Bio - Maintaining A Balance

MAINTAINING
A BALANCE
Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 1
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CHAPTER 1
Temperature regulation
Most organisms are active in a limited temperature
range
Introduction
Most organisms are active within a
limited temperature range, despite
the large fluctuations in temperature
that occur in the outside environment.
Organisms that live in environments
where they may be subjected to
extremes of temperature have
adaptations that enable them to keep
their internal temperature within a
relatively narrow range. Organisms
must also maintain a relatively constant
balance of chemicals within their bodies
if they are to remain functionally active.
One of the main reasons why the
maintenance of a constant temperature
and chemical balance is so important
is to ensure efficient metabolism
maintaining optimum conditions for
the functioning of enzymes, the organic
catalysts that control all chemical
reactions in cells.
Enzymes function under

balanced conditions
TR
Additional information
and websites
anabolic steroids
All metabolic reactions in living cells

are controlled by enzymes. Enzymes
are protein molecules, present in cells,
which act as biological catalysts,
controlling the rate of each step of the
complex chemical reactions that take
place in cells. Catalysts are chemical
substances that can accelerate (speed
up) chemical reactions, but they remain
unchanged at the end of the reaction
and can be reused. They function very
rapidly at low temperatures, making
them ideal for cell functioning.
Metabolism is the sum total of all

chemical reactions occurring within
a living organism. Each step of a
metabolic pathway in cells is catalysed
by enzymes.
Metabolism is divided into two:
anabolic and catabolic. Those reactions
that involve building up large organic
compounds from simpler molecules are
termed anabolic reactions, for example
a large polysaccharide molecule
such as starch being made from
small monosaccharide units such as
glucose, a product of photosynthesis in
plants. (You may have heard the term
anabolic used to describe steroids.
Discuss the meaning of the term in this
context.)
Chemical reactions that involve
breaking down complex organic
compounds to simpler ones are termed
catabolic reactions. For example, in the
digestion of food, large food molecules
such as proteins are broken down into
small units called amino acids, which
can then be easily absorbed from the
gut into the bloodstream.
Chemical reactions may be classified
according to whether they use up or
release energy. Anabolic reactions are
usually endergonic reactions, requiring
an energy input. Catabolic reactions
usually give out energy and so they are
exergonic reactions.
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TEMPERATURE REGULATION
Enzymes and metabolism
identify the role of enzymes in metabolism

metabolism, describe their
chemical composition and use a simple model to describe
their specificity on substrates
By understanding the chemical

composition, functions and
characteristics of enzymes, we
can better understand their role in
controlling chemical reactions in cells
and therefore metabolism in living
organisms.
The chemical composition of

enzymes
Enzymes are protein molecules and are
made by living cells. They are globular
proteins, meaning that they have long
chains or sequences of amino acids that
have been folded into a specific shape.
Their effective functioning relies on
their shape. The molecule on which an
enzyme acts is called a substrate. An
enzyme fits together with its substrate
molecules at a precise place on the
surface of the much larger enzyme
molecule, called the active site (much
like a key fits a particular lock). The
shape of this active site must not be
altered if the enzyme is to function (see

Fig. 1.1).
active site
(a)
(b)
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Cofactors
Some enzymes have a non-protein

group such as a vitamin (e.g. riboflavin
= B2, pantothenic acid = B5) or a
metal ion (e.g. zinc, copper or iron)
that binds with the protein part and
helps to form the active site. This is
termed a co-enzyme or cofactorit
can be easily separated from the
protein part of the enzyme, but its
presence is essential for the enzyme
reaction to occur because the enzyme
cannot function without the cofactor.
A functional enzyme may therefore
consist of protein only, or it may be
in the form of an enzymecofactor
complex (where the enzyme part of
the complex is a protein). Poisons are
substances that have harmful effects
on living organisms. Some poisons
exert their toxic effect by disabling
cofactors and thereby inhibiting enzyme
enzyme made
of protein
active site
1.1
Enzymeco-enzyme
substrate complex
Figure 1.1 The

chemical structure of
the enzyme lysozyme
(a) represented
in ribbon style;
(b) represented as
a three-dimensional
model; (c) showing
the formation of an
enzymesubstrate
complex
groove of active site
fits shape of substrate
substrate
(c)
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MAINTAINING A BALANCE
functioning. The heavy metals mercury

and cadmium replace zinc cofactors
in some enzymes and inhibit their
functioning.
TR
Teaching strategy
enzymes reduce
activation energy
The role of enzymes in

metabolism
The following functions of enzymes
lead to their effective role in
metabolism:
Acceleration of chemical reactions
Enzyme catalysts are able to speed

up (or slow down) reactions without
a change in temperature. This is
extremely important in cells, since heat
damages living tissue. For a chemical
reaction to begin, activation energy is
necessary (see Fig. 1.1). The role of
an enzyme is to lower the activation
energy needed to start a reaction, so
that the reaction can proceed quickly,
without a change in temperature.
Lowering of activation energy
Student worksheet
enzymes
Figure 1.2 Scheme

of activation energy
required for chemical
reactions: (a) without
a catalyst, activation
energy must be
supplied for a
chemical reaction;
(b) catalysts accelerate
specific reactions by
lowering the amount
of activation energy
needed to initiate the
reaction
(a)
Action on specific substrates
Enzymes are therefore substratespecific, meaning that one particular

enzyme can work on only one
particular substrate molecule, because
the active site is reciprocally shaped to
bind with that molecule. The enzyme
itself is not chemically changed in
the reaction and so it can be reused
in subsequent reactions. Enzymecontrolled reactions are always
reversible.
Characteristics of enzymes
Enzymes, due to their protein nature,
are sensitive to temperature (heat
and excessive cold) and to pH (a
measure of the acidity or alkalinity of
a substance).
Temperature-sensitive
Enzymes within cells function best

at the body temperature of the living
(b)
uncatalysed
energy supplied
TR
energy released
SR
In chemical reactions that occur in the

non-living world, heat could provide
the necessary activation energy for a
chemical reaction, but in the living
world, heat burns tissue. It is important
to remember that an enzyme does not
provide activation energyit reduces
the amount of activation energy
needed (by bringing specific molecules
together, rather than relying on them
colliding randomly). For example,
oxygen and glucose may be chemically

combined to release energy. In the
laboratory, we can activate this reaction
by adding heatwe burn the glucose
and cause it to react with oxygen in the
air to release energy as light and heat.
In the human body, we cannot add
heat to glucose and oxygen to initiate a
reaction and so an enzyme is necessary
to lower the required activation energy,
so that glucose can react with oxygen
to release energy. (See Fig. 1.2.)
activation
energy
catalysed
activation
energy
reactant
reactant
product
product
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optimum
temperature
optimum pH
for trypsin
Rate of reaction
Rate of reaction
optimum pH
for pepsin
30
(a)
40
50
Temperature of reaction (C)
organism in which they occur. In

most living things, enzymes function
normally at temperatures up to
40C; above this temperature their
efficiency (rate of reaction) decreases.
At temperatures above 60C, most
enzymes stop functioning altogether.
This is because heat causes the
hydrogen bonds that maintain the form
of the enzyme to break and this, in
turn, alters both the structure and shape
of the moleculethe molecule is said
to denature. Any change in shape
that affects the active site will alter the
functioning of the enzyme because
the altered active site is no longer
reciprocally shaped to the substrate
molecule. Excessive cold also causes
the enzyme to change shape and its
functioning to slow down or stop, but
the change in shape due to extreme
cold is often reversible.
pH-sensitive
Each enzyme has its own narrow

range of pH within which it functions
most efficiently. Levels of alkalinity or
acidity outside of the optimum pH for
an enzyme have a similar effect to that
of temperature changethey alter the
shape of the enzyme and slow down or
stop its functioning. Within cells, most
enzymes function at or near neutral, but
enzymes in the digestive tract function
1
(b)
pH of reaction
in an acidic or alkaline medium. For

example, the protein-digesting enzymes
pepsin and rennin, found in gastric
juice in the stomach, function best in
a strong acid. The enzyme salivary
amylase, found in saliva, helps break
down starch and it functions best in a
weak alkaline medium. The action of
amylase on starch stops when the food
passes into the stomach, because of the
low pH of gastric juice. Extremes of pH,
like temperature, cause the enzymes to
denature.
Figure 1.3 (a) Graph

showing the effect of
temperature on the
rate of enzyme action;
(b) graph showing the
pH-specificity of two
digestive enzymes
Substrate-specific
Enzyme molecules are specific,

acting on only one type of substrate;
therefore, each enzyme catalyses one
particular chemical reaction involving
the substrate for which it is specific.
This is due to the lock-and-key fit of
the active site to the substrate molecule
(described, overleaf in more detail in
the section How enzymes work).
Examples of enzyme specificity are:
amylase acts on starch, changing it
to glucose
rennin acts on the protein in milk,
causing it to curdle
the enzyme catalase, present in most
living cells (e.g. potato/meat/apple)
acts on toxic hydrogen peroxide and
converts it to harmless water and
oxygen gas.
TR
Teacher resource
terminology related to
enzymes
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1.2
What is pH?
iden
identify
ntify the pH as a way of describing the acidity
of a substance
pH scale runs from 0 to 14, where 7
(the midpoint) represents a neutral
solution. The presence of hydrogen
ions in a solution makes it more acidic
and so solutions with a pH below 7
are acidic and those with a pH above
7 are alkaline or basic. The further
away from the neutral value of 7, the
stronger the respective acid or base.
lemon juice, vinegar
grapefruit, soft drink
tomato juice, acid rain
black coffee
urine
distilled water
sea water
baking soda
Great Salt Lake
ammonia solution
soapy water
bleach
liquid drain cleaner
pH 2
pH 3
pH 4
pH 5
pH 6
pH 7
pH 8
pH 9
pH 10
pH 11
pH 12
pH 13
pH 14
saliva (pH 6.5)
hydrochloric acid (stomach acid)

pH 1
pH 0
examples
battery acid
Figure 1.4 pH scale
weak
acid
strong
acid
increasing
acidity
PFA
H2
blood (pH 7.4)
pH is a w
way of describing the acidity
of a sub
substance. The pH scale is used
tto measure the acidity or alkalinity
of a substance, as shown below (see
Fig. 1.4). pH is a logarithmic value of
the concentration of hydrogen ions
(H+) in solution. Since it is a logarithmic
value, the greater the hydrogen ion
concentration, the lower the pH. The
weak
base
neutral
pH scale
strong
base
increasing
alkalinity
How enzymes work: models to describe enzyme specificity on

substrates
Enzymes are large, globular protein
molecules with one or more
indentations on their surface called
active sites. For an enzyme to
catalyse a reaction, the small substrate
molecules must temporarily bind to
these active sites. At first a lock-andkey model was proposed: it was
thought that the active site is rigid
and the small substrate molecule is
reciprocally shaped and fits into the
active site, like a lock fits a key. Once
this enzymesubstrate complex has
formed, the close proximity of the
molecules allows the reaction to be

rapidly catalysed and the products of
the reaction are released. To validate
this model, predictions were made and
tested. The results led to the proposal
of the currently accepted amended
version of the model, known as the
induced-fit model. This model is
based on the realisation that proteins
are not rigid. Evidence suggests that the
binding of a substrate to the active site
of an enzyme induces the enzyme to
alter its shape slightly, to fit more tightly
around the substrate. (See Fig. 1.5.)
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1 substrate is sucrose, which is

composed of glucose and
fructose bonded together
glucose
2 substrate binds
to the enzyme
bond
fructose
products are released
3 bond binding
the substrate
breaks
enzymesubstrate
complex fit in
lock-and-key
arrangement
active sites
5 enzyme is free
to bind other
substrates
enzyme
(a)
substrate is sucrose, which is

