Rectrocoagulation Review

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413
DOI 10.1007/s11356-013-2208-6
REVIEW ARTICLE
Treatment of wastewater by electrocoagulation: a review

Omprakash Sahu & Bidyut Mazumdar & P. K. Chaudhari
Received: 1 July 2013 / Accepted: 30 September 2013 / Published online: 17 November 2013
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
Abstract The electrocoagulation (EC) process is an electrochemical means of introducing coagulants and removing
suspended solids, colloidal material, and metals, as well as other
dissolved solids from water and wastewaters. The EC process
has been successfully employed in removing pollutants, pesticides, and radionuclides. This process also removes harmful
microorganisms. More often during EC operation, direct current is applied and electrode plates are sacrificed (dissolved into
solution). The dissolution causes an increased metal concentration in the solution that finally precipitates as oxide precipitates.
Due to improved process design and material of construction,
the EC process is being widely accepted over other physicochemical processes. Presently, this process has gained attention
due to its ability to treat large volume and for its low cost. The
aim of this study is to review the mechanism, affecting factors,
process, and application of the electrocoagulation process.
Keywords Current density . Electrocoagulation .
Electroflotation . Electrochemical reactor . Wastewater
treatment
Introduction
Water treatment by electrochemical method was first reported
in England in 1889 (Comninellis and Chen 2010). The application of electrolysis in mineral beneficiation was patented by
Elmore in 1904. EC with aluminum and iron electrodes was
also patented in the USA in 1909 (Elmore 1905). A large-scale
Responsible editor: Bingcai Pan
O. Sahu (*) : B. Mazumdar : P. K. Chaudhari (*)
Department of Chemical Engineering, NIT Raipur (C.G.),
Raipur, India
e-mail: ops0121@gmail.com
e-mail: pkchaudhari.che@nitrr.ac.in
EC process was done in the USA in 1946 (Stuart 1946; Bonilla

1947) for reducing contaminants in water for drinking purposes. The relatively large capital investment and the higher
power cost were the major constraints for the application of the
EC process worldwide. However, extensive research work
during the latter half of the twentieth century carried on in
the USA and former USSR enabled us to understand the
process in a better way, and abundant amount of information
got accumulated in this field. With the ever increasing standard
of drinking water supply and the stringent environmental regulations regarding the wastewater discharge, electrochemical
technologies have regained their importance worldwide during
the past two decades, and processes such as electrochemical
metal recovery, EC, electroflotation (EF), and electrooxidation
(EO) can be regarded now a days as established technologies
(Wang et al. 2007).
As per available literature, various methods are available
for the treatment of the wastewater. The treatment method
applied depends on the type of pollutants present in wastewater (Bhatnagar and Sillanpaa 2010). Some of them are coagulation (Tan et al. 2003), foam flotation (Mavros et al. 1994),
filtration (Zouboulis et al. 2002), ion exchange (Bolto et al.
2002), aerobic and anaerobic treatment (Bell et al. 2000;
LaPara et al. 2000), advanced oxidation processes (Esplugas
et al. 2002), solvent extraction (Lin and Juang 2002), adsorption (Faust and Aly 1987), electrolysis (Szpyrkowicz et al.
1995a), microbial reduction (Shen and Wang 1994), and
activated sludge (Pala and Tokat 2002). These methods require substantial financial input in terms of raw material and
complexity in process parameters, and hence, their use is
restricted because of cost factors overriding the importance
of pollution control. Among all the various technologies
available, electrolysis is one of the best. The EC offers an
alternative to using metal salt or polymer or polyelectrolyte
addition so as to destabilize emulsion and suspension. The EC
technology has been employed to remove metal, colloidal
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solid, particle, and soluble inorganic pollutant from the water/

wastewater by applying highly charged polymeric metal hydroxide species. These species neutralize the electrostatic
charge on suspended solids to facilitate agglomeration or
coagulation and the resultant separation from aqueous medium. The treatment prompts the precipitation of certain metals
and salts (Guohua 2004).
Electrocoagulation
The EC process is the electrochemical production of metal ions
(such as Al and Fe) that act as destabilizing agents and leads to
neutralization of electric charge for removing pollutants.
Oppositely charged particles bond together like small magnets
to form a mass. This process has been proven to be very
effective in removing contaminants from water and is characterized by reduced sludge production, no requirement of
chemicals, and ease of operation (Rajeshwar and Ibanez 1997).
Treatment of wastewater by EC has been practiced widely
in the twentieth century with limited success and popularity. In
the last decade, this technology has been increasingly used in
South America and Europe for treatment of industrial wastewater (Rodriguez et al. 2007). It has also been noted that the
EC process has been used primarily to treat wastewater from
pulp and paper (Mahesh et al. 2006a, b), mining, and metalprocessing industries (Holt et al. 2002). In addition, the EC
process has been applied to treat potable water (Vik et al.
1984; Matteson et al. 1995), food and protein wastewater
(Beck et al. 1974), yeast wastewater (Khristoskova 1984),
urban wastewater (Pouet and Grasmick 1995), restaurant
wastewater (Chen et al. 2008), tar sand and oil shale wastewater (Renk 1998), nitrate-containing wastewater solutions
(Koparal and Ogutveren 2004), arsenic-containing smelter
wastewater(Balasubramanian and Madhavan 2001), textile
mill wastewater (Essadki et al. 2008), petroleum refining
wastewater(Diyauddeen et al. 2011); effluent from the drug
industry (Deshpande and Satyanarayan 2011), distillery industry wastewater(Manisankar et al. 2003; Piya-Areetham
et al. 2006; Yavuz 2007), etc. Typically, empirical studies
are done on EC to define major operating parameters for broad
classes of contaminated water or waste streams. The technology has been optimized to minimize electrical power consumption and maximize effluent throughput rates.
Principle
The basic principle of EC comes from electrolysis.
Electrolysis literally means to break substances apart by
using electricity. Michael Faraday first formulated the principle
of electrolysis in 1820 (Chen et al. 2005). The process occurs
in an electrolyte, water, or salt-melting solution that gives a
possibility to transfer the ions between two electrodes. When
an electrical current is applied, the positive ions move to the

