SC IEN C E I N VEN TIO N S

ThePriceofGenius
WalterIsaacson@WalterIsaacson
Nov.20,2014

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AlanTuring,theman
whopioneered
computing,alsoforced
theworldtoquestion
whatitmeanstobe
human
AlanTuring,the
intellectualfatherofthe
moderncomputer,had
atheory.Hebelieved
thatonedaymachines
wouldbecomeso
powerfulthatthey
BenedictCumberbatch,who
portraysTuringinTheImitation
wouldthinkjustlike
Game,outNov.28
humans.Heeven
DanWintersforTIME
devisedatest,whichhe
calledtheimitation
game,toheraldthe
adventofcomputers
thatwereindistinguishablefromhumanminds.But
asBenedictCumberbatchsperformanceinthenew
movieTheImitationGameshows,Turingsheroicand
tragiclifeprovidesacompellingcountertothe
conceptthattheremightbenofundamental
differencebetweenourmindsandmachines.
Aswecelebratethecoolinventionsthatsproutedthis
year,itsusefultolookbackatthemostimportant
inventionofourage,thecomputer,whichalongwith
itsaccoutrements,microchipsanddigitalnetworksis
theberinnovationfromwhichmostsubsequent
Ubersandinnovationswereborn.Butdespitethe
computersimportance,mostofusdontknowwho
inventedit.Thatsbecause,likemostinnovationsof
thedigitalage,ithasnosinglecreator,noBellor
EdisonorMorseorWatt.
Instead,thecomputerwasdevisedduringtheearly

1940sinavarietyofplaces,fromBerlintothe
UniversityofPennsylvaniatoIowaState,mainlyby
collaborativeteams.Asoftenseenintheannalsof
invention,thetimewasrightandtheatmosphere
charged.Themassmanufactureofvacuumtubesfor
radiospavedthewayforthecreationofelectronic
digitalcircuits.Thatwasaccompaniedbytheoretical
advancesinlogicthatmadecircuitsmoreuseful.And
themarchwasquickenedbythedrumsofwar.As
nationsarmedforconflict,itbecameclearthat
computationalpowerwasasimportantasfirepower.
WhichiswhatmakestheTuringstoryespecially
compelling.Hewastheseminaltheorist
conceptualizingtheideaofauniversalcomputer,he
waspartofthesecretteamatBletchleyPark,England,
thatputtheoryintopracticebybuildingmachines
thatbroketheGermanwartimecodes,andheframed
themostfundamentalquestionofthecomputerage:
Canmachinesthink?
Havingsurvivedacoldupbringingonthefraying
fringeoftheBritishgentry,Turinghadalonely
intensitytohim,reflectedinhisloveoflongdistance
running.Atboardingschool,herealizedhewasgay.
Hebecameinfatuatedwithafairhairedschoolmate,
ChristopherMorcom,whodiedsuddenlyof
tuberculosis.Turingalsohadatrait,socommon
amonginnovators,thatwascharminglydescribedby
hisbiographerAndrewHodges:Alanwasslowto
learnthatindistinctlinethatseparatedinitiativefrom
disobedience.
AtCambridgeUniversity,Turingbecamefascinated
bythemathofquantumphysics,whichdescribeshow
eventsatthesubatomiclevelaregovernedby
statisticalprobabilitiesratherthanlawsthat
determinethingswithcertainty.Hebelieved(atleast
whilehewasyoung)thatthisuncertaintyand
indeterminacyatthesubatomiclevelpermitted
humanstoexercisefreewillatraitthat,ifitexisted,
wouldseemtodistinguishthemfrommachines.
Hehadaninstinctthatthereweremathematical
statementsthatwerelikewiseelusive:wecouldnever

