Introduction to Elastostatics

J. R. Berger
Division of Engineering
26 May 2009

Stresses in an Elastic Solid

In basic mechanics of materials, it was always assumed the the stresses on a

differential element of stress never varied across the stress element. This is a fundamental assumption of the mechanics of materials approach to stress analysis,
and is the reason why this approach fails for calculating stresses near discontinuities, i.e., holes, notches, and cracks. Too often it is assumed by students that
the stresses must be balanced across the stress element. That is a faulty assumption, however. As we all learned in elementary statics, equilibrium of a solid is
investigated through force and moment balances, not stresses.
With the theory of elasticity, we begin by allowing the stress field to vary
across the stress element, then write force equilibrium equations. These equations
will restrict the variation of stress across the stress element. Since this is most
easily seen in a two-dimensional setting, consider the stress element in the x z
plane shown in Figure 1. Note that we have assumed a first-order variation of
the stress field (in the sense of a Taylors series expansion) across the element.
Summing forces in the x-direction by multiplying the stresses over the area upon
which they act and assuming there are no body forces acting we have


xx dy dz zx dx dy + zx +

zx
xx
dz dx dy + xx +
dx dy dz = 0
z
x
(1.1)


Canceling terms yields

xx
zx
+
=0
(1.2)
x
z
This is the Equilibrium Equation in the x-direction for the solid. We can perform

a similar force equilibrium calculation in the z-direction and obtain

xz
zz
+
=0
x
z

(1.3)

which is the Equilibrium Equation in the z-direction for the solid. Note that these
equations restrict the type of variation the stresses can have over a differential
stress element.
If we sum the moments in order to enforce moment equilibrium in the solid
we obtain a result identical to that obtained in basic mechanics of materials,
xz = zx

(1.4)

Extending these results to the full three-dimensional solid we have the complete
set of Equilibrium Equations,
xx
xy
xz
+
+
=0
x
y
z

(1.5)

yy
yz
yx
+
+
=0
(1.6)
x
y
z
zx
zy
zz
+
+
=0
(1.7)
x
y
z
Note in these expressions that for moment balance we have symmetry in all the
shear stress terms, xy = yx , xz = zx , and yz = zy .

1.1

Index Notation

The field equations for elasticity become quite cumbersome to write down, as
evidenced by the equilibrium equations written above. Index Notation provides
a very compact way to write these (and subsequent) equations down. First, we
will replace (x, y, z) with (x1 , x2 , x3 ). A three-dimensional vector a may then be
written as
a = (a1 , a2 , a3 )T
or more simply as
a = aj ,

j = 1, 2, 3

This allows us to write our stress components as ij , i, j = 1, 2, 3. For example,

xz = 13 . In a similar way, we can compactly write partial derivatives where we
indicate the derivative with a comma. For example
xz
13
=
= 13,3
z
x3
2

Finally, a summation convention is used where a repeated index within a term

indicates an implied summation. For example, the first stress invariant can be
written as
I1 = kk =

k=3
X

kk = 11 + 22 + 33 = xx + yy + zz

k=1

Putting all these pieces together we may write the full three-dimensional set
of stress equilibrium equations as ij,j = 0, i, j = 1, 2, 3. The index i in this
expression is a free index (we can specify it as 1, 2, or 3) and the index j implies
a sum as it is repeated. If we choose i = 2 we have
2j,j =

j=3
X

2j,j = 21,1 + 22,2 + 23,3 = 0

j=1

Writing out the derivatives we then have

2j,j =

21 22 23
+
+
= 0
x1
x2
x3

which is identical to our second equilibrium equation.

Strain Field in an Elastic Solid

Here we are concerned with the geometry of the deformation of the solid, or kinematics. Figure 2 shows an element undergoing general deformation in the (x, z)
plane. From the geometry in the figure we can compute normal strains as changes
in length relative to an initial length, and engineering shear strains as changes
in angles from 90 degrees. Under the usual small-deformation assumption, these
calculations lead to
xx =

ux
,
x

zz =

uz
,
z

xz =

uz
ux
+
z
x

(2.8)

where ux and uz are the displacements in the x and z directions, respectively.

Note that rigid body motion will have no effect on the strain field. In three
dimensions, the remaining components of strain are
yy =

uy
,
y

yz =

uy
uz
+
,
z
y

xy =

ux
uy
+
y
x

(2.9)

where uy is the displacement in the y-direction. So, for general three-dimensional

elasticity problem there are three normal strains and three shear strains.
3

Before introducing the subscript notation for the strains, the tensor shear
strain must be defined. Both stress and strain are tensor quantities, and as such
will obey known transformation laws (Mohrs circle is a graphical method for one
of the transformation laws). However, the shear strain definition must be slightly
modified in order for strain to be a tensor. The tensor shear strains are
1
xy = xy ,
2

1
xz = xz ,
2

1
yz = yz
2

In subscript notation we can now define the Strain-Displacement Relations as

ij =

1
(ui,j + uj,i ) ,
2

i, j = 1, 2, 3

(2.10)

So, at present, we have 9 equations (3 equilibrium equations, 6 strain-displacement

equations) in 15 unknowns (6 stresses, 6 strains, and 3 displacements). The 6
missing equations concern the relation between stress and strain in the solid, or
the constitutive law for the solid.