cathode while the negative ions move to the anode. At the
electrodes, the cations are reduced and the anions are oxidized.
Electrocoagulation mechanism
The mechanism of the electrochemical process in aqueous
systems as explained by Lin et al. (1998) is quite complex.
It is generally believed that there are three possible mechanisms, namely, electrocoagulation (EC), electroflotation (EF),
and electrooxidation (EO). EC is the process of destabilizing
suspended, emulsified, or dissolved contaminants in an aqueous medium by introducing an electric current into the medium. The metals and metal hydroxide cations take part in the
EC process. EF is the process in which buoyant gas bubbles
take pollutants and particles along with them to the surface.
During electrolysis, the bubbles of hydrogen and oxygen
generated move upwards in the liquid phase carrying the
pollutants with them. EO involves decomposition of organic
materials by means of oxidation into carbon dioxide and water
and other oxides. Malkin (2003) reported that electrolytic
effluent treatment is based on the anodic dissolution of metals
which form their hydroxides, and the pollutants are removed
by sorption, coagulation, and other processes occurring in the
space between the electrodes. EC is a complex process with a
multitude of mechanisms operating synergistically to remove
pollutants from water. A wide variety of opinions exist in the
literature for key mechanisms and reactor configurations. A
lack of a systematic approach has resulted in a myriad of
designs for EC reactors without due consideration of the
complexity of the system. A systematic, holistic approach is
required to understand EC and its controlling parameters. This
will enable a priori prediction of the treatment of various
pollutant types (Holt et al. 2005).
The EC is carried out in a well-defined (shape and size)
capacity container/reactor in which a pair of electrodes is
placed (Fig. 1). In the simplest form, an EC reactor is made
up of an electrolytic cell with one anode and one cathode.
When the cell is connected to an external power source, the
anode material is electrochemically corroded due to oxidation.
The conductive metal plates are commonly known as sacrificial electrodes. The sacrificial anodes and cathodes can be
of the same or of different materials, like Fe electrode (AbdelGawad et al. 2012), Al/Fe (Valero et al. 2008; Malakootian
and Yousefi 2009; Nouri et al. 2010a), etc. A stirrer is arranged
to keep the liquid and slurries uniform in the reactor. During
electrolysis, the positive side undergoes anodic reactions,
while on the negative side, cathodic reactions are encountered.
Consumable metal plates, such as iron or aluminum, are
usually used as sacrificial electrodes to continuously produce
ions in the water. The released ions neutralize the charges of
the particles, thereby initiating coagulation. The released ions
remove undesirable contaminants either by chemical reaction
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Fig. 1 Electrocoagulation setup.

a Anode, b cathode, c
electrochemical reactor, d stirrer,
e magnetic stirrer, f DC supply, g
wire, h digital thermometer, i
water inlet, j water outlet
and precipitation or by causing the colloidal materials to

coalesce, which can then be removed by flotation. In addition,
as water containing colloidal particulates, oils, or other contaminants moves through the applied electric field, there may
be ionization, electrolysis, hydrolysis, and free-radical formation which can alter the physical and chemical properties of
water and contaminants. As a result, the reactive and excited
state causes contaminants to be released from the water and
destroyed or made less soluble (Canizares et al. 2007).
The pH, pollutant type and concentration, bubble size and
position, floc stability, and agglomerate size all influence the
operation of the EC unit. The complexity and number of
possible interactions are highlighted in Fig. 2. The overall
mechanism is a combination of mechanisms functioning synergistically. The dominant mechanism may vary throughout
the dynamic process as the reaction progresses and shift with
changes in operating parameters and pollutant types (Chopra
et al. 2011). The following reaction takes place during the EC
process.
At the anode:
Ms Maq n ne
2H2 O1 4H aq O2g 4e
At the cathode:
Maq n ne Ms
2H2 O1 2e H2 2OH aq
Metal anode generates cations by reaction 1. Highly

charged cations destabilize colloidal particles by the formation
of polyvalent polyhydroxide complexes. These complexes
have high adsorption properties, forming aggregates with pollutants. Evolution of hydrogen and oxygen gas aids in mixing
and flocculation. The destabilization mechanism of the contaminants, particulate suspension, and breaking of emulsions
taking place in an EC reactor may be summarized as follows
(Liu et al. 2010):
1. Compression of the diffuse double layer around the
charged species by the interactions of ions generated by
oxidation of the sacrificial anode.
2. Charge neutralization of the ionic species present in wastewater by counter ions produced by the electrochemical
dissolution of the sacrificial anode. These counter ions
reduce the electrostatic inter-particle repulsion to the extent
that the Van der Waals attraction predominates, thus causing coagulation. A zero net charge results in the process. 3.
Floc formation: the floc formed as a result of coagulation
creates a sludge blanket that entraps and bridges colloidal
particles that are still remaining in the aqueous medium.
Fig. 2 Mechanism of electrocoagulation (Chopra et al. 2011)
Water is also electrolyzed in a parallel reaction, producing

small bubbles of oxygen at the anode and hydrogen at the
cathode. These bubbles attach to the flocculated particles and
make them lighter to float to the surface through natural
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buoyancy. In addition, the following physicochemical reactions may also take place in the EC cell (Mollah Mohammad
et al. 2004a): (1) cathodic reduction of impurities present in
wastewater, (2) electrophoretic migration of the ions in solution; (3) reduction of metal ions at the cathode, and (4) other
complex electrochemical reactions.
If iron or aluminum electrodes are used, the generated
Fe(aq)2+ (thermodynamically favored), Fe(aq)3+, or Al(aq)3+ ions
immediately undergo further spontaneous reactions to produce corresponding hydroxides and/or polyhydroxides.
These compounds have a strong affinity for dispersed particles
as well as to counter ions to cause coagulation. Upon oxidation in an electrolytic system, iron produces ferrous hydroxide, Fe (OH)2, or ferric hydroxide, Fe(OH)3, depending on the
pH of the electrolyte. A mechanism has been proposed by
Yousuf et al. (2001) for the production of iron hydroxide in the
absence of oxygen.
Factors affecting electrocoagulation

Effect of electrode material
Choice of electrode material is one of the main steps for the
maximum efficiency of the EC process. Various electrode
materials have been used in EC, which include Al, Ag, As,
Ba, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cs, Fe, Mg, Na, Si, Sr, and Zn (Mickley 2009).
Typically, polyvalent metal electrodes such as aluminum or
iron are used to take advantage of the coagulating properties of
multivalent ions (Pearse 2002). Iron, aluminum, and SS electrodes can handle the combined task of EC and EF as they are
anodically soluble. In addition to these traditional materials,
dimensionally stable anodes, such as SnO2, PbO2, graphite,
nickel, etc., and boron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes have
the advantage of greater chemical resistance and higher efficiency in the treatment of cyanide-bearing wastewaters.
Graphite and PbO2 are the most common insoluble anodes
used in the EC process (Ho and Chan 1986; Burns et al. 1997).
These anodes are cost-effective and are easily available.
However, they show high oxygen evolution over-potential
and low durability. PbO2 anodes generate highly toxic Pb2+,
leading to serious secondary pollution. IrOx and Ti/IrOx
Ta2O5 electrodes are very expensive. Although similar average Faradic yields can be obtained using Ti/PbO2 or Ti/SiO2
anodes, the latter is preferred because of its better ability to
oxidize toxic compounds (Polcaro et al. 1999). When significant amounts of Ca2+ and or Mg2+ ions are present in water,
SS electrodes may be used (Kul'skii et al. 1978). BDD film
electrodes are found to be the most active anode material for
degradation of refractory pollutants such as ammonia, cyanide, phenols, aniline, TCE, dyes, surfactants, etc. (Panizza
et al. 2001).
The selections of the right electrode material have a marked

