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Department of Chemical Engineering - Product Technology, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
Dutch Polymer Institute DPI, P.O. Box 902, 5600 AX Eindhoven, The Netherlands
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 2 June 2010
Received in revised form 3 May 2011
Accepted 6 May 2011
Available online 27 May 2011
Keywords:
Water soluble polymers
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)
Hydrophobically modied polymers
Polyacrylamide
Associating polymers
Solution rheology
a b s t r a c t
Recent developments in the eld of water-soluble polymers aimed at enhancing the aqueous solution viscosity are reviewed. Classic and novel associating water-soluble polymers
for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) applications are discussed along with their limitations.
Particular emphasis is placed on the structureproperty correlations and the synthetic
methods. The observed rheological properties are conceptually linked to the polymer chemical structure (1) and topology (2). In addition, the inuence of external parameters, e.g.
temperature, pH, salt, and surfactant, on the rheological behavior is reviewed. Progress
booked in deeper understanding of the structureproperty relationship is thoroughly discussed. Furthermore, a critical overview of the synthetic methods as well as of the solution
properties of these polymers is provided. In this respect the inuence of internal (i.e.
chemical structure) and external (vide supra) factors on these properties provide a conceptual toolbox for the rationalization of the response of water-soluble polymers to external
stimuli. In turn, such rationalization constitutes the basis for the design of new polymeric
structures for EOR applications.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1560
Currently used EOR polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561
2.1.
Polyacrylamide (PAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561
2.2.
Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561
2.2.1.
HPAM chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561
2.2.2.
Rheological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1563
2.3.
Xanthan gum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565
Recent developments in water-soluble thickening polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1566
3.1.
Hydrophobically modied polyacrylamide (HMPAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1567
3.1.1.
Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1581
3.1.2.
Rheological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1583
3.2.
Hydrophobically modied ethoxylated urethane (HEUR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1589
3.2.1.
Rheological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1599
3.2.2.
Effects of inherent parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1599
Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 050 363 4918; fax: +31 050 363 4479.
E-mail addresses: D.A.Z.Wever@rug.nl (D.A.Z. Wever), F.Picchioni@rug.nl (F. Picchioni), A.A.Broekhuis@rug.nl (A.A. Broekhuis).
1
Tel.: +31 050 363 4461; fax: +31 050 363 4479.
2
Tel.: +31 050 363 4333; fax: +31 050 363 4479.
0079-6700/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2011.05.006
4.
1559
3.2.3.
Effects of external parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600
3.3.
Hydrophobically modied alkali swellable emulsion (HASE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1602
3.3.1.
Rheological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1603
3.3.2.
Effect of inherent parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1608
3.3.3.
Effect of external parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1609
3.4.
Hydrophobically modied cellulose derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1610
3.4.1.
Rheological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1611
3.4.2.
Effect of inherent parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1617
3.4.3.
Effect of external parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1617
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1619
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1619
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1619
Nomenclature
4-BA
4-butylaniline
AA
acrylic acid
ABS
alkylbenzenesulfonates
ACVA
4,4 -azobis-4-cyanopentanoic acid
AGE
alkylglycidyl ether
AM
acrylamide
AMM
associative macromonomer
AMPDAB 4-(2-acrylamido-2methylpropyldimethylammonio)
butanoate
AMPDAC 2-(acrylamido-2methylpropyldimethylammonium)
chloride
AMPDAE 2-(2-acrylamido-2methylpropyldimethylammonio)
ethanoate
AMPDAH 6-(2-acrylamido-2methylpropyldimethylammonio)
hexanoate
AMPDAPS 3-(2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanedimethylammonio)-1-propanesulfonate
AMPTAC 2-(acrylamido)-2methylpropyl]trimethylammonium
chloride
APS
N-[(1-pyrenylsulfonamido)ethyl]acrylamide
BD
bromododecane
BPAM
N-(4-butyl)phenylacrylamide
critical association concentration
CAC
C8 AM
octylacrylamide
C10 AM decylacrylamide
C12 AM dodecylacrylamide
C14 AM tetradecylacrylamide
C18 AM octadecylacrylamide
alkylacrylamide
CN AM
C12 Acl dodecyl ammonium chloride
C16 TAAc hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium acetate
C12 TABr dodecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide
C12 TACl dodecyltrimethyl ammonium chloride
C16 TACl hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide
CAC
critical association concentration
CDMAO cetyldimethylamine oxide
CMC
CS*
CTA
CTAB
CTAT
1560
H12 MDI
HDI
HEC
HEUR
bis(4-isocyanateocyclohexyl)methane
hexamethylene di-isocyanate
hydroxyethyl cellulose
hydrophobically modied ethoxylated urethane
HHM-HEC hydrophobicallyhydrophilically modied hydroxyethyl cellulose
HMPAM hydrophobically modied polyacrylamide
HM-CMC hydrophobically modied carboxymethyl