composed of glucose and
fructose bonded together
glucose
2 substrate binds
to the enzyme
bond
fructose
products are released
3 bond binding
the substrate
breaks
active sites
enzyme
induced fit: the

binding of the substrate
induces the enzyme to
change shape and fit
more tightly
enzyme is free
to bind other
substrates
(b)
Figure 1.5 Sequence of steps in the induced-fit/lock-and-key model of specificity of enzymesubstrate
action: (a) lock-and-key model of enzyme functioning; (b) induced-fit model of enzyme functioning
The rate of enzyme reactions
Enzymes are highly efficientthey work

rapidly, having a high rate of reaction
or turnover number (the number of
substrate molecules that one enzyme
can act on in 1 minute). Catalase is the
fastest acting of all enzymes, having a
turnover number of 5 million substrate
molecules per minute.
Enzymes are highly effectiveonly
minute traces are needed to bring about
reactions and they can be reused.
The rate of an enzymecontrolled reaction is affected by the

concentration of the substrate. If an
enzyme and substrate have a high
affinity for each other, the reaction
will proceed more rapidly than for an
enzyme and substrate that have a low
affinity for each other. The higher the
substrate concentration, the greater
the rate of enzyme reaction, until all
available enzymes are being used to
catalyse reactions. This point is known
21/5/08 1:08:09 PM
TR
Student worksheet
graphs related to
enzyme activity
as the saturation point. Increasing

the substrate concentration beyond the
saturation point will not increase the
rate of reaction, since all enzymes are
working at their maximum turnover rate
and will have to be reused to act on
the additional substrate. The only way
to increase the reaction rate would be
to increase the enzyme concentration.
(See Fig. 1.6.)
maximum
Rate of reaction
SR
Substrate concentration
Figure 1.6 Graph showing the effect of substrate
concentration on enzyme activity
Investigating enzyme activity

FIRST-HAND
F
IRS
IINVESTIGATION
NVE
BIO
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H11.1; H11.2; H11.3
H12.1; H12.2; H12.3;
H12.4
H13.1
H14.1; H14.2; H14.3
Table 1.1 Advantages

and disadvantages of
enzymes
identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or

resources and perform a first-hand investigation to
test the effect of:
increased temperature
change in pH
change in substrate concentrations on the activity
of named enzyme(s)
Background information
Enzymes are protein molecules that are made
by living cells and function as catalysts within
the cells. They accelerate the rate of reaction
without themselves being changed. A substrate
is another name for a reactant in an enzymecontrolled reaction.
In each of the investigations that follow,

the activity of a named enzyme will be studied.
There are a variety of enzymes that are
suitable to use for this investigation. Each
has its advantages and disadvantages (see
Table 1.1).
Chemical reaction
catalysed
Evidence of enzyme
activity
Determining enzyme
activity
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide
converted to water and
oxygen
Creates a fizzing effect
Measure the height of

bubbles
Amylase
(commercially available
or found in saliva)
Starch
(available as powdered
starch that can be
mixed with water, or
boiled potato)
Starch converted to
glucose
Starch no longer
present
Starch can be stained

with iodine. Time
how long until starch
disappears: enzyme
active no more
starch present
Rennin
(available as junket
tablets)
Milk protein
(caseinogen)
Converts soluble
caseinogen protein
into an insoluble form
(casein)
Milk curdles and a

precipitate forms
Time how long milk

takes to curdlethis
indicates rate of
enzyme activity
Enzyme and source
Substrate
Catalase
(potato or any fresh
plant or animal tissue)
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Task
Students will need to plan and conduct
three separate experiments so that they
can investigate the effect of each factor
independently. That is, in each experiment only
one variable is changed to ensure the validity
of the investigation. The effect of each of the
following factors on enzyme activity will be
investigated:
increased temperatureExperiment 1
change in pHExperiment 2
change in substrate concentrations
Experiment 3.
There are several ways in which this can be
tackled. Group work is recommended, as each
experiment (especially the effect of temperature
on enzyme activity) is fairly labour-intensive.
Planning the scientific investigation

Students should consult the teacher and use
the information on the Student Resource CD to
decide whether they will investigate the activity of
the same enzyme and its substrate for all three
experiments, or whether they will use a different
enzyme for one or more of the experiments.
To plan the investigation, a variety of
sources should be consulted, including the
information in the table on the previous
page, the Student Resource CD and the
text on pages 35 on the role of enzymes
in metabolism.
Teachers may like to guide the class through
planning and conducting one of the three
experiments on enzyme activity and then
allow the students to plan and conduct
the other two experiments on their own.
(Teachers resource material, The five steps
of investigation, available on the Teacher
Resource CD, may be useful.)
For each experiment, students need to:
identify the enzyme and substrate to be
used
discuss with the teacher the sources
from which both the enzyme and the
substrate that you have chosen to use
can be obtained
research the chemical reaction that the
enzyme catalyses and write out a word
equation for this reaction
determine a method to measure the
activity of the enzyme in a laboratory.
Research and list all safety precautions to
be taken and the hazards of any chemicals that
may be used.
Ensuring the validity of the

investigation
A valid experiment is one that actually tests
what it sets out to test. To arrive at valid
conclusions, it is necessary to use a control:

remove the factor you are testing and compare
the results with the experiment when the factor
was present. The comparison should show
that if the factor is missing (the control), the
same result is not obtained, proving that it is
the presence of that factor which brings about
the result. Set up two sets of apparatus for
each runone with the factor being tested
(experimental apparatus) and one without the
factor (control apparatus). Validity also depends
on keeping variables constant and ensuring
reliability and accuracy.
Identify the independent and dependent
variables and plan how you will keep all
other variables constant
Ensure reliability and accuracy: read the
Biology Skills on pages xxii (and, in
particular, take note of 12.4 e and f) to
determine how you will ensure:
reliability: the same method should yield
the same results when repeated by other
people (this may require modification
and inter-group co-operation after a test
run) and averaging and/or comparison of
results
accuracy: the results should comply
with similar scientific information (e.g.
data from other scientific sources such
as scientific journals); accuracy also
relies on choosing precise measuring
equipment and using it correctly to avoid
experimental error
Results: choose suitable format(s) to
represent your data (e.g. tables, graphs
the correct type of graph and the line of best
fit).
Additional information is available on the
Teacher Resource CD.
SR
Experiment
i
t report
t
investigating enzyme
activity
TR
Teaching strategy for

the investigation and
teacher resource
valid investigations
Reporting on the investigation

For each experiment, write up a practical report
under the standard scientific headingsaim,
hypothesis, materials, safety, method, results,
conclusion and discussion.
Results: data from results should be
measured, recorded in the form of a table
and then graphed.
Conclusions: read the aim of each
experiment again, consider your hypothesis
and then write a valid conclusion based on
your results (no inferences).
Discussion: any suggested modifications
to the method, materials or equipment
and explanations of unexpected results or
experimental error should appear under this
heading. Answer all discussion questions as
well.
TR
Sample experiments
on investigating
enzyme activity and
practical reports
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1.3
Home
Homeostasis
and feedback mechanisms
maint
maintaining a balance
Of all liv
living
ving organisms the mammalian
has best perfected keeping
body ha
internal functioning constant, no matter
changes occur in the external
what cha
conditions in the environment. The
module Maintaining a balance has as
its central theme the maintenance of
internal stability, called homeostasis,
within living organisms. In this module,
we will study regulatory systems in
both plants and animals that act to
maintain a balance in their internal
environments:
temperature regulation (brought
about mainly by the skin in
mammals and by leaves in plants)
control of chemical substances
available to cells, transported
through organisms (by blood vessels
in mammals and vascular tissue in

plants)
the control of water and salt balance
(osmoregulation) and of pH and
waste products (brought about
mainly by the kidneys in mammalian
bodies).
An organism is healthy as long as
homeostasis is maintained. When a
person visits a doctor for a medical
check-up, the doctor will monitor their
wellbeing by carrying out standard
checks, including measuring their
body temperature and taking blood
samples to compare the patients blood
composition with a standard set of
values that indicate the normal range
for optimal metabolic efficiency.
Homeostasis
describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms

maintain a relatively stable internal environment
The word homeostasis comes from the

Greek words homoios, meaning like or
the same and stasis, meaning state. This
implies a state of balance or constancy,
where conditions stay the same in
the internal environment of living
organisms to allow them to function
efficiently, despite fluctuations in the
external environment.
Homeostasis is defined as
the maintenance by an organism
of a constant or almost constant
internal state, regardless of external
environmental change.
Any organised infrastructure,
whether a living organism or a nonliving enterprise, needs careful control
and certain constants if it is to run
smoothly and efficiently, particularly
when external circumstances fluctuate
or change. If we consider the smooth
running of a hospital or even a
household, a sudden external change,
for example a power cut, could have

drastic results if the organisation cannot
continue to work independently of the
outside changes. The fluctuations need
to be monitored and counter measures
must be put in place. For example, if
there is a power failure and a hospital
does not have a back-up plan, many
lives will be lost.
In order to maintain a constant
internal environment, the following two
steps are essential:
1. detect the change
2. counteract the change.
In a similar way, living organisms
must have mechanisms in place to
enable them to function independently
of external changes and to maintain
a relatively constant internal state. In
this chapter, we look at homeostasis
and how living organisms maintain a
constant internal environment.
10
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CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Discuss the following analogy, which should help us to understand the importance of maintaining
constant internal conditions in an organisation such as:
a hospital
a home.
In order to maintain a constant internal environment in the event of a power cut, how would people
within the hospital or home:
1. detect the changehow will people become aware that the power supply has been cut off?
2. counteract the changewhat measures could be put in place within each organisation to
temporarily overcome the problem until things return to normal?
Compare the efficiency of these measures and relate this to the importance of the functioning of
the organisation.
When we consider our analogy in

more detail, it becomes evident that
some organisations are better equipped
to cope with change than otherspart
of the back-up plan in a hospital is
to have its own emergency generator,
which can be put into use in the event
of a power failure; however, most of
us do not have emergency generators
in our homes. It is interesting (and
not unexpected) to note that certain
living organisms have a better backup plan than others when it comes
to maintaining a constant internal
environment.
Living organisms have developed
mechanisms that ensure that they are
able to maintain a constant or almost
constant internal state, regardless
of changes from the stable state of
conditions in the external environment.
The importance of a constant internal environment
explain why the maintenance of a constant internal

environment is important for optimal metabolic
efficiency
Living organisms are made of cells,

which must function efficiently to
maintain life. All chemical reactions
within cells must occur efficiently
and be effectively co-ordinated
to bring about optimal metabolic
efficiency.
Each cell is surrounded by a small
amount of fluid called intercellular or
interstitial fluid and this, together with
the cytoplasm inside cells, makes up
their internal environment. Cells are
extremely sensitive to changes in their
internal environment and any imbalance
adversely affects their functioning. The
internal environment of an organism
1.4
must be maintained within a narrow

range of conditions, for example
temperature, volume (the amount
of cells or of fluid such as blood or
cytoplasm) and chemical content in
the internal environment must be kept
stable so that enzymes can function
effectively and metabolic efficiency can
be maintained. Enzymes are extremely
sensitive to the temperature and pH
of the environment and changes in
concentrations of these, as well as
nutrients such as glucose and oxygen,
affect their activity. Cells cannot
tolerate any build-up in levels of waste
products such as carbon dioxide or
11
21/5/08 1:08:16 PM
other metabolic wastes, as these inhibit

enzyme functioning.
Metabolic efficiency relies on a
constant (or almost constant) level of
the following variables in the internal
environment:
temperature and pH (optimal range)
for enzyme functioning
concentration of metabolites
(reactants)
water and salt concentration
(osmotic pressure), which
determines the volume of cells or
fluid such as blood)
absence of toxins that may inhibit
enzyme functioning.
The importance of maintaining