knowwhethertheywereprovableornot.Onewayof
framingtheissuewastoaskwhethertherewasa
mechanicalprocessthatcouldbeusedtodetermine
whetheraparticularlogicalstatementwasprovable.
Turinglikedtheconceptofamechanicalprocess.
Onedayinthesummerof1935,hewasoutforhis
usualsolitaryrunandstoppedtoliedowninagrove
ofappletrees.Hedecidedtotakethenotionofa
mechanicalprocessliterally,conjuringupan
imaginarymachineandapplyingittotheproblem.
TheLogicalComputingMachinethatTuring
envisioned(asathoughtexperiment,notasareal
machinetobebuilt)wassimpleatfirstglance,butit
couldhandle,intheory,anymathematical
computation.Itconsistedofanunlimitedlengthof
papertapecontainingsymbolswithinsquaresthe
machinewouldbeabletoreadthesymbolsonthe
tapeandperformcertainactionsbasedonatableof
instructionsithadbeengiven.
Turingshowedthattherewasnomethodtodetermine
inadvancewhetheranygiveninstructiontable
combinedwithanygivensetofinputswouldleadthe
machinetoarriveatananswerorgointosomeloop
andcontinuechuggingawayindefinitely,getting
nowhere.Thisdiscoverywasusefulforthe
developmentofmathematicaltheory.Butmore
importantwasthebyproduct:Turingsconceptofa
LogicalComputingMachine,whichsooncametobe
knownasaTuringmachine.Itispossibletoinventa
singlemachinewhichcanbeusedtocomputeany
computablesequence,hedeclared.
Turingsinterestwasmorethantheoretical,however.
Fascinatedbyciphers,TuringenlistedintheBritish
efforttobreakGermanysmilitarycodes.Thesecret
teamssetupshoponthegroundsofaVictorian
manorhouseinthedrabredbricktownofBletchley.
TuringwasassignedtoagrouptacklingtheGermans
Enigmacode,whichwasgeneratedbyaportable
machinewithmechanicalrotorsandelectrical
circuits.Aftereverykeystroke,itchangedtheformula
forsubstitutingletters.

Turingandhisteambuiltamachine,calledthe
bombe,thatexploitedsubtleweaknessesinthe
Germancoding,includingthefactthatnolettercould
beencipheredasitselfandthattherewerecertain
phrasesthattheGermansusedrepeatedly.ByAugust
1940,Turingsteamhadbombesthatcoulddecipher
GermanmessagesaboutthedeploymentoftheU
boatsthatweredecimatingBritishsupplyconvoys.
Thebombewasnotasignificantadvanceincomputer
technology.Itwasanelectromechanicaldevicewith
relayswitchesratherthanvacuumtubesand
electroniccircuits.Butasubsequentmachine
producedatBletchley,knownasColossus,wasa
majormilestone.
TheneedforColossusarosewhentheGermans
startedcodingimportantmessages,includingorders
fromHitler,withamachinethatused12codewheels
ofunequalsize.Tobreakitwouldrequireusing
lightningquickelectroniccircuits.
TheteaminchargewasledbyMaxNewman,whohad
beenTuringsmathdonatCambridge.Turing
introducedNewmantotheelectronicswizardTommy
Flowers,whohaddevisedwondrousvacuumtube
circuitswhileworkingfortheBritishtelephone
system.
TheyrealizedthattheonlywaytoanalyzeGerman
messagesquicklyenoughwastostoreoneofthemin
theinternalelectronicmemoryofamachinerather
thantryingtocomparetwopunchedpapertapes.This
wouldrequire1,500vacuumtubes.TheBletchley
Parkmanagerswereskeptical,buttheteampushed
ahead.ByDecember1943afteronly11monthsit
producedthefirstColossusmachine.Anevenbigger
version,using2,400tubes,wasreadybyJune1,1944.
ThemachineshelpedconfirmthatHitlerwasunaware
oftheplannedDDayinvasion.
Turingsneedtohidebothhishomosexualityandhis
codebreakingworkmeantthatheoftenfoundhimself
playinghisownimitationgame,pretendingtobe
thingshewasnt.Atonepointheproposedmarriage