cellulose
HM-EHEC hydrophobically modied ethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose
HM-HEC hydrophobically modied hydroxyethyl
cellulose
HM-HPC hydrophobically modied hydroxypropyl
cellulose
HM-polysaccharides hydrophobically
modied
polysaccharides
HPAM partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide
HTAC
hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride
4-isopropylbenzyl chloride
IPBC
IPDI
isophorone diisocyanate
KDS
potassium dodecyl sulfate
lower critical solution temperature
LCST
MA
maleic anhydride
MAA
methacrylic acid
MAM
methacrylamide
MeEAM N-methyl-N-(4-ethyl-phenyl)acrylamide
MO
methyleneoxide
MWD
molecular weight distribution
sodium acrylate
NaA
NaAMB sodium 3-acrylamido-3-methylbutanoate
NaAMPS sodium 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonate
NaC10 S sodium decyl sulfate
NaC14 S sodium tetradecyl sulfate
dodecyl-di(ethyleneoxide)NaC12 (EO)2 S sodium
sulfate
NAEA
2-(1-naphthylacetyl)ethyl acrylate
NAEAm 2-(1-naphthylacetamido)ethyl acrylamide
NaMAMB sodium 3-methacrylamido-3-methylbutanoate
NBAM N-benzylacrylamide
NIPAM N-isopropylacrylamide
NNDAM N,N-dimethyl acrylamide
nanometer
nm
NMA
[(1-naphthyl)methyl]acrylamide
nuclear magnetic resonance
NMR
NP
nonylphenol ethoxylates
NPEAM N-phenethylacrylamide
non-radiative energy transfer
NRET
OG
n-octyl -d-glucopyranoside
original oil in place
OOIP
OTG
n-octyl -d-thioglucopyranoside
poly(acrylic acid)
PAA
PAGE
poly(alkylglycidyl ether)
polyacrylamide
PAM
PDI
PEO
PGSE
PMAAM
ppm
Py
RRF
S-HEC
polydispersity index
poly(ethylene oxide)
pulse gradient spin echo
N-phenylmethacrylamide
parts per million
pyrene
residual resistance factor
hydrophilically modied hydroxyethyl cellulose
S-G HEUR step-growth hydrophobically modied
ethoxylated urethane
SANS
small-angle neutron scattering
SEC
size exclusion chromatography
SDS (NaC12 S) sodium dodecyl sulfate
SMR
surfactant to micelle ratio
SOBS
sodium octyl benzene sulfonate
THF
tetrahydrofuran
TMSPMA 3-[tris(trimethylsilyoxy)sily]propyl
methacrylate
TTAB
tetradecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide
1. Introduction
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is a challenging eld for
different scientic disciplines. The importance of this eld
is highlighted by the number of patents (mainly led
by multinational companies) involving polymers for EOR.
Nevertheless, the limited number of patents led in the
last 10 years (less than 25) demonstrates the difculty
of this research eld as well as the relative maturity in
the scientic and technological concepts linked to relevant applications. Given the fact that the easily recoverable
oil is running out and that much oil remains in the reservoir after conventional methods have been exhausted, the
implementation of EOR is crucial to guarantee a continuing supply. In addition, alternative energy sources have
not yet proved to be capable of meeting the world energy
demand, so that a mixture of different sources, including oil, is required to meet the world energy demand
in the near future. According to Thomas [1], approximately 7.0 1012 barrels of oil will remain in oilelds after
conventional methods have been exhausted; this value
constitutes also the target recovery for EOR. Water-soluble
polymers for EOR applications have been successfully
implemented, mainly in Chinese oilelds [2,3]. The purpose of the water-soluble polymers in this application is to
enhance the rheological properties of the displacing uid.
The oil production increases with the microscopic sweep
of the reservoir and the displacement efciency of the oil
[4]. Indeed, the use of water-soluble polymers improves
the wateroil mobility ratio [4], and leads to enhanced oil
recovery. However, given the harsh conditions present in
most oil reservoirs, new problems and limitations arise
with the use of water-soluble polymers. Besides positively
affecting solution rheology, water-soluble polymers should
withstand high salt concentration, the presence of calcium,
1561
1562
formation of the corresponding salt. According to the general theory of polyelectrolyte solutions [27], the presence of
electrostatic charges along a polymer backbone is responsible for prominent stretching (due to electric repulsion)
of the polymeric chains in water and, eventually, results
in a viscosity increase compared to the uncharged analogue. On the other hand, according to a study by Shupe
[28] the degree of hydrolysis cannot be too high because
the polymer solution will become too sensitive to salinity
and hardness of the brine (electrolytes present in solution
have a shielding effect on the electrostatic repulsion).
Indeed, polyelectrolytes, i.e. polymers bearing charges,
show signicantly different rheological behavior compared
to their neutral analogues [2931]. The thickening capability of HPAM lies in its high molecular weight and also in the
electrostatic repulsion between polymer coils and between
polymeric segments in the same coil [4]. When polyelectrolytes are dissolved in water containing electrolytes
(salts) a reduction in viscosity is observed [26,3234]. It
has been demonstrated that the specic viscosity of HPAM
solutions depends on the amount of salt present [35]. This
effect is attributed to the shielding effect of the charges
[4,33] leading in turn to a reduction in electrostatic repulsion and consequently to a less signicant expansion of the
polymer coils in the solution. This results in a relatively
lower hydrodynamic volume, which is synonymous with a
lower viscosity [34]. A few decades ago, substitution of one
or both hydrogens on the amide nitrogen with alkyl groups
1563
1564
Fig. 5. Interactions between sodium oleate and HPAM at low (A) and high (B) surfactant concentration.
thixotropic (rheopectic) property, i.e. an increase in viscosity with shear-time at a constant shear rate [32,5861].