impact on the performance of the electrochemical reactor
(ECR) (Kotz et al. 1991). It was reported that during the
electrochemical oxidation of phenol to CO2, highly oxidizing
OH. radicals were produced, which played an important role
in treating phenols present in wastewater (Scott 1995).
Comninellis (1944) reported that a high concentration of OH
radicals on the anode surface favors complete oxidation of the
organics as in the case of SnO2 anodes and is contrary to that
of IrO2 and Pt anodes with zero surface OH radical concentration which favors selective oxidation. The anode material
determines not only the cation introduced in the bulk solution
but also the current efficiency (CE). Optimum EC conditions
vary with the choice of the electrodes. Materials that show a
poor CE, for instance graphite, PbO2, Al, etc., also give a
lower treatment efficiency.
As stated earlier, the materials employed in EC are usually
aluminum or iron. The electrodes can be made up of Al or Fe
plates or from scraps such as Fe or Al millings, cuttings, etc.
When the waste materials are used, supports for the electrode
materials have to be made from inert materials. Care needs to be
taken to make sure that there are no deposits of sludges in
between the scraps. It is necessary to rinse the surface of the
electrode plates regularly as any deposition of sludge on the
electrode reduces the release of metal cations in the bulk liquid.
A definite amount of metal ions is required for removing a
given amount of pollutants. Iron and aluminum are the common
electrodes used for wastewater treatment due to easy availability, low cost, and better dissolution. However, iron is preferred
because it is relatively cheaper. The aluminum plates are also
finding applications in wastewater treatment either alone or in
combination with iron plates due to the high coagulation efficiency of Al3+ (Shen et al. 2003). When there is a significant
amount of Ca2+ or Mg2+ ions in water, a stainless steel cathode
material is recommended (Kul'skii et al. 1978).
Electrode distance
The space between two electrodes also affects the reactions in
the electrolysis reactor. During electrolysis, the solution close
to the cathode becomes more concentrated because of the
different mobilities of the ions present, and this effect can also
be reduced by agitation of the bulk solution (Nasrullah et al.
2012). The inter-electrode gap gets partially filled with gases
during electrolysis, which increases its electrical resistance.
Agitation (inductive agitation) of the reactor content, favorable electrode geometry, and verticality of the electrodes
improve circulation because of the gas lift. Corrugated and
perforated electrodes also encourage the release of electrolytic
gases. The open configuration and vertical parallel plate arrangement have been proven to be quite effective in the
flotation of precipitated sludge of oil and suspended solids
(Golder et al. 2007). Significant electrolysis energy savings
can also be achieved due to the small inter-electrode gap used

in the ECR. Electrode spacing is a controlling parameter
which can affect the size of the reactor and the energy consumption and can have a significant impact on the overall cost
of treatment as well (Ghosh et al. 2008). Since the ohmic
potential drop is proportional to the inter-electrode spacing,
reducing this spacing is of great importance in reducing the
electrolysis energy consumption (Wang et al. 2009a).
Narrower gaps enhance mass transfer characteristics and decrease ohmic loss. When a product gas is present, a decrease in
gap results in an increased electrolyte resistance (Asselin et al.
2008a). The planned electrode gap, however, depends on the
practicality and field conditions. A minimum electrode spacing of 3 and 8 mm is possible when handling synthetic
wastewaters and real wastewaters, respectively. When working with low cell voltages which favor the formation of sturdy
well-settleable flocs, it is appropriate to restrict the interelectrode spacing to not less than 10 mm, else the ECR may
require frequent polarity reversal because of the frequent floc
deposits induced by the lower level of turbulence in between
the electrodes (Asselin et al. 2008b). A narrow spacing of less
than 10 mm is accompanied with low energy consumption. At
increased inter-electrode spacing, an increase in cell voltage
occurs, causing an increase in the power consumption
(Bayramoglu et al. 2007). When planning for highly active
electrode surface area to volume ratio reactors, the interelectrode gap should be just sufficient enough to provide
sufficient turbulence in between the electrodes which initiates
mass transfer within the ECR. An inter-electrode spacing of
10 mm was found appropriate during the electrochemical treatment (ECT) of black liquor from pulp and paper mill wastewaters. A spacing less than 10 mm reduces the swirling
Fig. 3 Distance between two
electrodes
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velocity of the liquid medium between the electrodes, and it

affects the pollutant removal efficiency (Asselin et al. 2008c).
Figure 3 shows the interaction between two electrodes at a
minimum electrode distance. Ohmic potential drop or IR drop
can have a significant influence on electrochemical measurements. The ohmic potential drop is a potential drop due to
solution resistance. It can also be explained as the difference
in potential required to move ions through the solution. The
variation in IR drop is governed by the equation below
(Vasudevan et al. 2011):
IR I d=A k
where
I
d
A
current (in amperes)

distance between the cathode and the anode (in meters)
active anode surface (in square meters)
specific conductivity (103 mS/m).
From the equation, it can be deduced that IR drop will

increase by increasing the distance of the electrodes. During
sewage treatment, the current suddenly drops after some time
during EC operation; hence, the applied voltage has to be
increased in order to maintain the constant current input to
the system. This situation occurs may be due to the rising of
ohmic loss (IR drop) which leads to the inhibition in the rate of
anodic oxidation. Therefore, an increase of IR drop due to an
increase in the distance between the anode and the cathode is
not recommended in the EC process and should be avoided
(Nasrullah et al. 2012).
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Electrode arrangements
EC systems are typically made up of plate electrodes, and
water flows through the space between the electrodes
(Guohua 2004). There are several methods on how electrodes
can be arranged in the EC system. Flow of water between the
electrodes can follow a vertical or horizontal direction.
Electrodes can be monopolar or bipolar. In the monopolar
systems (Fig. 4a), all anodes are connected to each other, and
similarly, all cathodes are also connected to each other. In the
bipolar systems (Fig. 4b), the outermost electrodes are
connected to a power source, and the current passes through
the other electrodes, thus polarizing them. In the bipolar systems, the side of the electrode facing the anode is negatively
polarized and vice versa on the other side facing the cathode.
The pollutant removal efficiencies and operating costs of

