid structure simply uses the more
efficient element where it matters, which in this case was
at the joints between column and beam.
Trent decided to use structural steel sections with
welded and bolted connections at the joints. This would
provide increased capacity and much simpler connection
details. By using steel members which ran the whole
length of the beam or column, fabrication was made much
simpler.
At Paddington the maximum size of a precast column
400mm diameter had already been established. This
meant that the size of the steel member which was
enclosed by the precast was limited to a 200 x 200mm
grade 50 SHS plus nominal wrapping fabric reinforcement;
the column was therefore designed as a true composite
section.
The requirements for stiff joints meant that the
vertical loads, including the self-weight of the floor units,
also induced connection moments. Computer analysis of
the structure indicated that joint moments were more
critical than span moments under maximum imposed load.
To reduce the effects on the joints, Trent evolved a
composite solution in which the frame was designed to
enable the joints to be released as floor loads were
imposed.Allowing the beams to rotate at columns allowed
a series of simply supported spans to be used, which in
turn redistributed the joint moments. Once the dead load
of the frame was in place, the joints were welded to create
true continuity for subsequent loads.
The primary horizontal loads came from wind and
thermal loads on the roof structure. To transfer these
between columns, the deck was designed as a diaphragm;
deck panels were welded to each other and to the
supporting beams.
The top of each steel core projects above the precast
column and was bolted during erection with high-tensile
bolts to the ends of steel beams which project from the
precast beams.The steel joints were then welded and the
precast units were connected with an in-situ concrete
stitch. Precast tiles to match the columns and beam
material were used to cover the connection.
The resultant structure is a true hybrid with fully
composite steel-and-concrete columns and concrete-

Detail section through connection between column and beam

cased steel beams. Its slenderness could not have been

achieved by traditional steel or concrete alone. The
concrete additionally provides encasement for fire
protection.
The 90 floor slabs, 36 columns and 32 beams were
cast in glass fibre moulds to give a precise and accurate
finish. They were then acid-etched by hand. The concrete
mix included a combination of white cement, a coarse
limestone aggregate and a fine Lee Moor mica sand
aggregate to give a sparkling finish. The structure
subsequently required no additional treatment, either for
fire protection or maintenance.
Although the new structure was kept free of the
surrounding buildings, the precast floor slabs had to
accommodate considerable variations in both height and
width. These were incorporated at mould stage by
adjusting the timber sides of the moulds.
The station had to remain open while construction
work was being carried out. Off-site fabrication in Trent
Concretes Nottingham factory and just-in-time delivery
of the self-finished precast units were important
advantages. By taking work off the site and into the
factory, improved quality, accuracy and reliability were
achieved.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Trent Concrete
73

Case study
Architect

Office,Wicklow Street, London

Squire and Partners

Case study: office conversion, London

A straight-flight precast concrete staircase forms part of the conversion of a former factory into new offices
for an architectural practice.
74

In 2002 the architectural practice Squire and Partners

moved to a new office near Kings Cross, in a 1930s brickclad former factory. The practice has refurbished the
basement and ground floor of the building, transforming
them into a single unified volume by cutting away parts of
the ground floor.
The original building was a five-storey steel-framed
structure. Most of the ground floor has been replaced
with new slim steel beams supporting a composite metal
deck slab reducing the overall depth by up to 400mm.
This has improved headroom and allowed natural light
into the lower ground floor, making it seem more
spacious. A glass-floored bridge runs across the space to
link reception and cafe; a precast concrete staircase
alongside the bridge rises from the lower ground floor.
The staircase, designed with structural engineer Price
& Myers, consists of a precast concrete spine beam in the
shape of a tapered ovoid with a stepped upper face on
which rest precast treads. These are bolted together
though a series of holes cast through the spine and fitted
with 42.2mm diameter sleeves. A stainless steel M16 bolt
is slotted through each sleeve and threaded into a socket