toafemalecolleague(playedbyKeiraKnightleyinthe
newfilm),butthenfeltcompelledtotellherthathe
wasgay.Shewasstillwillingtomarryhim,buthe
believedthatimitatingastraightmanwouldbea
shamanddecidednottoproceed.
Afterthewar,Turingturnedhisattentiontoanissue
thathehadwrestledwithsincehisboardingschool
friendChristopherMorcomsdeath:Didhumanshave
freewillandconsciousness,perhapsevenasoul,
thatmadethemfundamentallydifferentfroma
programmedmachine?BythistimeTuringhad
becomeskeptical.Hewasworkingonmachinesthat
couldmodifytheirownprogramsbasedon
informationtheyprocessed,andhecametobelieve
thatthistypeofmachinelearningcouldleadto
artificialintelligence.
Ina1950paper,hebeganwithacleardeclaration:I
proposetoconsiderthequestion,Canmachines
think?Withaschoolboyssenseoffun,heinvented
hisimitationgame,nowgenerallyknownasthe
Turingtest,togiveempiricalmeaningtothat
question.Putamachineandahumaninaroom,he
said,andsendinwrittenquestions.Ifyoucanttell
whichanswersarefromthemachineandwhichare
fromthehuman,thenthereisnomeaningfulreason
toinsistthatthemachineisntthinking.
Asampleinterrogation,hewrote,mightincludethe
following:
Q:Pleasewritemeasonnetonthesubjectofthe
ForthBridge.
A:Countmeoutonthisone.Inevercouldwrite
poetry.
Q:Add34957to70764.
A:[Pauseabout30secondsandthengiveasanswer]
105621.
Turingdidsomethingcleverinthisexample.Careful

scrutinyshowsthattherespondent,after30seconds,
madeaslightmistakeinaddition.(Thecorrectanswer
is105,721.)Isthatevidencethattherespondentwasa
human?Perhaps.Butthenagain,maybeitwasa
machinecagilyplayinganimitationgame.
ManyobjectionshavebeenmadetoTurings
proposedtest.Notuntilamachinecanwriteasonnet
orcomposeaconcertobecauseofthoughtsand
emotionsfelt,andnotbythechancefallofsymbols,
couldweagreethatmachineequalsbrain,declareda
famousbrainsurgeon,SirGeoffreyJefferson.Turings
responseseemssomewhatflippant,butitwasalso
subtle:Thecomparisonisperhapsalittlebitunfair
becauseasonnetwrittenbyamachinewillbebetter
appreciatedbyanothermachine.
Therewasalsothemorefundamentalobjectionthat
evenifamachinesanswerswereindistinguishable
fromahumans,thatdidnotmeanithad
consciousnessanditsownintentions,thewayhuman
mindsdo.WhenthehumanplayeroftheTuringtest
useswords,heassociatesthosewordswithrealworld
meanings,emotions,experiences,sensationsand
perceptions.Machinesdont.Withoutsuch
connections,languageisjustagamedivorcedfrom
meaning.ThiscritiqueoftheTuringtestremainsthe
mostdebatedtopicincognitivescience.
Turinggavehisownguessastowhetheracomputer
mightbeabletowinhisimitationgame.Ibelieve
thatinabout50yearstimeitwillbepossibleto
programcomputerssowellthatanaverage
interrogatorwillnothavemorethana70%chanceof
makingtherightidentificationafterfiveminutesof
questioning.
Foolingfewerthanathirdofinterrogatorsforonly
fiveminutesisaprettylowbar.Still,itsnowbeen
morethan60years,andthemachinesthatenter
Turingtestcontestsareatbestengagingingimmicky
conversationalgambits.Thelatestclaimforamachine
havingpassedthetestwasespeciallylame:a
Russianprogrampretendedtobea13yearoldfrom
UkrainewhodidntspeakEnglishwell.Evenso,it