monopolar and bipolar configurations have been compared in
several studies (Golder et al. 2007; Bayramoglu et al. 2007;
Asselin et al. 2008a; Ghosh et al. 2008; Asselin et al. 2008b;
Wang et al. 2009b). Slaughterhouse wastewaters have been
treated with mild steel and aluminum electrodes arranged in
bipolar or monopolar configurations (Asselin et al. 2008c).
The best performance was obtained using mild steel electrodes
in a bipolar configuration. Monopolar configuration has been
reported to be better in the treatment of laundry wastewater
(Wang et al. 2009a), oily water (Asselin et al. 2008a), and
textile mill wastewater (Asselin et al. 2008b). The results of the
aforementioned studies could be summarized so that the
monopolar configuration has lower operating cost, but in some
cases, higher removal of pollutants could be achieved with the
bipolar configuration, possibly due to additional side reactions.
Typically, direct current (DC) has been used in EC systems.
However, there are a few studies in which alternating current
(AC) has been tested. Vasudevan et al. (2011) studied the
removal of fluoride from water with DC and AC inputs to
the EC systems. They observed similar removal efficiencies
with both technologies. However, energy consumption was
slightly lower with the AC technology. Experiments using
alternating pulsed current have also been reported (Eyvaz
et al. 2009). Alternating pulsed current enhanced removal
efficiency compared to DC current. Pollutant removal decreases over the course of time with DC systems, possibly
due to passivation of electrodes, whereas in an alternating
pulse current system, this was not observed. Polarity reversal
has also been suggested by other authors to reduce passivation
of electrodes (Chen and Hung 2007).
Effect of pH
Fig. 4 Monopolar and bipolar arrangements of electrodes in electrochemical reactors (Jiang et al., 2002)
The pH of the solution plays an important role in electrochemical and chemical coagulation processes (Chen et al. 2008).
One key parameter of EC treatment is the pH of the solution to
be treated. It has an effect on the conductivity of the solution,
dissolution of the electrodes, speciation of hydroxides, and
zeta-potential of colloidal particles. As aluminum, iron cations, and hydroxides cause destabilization of colloids, effective coagulant species are formed in acidic, neutral, and
slightly alkaline pH. In highly alkaline pH, Al(OH)4- and
Fe(OH)4- ions are formed, and these ions have poor coagulation
performance as Fe(III). Fe(III) shows effectiveness in a wider pH
area than Al(III) and works also in slightly alkaline pH. It is also
known that competing anions have an effect on the optimum pH
of the coagulation. The effect of pH on the efficiency of pollutant
removal can mostly be explained by the aforementioned mechanisms. However, pH increases during the EC treatment, making
it a constantly changing parameter; therefore, mechanistic studies
of EC systems are difficult to conduct.
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It has been reported that at pH lower than 3, the release rate of

aluminum during electrolysis with a constant charge per volume
is found to be lower than at pH above 3 (Mouedhen et al. 2008).
Chemical dissolution of aluminum cathodes occurs because pH
increases to a level where aluminate is formed. Also, it may be
observed that the acidic bulk solution inhibits this reaction
because of hydroxyl ions that are produced and are consumed
by the acid in the solution. At acidic pH, the dissolution of the
iron electrodes is found to be significant even without electricity,
whereas oxidation of Fe(II) to Fe(III) occurs only at pH above 5
(Sasson et al. 2009). The dissolution rate decreases at high pH,
which is due to the decrease in corrosion rate of iron at alkaline
pH. It is also known that in the presence of oxygen, a passive
layer forms on the surface which decreases corrosion rate. It has
been suggested that initial pH is a key parameter when either
chemical coagulation or EC is selected for the water treatment
(Canizares et al. 2009). EC is more suitable when higher pH is
desired (acidic solutions), whereas chemical coagulation is preferred when low pH is essential before discharge.
Hanay and Hasar (2011) studied the removal of Cu(II),
Mn(II), and Zn(II) by aluminum electrodes. In their experiments, they concluded that the removal efficiency increased
when the initial pH of the wastewater increased. Similar
results have been obtained for the removal of Co(II) (Shafaei
et al. 2011); As(V) (Balasubramanian et al. 2009); Cu, Cr, and
Ni (Akbal and Camc 2011); Cu(II), Pb(II), and Cd(II)
(Escobar et al. 2006); Cu(II), Ni(II), Zn(II), and Mn(II) (Al
Aji et al. 2012); In(III) (Chou et al. 2009); Mn(II) (Shafaei
et al. 2010); and Cr(III) (Golder et al. 2006). Hg(II) removal
was not significantly affected by initial pH in the range of 37
(Nanseu-Njiki et al. 2009). Aluminum, iron, and other metal
cations can also form hydroxides in water. Most non-ionic
hydroxides have low solubility in water and can be removed
by precipitation and co-precipitation in EC systems.
Effect of current density
Operating current density is very important in EC because it is
the only operational parameter that can be controlled directly. In
EC systems, electrode spacing is fixed and current is continuously supplied (Naohide et al. 1998). Current density directly
determines both coagulant dosage and bubble generation rates
and strongly influences both solution mixing and mass transfer
at the electrodes. The amount of metal dissolved or deposited is
dependent on the quantity of electricity that passed through the
electrolytic solution. A simple relationship for an amount of
electrode material dissolved can be derived from Faradays law:
w itM=eF
where
w
amount of electrode material dissolved (in grams of M

per square centimeter)
t
e
F
M
time (in seconds)

no. of electrons
Faradays constant 96,500 C mol1
molecular weight of metals.
The current density is the key operational parameter, affecting not only the systems response time but also strongly
influencing the dominant pollutant separation mode. At high
current densities, the extent of anodic dissolution increases,
and in turn, the amount of hydroxo-cationic complexes increases too, which results in an increase in the removal of the
color and chemical oxygen demand (COD). The highest allowable current density may not be the most efficient mode of
running the reactor. The optimal current density invariably
involves a trade-off between operational costs and efficient use
of solution pH, temperature, flow rate, etc. (Liu et al. 2010).
The current supply to the EC system determines the amount of
Al3+ or Fe2+ ions being released from the respective electrodes. For aluminum, the electrochemical equivalent mass is
335.6 mg/(A h). For iron, the value is 1,041.0 mg/(A h).
In order for the EC system to operate for a long period of
time without maintenance, its current density is suggested to
be in the range of 2025 A/m2, with the exception of measures
taken for periodical cleaning of the surface of the electrodes.
The current efficiency is defined as the ratio of current consumed in producing a target product to that of the total current
consumed.
Effect of reaction time
Coagulant concentration produced by electrolysis on anodes
is directly proportional to the electric charge added per volume. Coagulant produced by electrolysis can usually be calculated according to Faradays law when current and treatment times are known. Electrolysis time also affects the treatment efficiency of the electrochemical process as it may
increase or decrease with current density or pH of the sample
(Abdel-Gawad et al. 2012).
Effect of conductivity
The greater ionic strength causes an increase in current density
in the same cell voltage, or the cell voltage decreases with
increasing effluent conductivity at constant current density.
Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the effect of effluent
conductivity on EC in terms of removal of pollutants. The
conductivity of the solution depends both on the type and
concentration of electrolyte. There are different types of electrolyte available like NaCl, BaCl2, KCl, Na2SO4, and KI.
Generally, NaCl is added in order to increase the electrolytic
conductivity. Ghosh et al. (2008) obtained 99.75 % of violet
removal from initial dye concentration of 100 mg/dm3 with
the current density of 1,112.5 A/m2, solution conductivity of
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1.61 S/m, initial pH of 8.5, and operation time of 1 h. The