a constant level of each
variable
pH and temperature (for enzyme
functioning)
All chemical reactions necessary for

the cells survival and functioning
are controlled by enzymes. Enzymes
only function within a narrow range
of temperature and pH; outside of
these ranges, narrow variations cause
a decrease in the activity of enzymes
whereas greater variations cause the
enzymes to denature, rendering them
non-functional. This reduces metabolic
efficiency.
Further problems with extreme
temperatures are that:
very low temperatures could
cause the water in cells to freeze.
This brings about changes in the
concentration of solutes in the
cytoplasm, which in turn affect
the pH and osmotic balance of the
cell. When water freezes it expands
and this may cause the cell and/or
organelles to rupture (burst).
very high temperatures cause both
enzymes and other proteins (such
as those in membranes of organelles
and the cell) to denature, further
disrupting cell functioning and
metabolic activity.
Metabolites
For any chemical reaction to proceed,

reactants must be present. Metabolites
are chemicals that participate in
chemical reactions in cells. Some (for
example, glucose and oxygen) are
taken in from the outside environment,
whereas others are products of other
metabolic pathways (for example
ATP, the type of energy produced by
chemical respiration).
Many metabolic reactions rely on
the availability of ATP energy in cells. If
cells cannot produce sufficient energy,
there is a ripple effect and other
metabolic activity will be adversely
affected. The production of energy
relies on chemical respiration, which
in turn relies on an ample supply
of metabolites such as glucose and
oxygen, as well as respiratory enzymes
and their cofactors.
A lack of any of these metabolites
may therefore slow down or stop
chemical respiration, affecting overall
metabolic efficiency.
Water and salt concentrations
(osmotic balance)
All chemical reactions in living

organisms take place in water. For
chemical reactions to proceed, the
reactants must be dissolved in water
therefore the water concentration of
cells and their surrounding fluid is
of enormous importance. Dissolved
substances such as salt affect the
osmotic balance of fluids and so
the concentration of slats and other
dissolved substances must also be
maintained within a narrow range.
An absence of toxins
A build-up of carbon dioxide and/or

other wastes (as a result of chemical
reactions in the cells) may be toxic to
cells, affecting enzymes either directly
or indirectly. Some interact directly by
blocking the active site of enzymes,
while others act indirectly by altering
the optimal conditions for enzyme
12
21/5/08 1:08:17 PM
STUDENT ACTIVITY
An explanation involves finding a cause and effect relationship. (Refer to the
verb scaffold for explain on the Teacher Resource CD.)
Analyse the above explanations of the importance of maintaining a constant
internal environment in terms of each variable, and in the form of a table:
state the underlying cause(s) of the phenomenon (the change to the internal
environment)
outline any intermediate effects
state clearly the overall effect on metabolic efficiency.
functioning (for example, carbon

dioxide alters the pH of fluid). In either
case, enzyme functioning is inhibited
TR
Verb scaffold
explain
and so these wastes must be removed

to ensure metabolic efficiency.
Negative feedbackthe mechanism of homeostasis
explain that homeostasis consists of two stages:

detecting changes from the stable state
counteracting changes from the stable state
substances) in the internal environment
of an organism are maintained within a
narrow range. Within each organism,
these variables have an ideal or
normal value, called the set point.
Homeostasis does not maintain the
exact set point, but homeostasis is
maintained as long as there is only a
narrow range of fluctuation (increase
and decrease) of the variable around
the set point. (See Figure 1.7.)
If the fluctuation is large and
exceeds the normal range, a negative
Figure 1.7 Graph

showing homeostasis
as the maintenance of
a relatively constant
internal environment
around an ideal value
or set point. The
value of the variable
fluctuates within a
narrow range and
is maintained by a
negative feedback
mechanism
upper value that triggers

a response to counteract
the increase
Normal range
Homeostasis involves an enormous

amount of co-ordination and control in
a living organism. In mammals, both
the nervous system and endocrine
(hormonal) systems are involved.
Homeostasis is brought about in two
stages:
1. detecting change: sensory cells or
receptors present within the body
detect change in the temperature
and/or chemical composition
within the body. This change in the
environment is called a stimulus.
2. counteracting change:
effector organs (such
as muscles or glands)
then work to reverse the
change. A response that
successfully reverses the
change will return the body
to homeostasisits relatively
constant state.
Homeostatic mechanisms
ensure that variables (such
as temperature or the
concentration of chemical
1.5
set point (ideal value)
lower value that triggers

a response to counteract
the decrease
Time
13
28/5/08 1:44:21 PM
feedback mechanism comes into

operation in response to this change;
it is termed negative because it
counteracts the change (the stimulus),
returning the body to within the normal
rangei.e. to a state of homeostasis.
1.6
Note: The secondary-source

investigation to model a feedback
system (see page 20) may be done at
this point in time OR after temperature
regulation.
Temperature regulation and the nervous system

Temp
outline the role of the nervous system in detecting and

responding to environmental changes
Introduction to the nervous

system
The structures of the nervous system

involved in the stimulusresponse
pathway of co-ordination are:
receptorssensory cells, sometimes
in sense organs (for example,
olfactory receptors in the nose)
a control centrethe central
nervous system, which includes
brain and spinal cord
effectors (e.g. muscles and glands)
nerves, which link all the other
parts, relaying messages from one
part to another in the form of
electrochemical nerve impulses.
Co-ordination
The stimulusresponse pathway
The function of the nervous system is

co-ordination and this takes place in
three steps:
1. It detects information about an
animals internal and external
environments.
2. It transmits this information to a
control centre.
3. The information is processed in the
control centre, generating a response
to ensure the maintenance of a
relatively constant internal state.
A stimulus is detected by a receptor,

a message is carried by nerves to a
control centre and a response is
triggered (see Fig. 1.8).
For example, if you touch a hot
stove with your finger, receptors in
your skin detect the heat and pain, and
the result is that you withdraw your
finger rapidly. How is this co-ordinated?
This rapid reaction requires a link
between the receptors that detect the
stimulus and the effectors, the muscles
Any change in the external

environment could affect the balance
in the internal environment of the
organism and so a mechanism is
needed to ensure homeostasisthe
maintenance of a stable internal
environment, despite fluctuations in the
external environment. The mechanisms
that allow this to occur are based on a
negative feedback system, co-ordinated
by the nervous system.
Figure 1.8 Flow chart

showing the stimulus
response pathway
stimulus
receptor
control
centre
effectors
response
14
21/5/08 1:08:20 PM
(or sometimes glands) that carry

out a response. The co-ordination
is carried out by the nerves and
the central nervous system (brain
and spinal cord) of the body. See
Figure 1.9, which illustrates the
role of the nervous system in the
stimulusresponse pathway.
Co-ordination pathway
(change in
environment)
Detecting change:
receiving stimuli
Sensory cells called receptors

detect stimuli (changes in the
internal or external environment
of an organism). In their most
simple form, receptors consist of
single cells, scattered over the
body of an organism. In their
more complex form, receptors
have become concentrated in
particular areas to form sense
organs such as the eye, ear
and tongue. In many animals
(including humans), receptors
in sense organs detect stimuli
in the external environment.
However, there are also receptors
that are sensitive to internal
stimuli within the body. These
interoreceptors within the
body are important in detecting
changes related to homeostasis
that is, internal stimuli such as
changes in pH, body temperature,
osmotic pressure and the chemical
composition of blood.
Loud noise
stimuli
The role of the nervous

system in homeostasis
The role of the nervous system
in homeostasis is co-ordination.
A pathway exists, whereby a
stimulus is detected by a receptor,
a message is carried by nerves to
a control centre and a response
is triggered. In homeostasis, the
response usually counteracts
the stimulus (change), reducing
its effect so that a balance is
maintained. This is termed a
negative feedback mechanism.
Example
detected by
(sensory cells in
sense organ)
receptors
hair cells in ear
convert stimuli to impulses

(sensory nerve
carrying nerve
impulses)
auditory nerve
messengers
I
I
I
+
+
+
I
I
+
+
+
I
I
I
+
+
transmit impulses
(brain and spinal

cord)
CNS
brai n
process information and trigger

new impulses
(motor nerve
carrying nerve
impulses)
motor
nerves
messengers
transmit impulses
(muscles or
glands)
effectors
muscles
react
(reaction)
response
head jerks
and looks
back
Figure 1.9 The role of the nervous system in detecting

and responding to environmental change
15
28/5/08 2:13:45 PM
Receptors may be named according

to the type of energy or molecules
they detect. Those receptors important
in our study of homeostasis are
thermoreceptors, which detect
internal changes in temperature, and
chemoreceptors, which detect the
concentration of certain chemicals
inside the body (for example, carbon
dioxide levels) in the blood. Other
receptors that you may come across
in your studies (e.g. if you study the
biology option Communication) are
photoreceptors (sensitive to light, found
in the eye) and mechanoreceptors
(sensitive to movement or vibrations,
found in the ear).
Co-ordination: the role of the nervous
system in processing information
The brain and spinal cord make up the

central nervous system (CNS). The
peripheral nervous system consists of
nerves, which carry information to and
from the CNS. The information carried
by nerves is messages transmitted in the
form of electrochemical nerve impulses.
Incoming information passes from
sensory receptors via sensory nerves
to the CNS, which in turn transmits
outgoing information to effector organs
via motor nerves. The role of the CNS is
to process incoming information, analyse
it and then initiate an appropriate
response. Within the CNS, information
is processed and analysed by a number
of interconnecting nerve cells (neurons)
and then a message is generated and
transmitted, stimulating the effector
organs. Some actions involving the
nervous system may take place
voluntarily, but all of those involved
in homeostasis take place without any
conscious thoughtthey are involuntary
and many are inborn, unconditioned
reflexes in response to a particular
stimulus.
Counteracting change: responding
A response is a reaction in an
organism or its tissues, as a result
of receiving a stimulus. It is carried

out by structures in the body known
as effector organsthese are often
muscles and/or glands. The response
reaches the effectors from the CNS
and causes the body to correct any
deviation from the normal balanced
state, thereby maintaining homeostasis.
The role of the nervous system

in thermoregulation in humans
Causes of temperature change
within the body
Heat gain within the body may arise as

a result of:
normal cell functioning
(metabolism): the oxidation process
of chemical respiration in cells
releases heat energy
muscle contractions: a large
proportion of the energy needed for
any muscle activity is converted into
heat during muscle functioning (this
explains why we get hot when we
exercise)
hot food and drinks
heat (radiant energy) from external
sources such as the sun, radiators
and heaters.
Heat loss from the body results from:
radiation of heat from the body to
cooler surroundings
convection: air currents (wind)
remove warm air surrounding the
body and replace it with cool air
evaporation (for example sweating):
when liquid droplets on the body
surface evaporate, heat is required
to change them from liquid
(droplets) to gas (water vapour).
We are familiar with the fact that
vaporisation requires heatfor
example, a kettle heats water and
turns it to steam. In temperature
regulation, heat from an organisms
body is used for evaporation,
cooling the internal environment of
the body down in the process.
(See Fig. 1.11.)
16
21/5/08 1:08:26 PM
(a)
(b)
Detecting change
Thermoreceptors are present

both outside and inside the body.
Peripheral receptors are located in
the skin and central thermoreceptors
monitor the temperature of the blood
as it circulates throughout the brain.