General Linear, Elastic, Homogeneous Constitutive

Behavior

We assume the solid is elastic (no strain upon removal of stress), linear (the
relationship between stress and strain is linear) and homogeneous (the material
properties are independent of position). At present, we will allow the material
to be anisotropic (the material properties depend on orientation). If our solid
obeys Hookes law, every component of strain is a linear combination of every
component of stress. So, for example, we might compute xx as
xx = S11 xx + S12 yy + S13 zz + S14 yz + S15 xz + S16 xy
where the constants Sij are elastic compliances. Note the unusual feature of
anisotropy where a shear stress can contribute to a normal strain. This is called
shear coupling. We can write the general form of Hookes law in subscript form
as
ij = Sijkl kl
(3.11)
where the fourth-order tensor Sijkl is the elastic compliance tensor and there are
two sets of implied summations: one over k and one over l. For most engineering
calculations, a matrix-vector approach is used for stress-strain calculations, so a
contraction scheme is used in order to write the elastic compliance tensor as a
matrix. If we use the following rule for contraction of subscripts,
4

ij or kl
I or J

11
1

22
2

33
3

23 or 32
4

13 or 31
5

12 or 21
6

then our stress tensor, ij , and strain tensor, ij , become vectors: I and I .
These vectors have the form

1
2
3
4
5
6

1
2
3
4
5
6

xx
yy
zz
xz
yz
xy

xx
yy
zz
xz
yz
xy

and

This allows us to write Hookes law for an anisotropic solid as I = SIJ J or

simply = S . Expanding these terms out we have

xx
yy
zz
yz
xz
xy

S11
S21
S31
S41
S51
S61

S12
S22
S32
S42
S52
S62

S13
S23
S33
S43
S53
S63

S14
S24
S34
S44
S54
S64

S15
S25
S35
S45
S55
S65

S16
S26
S36
S46
S56
S66

xx
yy
zz
yz
xz
xy

Often one wishes to compute stresses from measured strains, in which case the
stress-strain law can be inverted,
= S 1 = C
where C is the elastic stiffness matrix. In subscript form, without contracting
indices, we write this as
ij = Cijkl kl
The elastic stiffness and compliance matrices are both symmetric,
SIJ = SJI

CIJ = CJI
5

due to symmetry of the shear stresses and requirements on positive-definiteness

of the strain energy. So, in general, an anisotropic material can have up to 21
independent elastic constants. There is an extensive body of literature concerning
the structure of the C or S matrices for various types of material symmetries:
triclinic, tetragonal, hexagonal, transversely isotropic, and cubic materials. We
will not expand on this topic any further here, the structure of these matrices for
isotropic materials is presented in the next section.

Isotropic Material Behavior

If the elastic constants of a material are independent of orientation, the material

is isotropic. Isotropic materials have two independent elastic constants, most
engineers use the modulus of elasticity, E, and Poissons ratio, . Contrast this
situation to an anisotropic solid where 21 independent elastic constants are needed
to do stress strain calculations! In basic mechanics of materials, Hookes law is
usually written for a normal strain, say xx as
xx =

1
(xx yy zz )
E

and for shear strains, say xy , as

xy =

1
xy
G

where G is the shear modulus and can be computed from E and as

G=

E
2(1 + )

Comparing to the compliance form of Hookes law given in the previous section,
we can construct the compliance matrix for an isotropic solid as

S =

S11 S12 S13 0

0
0
S12 S22 S23 0
0
0
S13 S23 S33 0
0
0
0
0
0 S44 0
0
0
0
0
0 S55 0
0
0
0
0
0 S66

where
S11 = S22 = S33 =

1
,
E

S12 = S13 = S23 =

6

,
E

S44 = S55 = S66 =

1
G

There is not a simple way to write the compliance form of Hookes law for an
isotropic solid in subscript form.
We can invert the compliance form of Hookes law to obtain the stiffness form
of Hookes law. Recall from the previous section that S 1 = C. We can write the
stiffness form of Hookes law in subscript form if we redefine the two independent
elastic constants for the isotropic solid. The Lame constants are defined as
=

E
,
(1 + )(1 2)