amount of NaCl increases the conductivity about 11 times.
When chlorides are present in the solutions, the products from
the anode are Cl2 and OCl. The OCl itself is a strong
oxidant, which is capable of oxidizing dye molecules present
in the solution. Active chloride produces the Cl- during electrolysis, which contributes to water disinfection (Wong et al.
2002). The addition of Cl- also decreases the negative effect of
CO32- and SO42-. The presence of CO32- and SO42- leads to the
deposition of Ca2+ and Mg2+ and the formation of an oxide
layer that causes a rapid decrease in current efficiency. It is
therefore recommended to ensure an efficient EC in water
treatment when the electrolyte contains more than 200 mg/
dm3 of Cl- (Holt et al. 2005).
Effect of temperature
The effect of temperature on the removal of pollutants
through EC has been studied by few researchers. The effect
of solution temperature on boron removal by the EC process has been studied in the range of 293333 K (Yilmaz
et al. 2008). When temperature increased from 293 to
333 K, the boron removal efficiency increased from 84 to
96 %. The opposite effect has been reported when paper
mill wastewater was treated at temperatures between 293
and 333 K (Katal and Pahlavanzadeh 2011). Removal of
color, COD, and phenol decreased by 10 to 20 % when the
temperature increased from 293 to 333 K. The effect of
temperature on phosphate removal from wastewater by the
EC process has been studied in the range of 293333 K
(Vasudevan et al. 2009). Removal efficiency was 29 %
lower at 293 K than at higher temperatures. The authors
concluded that at low temperatures, the dissolution of anode occurs at a lower rate. However, they did not present
any results, such as concentrations of aluminum dissolved
from electrodes, which would support this conclusion.
It has been suggested that when temperature is too high,
there is a shrinkage of the large pores of the Al(OH)3 gel,
which causes the formation of dense flocs that are more
likely to deposit on the electrode surface (Guohua 2004).
Increasing temperature also enhances the solubility of aluminum. However, it seems that increasing temperature can
have positive and negative effects on the removal efficiency.
It is possible that the effect of temperature on removal
efficiency depends on the removal mechanism of pollutants.
Reactor design
The lack of mechanistic understanding of EC is reflected in
the design of reactors. No single empirical or systematic
approach has emerged over the years in the design of EC
reactors. It is therefore difficult to compare the performance
of the reactors. The reactor design affects operational
parameters including bubble path, flotation effectiveness,

floc formation, fluid flow regime, and mixing/settling characteristics. It is important to design the reactor for a specific
process. The form of the reactants and products and the mode
of operation (batch or continuous) are also the important
design factors (Walsh and Mills 1994). Holt et al. (1999)
divided the reactor design according to their physical and
chemical aspect issues. The design consideration for the EC
process has been presented in Fig. 5.
Physical design
The EC process has been combined with many units including
microfiltration, dissolved air flotation (DAF), sand filtration,
electroflotation, air stripping, and absorption. They are placed
pre- or post-water treatment, which also influences the operation and efficiency. There has been a range of laboratory,
pilot, and industrial-scale EC units produced. The design
phase should consider the following physical factors:
1. Continuous versus batch operation: a continuous system
is inherently dynamic in operation and stable in performance. The pollution load can be checked at various flow
rates of the effluent. The electrode behavior with respect
to flow/floc deposition (when dealing with real wastewaters) on the anode (Mahesh et al. 2006a, b) and its dissolution in the liquid is an added advantage in continuous
ECR. Electrode passivation and corrosion levels can also
be monitored with time. In batch reactors, it is easy to
study time-dependent behavior, with the coagulant being
fed continuously to the reactor as the anode dissolves into
a form capable of aggregating the pollutants. As a result,
pollutant, coagulant, and pH concentrations vary over
time. It is thus an inherent dynamic behavior, coupled
with the interplay between thermodynamic and kinetic
considerations that makes batch EC reactors so difficult
to be mathematically modeled. However, the parametric
optimization in the batch processes serves as guidelines to
operate the ECRs in a continuous mode. Levenspiel
(1999) concluded that for large volume processes, continuous processes have often been found to be more economical than batch systems. The treatment of wastewater
from the almond industry has been reported by Valero
et al. (2011). The EC plant was operated at an effluent
feed rate of 1 m3/h working in continuous mode of operation. The plant was capable of carrying out automatically
the preconditioning of the wastewater with respect to the
adjustment of pH and electrical conductivity before the
EC process. A homogenization tank was placed before the
EC reactor. After the EC step, the flocculation and filtration of the treated wastewater were carried out. The EC
treatment system is shown in Fig. 6.
2405
Fig. 5 Design considerations of

the EC reactor (Mahesh et al.
2006b)
2. Reactor geometry: geometry of the reactor affects operational parameters. EC reactors have been built in a number
of configurations, like tall vertical/ horizontal plate, short
horizontal parallel plate electrodes, perforated plate/tube
reactor, solid tube reactor, etc. (Mollah Mohammad et al.
2004b). Each system has its own set of advantages and
disadvantages, among which are varying degrees of treatment abilities that are of utmost importance.
3. Reactor scale-up: the surface area to volume ratio (S/V)
was anticipated as being a significant scale-up parameter. Electrode area influences current density, position,
and rate of cation dosing, as well as bubble production
and bubble path length. Mameri and Yeddou (1998) reported that as the S/V ratio increases, the optimal current
density decreases. Zolotukhin (1989) studied that an
Fig. 6 Continuous
electrochemical treatment of oil
industry wastewater (MartnezDelgadillo et al. 2010)
electrocoagulationflotation system can be scaled up from

laboratory to industrial size. The dimensionless scale-up
parameters were chosen to ensure correct sizing and proportioning of the reactors, which are the Reynolds number
(fluid flow regime) and Froude number (buoyancy).
Weber criteria (surface tension), gas saturation, and reactor geometry were kept similar.
4. Current density: current density is the current delivered
through the electrode per active area under the electrode.
Varying the current, this parameter can be easily controlled.
Current density determines both the rate of electrochemical
metal dosing in the water and the electrolytic bubble density production. It depends upon the conductivity of the
electrolyte solution, the distance between the two electrodes, and the electrode geometry. The effect of current
2406
density has already been discussed in the Effect of current

density section.
Chemical interaction
The control, operation, and chemical interactions of the system affect performance and reliability. Adding to complexity,
the chemical interactions of the pollutants (type and concentration) with the electrode material, electrode passivation, and
operational region should also be considered.
1. Electrode material: the electrode material has great impact
on the performance of the EC reactor. The anode material
determines the cation introduced into the solution. Several
researchers as Vik et al. (1984), Novikova et al. (1982),
Do and Chen (1994), Baklan and Kolesnikova (1996),
and Hulser et al. (1996) studied the effluent of electrode
material in EC. The details have already been discussed in
the Effect of electrode material section.
2. Passivation: one of the greatest operational issues with EC
is electrode passivation. The passivation of electrodes is
important for the longevity of the process. Passivation of
aluminum electrodes has been widely observed by
Novikova et al. (1982) and Osipenko and Pogorelyi
(1977). It has been reported that deposition of calcium
carbonate and magnesium hydroxide was observed at the
cathode, and an oxide layer was formed at the anode
(Nikolaev et al. 1982). The author suggested various
methods to minimize/prevent electrode passivation, such
as changing the polarity of the electrode, hydromechanical cleaning of the electrodes, mechanical cleaning of the
electrodes, and introducing inhibiting agents.
3. Solution pH: solution pH determines the speciation of
metal ions. The pH influences the state of other species
in solution and the solubility of products formed. Thus,
solution pH influences the overall efficiency and effectiveness of EC. The effect is discussed in the Effect of
pH section in detail.
bottom of the tank by gravity settling flux and bulk flux, and
the total flux attains a minimum value at a certain limiting
concentration. To ensure safe operation of the secondary
settling tanks, the solid loading rate of the settling tank should
not exceed the limiting flux. This approach involves running
batch sedimentation tests at various initial solid concentrations. Settling of sludge of the EC-treated sugar industry (SI)
effluent has not been reported. However, it has been reported
for EC-treated pulp and paper mill effluent (Mahesh et al.
2006b; Zodi et al. 2010), distillery biodigester effluent
(Prajapati and Chaudhari 2013), textile mill effluent (Zodi
et al. 2009), and chemical mechanic polishing wastewater
(Lai and Lin 2004).
In a batch sedimentation study, settling can be generally
divided into five regimes: the (1) clear, (2) discrete, (3) flocculent, (4) hindered, and (5) compressed regimes. Since the
sludge concentration is uniform at the beginning of the sedimentation tests, the lag zone (clear regime) can be considered
negligible. In the constant rate zone, the velocity of the zone
settling may be expressed as (Karamisheva and Islam 2005):
V
K1 bX3
bX
where
X
V
concentration of the suspension (in grams per cubic