cast in the tread soffit. The bolts terminate on the

underside of the spine with pig-nosed ends which are
recessed into cast countersunk holes.
The treads are fixed asymetrically to the beam and taper
towards their ends. Each front edge is fitted with an 8mm
stainless steel bar which projects 1mm to prevent slipping.
The staircase balustrades comprise 40 x 25mm solid
rectangular mild steel bars. M8 threaded bars are cast into
the back of each tread. The balusters are slotted through
precast holes in the upper tread and bolted with M8
countersunk screws to the bars cast in the back of the
tread below.
The bridge is supported by two 200x100mm RHS
beams pinned at their ends and bolted to the existing floor
slab, braced at the ends with solid rods.The floor is formed
of five Cellbond double-glazed panels of 4mm toughened
glass with a central core of 17mm aluminium honeycomb,
framed with aluminium box sections.The top edges of the
panels are sandblasted to provide a non-slip surface.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Histon Concrete Products
75

Case study
Architect

Paribas headquarters, London

The Whinney Mackay-Lewis Partnership

Case study: Paribas hq, London

The building has a rich and articulated faade of precast
reconstructed stone panels in a red/buff colour to match
surrounding buildings.

Set on a corner site in Marylebone, London, Paribas new

headquarters comprises an 80m x 80m block of five floors
with two further floors set back behind a roof terrace; it is
surmounted by a 26metre diameter dome.
The main faade is clad with precast units of red/buff
coloured reconstructed stone; the entrance is flanked with
buttresses clad with red French limestone to relate to the
adjoining Marylebone Station and Landmark Hotel. Similar
buttresses are set at the corners of the building.
The first and second floors consist of glazed panels
between which are fluted precast columns which rise to the
parapet. Upper storeys are composed of projecting bay
windows, glazed from floor to ceiling. The floor levels are
defined by a series of projecting precast spandrels, also of
red/buff coloured reconstructed stone, which incorporate a
band of teracotta tiles.The bays terminate in a deep cornice
of precast panels at parapet level.
The early appointment of the precast cladding and
76

window specialist trade contractors allowed them to

contribute to the design and construction processes and
gave them the opportunity to carry out an extensive
programme of static and dynamic testing of a mock-up of
the external faade
The fluted semi-circular column units, up to 7.5m high,
and the parapet panels at 5th floor level were individually
supported and fixed using stainless steel fittings to the
structural concrete floor slabs and steel columns. The
reconstructed stone was produced as a blend of red and
buff coloured aggregates - pigmented cement was not used.
The panels were finished by rubbing and acid washing the
surface.
The main elevation on Harewood Avenue elevation
comprises two groups of projecting bay windows, with the
entrance between them formed by cutting the floors back
between ground and third floors to create an 18x18metre
diameter, frameless glazed semi-cylindrical entrance hall with
revolving doors.
CREDITS
PRECASTER The Marble Mosaic Company

77

Case study
Architect

Office building, Paternoster Square, London

MacCormac Jamieson Prichard

Case study; Offices, Paternoster Square, London

A new office building on a sensitive site is clad with complex
panels of precast concrete inset with windows and inlaid
panels of red sandstone.

During the 1939-35 war the buildings which formed the

precincts of St Pauls cathedral in London were destroyed.
The site was rebuilt in the 1950s with office buildings
which were subsequently demolished. The new office
building by MacCormac Jamieson Prichard is one of a
group of buildings now under construction, the final
scheme of a series of controversial plans for the site.
The seven-storey building, which will be occupied by a
financial services company, has an internal atrium flanked
by stepped office floors. The exterior facades are highly
articulated, with a rich lattice of steel, glass, precast
concrete and red sandstone.
The building has a steel frame structure with
composite metal deck and in-situ concrete floor slabs.
Ground and first floor elevations are clad with precast
78

panels faced with Grove Whitbread Portland stone with

ashlar joints. Upper floors are clad with precast cladding
panels with panels of red sandstone tiles set between
window openings and recessed bays. The panels are
framed with exposed precast spandrels, acid-etched to
give a smooth finish to contrast with the Portland stone.
The stone tiles, 160mm deep, are of Lockerbie
Corncockle red sandstone; they are stack-bonded to the
precast with hedgehog dowels. Double-glazed units in
polyester powder coated aluminium frames were fixed to
the panels at the Techrete works at Brigg, Lincolnshire,
before being delivered to site.
A standard panel is 4metres high and spans 6metres
from column to column to avoid load on the edge beam
which can therefore be reduced in size.The recessed bays
give rigidity to the panels.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Techrete UK