Researchers have identied two different types of rheopectic behavior for HPAM solutions (Fig. 4), type I and type
II [58]. The type I effect is observed at low shearing and
consists in a slow viscosity increase with shear-time up
to an asymptotic value. The type II effect is seen at high
shear rates and is displayed as a steep viscosity increase
after a given shear-time, followed by pronounced viscosity
oscillation [58].
2.2.2.1. Effect of inherent parameters on rheology. For HPAM
the degree of hydrolysis has a signicant impact on the
rheological properties of the subsequent solution. If the
hydrolysis degree of HPAM is too large, insolubility problems can arise. When too small, a large dependence of
the solution viscosity on electrolyte presence is observed.
Lewandowska [45] investigated the effect of the degree of
hydrolysis on the solution viscosity in a NaCl solution. If
the degree of hydrolysis is increased the zero shear rate
viscosity and the critical shear rate for the onset of shear
thickening are both reduced. The shear rate region where
the shear thinning behavior is observed is reduced with the
increase in the degree of hydrolysis [45,46,62].
Another inherent parameter of HPAM is its molecular
weight. Increase of the molecular weight will lead to a more
pronounced shear thinning behavior. The critical shear rate
for the onset of shear thickening is also affected by the
molecular weight in that it is increased with an increase
in the molecular weight [45].
2.2.2.2. Effect of external parameters on rheology. The inuence of salt (NaCl) addition on the rheological behavior
of HPAM solutions has also been extensively studied. It
was found that, below the critical shear rate, adding salt
reduced the extent of shear thinning while above the critical shear rate the amplitude of the shear thickening is
increased [32]. The zero shear rate solution viscosity is also
reduced as the concentration of salt increases [4].
Adding salt to the solvent will reduce the extent of the
rheopectic behavior of the polymer solution [59]. Looking
more closely to the effect of salt, addition of mono-valent
cations (e.g. NaCl) was found to increase the onset (i.e. the
critical shear rate value) of rheopectic behavior type I while
for type II no changes were observed [58]. When using
multivalent cations (CaCl2 and AlCl3 ) the effect seen with
1565
1566
can increase the viscosity of the aqueous solution containing hydrophobically modied polymers signicantly [90].
Other polymers that posses interesting properties,
such as high molecular weight and intrinsic viscosity,
have been developed for EOR and are known as rigid
rod water-soluble polymers [93]. One study compared
hydrophobically modied polyacrylamide (HMPAM) with
polyacrylamide (PAM) in a simple core ood test and
demonstrated that the residual resistance factor (RRF) after
the polymer ood is much higher for the HMPAM compared
to PAM [94]. All these modication strategies, together
with new kinds of water-soluble systems, have been extensively reported in the literature and will be discussed in the
next paragraph.
As mentioned earlier, a relatively new class of watersoluble polymers is the one constituted by hydrophobically
associative polymers [87]. The rst hydrophobically associative polymers were synthesized almost fty years ago
[95,96], albeit for a different purpose than EOR. Indeed, the
research on these types of polymers has been primarily
fueled by the coating industry [87], where improvement
in the rheology of the coating systems was required. During the 1980s when the oil crisis hit, a lot of research was
performed on EOR. From the many patents [97102] that
have been led during those years it is evident that this
accelerated the development of hydrophobically associative polymers for use in EOR applications.
Hydrophobically associative polymers contain, in
most cases, a small number of hydrophobic groups,
i.e. 818 carbon atoms moieties [103106], distributed
along the main backbone [20,107,108]. These hydrophobic groups can be distributed randomly or block-like
[88,91,103,107,109120], and coupled at one or both
ends [104,121131]. Above a given polymer concentration
(dependent on the molecular structure) the hydrophobic groups associate, when the polymer is dissolved
in water, to form hydrophobic micro-domains (intra or
intermolecular liaisons) [88,89,104,105,107,108,132135].
These lead to an increase in hydrodynamic volume, which
1567
1568
Table 1
Structure of different water-soluble polymers, HMPAM.
