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Non Destructive Testing

Lunch Time Training in Mechanical Department June 2006

Madhukar Srivastava- Mechanical

BecRel Engineering

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Introduction

The field of Nondestructive Testing (NDT) is a very broad &

interdisciplinary field.
It plays a critical role in assuring that structural components and
systems perform their function in a reliable and cost effective fashion.
These tests are performed in a manner that does not affect the future
usefulness of the object or material.
In other words, NDT allows parts and materials to be inspected and
measured without damaging them.
It allows inspection without interfering with a product's final use.
NDT provides an excellent balance between quality control and costeffectiveness.
Generally speaking, NDT applies to industrial inspections.
Technologies are used in NDT that are similar to those used in the
medical industry, typically nonliving objects are the subjects of the
inspections.

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NDT A Brief Perspective

Nondestructive testing (NDT) has been defined as comprising those

test methods used to examine an object, material or system without
impairing its future usefulness.
The term is generally applied to non medical investigations of material
integrity.
Strictly speaking, this definition of nondestructive testing does include
noninvasive medical diagnostics.
Ultrasound, X-rays and endoscopes are used for both medical testing
and industrial testing.
In the 1940s, many members of the American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (then the Society for Industrial Radiography)
were medical X-ray professionals.
Medical nondestructive testing, however, has come to be treated by a
body of learning so separate from industrial nondestructive testing that
today most physicians never use the word nondestructive.

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Continued

Nondestructive testing is used to investigate the material integrity of

the test object.
A number of other technologies - for instance, radio astronomy,
voltage and amperage measurement and rheometry (flow
measurement) - are nondestructive but are not used to evaluate
material properties specifically.
Nondestructive testing is concerned in a practical way with the
performance of the test piece - how long may the piece be used and
when does it need to be checked again?
Radar and sonar are classified as nondestructive testing when used to
inspect dams, for instance, but not when they are used to chart a river
bottom.

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Purposes of NDT

To ensure product integrity, and in turn, reliability

To avoid failures, prevent accidents and save
human life
To make a profit for the user
Ensure customer satisfaction and maintain the
manufacturer's reputation
To aid in better product design
To control manufacturing processes
To lower manufacturing costs
To maintain uniform quality level
To ensure operational readiness.

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NDT/NDE Methods

Visual and Optical Testing (VT)

Dye Penetrant Testing ( DPT)
Magnetic Particle Testing ( MPT)
Electromagnetic Testing (ET) or Eddy Current
Testing
Ultrasonic ( UT )
Radiography ( RT)
Acoustic Emission Testing ( AE)
Leak Testing ( LT)

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Visual Testing

Visual inspection involves using an inspector's

eyes to look for defects.
The inspector may also use special tools such as
magnifying glasses, mirrors, or borescopes to gain
access and more closely inspect the subject area.
Visual examiners follow procedures that range
from simple to very complex.

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Dye Penetrant Testing

Test objects are coated with visible or fluorescent

dye solution.
Excess dye is then removed from the surface, and
a developer is applied.
The developer acts as blotter, drawing trapped
penetrant out of imperfections open to the surface.
With visible dyes, vivid color contrasts between
the penetrant and developer make "bleedout" easy
to see.
With fluorescent dyes, ultraviolet light is used to
make the bleedout fluoresce brightly, thus
allowing imperfections to be readily seen.

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DPT Sequence

1) PENETRANT IS APPLIED

3) DEVELOPER APPLIED

2 ) EXCESS DYE IS REMOVED

4) VISUALLY INSPECTED

Remember to Clean and dry the surface before test

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DPT - Advantages & Disadvantages

Primary Advantages

The method has high sensitivity to small

surface discontinuities.
The method has few material limitations, i.e.
metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic, and conductive and
nonconductive materials may be inspected.
Large areas and large volumes of
parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and
at low cost.
Parts with complex geometric shapes are
routinely inspected.
Indications are produced directly on the
surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
Aerosol spray cans make penetrant materials
very portable.
Penetrant materials and associated equipment
are relatively inexpensive.

Primary Disadvantages

Only surface breaking defects can be

detected.
Only materials with a relative nonporous
surface can be inspected.
Pre-cleaning is critical as contaminants can
mask defects.
Metal smearing from machining, grinding,
and grit or vapor blasting must be removed
prior to LPI.
The inspector must have direct access to the
surface being inspected.
Surface finish and roughness can affect
inspection sensitivity.
Multiple process operations must be
performed and controlled.
Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials
is required.
Chemical handling and proper disposal is
required

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Magnetic Particle Test

This NDE method is accomplished by inducing a

magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material
After that dusting the surface with iron particles
(either dry or suspended in liquid).
Surface and near-surface imperfections distort the
magnetic field and concentrate iron particles near
imperfections, previewing a visual indication of
the flaw.

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Magnetic Particle Test-Contd..

Any place that a magnetic line of force exits or
enters the magnet is called a pole. A pole where a
magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a
north pole and a pole where a line of force enters the
magnet is called a south pole.

If the magnet is just cracked but not broken

completely in two, a north and south pole
will form at each edge of the crack. The
magnetic field exits the north pole and
reenters the at the south pole. The magnetic
field spreads out when it encounter the
small air gap. When the field spreads out, it
appears to leak out of the material and, thus,
it is called a flux leakage field.

If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to and cluster not
only at the poles at the ends of the magnet but also at the poles at the edges of the crack. This cluster
of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is the basis for magnetic particle
inspection.

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Eddy Current Inspection

Electrical currents are generated in a conductive

material by an induced alternating magnetic field.
The electrical currents are called eddy currents
because they flow in circles at and just below the
surface of the material.
Interruptions in the flow of eddy currents, caused
by imperfections, dimensional changes, or
changes in the material's conductive and
permeability properties, can be detected with the
proper equipment.