79

Case study
Architect

Toyota headquarters, Epsom, Surrey

Sheppard Robson

Case study:Toyota headquarters, Epsom

This hybrid precast structure provides a high-quality finish
with benefits of fabric energy storage

The new Toyota headquarters designed by architect

Sheppard Robson, occupies a sloping hill-top site on the
North Downs near Epsom racecourse. The client's
specific requirements included an open-plan arrangement
to help promote an open work culture within the
company, and minimum energy use. However some
flexibility was needed in order to meet a possible future
demand for lettable office space.The use of prefabricated
concrete elements in the structure played an important
part in meeting these somewhat conflicting constraints.
The building, of about 14,000m2, is essentially a single
open compartment without barriers between
80

departments, housing 500 staff and comprises three main

elements.There is an entrance rotunda with a conference
suite on the upper level and an outer ring enclosure at
ground level housing a staff cafe-bar and restaurant.
Behind this is a double-height glazed street, 80metres
long, overlooked by a two-storey strip of offices. Between
the offices and the street is a service strip holding most of
the staircases, lifts, toilets, services risers and office
equipment. Behind the street are four office wings which
radiate like fingers, of two or three floors according to the
slope of the ground.
The three elements have been cleverly arranged to
make the most of the hill-top site.The street, the cafe and
restaurant overlook a lake and the view towards London,
while the offices at the rear have a more secluded aspect.

Above: the entrance rotunda to the new headquarters

Left: the hybrid concrete structure allows the use of exposed
coffered concrete soffits as ceilings

There is also an undercroft containing loading bays, plant

rooms, a fitness centre and car parking with vehicular
access at the rear.
The rotunda and street have a tubular steel structure
clad with aluminium panels and glazing, giving an
appropriate high-tech aspect. The superstructure of the
office wings is a hybrid concrete structure designed with
structural engineer Whitby Bird & Partners.
The floor slabs are precast and their soffits are
exposed; this specification aimed to reduce temperature
fluctuations; heat is cyclically absorbed and re-emitted by
the exposed concrete surfaces. The load on the heating
and cooling systems can be reduced in accordance with
the client's low-energy requirement. Identical coffered
slabs, 6m x 3m weighing 12 tonnes, were cast by Trent
Concrete, in a scalloped shape, using glass-fibre moulds to
achieve a smooth high-quality finish. An in-situ concrete
topping was poured over the surface of the slabs to form

a floor screed.The edge beams, and the inverted U-shaped

spine beams were cast in continuous in-situ strips to give
structural continuity. The structure was detailed carefully
so that only the white precast is visible. The spine beam
contains ventilation ducts, electricity services access
points and lighting. It is clad with a metal soffit. The highquality off-white finish, in conjunction with large expanses
of external glazing and the open plan lay-out, helps to
spread daylight into the interior.Trent collaborated closely
with the architect and engineers in the design process
leading to the final coffer shape.
The support columns were required to be slender,
with a high-quality exposed finish, and precast concrete
was chosen as the most appropriate material. However
the columns also had to provide resistance to sway,
because the use of internal shear walls would conflict with
the architectural concept of open-plan floors and
uninterrupted window walls. Accordingly concrete
columns were precast, each with a structural steel core
and end plates. At beam levels the steel cores were left
exposed with provision for reinforcement to be fed
through them to provide continuity. Cast as a single unit,
each column is 8metres high and 450mm diameter. The
concrete mix was antique white cement with Derbyshire
coarse and fine limestone.
The hybrid construction was erected at a speed
comparable with that achievable using structural steel.The
high-quality finish of the floor slabs and columns needs no
further decoration. This eliminates a further trade, saves
on maintenance costs and improves heat transfer between
the structure and the interior, an important element of the
fabric energy storage approach.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Trent Concrete
81

Case study
Architect

Housing,Timber Wharf, Manchester

Glenn Howells Architects

Case study: Housing,Timber Wharf, Manchester

Timber Wharf is the first new-build project by award-winning
developer Urban Splash. The simplicity of the planning has
permitted the use of a system of vertical crosswalls and
floors, made out of high-quality factory-engineered precast
concrete.