Polymer
Structure
References
Polyelectrolyte
[190193]
[194,195]
Copolymer of 3-(2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane-dimethylammonio)-1-propanesulfonate
(AMPDAPS) with 4-(2-acrylamido-2-methylpropyldimethylammonio) butanoate (AMPDAB)
[196]
[197]
Polyelectrolyte
Table 1 (Continued)
Polymer
Structure
References
[198200]
[201]
[202]
[203]
1569
1570
Terpolymer of AM and AMPDAC (R1 = H) with NaAMPS (R2 = 1) or AMPTAC (R1 = CH3 ) with NaAMPS
(R2 = 1) or AMPTAC (R1 = CH3 ) with NaAMB (R2 = 2)
[204207]
[208]
[209211]
Polyelectrolyte, amphiphilic
[115,212,213]
Table 1 (Continued)
Polymer
Structure
References
Copolymer of NaA (R1 = O Na+ ) and alkylchains (R2 = 2) or C8F (R2 = 3) or C10F (R2 = 4) or 3-PDCA
(R2 = 5)
Polyelectrolyte, amphiphilic
[156,214216]
[175,176,217]
N-[(hexyl)phenyl]acrylamide (R3 = 2, N = 5) or
N-[(decyl)phenyl]acrylamide (R3 = 2, N = 10) or
Terpolymer of AA (R2 = OH) and NaAMPS (R2 = 1) with
PEO chain (R3 = 4) or
Terpolymer of AM (R1 = NH2 ) and NaAMPS (R2 = 1) with
N,N-Dihexylacrylamide (DiHexAM, R = 5 and M = 5)
1571
1572
Polyelectrolyte, amphiphilic
[185,218]
Polyelectrolyte amphiphilic
Terpolymer of maleic anhydride (MA), ethyl vinyl ether (EVE) and 4-butylaniline (4-BA)
[219]
Polyelectrolyte, amphiphilic
[115,220,221]
Table 1 (Continued)
Polymer
Structure
References
Polyelectrolyte, amphiphilic
[221225]
[226228]
[229]
1573
1574
NaA, R = O Na+ or
NaAMB, R = C7 H17 N2 O2 Na+ or
NaAMPS, R = C4 H9 NSO3 Na+
Polyelectrolyte, zwitterionic monomer and amphiphilic
[230]
NaA, R = O Na+ or
NaAMB, R = C7 H17 N2 O2 Na+ or
NaAMPS, R = C4 H9 NSO3 Na+
Polyelectrolyte, zwitterionic monomer and amphiphilic
[231234]
Table 1 (Continued)
Polymer
Structure
References
[103,235]
Copolymer of AM and
[109,138,190,191,236,237]
1576
Amphiphilic
Copolymer of AM and
[133,238,239]
[240]
N-hexylacrylamide (HexAM, R = 2) or
N-methyl-N-hexylacrylamide (MeHexAM, R = 3) or
N,N-dihexylacrylamide (DiHexAM, R = 4 and N = 5) or
di-n-propylacrylamide (DPAM, R = 4 and N = 2) or
di-n-octylacrylamide (DOAM, R = 4 and N = 7) or
N-(4-ethyl-phenyl)acrylamide (EAM, R = 5) or
N-methyl-N-(4-ethyl-phenyl)-acrylamide (MeEAM, R = 6) or
BPAM, R = 7
Table 1 (Continued)
Polymer
Structure
References
Amphiphilic
1577
[132,241243]
Copolymer of AM and
1578
Amphiphilic
1. Copolymer of AM with
[104,244,245]
Model polymer
[246,247]
Model polymer
[110,111]
Table 1 (Continued)
Polymer
Structure
References
Model polymer
[177]
[178,179]
Model polymer
Model polymer
[235]
1579
1580
another method that is closely related to the micellar copolymerization technique seems promising, but it
involves using a micelle-forming polymerizable surfactant [114,115,178,179,220,278280]. Although identifying
a correct polymerizable surfactant for the desired molecular structure is difcult, the technique offers the advantage
that purication (i.e. removal of surfactants as is the case
with micellar copolymerization) of the reaction mixture
no longer would be required. Yet another method, which
recently has been developed, is template copolymerization.
The structure of the copolymer is dened by the template
that is used. A schematic presentation illustrating the template copolymerization is given in Fig. 11.
The advantage of this technique with respect to the
other ones is that the block-like distribution of hydrophobic
groups is better controlled. According to several different studies [281285] a longer sequence distribution of
hydrophobic groups can be achieved with this technique.
The molecular weights of the polymers inuence their
behavior in solutions. The molecular weight of HMPAM
remains difcult to determine since intramolecular associations still exist even at very low polymer concentrations.
1581
1582
1583
1584
rate curve are all higher than those along the decreasing
shear rate curve, i.e. the viscosity decreases with time at
a constant shear rate. The application of shear disrupts
the hydrophobic associations, both intra- and interchain,
which need time to re-associate in order to recover the
enhanced viscosity. In the semi-dilute region interchain
associations dominate, as mentioned before, and there disruption by shear will lead to a signicant loss in viscosity
[257]. However as the viscosity is recovered, the shear
induced reduction in viscosity is not due to polymer degradation [88]. Polymers prepared using the heterogeneous or
homogeneous technique do not display this behavior [88].
Rheopectic solutions display the opposite behavior, i.e.
the viscosities along the increasing shear rate curve are all
lower than those along decreasing shear rate curve (the
viscosity increases with time at a constant shear rate). This
behavior involves the instant recovery of the hydrophobic
associations after the application of shear and the enhancement of these hydrophobic associations, which explains the
enhanced viscosity [103,175].
3.1.2.1. Effect of inherent parameters. As mentioned
before, spacers between the hydrophobic group and the
hydrophilic backbone can enhance the solution viscosity.
Increasing the length of the spacer will lead to a better
enhancement of the solution viscosity. A classic example of
such behavior is polymer 13 (NaAMPS as the co-monomer)
[215]. A subsequent study [214] demonstrated that,
depending on the incorporation rate of the DEmMA, a signicant increase in solution viscosity is obtained above the
critical overlap concentration. The authors hypothesized
that the additional increase in solution viscosity is due
to the simultaneous interactions of countercations with
the EO spacers via coordination and with the polyanion
via counterion condensation. A schematic presentation
illustrating this behavior is given in Fig. 13.