The central receptors are present in
the hypothalamus of the brain (see
Fig. 1.11) and are sensitive to extremely
small temperature changes (a fraction
of a degree).
Figure 1.11 Flow

chart showing the
regulation of body
temperature in
humans
skin blood vessels dilate; blood

carries heat to the skin surface
body temperature
decreases: hypothalamus
shuts off cooling
mechanisms
in hypothalamus control centre detects

change and activates cooling mechanisms
begin here
STIMULUS: increased body
temperature (e.g. when
exercising or in hot
surroundings)
body temperature increases:

hypothalamus shuts off
warming mechanisms
Figure 1.10 Humans

are able to maintain a
relatively constant body
temperature despite
fluctuations in the
external environment
sweat glands activated,

high increasing evaporative
cooling
HOMEOSTASIS
body temperature
low
skin blood vessels constrict,

keeps control centre warm and
reduces heat loss from skin
surface
or begin here
STIMULUS: decreased
body temperature (e.g.
due to cold surroundings)
hypothalamus control centre

detects change and activates
warming mechanisms
skeletal muscles
activated; shivering
generates heat
17
21/5/08 1:08:26 PM
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
In pairs, discuss the familiar responses that you are aware of in your own bodies on a hot day or
when you have been exercising, as opposed to your body responses on a really cold day. Try to
work out how these responses bring about heating or cooling.
Co-ordination
The hypothalamus is also the control

centre for temperature regulation
in the mammalian body and so the
receptors do not have to transmit the
information very far in order to elicit a
response. The anterior hypothalamus
has a heat-loss centre, which sends
messages to effectors to cool the body
down, and the posterior hypothalamus
has a heat-gain centre, which initiates
responses that help the body to
warm up.
Counteracting change
The main homeostatic organ involved

in temperature regulation in humans is
the skin. Effectors that assist the body
to cool down when it has overheated,
or to warm up if it has overcooled,
include the blood vessels (arterioles) in
the skin, sweat glands and hair erector
muscles in the skin, and the muscles
of the body. The thyroid gland, which
affects overall metabolic rate, is also an
effector. (See Fig. 1.11.)
Warming the body
If the body becomes too cold, the heatgain centre of the hypothalamus
stimulates responses in the effector
organs to generate and/or retain heat
within the bodyon a cold day we get
goose bumps on our skin, become
pale and shiver:
Raised hairs on the body (goose
bumps) are an attempt to trap
a layer of warm air around the
body to reduce the amount of heat
lost by radiation, convection and
conduction. The hypothalamus

stimulates the erector muscles in the
skin to contract, raising the hairs.
This is more effective at trapping
heat where the hair is thicker, for
example on our heads (and all over
on animals with thick fur).
Vasoconstrictionconstriction
(narrowing) of the arterioles to the
skin: people who are very cold
tend to appear pale-faced, with
blue-tinged lips, fingers and toes
due to poor circulation. Heat is
carried throughout the body in
the bloodstream. To prevent too
much heat being lost from the
body surface, the muscular walls
of the small blood vessels known
as arterioles constrict so that most
blood flow is redirected to the core
(centre) of the body, preventing heat
loss from the cooler body surface.
Shivering is brought about by rapid,
small muscle contractions, which
generate heat in the body.
Increased metabolism: the heat-gain
centre stimulates the activity of the
thyroid gland, causing it to speed up
metabolism.
(See Fig. 1.12.)
Cooling the body
If the body becomes too hot, we

become red, sweaty and sluggish, signs
that our heat-loss mechanism has been
activated to bring about cooling of the
body. The heat-loss centre of the
hypothalamus stimulates the effector
organs to lose heat:
18
21/5/08 1:08:29 PM
(a)
(b)
blood vessel constricts

(vasoconstriction)
blood vessel dilates

(vasodilation)
increased
heat loss
across
epidermis
epidermis
epidermis
heat conservation
(c)
water
vapour
sweat
droplet
Figure 1.12
Temperature-regulating
responses of the skin:
(a) vasoconstriction
conserves heat;
(b) vasodilation brings
about heat loss;
(c) sweating brings
about heat loss
increased heat loss

evaporation
hair
heat
pain
receptors
sweat pore
epidermis
sweat
duct
sweat
gland
increased heat loss
Vasodilationdilation (expansion)
of the arterioles to the skin: blood
carrying heat is directed towards the
surface of the body so that heat can
be lost by conduction, convection
and radiation to the surroundings.
Sweating: Sweat glands, the main
heat-loss structures in the body, are
activated by the heat-loss centre in
the hypothalamus. Liquid sweat is
secreted through the sweat pores
onto the surface of the skin and
heat is removed from the body to
evaporate the liquid. (If you stand
in the sun and the heat from the
sun evaporates the sweat, you will
not cool down as quickly as in the
shade, where heat is being removed
from your body for evaporation.)
Animals that do not have sweat

glands still lose heat by evaporation;
for example, dogs pant, and rodents
and kangaroos lick their bodies so
that the saliva evaporates and cools
them down. A cooling process based
on evaporation occurs in plants
as wellwater evaporates from
the leaves, removing the heat of
vaporisation from the plant in the
process. This loss of water from the
plant is known as transpiration.
Decreased metabolism: the heatloss centre causes the thyroid gland
to lower the rate of metabolism,
generating less heat. This accounts
for why we feel tired and lethargic
on hot days.
SR
TR
Student worksheetthe
role of the nervous
system in the stimulus
response pathway for
temperature regulation
19
21/5/08 1:08:30 PM
Model of a feedback system

SECONDARY
S
EC
SOURCE
IINVESTIGATION
NVE
BIO
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.2; H12.3; H12.4
gather, process and analyse information from secondary

sources and use available evidence to develop a model of
a feedback mechanism
H13.1
H14.1f; H14.3
SR
Relevantt websites
b it and
questionsnegative
feedback model
TR
Answers to student
worksheet
To maintain homeostasis, organisms

must monitor any changes in the internal
environment and then correct the deviations.
Monitoring change and then responding to
it is termed feedback. The type of response
determines whether this feedback is positive
or negative. If the response counteracts or
cancels out the change (stimulus), this is known
as negative feedback and this mechanism
ensures that a constant internal environment is
maintained. Temperature regulation is a typical
feedback mechanism. Most living systems rely
on negative feedback to maintain homeostasis.
If the body implements a response that
increases (enhances) the change (stimulus),
this is termed positive feedback. Positive
feedback is very unusual in living systems and
occurs only in rare and specific instances. For
example, during childbirth the stretching of the
uterus wall causes the muscles of the uterus
to contract. The contractions cause the uterus
wall to stretch further; this in turn increases
the contractions, eventually resulting in the
birth of the baby. Within the body, most positive
feedback systems are part of some broader
overall mechanism that maintains homeostasis.
There are many examples of negative
feedback in everyday life, both in living systems
and in the non-living world. For example, the
thermostat control of oven temperature in the
kitchen or the cooling and heating of buildings
by air-conditioning units both rely on a negative
feedback mechanism. Within biological systems,
examples include the regulation of temperature
in the organisms, as well as maintaining the
concentration of the many chemicals present. In
mammals, chemical balance in blood includes
maintaining the glucose (blood sugar) level,
the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration,
regulating pH levels and much more. Negative
feedback loops in the human body are
meticulously co-ordinated by the nervous and/
or endocrine (hormonal) systems.
Task
Students are required to develop a model
to demonstrate the concept of a feedback
mechanism. The model should entail a
generalised representation of a negative
feedback loop and may take the form of a flow
chart, an annotated sequence of diagrams or

a combination of these, or it may be an actual
working model accompanied by a written
explanation. This model will then be applied to
explain the negative feedback mechanism of
temperature regulation in the human body. (See
PFA H2.)
1. To develop a model to show the sequence
of steps typical of a negative feedback
mechanism:
(a) Gather information from a variety of
sources, looking at several negative
feedback mechanisms in both the
living and non-living world (see the
recommended websites on the Student
Resource CD).
(b) Present your model in a simple and
concise format that can be applied to
explain specific examples of negative
feedback loops typical of living
organisms.
(c) Represent each of the following on your
model:
(i) stimuli: stimulus increases/decreases
(ii) co-ordinating (control) centre
(iii) effectors
(iv) responses.
2. Use your model to explain how temperature
regulation in humans is a negative feedback
mechanism.
3. Answer the questions below.
Discussion questions
1. Draw a flow-chart diagram of your model of
a negative feedback mechanism.
2. Use the websites listed to develop a general
model for a negative feedback mechanism
and then compare your model with negative
feedback in temperature regulation in
humans.
Model
Temperature
regulation
The stimuli
The co-ordinating (control)
centre
The effectors
The negative feedback loop
20
21/5/08 1:09:08 PM
3. Using the model of a negative feedback

mechanism that you have developed or
the generalised one given to you by your
teacher, use different-coloured pens to
annotate the model with the various stages
of temperature regulation in humans.
4. Validating your model:
(a) Describe ways in which the application
of your model to temperature control is
an accurate representation of a negative
feedback mechanism.
(b) Describe any limitations of this model for
temperature control.
5. Complete the table below by naming the
effectors and summarising the responses
that occur in each when body temperature
increases in mammals.
Heat ________ centre of the hypothalamus

sends nerve impulses to effector organs:
Effectors
Responses
6. Complete the table below by naming the

effectors and summarising the responses
that occur in each when body temperature
decreases in mammals.
Heat ________ centre of the hypothalamus
sends nerve impulses to effector organs:
Effectors
Responses
Temperature limits of living organisms
identify the broad range of temperatures over which life

is found compared with the narrow limits for individual
species
Temperature tolerance in
living things
Temperature is one of the many
limiting factors that can determine the
presence of life on Earth. Without these
limiting factors (such as water, nutrients,
light, oxygen and a balanced pH) living
organisms cannot survive. A reduction
in the accessibility of these resources
restricts the metabolic processes or
growth within an organism. Chemical
reactions that occur in cells take
place only within a relatively narrow
range of temperatures, due to the
temperature sensitivity of enzymes.
For example, tissue temperatures
greater than 42C are lethal to most
organisms, as important enzymes begin
to denature at this temperaturethe
weak hydrogen bonds in enzymes
break and temperature increases; the
changed shape of the enzymes (and
their distorted active sites) results in a
reduced ability to function and this has
adverse effects on metabolism. Extreme
temperatures (above 100C) denature
1.7
not only proteins, but also nucleic

acids; this destruction of DNA results in
cell death. It is therefore not surprising
that habitats that offer temperature
conditions that are fairly stable and
those that fall within a relatively narrow
range are highly sought after and result
in much competition. Most living things
live at temperatures between 10 and
35C. Active growth in most plants
occurs between 5 and 40C. Some
species of plants and animals have
moved and adapted to occupy niches
where temperatures fall outside of the
optimal temperature range, expanding
the range of temperatures over which
life can be found.
The broad range of temperatures
over which life is found
The diverse array of living organisms on