=G

Then the stiffness form of Hookes law is

ij = ij kk + 2ij

(4.12)

where ij is the Kronecker delta (ij =1 if i = j and is zero if i 6= j). Say we wish
to compute zz . We set i = j = 3 and
33 = 33 kk + 233 = (11 + 22 + 33 ) + 233
For a shear stress, say we wish to compute xz . Then we set i = 1, j = 3 and
13 = 13 kk + 213 = 13
where we have used the definition of the engineering shear strain in terms of the
tensor shear strain to eliminate the factor of 2. It should be noted that most
elastic constants appearing in compliance and stiffness matrices are to be used
with the engineering shear strains. Typically tensor shear strains are only used
when performing transformations of strains.
Based on the two calculations given above, we can construct the elastic stiffness matrix for an isotropic solid as

C =

C11 C12 C13 0

0
0
C12 C22 C23 0
0
0
C13 C23 C33 0
0
0
0
0
0 C44 0
0
0
0
0
0 C55 0
0
0
0
0
0 C66

where
C11 = C22 = C33 = + 2,

C12 = C13 = C23 = ,

C44 = C55 = C66 =

For the remainder of this document we will only consider isotropic stress-strain
behavior.
7

Reduction to Two Dimensions: Plane Strain versus

Plane Stress

To reduce a three-dimensional problem to two dimensions requires us to make

an assumption about the stress or strain in the out-of-plane direction. Say our
problem occupies the (x, z) plane and all loading is in-plane. We can make two
assumptions associated with the y-direction stresses and strains. First, if we
assume the solid is thin in the y-direction, then no stress can develop in that
direction and
yy = xy = yz = 0
This is the Plane Stress assumption. It is important to note that the y-direction
strains are not generally zero! From the compliance form of Hookes law we can
compute the y-direction strains as

yy = (xx + zz ), xy = yz = 0
E
Alternatively, if the solid is very thick in the y-direction then no strain can develop
in that direction and
yy = xy = yz = 0
This is the Plane Strain assumption. In this situation, the y-direction stresses
are not generally zero. From the stiffness form of Hookes law we can compute
the y-direction stresses as
yy = (xx + zz ),

xy = yz = 0

Governing Equations: Stress and Displacement Formulations in Two-Dimensions

For solving elasticity problems one usually uses either a stress-based formulation,
or a displacement-based formulation. We review each of these briefly here. For
stress-based formulations, constraints must be made on the solution to provide for
continuity of the displacement field. These are known as compatibility equations
and are obtained by calculating various derivatives of the strain-displacement
equations. For the full three-dimensional problem there are six compatibility
equations. For the two-dimensional situation in the (x, z) plane, whether it be
plane-strain or plane-stress, the only compatibility equation needed is
2 xz
2 xx 2 zz
=
+
xz
z 2
x2
8

For this section, we will assume without loss of generality that plane stress conditions exist. At the end of this section some comments will be made concerning
conversion of plane stress solutions to plane strain solutions. In the (x, z) plane
in plane stress we then have two equilibrium equations,
xx
zx
+
= 0,
x
z

xz
zz
+
=0
x
z

three strain-displacement relations,

xx =

ux
,
x

zz =

uz
,
z

xz =

ux uz
+
z
x

and, in compliance form, three stress-strain relations,

xx = S11 xx + S13 zz ,

zz = S31 xx + S33 zz ,

xz = S55 xz

for a total of eight equations in eight unknowns (three stresses, three strains, and
two displacements).
For stress-based formulations, one common technique is to employ the Airy
stress function, = (x, z). We choose such that the stresses may be computed
as
2
2
2
xx =
,

=
,

zz
xz
x2
z 2
xz
Note that this definition of the stresses results in the x and z direction equilibrium equations being satisfied. Substituting this definition of the stresses in
the compliance form of Hookes law, and then substituting in the compatibility
equation given above yields the governing equation for ,
2 (2 ) = 4 = 0
where in this situation

2
2
+
x2 z 2
Alternatively, a displacement-based solution can be sought. Its easiest to
work in subscript form. Starting with the equilibrium equations,
2 =

ij,j = 0
we substitute the isotropic form of Hookes law to obtain
(ij kk + 2ij )j = 0.
9

Now, collecting terms we have Naviers equations,

( + )uj,ij + ui,jj = 0

(6.13)

Naviers equations, in plane stress, represent two coupled partial differential equations in the two displacement components. Note that compatibility will automatically be satisfied when using a displacement-based solution.

Elastic Field Equations in Plane Polar Coordinates

Frequently in two-dimensional elasticity it is convenient to use plane polar coordinates. We present a brief summary of the relevant equations here. Note that
for an isotropic solid, the form of Hookes law is unchanged from that used for
Cartesian coordinates.
Strain-Displacement Equations
rr =

u
;
r

1 v u
+ ;
r
r

r = 2r =

1 u v v
+

r
r
r

Airy Stress Function

rr

1 2 1
2
= 2 2 +
; =
;
r
r r
r2

=
r

Laplician Operator in Polar Coordinates

2 =

1
2
1 2
+
+
r2 2 r r r2

10

1
r

List of Figures
Figure 1. Stress element in a varying stress field.
Figure 2. Stress element deforming in the (x, z) plane.

11