It has been demonstrated that the responsiveness of the
polymer solution is more pronounced when a longer spacer
is used. A study of Kathmann et al. [199] demonstrated that
using three methylene groups as spacers increased the pH
responsiveness of the polymer solution compared to when
only one methylene unit is used. The pH responsive behavior of the polymers can also be tailored by molecular design
of the polymer. The ampholytic polymer 7 represents such
a polymer where by smart design different behavior is
achieved as a result of changes in the pH. The polymer
3.1.2.2. Effect of external parameters. For neutral associative copolymers it has been demonstrated that upon
addition of salt the viscosity of the solution can be enhanced
[103,108,203]. This behavior of the neutral copolymers is
attributed to a salting out effect, which arises due to a
change in the solubility of the hydrophobic units [108].
The solubility of the hydrophobic groups decreases with
increasing salt concentration. This leads to the formation of
aggregates, which enhances the interactions between the
polymeric chains [108]. The intermolecular association is
enhanced leading to a stronger network and thus increased
solution viscosity [217]. Polymer 14 is a classic example of
this behavior [217].
1585
The presence of salt causes a shielding of the electrostatic interactions and thus a collapse of the network with
total loss of the solution viscosity. Polymer 1 is a classic
example of such a polyelectrolyte where phase separation
is observed in the presence of multivalency cations [193].
Polymer 5 displays a similar trend. However, a decrease
in the pH of the polymeric solution (containing salts)
improves the solution viscosity [198] due to the increase
in hydrodynamic volume caused by the protonation of the
carboxylic groups at low pH [198200].
The effect of salt on polymers bearing charged moieties in combination with hydrophobic groups is peculiar.
Indeed, an increase in the solution viscosity is observed
upon the addition of different salts. The presence of salt
screens the electrostatic repulsion thus suppressing the
disruption of hydrophobic associations by the charged
groups. This allows the formation of a stronger network
through hydrophobic associations [225], i.e. intermolecular hydrophobic interactions are dominant rather than the
electrostatic repulsions [221], and thus an enhancement
of the solution viscosity. Classic examples of this behavior (vida supra) are the polymers 12 [115], 17 [221] (AA-CN
copolymer, N 12), 18 [225] and 25 [133,238]. Although
not in the same class of polymer, polymer 4 displays the
same behavior [197]. Another possibility is that the methyl
groups on the AMDAPS monomer induce hydrophobic
behavior of the monomer at higher salt concentration
thereby displaying the aforementioned behavior.
Maia et al. [121] demonstrated that the method of
preparing the HMPAM solutions affects their rheological
behavior in the presence of salt (NaCl). When the polymer,
23 (AMDiC6 AM copolymer), is dissolved in the salt (brine)
solution (A, Fig. 14) the classical behavior, i.e. reduction in
viscosity with increasing salt concentration, is displayed.
However, if the polymer is dissolved in water rst, which
is preceded by the addition of salt, a complete different
solution behavior is observed. Diluting a polymer solution (no salt) with water and adding salt afterwards (B,
Fig. 14) results in a polymer solution whose viscosity passes
through a maximum with increasing salt concentration. If
the polymer solution (no salt) is diluted with salt water
(C, Fig. 14) the viscosity of the resulting polymer solution increases with increasing salt concentration. Fig. 14
presents the three different behaviors. This conrms the
non-equilibrium character of these solutions, but a better
explanation has yet to be provided.
It has been demonstrated that the following surfactants interact with different HMPAM polymers and give,
depending on the surfactant concentration, a higher
viscosity [90,92,115,138,173,287,300302]. The interaction between the polymers 12, 13 (both copolymers),
17 (both copolymers), 18 (DADMAC-1 and DADMAC-2
copolymers), 21 (copolymer AM-C10 AM), 22 (terpolymer
1, R2 = 2), 23 (copolymers AM-EAM, AM-BPAM and
AM-2 or 3 or 4), 27 (6) and 33 with several different surfactants (SDS [90,92,120,138,173,212,228,243,301305],
potassium dodecyl sulfate (KDS) [212], cetyltrimethylp-toluenesulfonate
[CTAT]
[305,306],
ammonium
dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride [DTAC] [290,300],
hexadecyltrimethylammonium [HTAC] [303,304], CTAB
[90,233], trimethyltetradecylammonium bromide [TTAB]
1586
Fig. 14. Different behavior of HMPAM solution dependent on the preparation method.
Adapted from Maia et al. [121]. Reproduced with permission from [121] 2005, Wiley VCH.
Fig. 15. Schematic presentation of concentration regions of HMPAM with SDS [92].
Reproduced with permissions from [92] 1992 and [132] 1996, ACS Publishing.
[302], cetyldimethylamine oxide [CDMAO] [90], alkylbenzenesulfonates [ABS] [287], Triton X-100 [302],
n-octyl -d-glucopyranoside [OG] [303] and n-octyl
-d-thioglucopyranoside [OTG] [303,304]) have been
investigated. The viscosity of the HMPAM solution with
surfactant passes through a maximum, which is always
just under the surfactants critical micelle concentration
(CMC) [173]. The increase in viscosity is attributed to the
formation of mixed micelles of surfactant and hydrophobic
regions [92,117,120,154,173,300,301,303,304,307309].
According to several authors [92,303,304], when adding
surfactant to a HMPAM solution, the surfactant binds to
the copolymeric regions, which leads to preferential interchain micro-domain formation instead of intrachain. A
schematic presentation of this behavior has been provided
by Biggs et al. [92] (Fig. 15).