Earth are found across a broad range of
temperaturesthere are living creatures
that can survive in temperatures as low
as 70C (at the poles) or as high as
56C in deserts and 350C (in hot vents
21
21/5/08 1:09:10 PM
in the sea). However, individual species

cannot survive in an environment with
a temperature range this large; they
need much narrower ranges.
There is an enormous variation
in temperature over the Earth. The
average variation in environmental
temperature is more prominent on land
(89 to 60C) compared with ocean
water (2 to 30C), although near
submarine hydrothermal vents ocean
temperatures can exceed 350C. This
vast range of temperatures found on
Earth has been beneficial in allowing
diversity of niches for species. Species
that occupy habitats with extreme
conditions (such as very hot water,
ice or extreme salt conditions) are
sometimes referred to as extremophiles.
The narrow limits of temperature
for individual species
Much like enzymes, species have

an optimal range of temperatures at
which they can function. For each
living species, this is a fairly narrow
temperature range within which they
can live comfortably. The temperature
range in which a species can survive
is termed its tolerance range for
temperature and is usually only a few
degrees outside of the range at which
it is comfortable. There are exceptions
(e.g. the Pompeii worm described
below), but very few organisms
can survive in a broad range of
temperatures.
including extremes such as salinity,

drought and flood.)
One of the hottest environments on
Earth is in the vicinity of submarine
hydrothermal vents, where temperature
can reach 350C. These extreme
environments support a community
of creatures including microbes such
as the hyperthermophilic microbe
Pyrolobus fumarii, which grows
optimally at 106C but can withstand
temperatures of 113C. The most
heat-tolerant animal known is the
Pompeii worm (Alvinella pompejana),
discovered by French scientists in the
1980s (see Fig. 1.13). These polychaetes
live in tubes on the sea floor near
hydrothermal vents and they show
extraordinary tolerance to an extremely
wide range of temperaturesthey have
been recorded living in water with
the tail end at 80C and the head end
at 22C. Scientific research into how
Pompeii worms can withstand such
extreme temperatures seems to suggest
that they are insulated to some degree
by a fleece-like covering of bacteria
on their backs. They have a symbiotic
relationship with the bacteriathe
worms secrete mucus from tiny glands
on their backs to feed the bacteria
Tolerance ranges for individual species
Water-holding frog (Cyclorana

platycephala)
3 to 39C
Platypus (Ornithorhynchus
anatinus)
8 to 34C
Sydney blue gum (Eucalyptus
saligna)
1 to 34C
Silky oak (Grevillea robusta)
found in alpine regions
0 to 38C.
(The tolerance range of an organism
is the degree to which an organism
can tolerate and survive a significant
variation in environmental factors,
Figure 1.13 Pompeii worm
22
21/5/08 1:09:11 PM
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Source an image of hydrothermal vents and/or the organisms that can be found living in their
vicinity.
The term hypothermophilic means extremely heat loving and is derived from Greek. Try to match
the English meaning with its Greek word roots.
in return (see the interactive website

on the Student Resource CD). Other
organisms living in this community
include vent crabs and tubeworms.
Deserts are another environment
where there are extreme temperature
conditions. In some deserts, the
difference between day and night
temperatures is very large. The Sahara
desert in North Africa is the location
of the most heat-tolerant insect
the Sahara desert ant (Cataglyphis
bicolor). It can maintain its core body
temperature at approximately 56C for
an extended period of time, when the
surface temperature is 70C. Australia
also has a large number of plants and
animals that can survive the extreme
temperatures associated with deserts
these will be studied in the secondarysource investigations that follow.
Some organisms can withstand
(a)
the immense temperatures of fires.

Australian plants such as the banksia
rely on the intense temperature of
fires for seed release; and bottlebrush
trees have buds in a protected position
beneath the barkthese buds resprout
after fire.
In contrast to extreme heat, freezing
environments also provide extreme
conditions. Microbes including bacteria,
lichen (a symbiotic association between
algae and fungi) and fungi (yeasts)
have been found in environments
where the temperature range is 17C
to 20C. Some multicellular organisms,
such as the Arctic fox, can withstand
even colder temperatures such as
70C, having adaptations such as
countercurrent exchange and shunting
blood vessels within their limbs. Polar
bears can survive temperatures as cold
as 50C.
SR
Student
d t activity
ti it
temperature and living
things
Figure 1.14
Animals that live in
temperature extremes:
(a) arctic fox; (b) camel
(b)
23
22/5/08 8:38:41 AM
1.8
Temp
Temperature
regulation in ectothermic and
endot
endothermic organisms
compare responses of named Australian ectothermic

and endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient
temperature and explain how these responses assist
temperature regulation
The terms ectotherms and endotherms

relate to the ability of an animal to
regulate its body temperature. (Therm
relates to temperature; ecto means
outside and endo means within.)
Ectothermic organisms depend on an
external sourcethe environmentfor
heat energy. Fish, amphibians, reptiles
and most invertebrates fall into this
category. Endotherms rely on internal
sources such as metabolic activity for
heat energy. Birds and mammals are all
endothermic.
The ambient temperature is the
temperature of the environment
the air or water in the immediate
surroundings of an animal.
Ectothermic organisms
Under laboratory conditions, the body
temperature of ectotherms tends to
fluctuate (rise and fall) over a wider
range of temperaturesit is influenced
by the ambient temperature and the
organism has only a limited ability to
control its body temperature. In nature,
these organisms adapt their behaviour
to regulate their body temperature and
so if it is measured in the wild (using
a radio telemetry device), their body
temperature does not show as wide a
range of fluctuations.
The eastern brown snake
(Pseudonaja textilis) is found in hot,
dry areas of Australia, along the eastern
seaboard. Brown snakes are found
across most of Australia, inhabiting a
range of habitats from open grasslands
to desert scrub, but not in rainforest
areas.
Brown snakes are usually diurnal
(awake during the day), but may
become active at night if the daytime

temperature is too hot. If the ambient
temperature rises beyond the brown
snakes tolerance level, it will seek
shelter in the shade during the day
and become active in the later part of
the day when it is cooler, or even at
night. If the ambient temperature drops
below the optimum, snakes bask in the
sunlight to gain additional heat. In very
cool weather, the snake becomes less
active, slowing down its metabolism
and using fat reserves. If the cold
period is prolonged (e.g. in winter), the
snake will hibernate in a sheltered spot.
The central netted dragon
(Ctenophorus nuchalis) is an Australian
desert-adapted lizard that inhabits
central Australias plains and open
scrub. It is able to withstand variations
in body temperature from 13 to 44C.
In low ambient temperatures the dragon
will lie in the sunlight and alter its
body position to expose more of its
body surface area to the suns rays,
increasing its core body temperature.
Figure 1.15 Central netted dragon
24
21/5/08 1:09:13 PM
It shelters from cold winds and may

move out into the sun on warmer days.
If the ambient temperature rises above
its heat tolerance level, the central
netted dragon will retreat into the
shade of rocks and vegetation or into a
burrow and reduce its activity to avoid
overheating. It will then emerge at night
to hunt when it is cool.
Endothermic organisms
Under laboratory conditions and
in nature, the body temperature of
endothermic organisms tends to remain
stable (within a couple of degrees),
despite variation in the ambient
temperature. An endothermic organism
has the ability to control its body
temperature and maintain it at a stable
level within a very narrow range. If
the ambient temperature rises above
or drops below the animals tolerance
level, endothermic mammals and birds
are able to adjust their metabolic rate to
control heat loss.
In low ambient temperatures, the
main source of heat in the body of
endotherms is that generated as a
result of the metabolic activity of their
cells, particularly the muscle and liver
cells. The size of an animal also plays
a significant role in the regulation of
body temperaturea small body loses
heat much more quickly and so small
mammals often have a high metabolic
rate.
Some endotherms have special heatproducing tissue called brown fat,
which can be quickly metabolised in
cold conditions. The common bentwing
bat (Miniopterus schreibersii) produces
brown fat in late summer and through
autumn when food is abundant. In the
cold winter months, periods of torpor
can last up to 12 days. The brown fat
is metabolised and used to increase the
body temperature, allowing these bats
to fly after periods of torpor.
If the ambient temperature is high,
endotherms have a physiological
cooling mechanism as wellthe rate
of heat loss from the body can be

adjusted by altering the flow of blood
near the body surface. Evaporative
cooling such as sweating, panting or
licking saliva onto the body surface is
another common cooling mechanism.
Evaporative cooling brings with it the
risk of water loss. Animals that live
in hot, dry climates have to develop
mechanisms for cooling that do not
allow too great a loss of water.
Endotherms also show adaptations
in their behaviour to help regulate their
body temperature. Body temperature in
humans is approximately 37C and that
of birds is 40C (these may fluctuate
within about 1.5C).
The fairy penguin (Eudyptula
minor) is found along the southern
Australian coastline and in Tasmania
and New Zealand. It is the smallest of
all penguins and lives in burrows in
coastal sand dunes, not in the ice and
snow like most penguins. (For those
students living in or visiting Sydney,
the colonies of fairy penguins on the
harbourside at Manly are well worth
seeing.)
Fairy penguins have feathers that
provide an insulating layer; trapping a
layer of air close to the skin reduces
the amount of heat lost. This layer
of air can be altered depending on
the ambient temperature. In cold
conditions the feathers are lifted
away from the skin, increasing the air
layer and providing a greater degree
of insulation. In hotter conditions
the fairy penguins feathers lie flat
against the skin, trapping a smaller
amount of air. Penguins also have
behavioural mechanisms to regulate
body temperature, moving into the
water to cool down in hot conditions
or huddling close together in cold
conditions to reduce the surface area
of each penguin exposed to the cold.
They may also retreat to their burrows.
The mountain pygmy possum
(Burramys parvus) lives above
1400 metres in the alpine regions of
25
21/5/08 1:09:15 PM
Figure 1.16
Fairy penguins
south-eastern Australia. It has short

legs, a round body and small ears
with limited circulation, which assist
in minimising heat loss. In prolonged

cold during the winter months, they
hibernate and go into a state of
torporthe pygmy possums curl into
a ball, drawing all appendages (legs,
nose, ears and tail) in towards the body
to reduce the surface area exposed to
the cold. They also use a burrow to
shelter from the cold in shorter periods
of low ambient temperature.
To avoid overheating, mountain
pygmy possums are nocturnal
marsupialsduring the day they shelter
in rock crevices and this behaviour
allows them to avoid exposure to
excessive temperatures (and predators)
and to keep their metabolic rate low
during the heat of the day.
Adaptations and responses of Australian organisms

for temperature regulation
SECONDARY
S
EC
SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
INVE
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.3; H12.4
analyse information from secondary sources to describe

adaptations and responses that have occurred in
Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation
H13.1
H14.1
What is an adaptation?
SR
Student
d t activity
ti it
adaptation and
responses to change
Have you ever experienced what it is like to

spend winter outdoors in the freezing cold of
the Snowy Mountains, or summer in the hot, dry
desert regions of central Australia? Most of us
are not very comfortable at these temperatures,
yet indigenous Australian flora and fauna live
there year after year. These organisms are
able to do so because they are well suited
to their unusual environments, as a result of
evolutionary change by natural selectionthat
is, the process of adaptation. An adaptation
is a characteristic that increases the survival
and reproductive chances of an organism in its
environment.
Note: An adaptation is not a change that an
organism makes in response to the environment,
to help it survive. Adaptations usually begin as
variations that arise randomly in individuals and
have a genetic basis (i.e. they can be inherited).
Natural selection acts upon these variations,
so that those that suit the organism to its
environment are passed on within a population
survival of the fittest. (The genetic basis of
adaptation will be dealt with in more detail when

you cover evolution and genetics in Module 2.)
Adaptations can be divided into three major
groups: behavioural (the way an organism
acts), structural (the physical characteristics
of the organism) or physiological (the way the
organisms body functions). Organisms will
show a combination of adaptations to deal with
temperature regulation.
Behavioural adaptations
Behavioural adaptations are displayed by
both ectotherms and endotherms. The main
behavioural adaptation seen in animals is that
they alter the position of the body and increase
or decrease the amount of exposure of their
surface area to the sunlight. Many organisms will
seek shade or shelter in burrows if the ambient
temperate exceeds their tolerance level. Frillnecked lizards (Chlamydosaurus kingii) bask
in the sun until they reach an adequate core
body temperature and will then retreat into the
shade. During the hottest part of the day the
red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) will seek shade
and sit in a position where its hind legs and tail
are shaded by the rest of the bodythey are
26
21/5/08 1:09:16 PM
positioned at right angles to the body, with the

tail pointing forward, to reduce the large surface
area exposed to sun. The water-holding frog
(Cyclorana platycephala) retires to a burrow
in extreme temperature conditions. It survives
hot, dry conditions by living in burrows below
the surface. In extremely arid conditions, it lives
within a cocoon made from secreted mucus and
its cast-off skin, which is shed after rain and
then dries out, forming a waterproof covering.
This minimises exposure to heat as well as
reducing water loss and dehydration.
Nocturnal activity is another common
behavioural adaptation seen in animals that
live in habitats where the daytime temperature
is very hot. Nocturnal animals remain relatively
inactive during the heat of the day, so that they
do not generate additional metabolic body heat
as a result of increased activity. (Increased
activity must be supported by greater energy
production, which relies on a higher metabolic
rate.) Nocturnal activity is seen in many reptiles
and birds that inhabit hot, arid areas and the
few mammals that are able to survive desert
conditions (for example, the bilby, Macrotis
lagotis). Some organisms like the common
wombat (Vombatus ursinus) and the brown
snake are diurnal, but change their normal
active periods from daytime to night during hot
weather.
Migration is another behavioural adaptation
that can assist in the regulation of body
temperature. Migrating organisms physically
move to a different habitat that is within their
tolerance range. The grey plover (Pluvialis
squatarola) breeds in the Northern Hemisphere
between May and August and then migrates
to Australia over August and stays until April.
This migration allows the birds to avoid severe
(a)
weather during winter. (See the Student