After most of a decade of inner urban redevelopment

based on converting old redundant buildings, Urban Splash
has completed its first new build housing project.
Following an open design competition, Glenn Howells
Architects were commissioned in April 1999 to design a
scheme for new build apartments on the Britannia Basin
site along Bridgewater Canal in the St. Georges area of
Manchester. The brief included a requirement for
innovative contemporary design, and the possibility of
new construction techniques which offer a visually
interesting solution and cost effective construction.
Timber Wharf is an imposing building, rising nine
floors from the ground. The building houses apartments,
stacked up on the long east and west sides, with access via
a central corridor. The glazed facades have sliding doors
which open out onto balconies.
Precast concrete crosswall construction and
82

continuous balconies with storey-height glazing set up a

simple layered rhythm, interrupted off centre of the
building by a full height circulation core. The clean lines
and the simple palette of concrete and glass in metalframed openings fits with the robust existing buildings.
The palette is a simple, basic one concrete, metal,
glass, stone, wood. As with the neighbouring industrial
buildings there is no artifice of veneers and other finishing
layers. Throughout, the concrete is fair-faced. A formal
partnering agreement between Histon Concrete
Structures and project manager Urban Splash Projects
allowed early involvement of the specialist contractor,
essential for fast-tracking the concrete crosswall
structure.
The crosswalls were cast vertically in a battery mould
and propped on site before being stabilised by a series of
pre-cambered precast concrete floor planks; they were
connected with cast in-situ stitched joints. The precast
balcony to each flat is separated from adjoining flats by
precast concrete fin walls. They were cast in timber
moulds with a mix of white cement and Ballidon aggregate
with an acid-etched finish.
The white concrete balcony units and the grey

concrete tie beam behind were cast in a single mould in a

two-stage process with cast-in dpc and thermal break.
They were connected with stainless steel bars. The fin
walls and crosswalls were pre-assembled to reduce the
number of crane lifts on site.. They were craned into
position and secured with cast in-situ stitched joints. The
jambs and sills of the double-glazed sliding doors were
positioned against the horizontal and vertical thermal
breaks so that the dpcs could be dressed into them.
Each fin wall was cast with an integral 50mm diameter
PVC downpipe connected to an outlet on the balcony,
together with recesses for light fittings and for handrail
fixing brackets.
The interiors, with their unadorned concrete walls,
2650mm ceiling heights and storey-height doors, have a
loft-like feel. Bedrooms and living rooms all have balconies,
with spectacular views from the upper floors.
The first occupants are reported to have been happy
to live with these surfaces rather than take up the
developers offer of painting them at no extra cost.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Histon Concrete Structures

83

Case study
Architect

Sainsbury headquarters, London

Foster and Partners

Case study: Sainsbury hq, London

A delicate grillage of precast mullions and columns runs in
front of the glazed walls of the new headquarters building in
Holborn, London.

The new building replaces the former Daily Mirror offices

at the corner of Holborn Circus, central London. Two
nine-storey wings of office accommodation fan out from a
central core; the wedge-shaped space between the wings
forms a curved glass-roofed atrium opening on to the
84

Circus. The glazed upper storeys step back to form

terraces.
The main structure is a steel frame with composite
concrete/steel floors.The glazed facade to the ground and
second floor is clad with a skeleton-like grillage of precast
concrete set in front of the glazing. It consists of series of
precast mullions at 9metre centres, clad with Portuguese
granite, with pairs of smaller precast mullions with a
reconstructed Portland stone finish between them, at