The surfactant concentration in region I is low. The
surfactant associates in a non-cooperative way with
the hydrophobic groups [92]. However, this is dependent on the type of surfactant. Two different studies
[303,304] demonstrated that the surfactants hexadecyltrimethylammonium chloride (HTAC) and SDS bonded
in a non-cooperative way but the surfactants OG and OTG
bonded in a cooperative manner. Winnik et al. [304] concluded that ionic surfactants bind by a non-cooperative
mechanism and neutral surfactants by a cooperative one.
According to another study there are two classes of interactions, which are differentiated by the bridging and viscosity
1587
polymer 4, displays a unique behavior when the temperature is increased. The intrinsic viscosity of the polymer
solution increased (from 6.5 to 8.5 dl/g) when the temperature is increased from 25 to 60 C [197]. This has
been observed for polymer 14 in the temperature range
of 2040 C. According to the authors [217] the increase
can be attributed to the fact that hydrophobic associations are endothermic in the investigated temperature
range, as hypothesized by McCormick et al. [103]. Using
the latter terpolymers 14 LAlloret et al. [310] observed
a signicant increase in the solution viscosity when the
temperature is increased from room temperature to 80 C.
In addition the authors demonstrated that the thermothickening behavior of the polymeric solution is more
pronounced at lower salt concentration and lower shear
rates. The latter effect is also observed with polymer 27
(6) [243] and is attributed to the increase in PPO concentration in the hydrophobic micro-domains caused by
an increase in the mobility of the chains at relatively
high temperature. At higher temperatures, the reduction
in viscosity is attributed to the loss in connectivity of
the network due to changes in the hydrophobic microdomains. According to the authors the size of the microdomains increase at higher temperatures but their number
Fig. 17. Schematic illustration representing the thermally induced conformational changes.
Reproduced with permission from [235] 1991, ACS Publishing.
1588
Fig. 18. Schematic presentation of the effect of solution pH on the network structure.
Reproduced with permission from [218] 2001, ACS Publishing.
1589
Fig. 21. Schematic presentation illustrating the effect of pH and ionic strength.
Reproduced with permission from [226] 2000 and [227] 2000, ACS Publishing.
1590
Table 2
Structure of different water-soluble polymers, HEUR.
Polymer
Structure
References
[316]
Polyethylene oxide end capped at both sides with different alkane hydrocarbon
groups (R) employing different diisocyanates moieties (DI).
[89,317]
Given the amount of different reagents used we refer to US Pat. 4,079,028 [317] for the
complete list of reagents.
[318,319]
AT 22-2, y = 4
AT 22-3, y = 6
AT 107, y = 3
AT 67-3, y = 1
IPDU = isophorone diurethane
Polymers based on ethylene oxide using different hydrophobic groups and different
structure. Either end capped (traditional HEUR polymers, 1) or the hydrophobic end
groups are separated by oxyethylene groups around an internal hydrophobe, 24.
[122]
1591
1592
[189,320]
Comb-81, w = 1, y = 2 and z = 3
Comb-82, w = 1, y = 2 and z = 6
Comb-83, w = 1, y = 2 and z = 9
IPDU = isophorone diurethane
[125]
Polymers based on ethylene oxide using different hydrophobic groups and different
diisocyanate groups. The polymers are either end capped at both sides with internal
hydrophobic groups.
Table 2 (Continued)
Polymer
References
[321]
[124]
Structure
1593
1594
[322325]
Polymers based on ethylene oxide, end capped at both sides with hexyl (N = 5), octyl
(N = 7) or dodecyl (N = 11) using either hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) or
bis(4-isocyanateocyclohexyl)methane (H12 MDI) as the diisocyanate group.
[188,326]
Polymers based on ethylene oxide, end capped at both sides with n-hexadecyl groups.
[327]
Table 2 (Continued)
Polymer
References
[328]
Polymer based on ethylene oxide, end capped at both sides with different alkyl groups:
Structure
1595
1596
Polymer based on ethylene oxide, end capped either at one side (1) or at both sides (2)
with octadecyl groups (1) or with nonylphenol (2) groups:
[187]
Polymers based on ethylene oxide end capped at both sides with uorocarbon
hydrophobes:
[329]
C6 F-35K, n = 6 or
C8 F-35K, n = 8
Polymers based on ethylene oxide end capped either at both (1) or one side (2) with
uorocarbon hydrophobes.
[186,330,331]
Table 2 (Continued)
Polymer
Structure
References
Polymers based on ethylene oxide end capped either at both or one side with
uorocarbon hydrophobes:
[182,332334]
H17 H17 : 1
F8 F8 : 2, N = 0
F8 H2 H2 F8 : 2, N = 2
F8 H10 H10 F8 : 2, N = 10
H18 H2 F8 : 3, N = 2
H18 H10 F8 : 3, N = 10
H1 H2 F8 : 4
Polymers based on ethylene oxide end capped at both ends with pyrene.
[335]
1597
1598
urethane linkages. The polymer series 49 was synthesized with the idea that this would be better model
polymers since no interference by urethane linkages is
present [332]. Indeed, it was already demonstrated by
another study [344] that signicant changes in associating behavior are observed when telechelic polymers
with an ether versus a urethane bond connecting the
hydrophobic groups with the polyethylene oxide chain are
compared.
The association behavior of the polymer in solution
depends on the molecular structure of the polymer. When
Liu et al. [321] investigated polymer 40 a signicantly
different association mechanism was observed when comparing comb and telechelic polymers. Comb associative
polymers display a more compact structure in comparison to the association of equivalent telechelic polymers.