Resource CD for additional information.)
As these migratory waterbirds inhabit many
countries, there is a need for international cooperation to recognise and to conserve these
species. Over the past 30 years, this has come
about through international conventions on
migratory species, and bilateral agreements
with Japan, China and more recently the
Republic of Korea have assisted with
conservation of the species and their habitats.
The flight path, East AsianAustralian Flyway,
launched in 2006, has also been acknowledged
as one of eight major waterbird flyways, which
cover 22 countries.
Structural adaptations
Structural adaptations that assist with
temperature control include insulation such as
fur, hair, feathers, insect scales and coats that
enable a layer of air to be trapped to reduce
the amount of heat lost. The feathers of the
emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) act as an
insulator to reduce heat gain or loss. Blubber
is another form of insulation to reduce heat
loss from organisms living in water, such as
the Australian fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus
doriferus). This significantly minimises heat
loss.
The surface area to volume ratio is also an
important structural component of temperature
regulation, as larger animals have a smaller
surface area to volume ratio, which means they
will not lose as much heat as smaller animals.
Larger animals such as the common wombat
(Vombatus ursinus) have large, compact bodies
that have relatively small surface areas from
which they can lose their internally produced
heat; therefore the wombat loses very little heat
(b)
Figure 1.17 (a) Red

kangaroos lying in a
shaded position;
(b) water-holding frog
27
21/5/08 1:09:18 PM
Figure 1.18 Bilby
to its surroundings, which is mostly helpful in

the cooler months.
Colouration of animals also assists
temperature regulation, since dark colours
absorb light (and associated heat) and so these
animals can tolerate colder temperatures (e.g.
the diamond-backed python, Morelia spilota).
Physiological adaptations
Physiological adaptations focus on the
inner body functions. Metabolic activity is
important for the functioning and the survival
of individuals, but this activity also generates
heat within the body. The rate of this activity
can be altered to ensure that an individual has
a better chance of surviving conditions below
or above their tolerance range for temperature.
Hibernation and torpor are examples where
organisms lower their metabolic rate to
conserve energy and, as a result, reduce the
amount of metabolic heat energy that they
generate within their own bodies. Another
advantage of hibernation and torpor is that
the organism requires very little food in this
state because it does not need to expend large
amounts of energy trying to regulate its body
temperature by other means (e.g. shivering or
sweating).
Hibernation is an extended period of
inactivity in response to cold, where the body
temperature does not drop below 30C, but
the heart rate and oxygen consumption drop
considerably. (Oxygen consumption is a good
indicator of metabolic activity involved in
generating energy.) Hibernation is a form of
mild torpor and is less intense, but may last for
a longer period of time.
A state of torpor is a short-term hibernation
where the body temperature drops much lower
(below 30C) and metabolism, heart rate and
respiratory rate decrease, accompanied by a
reduced response to external stimuli. Torpor
may be part of a daily cycle of temperature

change and, because the body temperature
drops to almost the same temperature as the
air around it, brings with it the advantage of a
slower metabolism, in addition to helping them
to conserve energy, which is in short supply as
they do not eat and drink in this state.
In contrast, the mountain pygmy possum
hibernates during cold winters to reduce the
amount of energy required to keep its body
warm.
The common wombat (Vombatus ursinus)
slows its metabolism down to a third of its
normal metabolic rate on hot days, particularly
when sheltering in its burrow. This is a useful
strategy, as wombats do not have sweat glands
to assist in heat loss.
Organisms can also regulate the blood
flow to increase or decrease the amount of
heat lost to the surroundings. Since blood
carries heat and usually the body temperature
of an organism is higher than that of its
surroundings, vasodilation of capillaries near
the skin surface increases the amount of heat
released. This mechanism is used in the red
kangaroo (along with a behavioural adaptation
of licking the forearm to increase heat loss as
the saliva evaporates). Blood flow can also be
increased or decreased at extremities to control
temperature. The bilby (Macrotis lagotis) has
an extensive network of capillaries throughout
the ear which aid in releasing heat to its
surroundings. Furthermore, a mechanism called
countercurrent exchange allows the warm blood
in arteries (flowing from the heart towards the
extremities) to heat the cooler blood in the veins
coming back from the cold extremities, before
this blood is returned to the heart. This occurs in
the feet of platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus)
as well as the fins of the Australian fur seal, so
that the internal core temperature is not lowered
by cool blood returning from limbs that have a
large surface area exposed to the cold water.
Change to colouration can occur in some
organisms in response to exposure to high or
low temperatures. As previously mentioned,
colour plays a role in temperature regulation
because darker colouration assists in the
absorption of light to gain heat. If the colour of
an organism can change, this enables it to live
and remain active over a wider temperature
range. For example, the male Australian alpine
grasshopper (Kosciuscola tristis), commonly
referred to as the chameleon grasshopper, is a
dark, almost black colour at temperatures below
15C (for example, during the cool parts of the
day such as morning) and as it basks in the sun
it becomes a paler blue colour to reflect light
and avoid overheating. Its blue colouration is
typically seen at temperatures above 25C.
28
21/5/08 1:09:19 PM
In addition to this physiological change

linked to behaviour, they also show other
behavioural methods of reducing overheating
such as seeking shade or exposing themselves
to wind. In this way the Australian alpine
grasshopper increases the amount of time that
it can be active during the day.
As is evident from the above examples,
some adaptations are a combination of
structural, behavioural and physiological
features. For example, a red kangaroo licks its
paws to cool itself down through the evaporation
of water on its skin. The location of many blood
vessels near the surface of the skin in the
forearms and paws is a structural adaptation;
the dilation of arterioles in hot conditions to
direct more blood flow through these vessels is
physiological; and the licking activity to impart
saliva for evaporative cooling is behavioural.
Task
1. Select TWO named Australian animals
that you will use for an in-depth study of
temperature regulation. One should be an
ectotherm and one an endotherm.
Some suggested examples are:
Australian ectothermsblue-tongue
lizard, water-holding frog, brown
snake, broad-headed snake, thorny
devil, Kangaroo Island tiger snake and
crocodile
Australian endothermsred kangaroo,
emu, duck-billed platypus and spinifex
hopping mouse.
2. Analyse information from secondary
sources relating to these animals and
then answer the questions on the Student
Resource CD. Read information in the
textbook (pages 2429) and on the Student
Resource CD, which are secondary sources.
Additional sources may be accessed,
depending on the organisms selected for

study.
See the Student Resource CD for discussion
questions.
Adaptations and responses
of Australian organisms for
temperature regulation:
http://www.environment.gov.au/events/iydd/
pubs/fauna.pdf
Australian desert-dwelling animals and their
adaptations
http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/
abstract/20/6/1278
Body-temperature regulation studies in
some Australian Aboriginal people and
investigating animals in extremes-polar
and desert environments
Temperature changes and responses in plants
identify some responses of plants to temperature change
Changes in temperature in the natural

environment of plants affect both
their functioning and their growth.
(Growth and temperature change is
dealt with on the Student Resource
CD.) Maintenance of a relatively
stable internal environment is just as
important for plant metabolism as
Figure 1.19
Australian alpine
grasshopper
(Kosciuscola tristis)
has blue colouring at
higher temperatures
and an almost
black colour at low
temperatures
TR
Skillprocessing and
analysing information
from secondary
sources
1.9
it is for animals. Plants respond to

changes in light, water availability
and temperature, all of which are
linked, since heat is often associated
with light (for example, the radiant
energy of sunlight) and hot areas are
often dry, compromising evaporative
coolinga plant needs to strike a fine
29
21/5/08 1:09:20 PM
balance between the risks of excess

water loss during cooling versus heat
build-up during water conservation.
Low availability of water may also be
associated with very cold temperatures,
since frozen water (ice and snow) is
not available for use by plants. In this
chapter, we deal with responses of
plants to temperature change, and in
Chapter 3 we deal with adaptations of
plants to assist in water conservation,
but these are closely linked.
Plant responses to high

temperatures
Temperatures above 40C may cause
damage to proteins and those above
75C to chlorophyll pigment within the
plant. Since plants cannot move into
the shade the way animals can, plant
responses to excessive temperature are
mostly structural and physiological:
Evaporative cooling (transpiration):
exposure to heat (and light)
causes the stomata in plants to
open, leading to a loss of water by
transpiration (evaporation of water
from the stomata of leaves). The
advantage of this water loss is that
it decreases the internal temperature
in plants by evaporative cooling.
However, the plants run the risk of
dehydration due to water loss and
so excessive heat in plants will cause
stomata to close. This poses the
threat of overheating. Plants have
developed adaptations to cope with
this (see Chapter 3).
Turgor responsewilting: some
plants respond with changes in
turgor pressure, which allows
them to reduce the exposure of
their surface area to the sun and
its associated heat and light, for
example a wilting response. In
extreme heat, plants transpire and
lose turgor in the palisade cells of
leaves; as a result the leaves wilt,
reducing the surface area that is
exposed to the sun. If water is
available to the plant, this wilting is
temporary, but, if not, permanent

wilting followed by death will
occur. Many exotic plants that are
introduced into Australia do not
have adaptations that are favourable
for the dry climate and so they wilt
in hot temperatures. Examples are
hydrangeas, peace lilies and roses
(see Fig. 1.20).
Leaf orientation: to overcome
the problems of overheating and
excessive water loss, some plants,
for example eucalypts, are able
to change the orientation of their
leaves so that they hang vertically
downwards in hot weather. This
reduces the surface area that is
exposed to the sun during the heat
of the noonday sun. The flat part of
the leaf blade, with its large surface
area, is exposed to the less intense
rays of the early morning and late
afternoon sun, but in the middle
of the day when the sun is at its
hottest, the suns rays strike the
thin edge near the leaf stalk of the
vertical leaves.
In addition, eucalypts regulate
the times of stomata opening and
closing: during the cooler early
morning and late afternoon, stomata
are open for photosynthesis and
transpiration can also occur to keep
the internal temperature down, but
when the temperatures increase to a
level that causes water stress to the
plant, the stomata will close.
Leaf fall: many trees lose their leaves
during the cold winter months, but
eucalypts are evergreen trees that
drop some of their leaves during
the dry season in hot climates to
reduce the surface area exposed to
absorb heat. This also reduces the
risk of losing too much water by
transpiration.
Reseeding and resprouting
in response to extreme high
temperaturesfire: in Australia,
one of the extreme temperature
changes plants have to respond to
30
21/5/08 1:09:22 PM
Figure 1.20
Orientation of the
leaves of a eucalypt
to the rays of the
sun over a period of
12 hours
small surface area of

leaves exposed to suns
rays in heat of midday
sun
12 noon
sun
6 am
sun
6 pm
large surface area of