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Continued

Eddy currents are created through a process called electromagnetic induction. When alternating current is applied to the
conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the conductor. This magnetic field expands as the
alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced to zero. If another electrical conductor is brought
into the close proximity to this changing magnetic field, current will be induced in this second conductor. Eddy currents are
induced electrical currents that flow in a circular path. They get their name from eddies that are formed when a liquid or gas
flows in a circular path around obstacles when conditions are right.

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Eddy Current Applications

Crack Detection
Material Thickness Measurements
Coating Thickness Measurements
Conductivity Measurements For:
Material Identification
Heat Damage Detection
Case Depth Determination
Heat Treatment Monitoring

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Eddy Current - Advantages & Disadvantages

Primary Advantages

Sensitive to small cracks and other

defects
Detects surface and near surface
defects
Inspection gives immediate results
Equipment is very portable
Method can be used for much more
than flaw detection
Minimum part preparation is
required
Test probe does not need to contact
the part
Inspects complex shapes and sizes
of conductive materials

Primary Disadvantages

Only conductive materials can be

inspected
Surface must be accessible to the
probe
Skill and training required is more
extensive than other techniques
Surface finish and and roughness
may interfere
Reference standards needed for
setup
Depth of penetration is limited
Flaws such as delaminations that lie
parallel to the probe coil winding
and probe scan direction are
undetectable

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Example-Tube Inspection

Eddy current inspection is often used to detect corrosion, erosion,

cracking and other changes in tubing. Heat exchangers and steam
generators, which are used in power plants, have thousands of tubes
that must be prevented from leaking.

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Example Thickness Measurement

Eddy current techniques can be used to perform a number of dimensional

measurements. The ability to make rapid measurements without the need
for couplant or, in some cases even surface contact, makes eddy current
techniques very use.

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Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonics use transmission of high-frequency

sound waves into a material to detect
imperfections or to locate changes in material
properties.
The most commonly used ultrasonic testing
technique is pulse echo, wherein sound is
introduced into a test object and reflections
(echoes) are returned to a receiver from internal
imperfections or from the part's geometrical
surfaces.

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Basic Principles of UT

A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units,

such as the pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices.
A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage
electrical pulse. Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high
frequency ultrasonic energy.
The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials
in the form of waves.
When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part
of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface.
The reflected wave signal is transformed into electrical signal by the
transducer and is displayed on a screen.
The reflected signal strength is displayed versus the time from signal
generation to when a echo was received.
Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance that the signal
traveled.
From the signal, information about the reflector location, size,
orientation and other features can sometimes be gained.

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Continued

Transducer

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UT-Advantages & Disadvantages

Primary Advantages

It is sensitive to both surface and

subsurface discontinuities.
The depth of penetration for flaw
detection or measurement is superior to
other NDT methods.
Only single-sided access is needed when
the pulse-echo technique is used.
It is high accuracy in determining
reflector position and estimating size and
shape.
Minimal part preparation required.
Electronic equipment provides
instantaneous results.
Detailed images can be produced with
automated systems.
It has other uses such as thickness
measurements, in addition to flaw
detection.

Primary Disadvantages

Surface must be accessible to transmit

ultrasound.
Skill and training is more extensive than
with some other methods.
It normally requires a coupling medium
to promote transfer of sound energy into
test specimen.
Materials that are rough, irregular in
shape, very small, exceptionally thin or
not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
Cast iron and other coarse grained
materials are difficult to inspect due to
low sound transmission and high signal
noise.
Linear defects oriented parallel to the
sound beam may go undetected.
Reference standards are required for
both equipment calibration, and
characterization of flaws.

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Radiography

Radiography involves the use of penetrating

gamma or X-radiation to examine parts and
products for imperfections.
An X-ray generator or radioactive isotope is used
as a source of radiation.
Radiation is directed through a part and onto film
or other imaging media.
The resulting shadowgraph shows the dimensional
features of the part.
Possible imperfections are indicated as density
changes on the film in the same manner as a
medical X-ray shows broken bones.

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Set-Up

X-Ray

Gamma -Ray

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Radioactive Sources for Gamma Rays

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Example Cold Lap

Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse
with the base metal or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold
lap). The arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the
slightly molten puddle to flow into base material without bonding

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Example- Porosity

Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can
take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular
spots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters or rows. Sometimes porosity is
elongated and may have the appearance of having a tail This is the result of gas
attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called
wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material it will have a
radiographic density more than the surrounding area.

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Example Slag Inclusion

Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld

metal or between weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark,
jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along the weld joint
areas are indicative of slag inclusions.

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Example -Incomplete Penetration

Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs

when the weld metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most
objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural
stress riser from which a crack may propagate. The appearance on a
radiograph is a dark area with well-defined, straight edges that follows
the land or root face down the center of the weldment

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Example - Cracks

Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating

in a direction that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the
x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular
lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.

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Example- Offset or Mismatch

Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two

pieces being welded together are not properly aligned. The
radiographic image is a noticeable difference in density between the
two pieces. The difference in density is caused by the difference in
material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by failure of the
weld metal to fuse with the land area.

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Acoustic Emission Testing

When a solid material is stressed, imperfections

within the material emit short bursts of acoustic
energy called "emissions.
As in ultrasonic testing, acoustic emissions can be
detected by special receivers.
Emission sources can be evaluated through the
study of their intensity, rate, and location.

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Leak Testing

Several techniques are used to detect and

locate leaks in pressure containment parts,
pressure vessels, and structures.
Leaks can be detected by using electronic
listening devices, pressure gauge
measurements, liquid and gas penetrant
techniques, and/or a simple soap-bubble
test.

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Thank You !