The authors [321] hypothesized, similar to the conclusion
of Jimenez-Regalado et al. [245], that comb associative
polymers favour the formation of intramolecular associ-
1599
1600
Fig. 26. Model depicting the effect of shear on the network structure.
Reproduced with permission from [338] 1998, ACS Publishing.
1601
1602
1603
1604
Table 3
Structure of different water-soluble polymers, HASE.
Polymer
References
[169]
R = H (1), C8 H17 (2), C12 H25 (3), C16 H33 (4) or C20 H41 (5)
m = 33 (for 2)
m = 35 (for 1, 35)
XYZ (1) = 48.7651.240.00 (mol%)
XYZ (2) = 49.0050.001.00 (mol%)
XYZ (3) = 49.0550.050.90 (mol%)
XYZ (4) = 49.0650.040.90 (mol%)
XYZ (5) = 49.0650.040.90 (mol%)
Polymer based on methacrylic acid (MAA), ethyl acrylate (EA) and a hydrophobic
macromonomer (associative macromonomer, AM).
[106,169,366,367]
Polymer based on methacrylic acid (MAA), ethyl acrylate (EA) and a hydrophobic
macromonomer (associative macromonomer, AM).
Structure
Table 3 (Continued)
Polymer
References
[363,366368]
Polymer based on methacrylic acid (MAA), ethyl acrylate (EA) and a hydrophobic
macromonomer (associative macromonomer, AM).
Structure
m = 80
XYZ = 40.0040.0020.00 (wt.%)
1605
1606
m = 53
XYZ (Refs. [169,369,370]) = 45.0055.00<1.00 (mol%)
XYZ (HASE65) = 0.490.490.021
XYZ (HASE48) = 0.500.490.011
XYZ (HASE42) = 0.440.550.011
XYZ (HASE35) = 0.450.550.006
XYZ (HASE12) = 0.400.590.002
XYZ (HASE11) = 0.400.690.0035
XYZ (HASE0) = 0.400.590.002
[91,371]
Polymer based on methacrylic acid (MAA), ethyl acrylate (EA) and a hydrophobic
macromonomer (associative macromonomer, AM).
1607
concentration consist of a unimer with the hydrophobic domain in the center and the hydrophilic backbone
extended in the solution. As the polymer concentration
is increased a transition to an overlap regime occurs. This
transition takes place above the cross-over concentration
(Cg ) [378] and leads to a signicant rise in the viscosity of
the HASE polymer solution due to the interactions between
the hydrophobic groups. The structure of the network has
been investigated and a schematic presentation has been
provided by Tan et al. [379] (Fig. 33).
1608
into a higher steady shear and zero shear solution viscosity but also to a more pronounced pseudoplastic behavior.
Using the polymer series 51 the positive effect of the
length or size of the hydrophobe on the solution viscosity
was demonstrated [367,376]. The highest solution viscosity
was obtained with the longest/largest hydrophobic group
(C20 ). Using polymer 52 English et al. [371] demonstrated
that by using more complex hydrophobic groups the network dynamics of the polymer is no longer represented
by a single characteristic relaxation time but by rather
the hindered reptation model put forward by Leibler et al.
[291]. The deviation of the classical Maxwellian behavior arises by the coexistence of hydrophobic associations
and chain entanglements [371]. Ng et al. [381] investigated the difference in solution viscosity in HASE polymers
compared to the unmodied analogue. Fig. 34 schematically represents the differences hypothesized by the
authors.
The hydrophobic groups will interact with the ethyl
acrylate blocks in the semi-dilute concentration regime.
These in turn will enhance the intermolecular associations
between different clusters. The higher solution viscosity of
the hydrophobically modied polymers compared to the
unmodied analogues is attributed to this enhancement.
As mentioned before the hydrophobicity of the hydrophobic groups will affect the rheological properties of the HASE
polymer. A classic example of this is the polymer series 54
[365]. The polymer with the pyrene functionality displayed
a higher solution viscosity compared to the same polymer
without pyrene. However, the number of intermolecular
hydrophobic associations that arise is dependent on the
pyrene content with more being formed at lower pyrene
contents.
The degree of ethoxylation affects the thickening capability of HASE polymers. The optimum ethoxylation degree
lies between 5-40 mol% of the ethylenoxide on the
hydrophobic monomer [380]. According to Wu and Shay
[376], the balance between hydrophobic associations and
electrostatic repulsion can be manipulated by the incorporation level of the methacrylic acid moiety [376]. The
maximum zero shear rate viscosity is obtained with an
incorporation rate of 40 wt%. A classic example of this
behavior is observed for polymer 51. In addition it was
demonstrated that the optimum ethoxylation degree cor-
1609
Fig. 34. Schematic presentation of the associations in HASE and its unmodied analogue.
pyrene [181]. At a pH of 5.7 a large number of hydrophobic micro-domains are present. As the pH of the polymer
solution is raised a smaller number of larger hydrophobic domains are formed. The authors suggest a transition
from intramolecular to intermolecular hydrophobic associations. This leads to a signicant increase in the solution
viscosity.
Adding salt to the polymer solution affected its rheological properties. Increase in the salt concentration resulted
in a decrease of the solution viscosity with the effect being
more pronounced for groups with higher hydrophobicity.