decimeter)
zone settling velocity (in meters per hour)
K (in meters per hour) and b (in cubic meters per kilogram)
are empirical constants characterizing the sludge. Parameter b
relates to the solid density and the degree of hydration.
Parameter K is a function of the density and the geometry of
the solids, water viscosity, and pore geometry. Mahesh et al.
(2006b) observed that while treating pulp and paper wastewater by using Fe electrode, alkalinity aids in good settling.
Under acidic pH, the electrode is attacked by H+ ions which
enhance the Fe dissolution (Golder et al. 2007) according to
the equation given below, resulting in a larger volume of the
sludge:
Fe 2H Fe2 H 2
Solidliquid separations
The separation of solid and liquid after the EC process is
another important aim of wastewater treatment. Solidliquid
separation processes include settling and filtrations.
Settling
The design of settling tanks is based mostly on the work of
Coe and Clevenger (1916) and Camp (1946). The design and
operation of the secondary settling tanks are based on flux
theory. According to this theory, solids are carried to the
The effect of the addition of an electrolyte (NaCl) to the EC

reactor was studied. NaCl addition resulted in an increase in
the anode consumption, and sludge mass and volume formation also increases appreciably. As the NaCl dosage increases,
the sludge settling rate deteriorates and the sludge volume
increases.
Filterability
The filtration characteristics of the EC-generated sludge slurry
can be studied by using either a plate and frame filter or a
2407
rotary vacuum filter (Mahesh et al. 2006a). Gravity filtration

can also be used for generating experimental data. Gravity
filtration can be considered as a constant pressure filtration by
neglecting the effect of change in the hydrostatic head on the
total pressure. The force balance for the gravity filtration using
a filter paper on a Buchner funnel can be written as (MaCabe
et al. 2001):

t
CV
Rm
or
9
V
AP
A
t
C
2
Rm
V
V A P
AP
10
where
t
V
C
V
P
A
Rm
is the time interval of filtration (in seconds)

is the filtrate volume collected up to that time interval
t (in cubic meters)
is the solid concentration in the slurry (in kilograms per
cubic meter)
is the total liquid filtrate volume collected up to the time
interval t (in cubic meters)
is the viscosity of the liquid filtrate (in pascal-second)
is the pressure drop across the filter = gh (in pascals)
is the filtration area (in square meters)
is the resistance of the filter medium (per meter)
is the specific resistance to filtration, also called as
SCR.
After recording the observations on the volume of the

filtrate as a function of time, a plot of t/V may produce
a straight line. The values of R m and can be calculated from
the slope and the intercept, respectively. Mahesh et al. (2007b)
studied the filtration process for the treatment of black liquor
at different pH0. They found good filterability at acidic pH.
The addition of NaCl or polyacrylic acid (PAA) in the reactor
during black liquor treatment improved the filterability.
Electrochemically generated sludge
The properties of sludge generated are of great importance
because sludge treatment and disposal add to the cost in water
and wastewater treatment, especially when sludge contains
chemicals. In a batch ECR, while treating pulp and paper mill
wastewater, high current provided quick COD removal, but
also resulted in poor settleable flocs for sedimentation (Zodi
et al. 2009). The settleability of sludge produced by EC during
paper mill (Lai and Lin 2004) and textile mill wastewater
treatment has been studied (Bejankiwar 2002). When paper
mill wastewater was treated, the sludge volume indexes were
0.2070.310 and 0.0810.091 L/g for aluminum and iron
electrodes, respectively. The sludge formed by iron electrodes
was heavier and gave a more compact layer. There are several
ways of disposal of the EC-generated sludge. However, the
EC-generated sludge can also be vaporized so as to turn this

waste into a very useful energy or building material resource.
Application of electrocoagulation
EC has impassive impression on the waste/wastewater treatment process. It achieves maximum efficiency as compared to
other methods of wastewater treatment process. This process
can be also used by coupling of ECR with low-cost renewable
energy sources (Valero et al. 2008; Pirkarami et al. 2013;
Zhang et al. 2013). The authors used solar photovoltaic cell
to provide power to electrodes.
Domestic wastewater treatment
Yang et al. (2008) studied the EC/EF process for treatment of
sewage. They reported high COD removal in the process.
They also concluded that EC could be used for small-scale,
decentralized municipal domestic sewage treatment. Illhan
et al. (2008) reported that COD and suspended solids (SS)
could be removed up to 60 and 70 %, respectively, in domestic
wastewater treatment using iron electrodes. The electrical
consumption was 0.4 kW h/m 3 for heavy loads and
0.2 kW h/m3 for weakly loaded wastewater. Sludge production was between 1.5 and 2 %. Similar studies were performed
by Bukhari (2008) and reported removal of 95.4 % TSS in
5 min using stainless steel electrodes and at input current of
0.8 A. Rodrigo et al. (2010) removed ionic phosphorus and
COD of urban wastewater using conductive-diamond electrode. The study also found that the energy consumption was
less than 4.5 kW h/m3 during treatment.
Industrial wastewater treatment
Raju et al. (2008) studied the ECT process for textile industry
wastewater. In the process, COD was reduced from 1,316 to
42.9 mg/L by using graphite and RuO2/IrO2/TaO2 with titanium electrodes. The effect of electrolytes was also studied in
the process. Effluent from similar industry was treated by
Zongo et al. (2009) using aluminum and iron electrodes. The
authors studied the parameters such as, energy consumption,
COD, turbidity removal, electrode material, current efficiency,
and cell voltage.
Linares-Hernandez et al. (2009) reported 99 % COD,
100 % color, and 100 % turbidity removal of textile industry
wastewater in a two-step EC process with iron electrode and
electrooxidation with a boron-doped diamond electrode. The
work reported by Merzouk et al. (2010) showed 85.5 % SS,
76.2 % turbidity, 88.9 % BOD, 79.7 % COD, and 93 % color
reduction. Optimum conditions for treatment were 300 mg/
dm3 silica, 11.55 mA/cm2 CD, 7.6 pH, 2.1 mS/cm conductivity, 10-min treatment time, and 10-mm electrode gap.
2408
Augustin et al. (2008) found that the EC process was