rays in cool morning
6 am
large surface area of

rays in cool late afternoon
12 noon
is caused by bushfires. Plants have

two general responses that ensure
their survival after the firethey
may resprout or release seeds.
Resprouters, such as the bottle
brush, tea trees and eucalypts, have
epicormic buds underneath the bark
that are protected from damage by
a fire and then resprout; or they
may have lignotubers, which are
underground and sprout new growth
after the fire.
Seeders release seeds into
the environment after the plant is
exposed to extreme heat. Some
plants (for example, banksias) have
seed pods that need to be exposed
to fire to release their seeds),
whereas other plants (for example,
eucalypts) release their seeds from
the top of the canopy in response to
the intense heat.
Thermogenic plants: biologists have
been surprised to discover that there
are some flowers that are able to
heat up by altering their metabolic
rates when the ambient temperature
drops. An example is the bud of
the sacred lotus, Nelumbo nucifera
6 pm
(found in Asia and Australia), which

maintains a steady temperature of
32C (see the Student Resource CD).
Plant responses to cold

temperatures
Plants have several responses to cold
temperatures:
Organic anti-freeze : it is often the
water between cells that freezes
first, posing the greatest risk of
damage to plants. Plants that inhabit
environments where the ambient
temperature is extremely cold,
for example in alpine areas, have
strategies to reduce the risk of ice
forming within the cells. Some
produce organic compounds that
act as an anti-freeze substance,
reducing the temperature at which
the cytoplasm or cell sap in the
vacuole freezes. (Biologists are
currently researching a gene in the
Antarctic hairgrass plant, which has
the ability to inhibit the growth of
ice crystals, preventing the plant
from freezing and dying, with a view
to genetically engineering other
31
21/5/08 1:09:23 PM
Figure 1.21 (a) The

sacred lotus flower,
Nelumbo nucifera;
(b) fire resistant woody
fruits
Figure 1.22
Deciduous trees lose
their leaves in winter
(a)
plants to increase their tolerance to

coldsee the Student Resource CD.)
Dormancy: in response to cold
temperatures, deciduous trees
lose their leaves in winter (leaf
(b)
fall) and undergo a period of

dormancy, which allows them to
survive not only the extremely low
temperatures, but also the water
shortages and lower availability of
sunlight. For example, the deciduous
beech (Nothofagus gunnii), found
in Tasmania, is the only indigenous
Australian deciduous tree. It loses
its leaves in late April and May after
they turn into a range of autumn
colours. The abscission (falling off)
of leaves occurs in response to the
shortening of days in autumn. The
decreased period of daylight leads
to a waterproof layer forming at the
base of each leaf. Without water,
photosynthesis cannot occur and
the pigment anthocyanin becomes
visible as chlorophyll declines,
giving the leaves their spectacular
colourings.
To survive long periods of very
low temperatures, some plants may
produce seeds or spores, or the
plant parts above the ground may
die off, while the parts beneath
the ground remain dormant, ready
32
21/5/08 1:09:28 PM
to grow again when the warmer

weather returns.
The alpine ash uses seed
dormancy to allow it to withstand
colder temperatures at higher
altitudes than other species.
Vernalisation: some plants flower
in response to low temperatures;
for example, tulip bulbs must be
exposed to between 6 weeks and
3 months of intense cold before they
will flower. Australian gardeners
often mimic this effect by removing
tulip bulbs from the ground in
winter and storing them in the

refrigerator, before replanting them
in spring, to ensure that they flower.
Many responses of plants to
temperature change (such as leaf
fall and flowering) are the result of
temperature and/or light changing
the concentration of chemical growth
regulators in plants. Responding to
temperature change and the regulation
of internal temperatures is important
not only for the individual plant,
but also for the continuation of the
species.
SR
Additionall iinformation
f
ti
on plant responses to
temperature changes
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Describe the importance of homeostasis in living organisms.
2. Describe the role of receptors in homeostasis.
3. Explain,
Explain using an example, what is meant by a negative feedback mechanism and its importance
in living systems.
4. Explain the relationship between metabolic rate and temperature regulation in birds and mammals.
SR
TR
5. Describe the advantage to ectotherms of allowing their body temperature to fluctuate with the
ambient temperature, especially at low temperatures.
6. Draw a graph to illustrate the differences in body temperatures recorded in an ectothermic reptile
and an endothermic mammal who are subjected to environmental temperatures that increase
steadily (in 10C increments) over a period of time from 10C to 40C. What is the optimum
temperature range for an endotherm?
Answers to revision
questions
7. Identify whether each of the following is a structural, behavioural or physiological response or

adaptation to assist in heat gain or heat loss and explain how it assists temperature regulation in
living organisms. Give an example of an animal that exhibits each. (Answer in the form of a table.)
Type of response or
adaptation
Example of animal in
which it occurs
Explanation
(a) Animal curls in a ball,

limbs drawn in
(b) Large, thin ears
(c) Burrowing
(d) Basking in the sun
(e) Shivering
(f ) Panting
(g) Red face
(h) Lips and nose appear blue
(i) Thick fur
33
21/5/08 1:09:33 PM
CHAPTER 2
Transportdissolved nutrients and gases

Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and
gases in a fluid medium
Both plants and animals require a
transport system to distribute food
and oxygen to active cells and to
remove carbon dioxide and any
other waste products that may
accumulate.
Unicellular organisms and small
multicellular organisms rely on the
processes of diffusion, osmosis and
active transport of substances directly
between the surface of the organism
and the environment. However, in most
multicellular organisms, transport of
substances in this way is not adequate,
due to their large surface area:volume
ratio. The distance that substances
must move between the centre of the
body of a large organism and its outer
surface is too large to rely simply on
diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
Therefore specialised transport systems
have developed in complex plants and
animals to carry substances.
The common features of a transport
system are:
1. a suitable transport medium (fluid)
2. the presence of vessels in which
substances can be carried
3. a driving mechanism to ensure

that substances move in the correct
direction.
Plants produce their own food in
leaves and this food must be carried,
in a dissolved form, to all parts of the
plant. Chemical substances that are
needed for photosynthesis (such as
water and dissolved salts) must be
carried from the roots, where they enter
the plant, to the leaves where they will
be used (see Fig. 2.23 on page 65).
The transport tissue in plants is known
as the vascular tissue and consists of
xylem and phloem. (The term vascular
means composed of vessels.)
In animals, transport of chemicals
occurs in a fluid medium (such as
blood) and the same fluid circulates
around the body. The role of the
transport system is to pick up nutrients
(such as digested foods and oxygen)
and distribute them to parts of the body
where they are needed, as well as to
remove wastes (such as carbon dioxide
and/or nitrogenous waste products)
from the cells and carry the wastes to
excretory organs where they can be
Table 2.1 Transport systems in plants and animals

Vessels
Plants
Animals
(mammals)
Transport medium
(fluid)
Driving mechanism
Phloem
Dissolved sugars
(organic nutrients)
Pressure flow
Xylem
Water and dissolved

inorganic salts
Transpiration stream
Arteries, capillaries
and veins
Blood
Pumping heart
(and muscle contraction)
34
28/5/08 2:21:22 PM
TRANSPORTDISSOLVED NUTRIENTS AND GASES
removed from the body. In mammals,

the transport system is known as the
cardiovascular system, made up of
a pump (the heart) to move the blood

in the correct direction and a series of
vessels (see Fig. 2.20 on page 57).
Blood as a medium of transport

Blood is a fluid transport medium that
flows through the heart and blood
vessels of the transport (cardiovascular)
system in all vertebrates and some
invertebrates. It is a complex fluid
which consists of blood plasma and
blood cells (see Fig. 2.1). If whole blood
is spun in a centrifuge, it separates
into its component parts: 45% cells and
55% watery plasma. At the bottom of
the tube, the heavier cells settle out
and appear dark red in colour, due to
the presence of red blood cells. The
fluid part or plasma is lighter in colour
(a pale yellow) and contains many
substances dissolved or suspended
in it.
The transport function of

blood
Blood is the main transport medium
of the body. In the previous chapter
we learnt that blood distributes heat
around the bodyhuman blood usually
has a temperature of 38C (it carries
heat and so is 1C higher than body
temperature) and a pH of 7.35 (slightly
alkaline). The volume of blood in
the human body varies slightly from
one person to the next, but an adult
human has approximately 5 litres of
blood. For the normal functioning of
the body and its enzymes, these levels
of temperature, pH and blood volume
must be carefully maintained.
plasma
(percentage
by weight)
proteins 7%
percentage body weight
percentage
by volume
other fluids
and tissues 92%
centrifuge
2.1
plasma
55%
blood 8%
formed
elements
45%
albumins
58%
Figure 2.1
Composition of blood
globulins
38%
fibrinogen
4%
water 91%
ions
nutrients
waste
products
gases
other
solutes 2%
regulatory
substances
formed elements
(number per
cubic mm)
platelets
platelets
250400 thousand
white blood cells
59 thousand
leukocytes
(white blood cells)
red blood cells

4.26.2 million
erythrocytes
(red blood cells)
35
28/5/08 2:21:24 PM
Blood also carries nutrients required

by the body, wastes to be excreted from
the body, gases, and other chemicals
such as control substances (hormones),
infection-fighting chemicals
(antibodies), clotting factors and many
more.
The composition of blood

Blood cells
Blood contains three main types of

cells: red blood cells, white blood
cells and platelets. All blood cells are
produced in bone marrow.
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
Figure 2.2 The shape

and dimensions of a
red blood cell
There are approximately 46 million

red blood cells per millilitre (mL) of
blood and their main function is to
transport oxygen. Red blood cells form
in bone marrow; at first each cell has
a nucleus, but as the cell matures, the
nucleus disappears and a red pigment
called haemoglobin develops inside
the cell. As a result of the absence of a
nucleus, the mature red blood cells are
small, with a diameter of approximately
7 m (micrometres). (See Fig. 2.2.)
Red blood cells are round, but they are
biconcave rather than sphericalthat
is, they are slightly flattened towards
the centre (similar to a Fruit Tingle
lolly). The front cover of this textbook
and Figure 2.3b show scanning electron
micrographs of blood cells. Red blood
cells have a lifespan of approximately
4 months and when they die they are
broken down and replaced by newly
formed blood cells from the bone
marrow.
7.5 m
2.0 m
top view
side view
Haemoglobin is an iron-containing
protein molecule that gives red blood
cells their colour. It consists of two
parts: a protein, globin, and a pigmental
iron compound called the haem group.
Iron is therefore essential for the
formation and maturation of red blood
cells. Haemoglobin has an affinity for
oxygen and readily combines with it to
from oxyhaemoglobin. Haemoglobin
releases oxygen easily in areas of
low oxygen concentration. Red blood
cells are also able to transport a small
amount of carbon dioxide in the blood
and they help to maintain the pH
balance of the blood.
White blood cells (leucocytes)
White blood cells, also produced in

bone marrow, function as part of the
immune system. Their main role is
to protect the body against invading
organisms. There are approximately
400011 000 white blood cells per
mL of human blood (with higher
levels often indicative of an infection.
Leukaemia, a form of cancer of the
white blood cells, also greatly elevates
the white blood cell count). White
blood cells are larger than red blood
cells (about 50% bigger) and not as
abundant. All white blood cells have a
nucleus; in some white blood cells it
may be an unusual shape (see Fig. 2.1
and 2.3b). In prepared microscope
slides of blood, the staining technique
imparts a purple colour to the
nucleuslook out for this in the firsthand investigation that follows.
Platelets (thrombocytes)
Platelets are fragments of special cells,