3metre intervals apart.The mullions measure only 120mm

wide x 330mm deep and are up to 6metres high.
Precast reconstructed Portland stone louvre blades
are set between the mullions at 600mm intervals. Only
75mm deep and spanning 3metres, the louvres were
prestressed in the factory to achieve the necessary
rigidity; they were secured in position on site with
stainless steel fixings with a 2mm tolerance set in the
sides of the mullions.
The facade to the floors above is composed of a
precast grillage of mullions and spandrels; their
slenderness and composition push forward the

boundaries of concrete technology.The main mullions are

clad with granite; screens of precast louvres set between
them are fixed to intermediate reconstructed Portland
stone mullions.
To speed construction, and to avoid fixing on site, 9m
x 4m floor-height window reveals were cast in a single
massive unit.The prestressed louvres were cast separately
and stitched into the mould before casting; the
reconstructed stone and granite-faced units were cast
together in the same mould.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Techrete
85

Case study
Architect

North Stand, Ipswich Town Football Club

HOK Sport

Case study: North Stand, Ipswich Football Club

Most new football stands built immediately before and after
the Taylor report on ground safety were of steel construction
with supporting precast concrete terrace units spanning the
length of the stands between steel rakers. The 7 million
North Stand for Ipswich Town Football Club, now under
construction, has been designed with a precast concrete
structure.

The new stand takes the form of two tiers; they are
sheltered by a projecting steel roof structure and bookended at the sides by ancillary accommodation.
Instead of the more usual tier structure a steel
frame with interlocking precast terrace units - the lower
tier is formed of a series of stepped precast staircase
units similar to a series of staircases set side by side.
Compared to a conventional steel frame, the precast
staircase units form a slim slab which helps to maximise
the floor-to-ceiling height below. For the architect HOK
Sport and the structural engineer J Bobrowski and
Partners, this solved a serious problem - a restricted site
yet with a water table which would not permit the
development of a basement. In addition the use of precast
units speeded up the construction process; installation
was simpler and there was no need to use wet trades the
soffit of the units are exposed to form the ceiling.
The lower tier is formed of two rows of precast
staircase' units; they spanning from front to back, resting
on an intermediate steel frame.The rear of the upper row
rest on steel beams supported by a series of 14 precast
spine walls.
The spine walls are 3metres wide, over 11metres high
86

and are generally spaced 7.2metres apart. Access

staircases run between them.They are sloped at their tops
to support the steel raker beams of the upper tier. In
addition the overhanging upper concourse - a steel and
hollow-core floor plank structure -is suspended from
them.
Trent Concrete provided 823 units weighing up to 25
tonnes in five different types of concrete.These were:
normal weight grey concrete for the lower front
terrace units and step blocks;
lightweight grey concrete for the upper terrace Lshaped units and step blocks;
white concrete using Derbyshire limestone aggregates
for the rear lower terrace units and step blocks, upper and
lower vomitories;
white concrete using Spanish dolomite aggregate for
the rear spine walls;
coloured concrete using Cree Town coarse aggregate
with Lee Moor fines for the vomitory and rear access
staircases.
Concrete mixes were either 50N/mm2 or 60N/mm2 and
finishes included acid etching of both as-struck and
trowelled surfaces. The second phase of construction,
involving the erection of the upper terrace and steelwork
roof structure is now under way and the stand is due to be
fully completed in time for the 2002/3 season.The two tiers
of the new stand will provide a capacity of 7,300, compared
with original single-tier stand which had a capacity of 3000.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Trent Concrete

Case study
Architect

Royal College of Obstetricians & Gynaecologists, London

Nicholas Hare Architects

Case study: Royal College of Obstetricians

& Gynaecologists, London
This subterranean structure makes extensive use of precast
elements. It won a Concrete Society Award in 2002.

The Royal College of Obstetricians & Gynaecologists

(RCOG) is the governing body of the profession and has
a leading role in education and development of specialists.
It is housed in a 1950s building on the edge of Regents
Park, London.
A few years ago the college decided that more space
was required and commissioned Nicholas Hare
Architects. The problem a small site severely restricted
by planning requirements was solved by placing the
additional spaces underground alongside the original
buildings. The new education centre consists of a tiered
229-seat lecture theatre, ten seminar rooms on two floors
including a surgical skills training suite, a library and
information services resource room and IT training
centre.
The new two-storey deep basement has a dramatic
entrance foyer - a cylindrical double-height atrium with a
domed rooflight. It is linked to the original basement;
entrance, lecture theatre and seminar rooms are arranged
on two levels around it.
A concrete frame structure was chosen as the most