However, the polymer 51 (with C20 H41 as the hydrophobe)
displayed a shear thickening behavior at a given salt concentration [368]. The rst effect, signicant reduction in
the solution viscosity [379] with the addition of salt, is
attributed to the shielding of the charges on the polymer
backbone leading to the shrinkage of the polymer backbone. The intermolecular hydrophobic associations will be
destroyed due to the shrinkage. The second effect, shear
thickening with the addition of more salt, is attributed to
the reformation of the network. The authors [379] have
provided a model illustrating the network structures in salt
solution under shear deformation (Fig. 35).
Several different studies [91,106,375,382384] have
been published on the interactions between HASE polymers and different surfactants. Polymers 51 (5) and 53 have
been shown to interact with surfactants. Depending on
the nature of the surfactant different behaviors can arise
[91]. Using a partially water-soluble nonionic surfactant
(nonylphenol ethoxylate) English et al. [91] demonstrated that the shear rate range where shear induced
Fig. 35. Model illustrating the network structures of HASE in salt under shear.
Reproduced with permission from [379] 2001, John Wiley and Sons.
1610
1611
group also affects the strength of the network. Increasing the hydrophobicity will increase the strength. Polymer
57 and 60 (R1 = 2) are examples where the polymer with
uorocarbon provide a stronger network than the hydrocarbon (un)modied analogue [391]. The distribution of the
hydrophobic groups is also of crucial importance. Polymer
62 represents an example in which, due to inhomogeneous distribution of the hydrophobic group, two separate
phases of polymers are observed [401]. One containing
highly substituted chains and another with less substitution. The highly substituted chains will be preferentially
incorporated into the network.
Classical polyelectrolyte behavior can be obtained by
the incorporation of charged moieties in the backbone
of the polysaccharides. An example of this behavior is
observed with polymer 60 (R1 = 3) where cationic moieties
are incorporated into the backbone of the polysaccharide
[397].
1612
Table 4
Structure of different water-soluble polymers, HMHEC.
Polymer
Structure
References
HHM-HEC
[106]
[386]
The hydrophobic groups are long alkyl chains and the hydrophilic groups are sodium sulfonate
groups.
Table 4 (Continued)
Polymer
Structure
References
HM-HEC
[386389]
EP16-HAHEC, R2 = 1
[390]
IPBC-HAHEC, R2 = 2
BD-HAHEC, R2 = 3
HM-HEC
Hydrophobic groups are alkyl chains varying between 8 and 40 carbons in length
HM-HEC
[391]
1613
1614
HM-HEC
[392394]
R3 , R4 and R5 = alkyl, aryl, aralkyl, alkaryl, cycloalkyl, alkoxyalkyl and alkoxyaryl where a
maximum length of 10 C-atoms (the total length of R3 , R4 and R5 is between 3 and 12 C-atoms.
When R3 , R4 or R5 is an alkoxyalkyl radical two C-atoms separate the O and N-atom.
Table 4 (Continued)
Polymer
Structure
References
HM-HPC
[395,396]
HM-EHEC
The hydrophobic groups are either long alkyl chains or a nonylphenol group
[397399]
The polysaccharide is labeled with pyrene (1) or uorene (2) groups for uorescence studies
1615
1616
HM-HEC-py-1
The hydrophobic groups are an alkyl chain and a pyrene group for uorescence studies
[118,400]
[307,401404]
HM-Alginate
[405]
HM-CMC
1617
1618
Table 5
The different surfactants shown to interact with hydrophobically modied polysaccharides.
Surfactant
Abbreviation
Type
Source
SDS (NaC12 S)
NaC10 S
NaC14 S
(NaC12 [EO]2 S)
CH3 [CH2 ]n COONa, n = 4, 6, 8 and 10
SOBS
CTAB
TTAB
C12 ACl
C12 TACl
C12 TABr
C16 TABr
C16 TAAc
CH3 [CH2 ]n COOCH2 N[CH3 ]3 , n = 9, 11, 13
C8 H17 C6 H4 O[EO]10 H (Triton X-100)
Cm Hn , m = 11, 12 and 13/n = 4
Anionic
Anionic
Anionic
Anionic
Anionic
Anionic
Cationic
Cationic
Cationic
Cationic
Cationic
Cationic
Cationic
Cationic
Nonionic
Nonionic
[117,307,408,416428]
[117]
[424]
[424]
[427]
[427,429]
[430]
[420,430]
[424]
[424]
[424]
[424]
[424]
[431]
[418]
[117,415,420]
1619
Acknowledgement
4. Conclusion
This review clearly indicates that the successful design
of new water-soluble polymers for a given application requires an integral multiscale and multidisciplinary
approach. Proper denition of the required product properties is in this case crucial. Knowledge of polymer chemical
architecture (and thus of the synthetic methods used) must
be conceptually linked to the desired product application
requirements. In this case viscosity measurements under
different shear conditions are of paramount importance
and should be ideally correlated with the nature (i.e. polymer architecture and overall chemical composition) of the
corresponding water solution.
The inuence of external parameters (e.g. pH and temperature) on the rheological behavior must be coupled
with an in depth knowledge of the relationship between
the chemical structure and architecture of the polymer
and the rheological behavior. In this respect, an overall
correlation cannot be dened only as a function of the
1620
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