capable of reducing turbidity, acidity, BOD, COD, and heavy
metals of palm oil mill effluent from Chumporn Province in
Thailand. He used aluminum electrodes and NaCl as the
electrolyte for wastewater treatment. Wang and Chou (2009)
reported that COD concentration could be reduced to a value
greater than 90 % by the EC process, below the Taiwan
discharge standard of 100 mg/L, provided that the concentration of chemical mechanical polishing wastewater was
200 mg/L NaCl, electrical potential of 20 V, and temperature
of 25 C. With a 90 % removal, it was noted that the water
could be reused. The kinetic study reflected a pseudo-first
order kinetic model.
Espinoza-Quiones et al. (2009) treated leather industry
wastewater using aluminum electrode plates. At operating
condition of pH 7.6, the treatment efficiencies for COD,
turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS), total fixed solids
(TFS), and total volatile solids (TVS) were evaluated. Data
obtained were analyzed for variance (ANOVA) with a 95 %
confidence level.
Asselin et al. (2008c) performed the ECT of slaughter
house wastewater. The removal of TSS by 89 %, turbidity
90 %, BOD 86 %, and oil and grease 99 % was reported with
mild steel and aluminum electrodes. The total cost of treatment was estimated to be 0.71 USD/m3 of poultry slaughter
house effluent. The cost included energy, electrode consumption, chemicals, and sludge disposal. In similar studies, Tezcan
Un et al. (2009a) used an EC process, applying a hybrid
system of iron and aluminum electrodes and Na2SO4 at
pH 7.8. The process was capable of removing 94.4 % COD
from initial concentration of 1,200 mg/dm3.
El-Naas et al. (2009) performed batch experiments to treat
petroleum refinery wastewater using aluminum electrodes. The
impact of various factors such as CD and initial COD of the
wastewater was studied. The temperature was maintained at
25 C and the pH at 8. Khansorthong and Hunsom (2009)
performed the treatment of pulp and paper mill effluent. They
reported a reduction in color and COD of the effluent by 91 and
77 %, respectively, with operating costs of 0.29 USD/m3 of
wastewater. The experiments were conducted in the batch
mode with six iron metal pieces. Continuous EC process studies were also performed. The total BOD, COD, TSS, TDS, pH,
and color of treated water met the Thai Government Standards.
Zaied and Bellakhal (2009) treated black liquor at pH 7 and at
CD of 14 mA/cm2 for 50 min. The process removed 98 %
COD, 92 % polyphenols, and 99 % color.
Chatzisymeon et al. (2009) reported the electrochemical
oxidation of olive mill wastewater (OMW) with a TiO2 anode.
At operating parameters of 43 A h/dm3, 80 C, and 5 mM
NaCl, complete removal of color, phenols, and ecotoxicity
was obtained. Tezcan Un et al. (2009b) reported that EC with
aluminum electrodes was capable of successfully treating
vegetable oil refinery wastewater. The authors identified
optimum conditions as pH, CD, polyaluminum chloride

(PAC), and Na2SO4 dosage. At the optimum condition,
98.9 % COD was removed in 90 min. The cost of energy
consumption was 42 kW h/kg of COD removed.
Kongjao et al. (2008) reported 95 % COD removal of
tannery wastewater. Operating parameters during the process
were pH between 7 and 9, CD of 22.4 A/m2, flow rate of
3.67 dm3/min, and electrolysis time of 20 min. Energy consumption calculated was 0.13 kW h/m3. The process followed
the first order kinetics model for COD removal. Treatment of
tannery wastewater was also performed by Sengil et al.
(2009). They reported 82 % COD, 90 % sulfide, and 96 %
oil-grease removal from tannery lining drum wastewater. The
optimum parameter for the treatment of wastewater was CD of
35 mA/cm2, 10 min electrolysis time, and pH 3. Energy
consumptions of 5.768 kW h/m3 COD, 0.524 kW h/m3 sulfide, and 0.00018 kW h/m3 oil-grease were also reported.
Kinetics from the experiment followed the pseudo-second
order rate equation. Wang et al. (2009a) showed that by using
iron and aluminum electrode pairs and operating condition of
200 ppm NaCl and 30 V of electricity, the reduction of silica
particles and turbidity is feasible from oxide chemical mechanical wastewater with a particle size ranging between 520
and 1,900 nm.
Aoudj et al. (2010) achieved 98 % decolorization of Direct
Red 8 from synthetic wastewater treatment under the optimum
condition of pH 6, CD of 1.875 A/cm2, electrode distance of
10 mm, and NaCl electrolyte. Removal of Reactive Blue 140
and Direct Red 23 was also performed by Phalakornkule et al.
(2010). They found 99 % color, 93 % COD, and 89 % TS
reduction in a continuous EC process.
A study reported by Moghadam and Amiri (2010) showed
considerable reduction of TOC of phenol-formaldehyde resin
manufacturing wastewater when the effluent was treated at
CD of 75 A/m 2, pH 4, and conductivity of 3 mS/cm.
Belkacem et al.(2008) reported 93.5 % BOD, 90.3 % COD,
78.7 % turbidity, and 93 % color removal by using aluminum
electrodes at operating conditions of 20 V, electrode distance
of 10 mm, and electrolysis time of 20 min. Kumar et al. (2009)
obtained 50 % COD and 95.2 % color removal of biodigester
effluent at optimum condition. Operation parameters were CD
ranging between 44.65 and 223.25 A m/cm2, pH ranging
between 2 and 8, inter-electrode distance varied between 10
and 30 mm, and electrolysis time ranging from 30 to 150 min.
ANOVA analysis shows that the r 2 value was 0.8547. The
biodigester effluent treatment was performed by Yetilmezsoy
et al. (2009). They reported removal of 90 % COD and 92 %
color using aluminum and iron electrodes at optimum conditions of pH 5, CD of 15 mA/cm2, and electrolysis time of
20 min.
Barrera-Daz et al. (2008) obtained results of COD 92 %,
BOD 89 %, color 92 %, turbidity 95 %, and total coliform
99 % removal in EC process in the presence of hydrogen
peroxide. Aluminum and iron electrodes were used to treat a