appropriate material for an underground building as it is

robust and resistant to water penetration.The atrium has
cast in situ concrete walls and a colonnade of concrete
cylindrical columns supporting matching precast concrete
roof slabs. The precast slabs which line the dome have
smooth vaulted soffits. They are knitted together with an
in-situ topping to form a slim composite slab which helps
to maximise floor-to-ceiling heights. The rooflight is
supported on a precast concrete ring which forms a
channel at the perimeter.
An in-situ concrete cantilevered staircase which links
the two levels is finished with exposed precast concrete,
masking the fixings of the glass balustrade. Circulation
spaces are roofed with coffered precast slabs.
The two-storey seminar space makes extensive use of
exposed concrete. The structure is an in-situ frame with
flat slabs supported by the external retaining walls and by
a series of exposed cylindrical columns.
A pergola and a glazed pavilion, both of which are
formed of precast concrete elements, are set in the
landscape on top of and around the building.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Histon Concrete Products
87

Case study
Architect

Office building, Crown Place, London

MacCormac Jamieson Prichard

Case study: Crown

Place, London
The building has a concrete frame with glazed bays which
set up a rich grid, articulating both frame and openings.

The speculative office block, the first MacCormac Jamieson

Prichard has designed for a commercial developer, is at the
corner of Crown Place, a pedestrianised street, formerly
Clifton St, and next to Broadgate in the heart of the City
88

of London. It is in a conservation area which is dominated

by 19th century warehouses; they are reflected in the scale
and character of the elevations. Crown Place is eight
stories high and contains 5,065m2 of office space. The
internal structure is a cast in-situ concrete frame with
columns on a 9metre grid.
Richard MacCormac has described Crown Place as
one of our most classical buildings in the sense that the
function of each component of the faade is clearly
articulated. The the main faade the four floors above
the ground floor - is dominated by the large storey-height
glazed bays which project beyond the crisp white precast
concrete frame. The bays are set in pairs between paired
precast columns which themselves are set forward of the
precast edge beams.A further set of glazing lies behind the
columns and edge beams.These elements set up a flexible
and rich compositional grid, with articulation of both
frame and openings. At the eaves a deep, oversailing roof
shelters the faade and conceals a further two storeys of
office floors.
The precast concrete columns, beams and soffit units
were cast by Histon Concrete with a mix of Derbyshire
limestone aggregates and white cement; grit-blasted, acidetched and ground finishes were used on different
components. The edge beams were fixed to the columns
in front of them with a half-lap joint and stitched to the
cast in-situ slab behind them. Rebates, returns and ledges
were carefully detailed with a concealed gutter to prevent
rainwater running off the vertical faces of the precast.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Histon Concrete Products

Case study
Architect

Swimming pool, Oxfordshire

Architects Design Partnership

Case study: swimming pool, Oxfordshire

This swimming pool in Oxfordshire is one of the few buildings which realise the potential of precast reconstructed stone as a
structural element. It also demonstrates how a new modern building can blend and co-exist with an older building without the
need to resort to pastiche or reproduction.

89

Case study
Architect

90

Swimming pool, Oxfordshire

Architects Design Partnership

The pool enclosure sits naturally beside a large existing

house, circa1904, and echoes the dominant gables, crisp
white horizontal cornice lines and semi-circular window
heads of its east elevation, facing the river Thames. The
brief was to supply pool, changing rooms, wcs and a
sauna, a covered link to the house and garaging for five
cars. The two major elements, pool and garage, have
different requirements and are expressed as two
individual yet linked buildings.This has reduced the scale
of the development, allowing the existing house to
dominate.
The pool enclosure is deliberately transparent to
give views east to the river, with a mainly solid south
wall which runs close to the site boundary. The pool's
size determined a framed structure. White precast
reconstructed stone was chosen to echo the strong
white features of the old house. Two double sets of
columns, crossed by a tie beam, support two main
beams, nearly one metre deep, which run the length of
the pool (a client requirement was that no structure
should run across the pool at high level) and link the
separate pool enclosure and garage. The main beam on
the north side continues beyond the pool enclosure and
becomes the ridge beam of the garage. The southern
main beam is also extended outside the enclosure
where it 'grasps' the flue which emerges from the
underground plant room, giving it lateral support.
The roof spanning the two main beams above the