fooledbarelyathirdofthequestionersforfive
minutes,andnoonewouldbelievethattheprogram
wasengagingintruethinking.
Anewbreedofcomputerprocessorsthatmimicthe
neuralnetworksinthehumanbrainmightmeanthat,
inafewmoreyearsordecades,theremaybe
machinesthatappeartolearnandthinklikehumans.
Theselatestadvancescouldpossiblyevenleadtoa
singularity,atermthatcomputerpioneerJohnvon
NeumanncoinedandthefuturistRayKurzweiland
thesciencefictionwriterVernorVingepopularizedto
describethemomentwhencomputersarenotonly
smarterthanhumansbutalsocandesignthemselves
tobeevensupersmarterandwillthusnolongerneed
usmortals.Inthemeantime,mostoftheexcitingnew
inventions,likethoseinthisissue,willinvolve
watches,devices,socialnetworksandother
innovationsthatconnecthumansmorecloselyto
machines,inintimatepartnership,ratherthan
pursuingthemirageofmachinesthatthinkontheir
ownandtrytoreplaceus.
ThefleshandbloodcomplexitiesofAlanTuringslife,
aswellastheveryhumanemotionsthatdrovehim,
serveasatestamentthatthedistinctionbetweenman
andmachinemaybedeeperthanhesurmised.Ina
1952BBCdebatewithGeoffreyJefferson,thebrain
surgeon,thisissueofhumanappetites,desires,
drives,instinctscameup.Manispreytosexual
urges,Jeffersonrepeatedlysaid,andmaymakea
foolofhimself.
Turing,whowasstilldiscreetabouthissexuality,kept
silentwhenthistopicarose.Duringtheweeksleading
uptothebroadcast,hehadbeenengagedinaseriesof
actionsthatweresoveryhumanthatamachinewould
havefoundthemincomprehensible.Hehadrecently
finishedascientificpaper,andhefolloweditby
composingashortstory,whichwaslaterfound
amonghisprivatepapers,abouthowheplannedto
celebrate.Itwasquitesometimenowsincehehad
hadanyone,infactnotsincehehadmetthatsoldier
inParislastsummer,hewrote.Nowthathispaper
wasfinishedhemightjustifiablyconsiderthathehad

earnedanothergayman,andheknewwherehemight
findonewhomightbesuitable.
OnastreetinManchester,Turingpickedupa19
yearoldworkingclassdrifternamedArnoldMurray,
whomovedinwithhimaroundthetimeoftheBBC
broadcast.WhenTuringshomewasburglarized,he
reportedtheincidenttothepoliceandendedup
disclosinghissexualrelationshipwithMurray.Turing
wasarrestedforgrossindecency.
AtthetrialinMarch1952,Turingpleadedguilty,
thoughhemadeitclearhefeltnoremorse.Hewas
offeredachoice:imprisonmentorprobation
contingentonreceivinghormoneinjectionsdesigned
tocurbhissexualdesires,asifhewereachemically
controlledmachine.Hechosethelatter,whichhe
enduredforayear.
Turingatfirstseemedtotakeitallinstride,buton
June7,1954,atage41,hecommittedsuicidebybiting
intoanapplehehadlacedwithcyanide.Hehad
alwaysbeenfascinatedbythesceneinSnowWhitein
whichtheWickedQueendipsanappleintoa
poisonousbrew.Hewasfoundinhisbedwithfroth
aroundhismouth,cyanideinhissystemandahalf
eatenapplebyhisside.
Theimitationgamewasover.Hewashuman.
Isaacson,aformermanagingeditorofTime,isthe
authorofTheInnovators:HowaGroupofHackers,
Geniuses,andGeeksCreatedtheDigitalRevolution,
fromwhichpartsofthispieceareadapted
ThisappearsintheDecember1,2014issueofTIME.