complex wastewater consisting of organic compounds.
Heavy metals
Bazrafshan et al. (2008) studied the Cr(VI) reduction of synthetic chromium solution. The process was performed at 20
and 40 V, and a pH of 3. The Cr was removed up to a legal
discharged limit. The author found that chromium removal
efficiency was better with iron electrodes than aluminum.
Rayman and White (2009) used a continuous process for
removal of Cr(VI) using Fe(II) electrode. Removal of Cr(VI)
was also performed by Nouri et al. (2010b). Experiments were
carried out at 40 V and pH 3 using iron electrodes. Metal
removal by the EC process was also studied by Bing-Fang
(2008). It was reported that the EC process was able to reduce
Cu2+ and Cr6+ removal to 93 and 98.91 %, respectively.
Narayanan and Ganesam (2009) reported combination of EC
and adsorption using granulated activated carbon (GAC). The
authors noticed that the combination of EC with GAC dramatically reduced the concentration of chromium.
Hansen et al. (2008) reported reduction of arsenic concentration by 96 % (1,000 to 40 mg/dm3) using iron electrodes.
The author reported that EC is suitable for treatment of effluent containing arsenic because of its ability to precipitate
hydroxide-arsenic compounds.
Thella et al. (2008) concluded that electrode material,
current density, and electrode gap affect the overall efficiency
of arsenic and chromium removal. Optimum conditions were
pH 4.0 and CD of 75 A/m2 for arsenic and pH 2.0 and CD of
2.50 A/m2 for chromium. Vasudevan et al. (2010) also reported removal of As++ by EC using aluminum alloy as anode and
stainless steel as a cathode. The removal efficiency achieved
was 98.4 % at CD of 0.2 A/dm2 and pH 7.0.
Petsriprasit et al. (2010) studied Cu, Cr, Pb, and Zn removal
from billet industry wastewater. They were able to remove
99 % heavy metal at CD of 98 A/m2, pH 5, and 30 min of
electrolysis time.
Inorganic removal
Ylmaz et al. (2008) studied 99 % removal of boron from
synthetic wastewater. The boron removal rate was affected by
stirring speed and temperature. Increasing the speed decreased
the floc formulation and removal; increasing the temperature
increased the boron removal. The authors developed a
pseudo-second order model equation based on the heterogeneous fluidsolid reaction. Boron removal was also studied by
Xu et al. (2009). In a multistaged EC process, 99 % boron was
removed at CD of 62.1 A/m2 after the fifth stage. The initial
concentration of boron was 500 mg/dm3. In addition, the
authors reported that arsenic was removed from initial concentration of 15 to 0.5 mg/dm3.
2409
Mahvi et al. (2009) reported the removal of sulfate.

Removal was best at an electrical potential of 30 V, reaction
time of 60 min, and at pH 11 with six-plate aluminum electrode configuration. Removal of sodium dodecyl sulfate
(SDS) for peroxi-EC was performed by Yuksel et al. (2009).
A 81.6 % removal of SDS was obtained in the process at
operating conditions of CD of 0.5 mA/cm2, 10 min electrolysis time, and an energy consumption of 1.63 kW h/kg SDS.
The process followed pseudo-second order reaction kinetics.
Comparison between electrochemical and photocatalytic

process
In recent years, the EC process has shown a great potential due
to its low operational expenditure and installation cost, and
environment friendly and sustainable treatment technology as
compared to photocatalytic wastewater treatment with the
zero waste scheme in the water/wastewater industry. This
technology has been widely demonstrated to remove organic
and inorganic compounds from various effluents. The cost of
the EC process can be reduced by (1) minimizing the IR-drop
to enhance current efficiency; adding electrolytes enhances
the conductivity and reduces the power consumption. (2)
Evolution of oxygen at the anode represents an unwanted
leakage of current, which reduces the overall current efficiency. This problem can be minimized by using proper anodic
materials. A number of authors have used binary (Vlysside
and Israilides 1998; Vlyssides et al. 1999; Vlyssides et al.
2002) and ternary (Szpyrkowicz et al. 1995b) alloys as well
as carbon electrodes and titanium sheets coated with active
oxides as anodes for EC treatment of wastewater containing
organic dyes, phenols, chloro-substituted phenols, paper
industry effluent, distillery effluent, tannery wastes, and
municipal wastewater.
The photocatalysis process is found to be feasible only for
the treatment of low to medium concentration of pollutant in
wastewater because of its relatively low efficiency and the
limited flux of ultraviolet photons (Rao et al. 2002; BlancoGalvez et al. 2007). In the photocatalytic process to remove
water decontamination, wide use of TiO2 as photocatalyst
(immobilized or suspended) and UV light, either from solar
light or artificial light sources, has been in practice. This
device needs lower cost than other kinds of advanced oxidation techniques (UV = O3; UV = H2O2, photo-Fenton). Apart
from this, no toxic intermediate products are generated, making it very attractive for cleaning water, even for cleaning
drinking water (Ollis et al. 1991; Bahnemann 2004;
Herrmann 2005). It has been reported that removal of C.I.
Acid Blue 9 using Fenton, electrocoagulation, UV/nanoTiO2, and Electro Fenton showed EC as the second highest
in decolorization efficiency, behind Fenton in decolorization
efficiency (Lim et al. 2005).
2410
Benefits
The electrolysis technology is an essential and significant
discipline in many sectors of wastewater treatment including
clean synthesis, monitoring of removal efficiency of contaminants, water sterilization, clean energy conversion, and efficient storage and utilization of electrical energy. Simple equipment, convenient operation, and non-requirement of chemical
substances for the sedimentation and floc generation are the
advantages of this process. It allows the wastewater to electrochemically oxidize or reduce the organic contaminants to
non-hazardous inorganic substances. The technology has potential for treating surface water, groundwater, and industrial
wastewater, which are normally contaminated. Detailed work
in terms of the development of advanced electrode materials,
application of different electrode types, optimal design for
electrolytic reactors, energy consumption, and economy still
needs to be done. This can make the technology a more
effective, low-cost, eco-friendly, and viable alternative process for the removal of various recalcitrant contaminants from
wastewater. Such technology can be helpful in recycling/
treatment of the wastewater for producing pollutant-free water
at an affordable price.
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Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

Treatment of wastewater by electrocoagulation: a review

EC process was done in the USA in 1946 (Stuart 1946; Bonilla

solid, particle, and soluble inorganic pollutant from the water/

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

an electrical current is applied, the positive ions move to the

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

Fig. 1 Electrocoagulation setup.

and precipitation or by causing the colloidal materials to

Metal anode generates cations by reaction 1. Highly

Fig. 2 Mechanism of electrocoagulation (Chopra et al. 2011)

Water is also electrolyzed in a parallel reaction, producing

Factors affecting electrocoagulation

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

The selections of the right electrode material have a marked

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

can also be achieved due to the small inter-electrode gap used

velocity of the liquid medium between the electrodes, and it

current (in amperes)

From the equation, it can be deduced that IR drop will

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

The pollutant removal efficiencies and operating costs of

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

It has been reported that at pH lower than 3, the release rate of

amount of electrode material dissolved (in grams of M

time (in seconds)

1.61 S/m, initial pH of 8.5, and operation time of 1 h. The

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

parameters including bubble path, flotation effectiveness,

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

Fig. 5 Design considerations of

electrocoagulationflotation system can be scaled up from

density has already been discussed in the Effect of current

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

concentration of the suspension (in grams per cubic

The effect of the addition of an electrolyte (NaCl) to the EC

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

rotary vacuum filter (Mahesh et al. 2006a). Gravity filtration

is the time interval of filtration (in seconds)

After recording the observations on the volume of the

EC-generated sludge can also be vaporized so as to turn this

Augustin et al. (2008) found that the EC process was

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

optimum conditions as pH, CD, polyaluminum chloride

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

peroxide. Aluminum and iron electrodes were used to treat a

Mahvi et al. (2009) reported the removal of sulfate.

Comparison between electrochemical and photocatalytic

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

Environ Sci Pollut Res (2014) 21:23972413

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