91

Case study
Architect

Swimming pool, Oxfordshire

Architects Design Partnership

pool is solid to avoid glare and reflections. It is a rigid

deck of 75mm structural t&g timber boards, avoiding the
need for tie bars. The lower roof between the main
beams and eaves is fully glazed on each side. Below lies
the pool, its water surface flush with the white marble
floor (sandblasted to prevent slipping). The diving board
plinth and pool lining are also in white marble.
The main beams were delivered to site in sections:
three for each beam spanning the pool, three for the
garage ridge (a continuation of the northern beam) plus
a seventh linking beam over the changing area. They
were jacked into position, threaded with cables, and
post-tensioned. The position of the post-tensioning
anchor holes is clearly expressed at the beam end, set in
a circular recess and closed with a circular concrete
cover disc. Similar cover discs close the bolt-fixing holes
of the columns to the tie beams. The double columns
92

have cast-in side notches which form the seating for

each main beam. Eaves are expressed by U-shaped
beams which act as large gutters on each side of the
roof, with chains used instead of downpipes as the latter
might have become blocked with leaves from nearby
mature trees. Eaves beams are supported by precast
columns which slot in to a recess on the underside of
the beam and are secured by a doweled fixing into the
top of the column.To maintain the pristine whiteness of
the structure, the top face of the eaves beams slopes
inwards to direct water into the gutter. Similarly a
groove on the top face of the tie beam collects water
and drains it into the gutter at the side.
CREDITS
PRECASTER The Marble Mosaic Company

Case study
Architect

JC Decaux headquarters, Brentford, west London

Foster and Partners

Case study: JC Decaux hq, London

The new warehouse built of Hardwall structural insulated
panels, won an award for excellence in the Concrete Society
Awards.

Foster and Partners has designed a new headquarters for

JC Decaux, a leading supplier of street furniture. It has
three parts; a refurbished Grade II-listed 1930s office
building, a new warehouse and a covered street linking the
two.Architect and client chose precast for construction of
the warehouse, for its aesthetic quality, accuracy of
construction and ease of installation. A sharp white
concrete was chosen for the mix; the colour refers to the
white render of the original 1930s office alongside.

The structure is a precast reinforced concrete frame

with columns which span 15metres at 9metre centres and
is clad with precast structural insulated panels. It is a fast
and efficient method of construction the shell of the
3,000m2 building was completed in one and a half weeks.
The precast structural insulated panels are a patented
system known as Hardwall. The panels were produced
by Trent Concrete as follows;
A 75mm precast concrete slab was cast with built-in
polymer composite connector bars. Thermomass glass
fibre insulation board was laid over the top so that the
bars protruded, and a further layer of concrete was cast,
trapping the insulation within the panel. The panels cured
93

Case study
Architect

JC Decaux headquarters, Brentford, west London

Foster and Partners

in a horizontal position and are were vertically before

being delivered to site. The polymer composite bars are
stronger, less thermally conductive and more elastic than
traditional steel connectors, which would act as cold
bridges. The insulation extends to the edges of the panel
to maintain thermal protection.
The panels were cast with a mix of white concrete
and Spanish Dolomite aggregate to give sparkle.They are
self-finished; exterior surfaces were lightly acid etched and
interior surfaces were hand trowelled. Fixings were cast
and recessed into the inner leaf of the sandwich; column to-roof beam connections were concealed in the tops of
the beams. Rainwater pipes were also cast in the columns,
enhancing the crisp lines of the warehouse.
The panels were quality-controlled in production and
delivered in a just-in-time sequence to site. Their layout
on the faade was optimised so that the smallest number
of large panels could be used.
The building is designed to be braced in the
longitudinal direction, using the precast panels as the
structure.The panels were dowelled at horizontal joints to
transfer shear forces, and robust mechanical connections
were used to bolt the panels to the columns.
Roof structure and cladding act as a diaphragm to
transfer wind forces into the braced frame. In the
transverse direction the structure is designed as a sway
frame, taking advantage of the 11.35metre-high cantilever
columns.
CREDITS
PRECASTER Trent Concrete
94

Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY
British Standards and Codes
BS 1217: 1997 Specification for cast stone
BS 5628: Part 1: 1992 Code of practice for use of
masonry. Structural use of unreinforced masonry.
BS 5628: Part 2: 2000 Code of practice for use of
masonry. Structural use of reinforced and pre-stressed
masonry.

The process
Architectural Cladding Association (2000) Code of
Practice for the safe erection of precast concrete
cladding, British Precast Concrete Federation, Leicester,
UK
Glass, J. (2000) The future for precast concrete in lowrise housing, British Precast Concrete Federation,
Leicester, UK

BS 5628: Part 3: 2001Code of practice for use of

masonry. Materials and components, design and
workmanship.

Glass, J. (2001) EcoConcrete: the contribution of cement

and concrete to a more sustainable built environment,
Reinforced Concrete Council/British Cement Association,
Crowthorne, UK

BS 8297: 2000 Code of practice for Design and

installation of non-loadbearing precast concrete cladding.

Glass, J. (2002) Encyclopaedia of architectural technology,

Wiley-Academy, London, UK

BS 8298: 1994 Code of practice for design and

installation of natural stone cladding and lining.

Reinforced Concrete Council (2001) Fabric energy

storage benefits, British Cement Association,
Crowthorne, UK

BS 8221: Part 1: 2000 Code of practice for cleaning and

surface repair of buildings. Cleaning of natural stones,
brick, terracotta and concrete.
BS 6457: 1984 Specification for reconstructed stone
masonry units.
BS 6093: 1993 Code of practice for design of joints and
jointing in building construction.
BS 6213: 2000 Selection of construction sealants.
History
Kelly A. Mrs Coade's Stone. Self Publishing Association
Concrete through the ages. British Cement Association,
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Reinforced Concrete Council (2002) St Georges Wharf

Project Profile, Reinforced Concrete Council/British
Cement Association, Crowthorne, UK
The Construction Task Force (1998) Rethinking
Construction, HMSO, London, UK
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Parnham, Phil (1997), Premature staining on new
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buildings. British Cement Association, Crowthorne, UK

Acknowledgements & Afterword

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the architects and engineers whose buildings are described in the Case Studies for their time
and generous provision of drawings and photographs.
Valuable technical assistance came from all members of the ACA; from Dr Jacqueline Glass, lecturer in Architectural
Engineering, Department of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, who contributed material on the
construction process section and from Dr Haroula Balodimou who contributed material on the weathering section.
Cast in Concrete was designed by Terry Howe. Fixing details were drawn by Vic Brand. Drawings on pages 46, 54, 55,
75 and 83 first appeared as Working Details in The Architects Journal.
Photography credits
p6
Lewis Gasson, Christopher Hill
p7
Graham Gaunt, Diem Photography
p25
David Kennell
p32
Katsuhisa Kida
p334
BCA
p41
Martin Charles
pp447 Christopher Hill
pp4851 James Morris, Paul Tyagi, Christine Ottewil
pp524 David Churchill/Arcaid, Lewis Gasson
pp579 Diem Photography

pp645
pp667
pp6870
pp71-72
pp8081
pp74
pp823
pp845
P87
pp8992
pp934

Graham Gaunt
John Eldridge
Heini Schneebeli
Barry R Bulley
Barry R Bulley
Peter Cook/View
Rod Dorling
Nigel Young/Foster and Partners
Martin Charles
Trevor Jones
Nigel Young/Foster and Partners

AFTERWORD
Many construction activities are potentially dangerous so care is needed at all times. Current legislation requires all
persons to consider the effects of their actions or lack of action on the health and safety of themselves and others.
Advice on safety legislation may be obtained from any of the area offices of the Health and Safety Executive.
All advice or information from the Architectural Cladding Association is intended for those who will evaluate the
significance and limitations of its contents and take responsibility for its use and application. No liability (including that
for negligence) for any loss resulting from such advice or information is accepted. Readers should note that all ACA
publications are subject to revision from time to time and should ensure that they are in possession of the latest
version.