also produced in the bone marrow.
They are disc-shaped, about half the
size of red blood cells and there are
about 400 000 per mL of blood. Platelets
function in the clotting of bloodthey
stick to each other and to blood fibres
at the site of a wound. This contact
causes them to break open and they
release an enzyme, thromboplastin,
36
28/5/08 2:21:26 PM
which sets in progress a sequence

of steps to seal the blood vessels
and cause blood to clot, preventing
excessive blood loss.
Plasma
Plasma, the yellow, watery fluid part

of blood, consists of about 90% water
and the other 10% consists mainly
of proteins. Plasma makes up most
of the volume of blood and it carries
many substances in either dissolved or
suspended form. It carries:
plasma proteins: clotting factors,
immunoglobulins (antibodies to fight
infections) and albumen, as well as
enzymes
nutrients: the end products
of digestionamino acids (from
digested proteins), glucose
(from digested carbohydrates),
glycerol and fatty acids (from

digested lipids) and cholesterol
gases: oxygen and carbon dioxide
excretory waste products:
nitrogenous wastes such as urea,
uric acid and ammonia
ions (mainly sodium chloride and
calcium and magnesium phosphates)
regulatory substances such as
hormoneschemical messenger
molecules involved in the
co-ordination of body systems
other substances such as vitamins.
Blood serum is plasma without
the clotting proteins (it still contains
antibodies).
SR
TR
Student worksheetthe
composition of blood
Figure 2.3
(a) A standard blood
smear showing blood
cells under a light
microscope; (b) a
scanning electron
micrograph of blood
cells (red cells, white
cells and platelets)
(b)
(a)
Estimating the size of red and white blood cells
perform a first-hand investigation using the light

microscope and prepared slides to gather information to
estimate the size of red and white blood cells and draw
scaled diagrams of each
Background information:
measurement in science
Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch lens maker
and early microscopist, provided one of the
first precise descriptions of red blood cells in
the late 1600s, even approximating their size:

25 000 times smaller than a fine grain of sand.
To do this, he would have had to understand the
magnifying power of the microscope and lenses
that he was using.
Many advances in microscopy have been
FIRST-HAND
INVESTIGATION
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.1; H12.2; H12.4
H13.1
H14.1; H14.2
(Extension activity:
H14.3)
37
28/5/08 2:21:27 PM
SR
Guidedd investigation
i
ti ti
estimating the size of
red and white blood
cells
TR
Teaching strategy
estimating the size of
objects
made since then and accurate measurements

of the size of microscopic structures are now
commonly made, but this involves the use of
fairly sophisticated laboratory equipment to
obtain precise measurements and to keep the
margin of error to a minimum.
All measurement is an approximation
and involves using a measuring instrument,
such as a ruler or scale, which is calibrated to
compare the object to some standard (such as
a millimetre). Measurement can therefore be
thought of as a ratio.
In this investigation, students are required
to estimate the size of blood cells. It is possible
to do this using simple equipment such as
a light microscope and a plastic ruler, or by
using a mini-grid slide (which has with smaller
calibrations on it) in place of a ruler. The
smaller or more precise calibrations give a
more accurate estimate of the diameter field
of view.
Precision, reliability and accuracy
TR
General resources
drawings in biology
and answers to
investigation
To carry out this procedure successfully,

students must understand the difference
between the focusing power of each lens of the
microscope. The accuracy of the results relies in
part on how precisely you can estimate the size
of the diameter of the field of view, as well as
on your ability to observe and count how many
red blood cells fit across the diameter. Since
measurement is a ratio, in our investigation we
will estimate the ratio of the size of a red blood
cell:the size of the diameter of the microscopic
field of view and the size of a white blood
cell:the size of a red blood cell.
Students need to take into account
limitations in the accuracy of the measurements
that they make. To do this, consider three
aspects of measurement: the precision of the
measurement, the margin of error and the
confidence levelthat is, the probability that
what has been estimated actually falls within
an acceptable margin of error. For example,
you may measure the length of an object as
1.5 cm, plus or minus 0.5 mm, with a 95% level
of confidence.
To comment on the reliability and accuracy
of your results, it is wise to compare them with:
estimates made by other students in the
class who are using similar equipment
(reliability), and
the expected values in scientific literature

(accuracy), since the latter has been
measured with more advanced and precise
equipment.
Aim
To estimate the size of red blood cells and white
blood cells seen with a light microscope.
Materials
Light microscope.
Prepared slides of human blood.
Plastic ruler, or graph paper or a mini-grid
slide.
Pencil and drawing paper.
Safety: Use commercially prepared microscope
slides of blood and not fresh blood, to eliminate
the risk of contracting blood-borne disease.
Students should prepare a table to outline
safety precautions when using a microscope.
Method
(see Guided Investigation on Student Resource
CD)
1. Estimate the field of view under low
power.
Place the mini-grid (or transparent ruler) on
the microscope stage and view under the
10 objective.
Use the grid/ruler to estimate the diameter
of the field of view in mm and m (1 mm =
1000 m) (see Fig. 2.4).
2. Calculate the field of view under high
power.
Rotate the high power objective lens into
place.
Calculate the field of view: low power =
100; high power = 400;
high power field of view = 100/400
3. Estimate the size (diameter) of a red
blood cell.
View a prepared slide of a blood smear
under high power on the microscope.
Distinguish between the numerous small red
blood cells and the few, larger white blood
cells. (See the Student Resource CD for
further guidance.)
4. Estimate the size of a red blood cell by
counting or estimating the approximate
number of red blood cells that would fit
across the diameter of the field of view
(using 400 magnification). Using this
38
28/5/08 2:21:29 PM
Focus on large grid under s100.
field of view
grid line
at edge
of field
diameter of
field of view
1 mm
Place blood smear under low power

then high power. Estimate number of
blood cells across diameter.
EXAMPLE ONLY
(Do not use these figures
in your practical)
0.6 mm
Count: 55 red blood cells

400 Mm (diameter of field of view)
55
(number of red blood cells)
= 7.3 Mm = estimated size of one
red blood cell
grid lines on ruler

or minigrid slide
Mag. s100 (low power)
Field = 160 Mm
2
Focus under s400cannot see

grid, therefore need to calculate.
Mag. s400 (high power)

160 Mm
Field =
= 400 Mm diameter
4
Figure 2.4 The sequence of steps to estimate
the size of the field of view
number and the known diameter for the field

of view, calculate the size of each blood cell.
(See Fig. 2.5.)
5. Assess accuracy and reliability.
Repeat this process three times, using
different areas of the blood smear for
each estimate (reliability) and find an
average size for red blood cells.
Compare your estimate with the actual
size (see above) to assess reliability.
6. Estimate the size of white blood cells.

Since there are so few white blood cells,
it is not possible to count the number
of white cells across the diameter and
much more difficult to estimate how
many would fit across the diameter.
Another method of estimating their size
is to compare their proportions with that
of red blood cells. Use this estimate to
then calculate their size.
Repeat the process with three different
white blood cells and obtain an average.
7. Draw a scale diagram of each type of
blood cell as follows:
(a) Draw a line of a particular length (e.g.
1 cm or 2 cm). This will be your scale bar
that represents 10 m.
(b) Using this scale, draw a red blood cell
and white blood cell, representing the
average size of each cell to scale.
(c) Label all parts of each cell.
8. Record the results.
Record all estimates and working for any
calculations and scientific diagrams.
Figure 2.5 Estimating

the size of a red blood
cell
Results
Record all results appropriately (see the
Student Resource CD for a worksheet).
Discussion and conclusion

Answer all discussion questions on the Student
Resource CD. Re-read the aim and use your
results to arrive at a valid conclusion.
39
28/5/08 2:21:30 PM
2.2
Chemic substances and how they are transported

Chemical
in blood
Chemicals in the blood
identify the form(s) in which each of the following is

carried in mammalian blood:
carbon dioxide
oxygen
water
salts
lipids
nitrogenous waste
other products of digestion
Blood plays an important role in

homeostasis in the body, distributing
heat and acting as a buffer to
maintain pH levels. It is an extremely
complex tissue of the body and also
functions in the transport of a wide
variety of chemical substances. To
maintain homeostasis, chemicals being
transported in the blood must be
maintained at a particular concentration
and carried in a specific form that will
not affect the balance in the internal
environment of the body.
If the normal balance of substances
in the blood is altered, conditions such
as low blood sugar levels or high
blood pressure will arise, bringing
with them unpleasant and sometimes
dangerous side effects, which are an
indication that metabolic functioning
has been compromisedhomeostasis
therefore also relies on maintaining
a balance of chemicals within the
blood.
Blood gases
All living cells in the body require

oxygen and produce carbon dioxide
oxygen is required for the process of
cellular respiration and carbon dioxide
is produced as a waste product. These
gases are carried in particular forms
within the plasma or red blood cells
of blood, so that the pH and fluid
concentrations remain stable.
Oxygen transport
When oxygen diffuses across the

respiratory surface of the lung into the
blood, most of it (98.5%) combines
reversibly with haemoglobin inside the
red blood cells. A very small proportion
(no more than 1.5%) may travel
dissolved in the plasma.
Red blood cells are ideally
adapted to carrying oxygenthey
contain no nucleus, providing ample
place for the carrying of many large
respiratory pigment molecules called
haemoglobin. Haemoglobin has an
affinity for (is chemically attracted
to) oxygen. The slightly flattened,
biconcave shape of red blood cells
gives them a larger surface area:volume
ratio for easy diffusion of oxygen
across the surface. Each red blood cell
contains approximately 250 million
molecules of haemoglobin, resulting in
a very high oxygen carrying capacity.
When blood in the lungs comes into
contact with oxygen that has entered
the body by diffusion, haemoglobin
in the red blood cells binds with this
oxygen, forming a compound called
oxyhaemoglobin. This compound
gives a bright red colour to blood, as
opposed to the dark red appearance
of blood when oxygen is lacking
deoxygenated haemoglobin is not as
bright in colour. Most (but not all)
arteries carry bright red oxygenated
40
28/5/08 2:21:43 PM
blood, whereas most venous blood is

a dark red colour. On colour diagrams
in biology, oxygenated blood is
usually represented in red, whereas
deoxygenated blood is represented
using the colour blue. This blood is
not really blue, but a dark red. Veins
beneath the skin may appear blue, but
this is a combination of the dark red
blood within the white-yellow vessel
wall.
(Details of the structure of
haemoglobin and its interaction with
oxygen are dealt with in more detail
on page 43 in the section The adaptive
advantage of haemoglobin.)
Carbon dioxide transport
When carbon dioxide enters the

blood, most (70%) of it is transported
in the form of hydrogen carbonate
ionsformed in the red blood
cells, but carried in the plasma. The
remaining carbon dioxide is carried
either dissolved in the plasma (7%) or it
is carried combined with haemoglobin
(23%).
Carbon dioxide, produced as a waste
product of respiration, diffuses from the
cells of the body into the bloodstream.
When carbon dioxide enters the
bloodstream, some of it dissolves in the
plasma. Since carbon dioxide mixed
with water forms carbonic acid, it is not
ideal for all of the carbon dioxide to
dissolve in the plasma, since this would
affect the pH of blood. Instead, a large
proportion of the carbon dioxide enters
the red blood cells. Once there, one of
two things happens:
1. Most of the carbon dioxide mixes
with water in the cytoplasm within
the blood cells and forms carbonic
acid. This is rapidly converted
to hydrogen carbonate ions
(bicarbonate ions). These hydrogen
carbonate ions then move out of the
red blood cells into the blood
plasma and 70% of carbon dioxide is
transported in this form. This can be
summarised as:
carbon dioxide + water carbonic

acid hydrogen carbonate +
buffered hydrogen ions
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3 + H+
2. Some carbon dioxide binds
to haemoglobin, forming
carbaminohaemoglobin.
Haemoglobin does not bind to
carbon dioxide in the same way
that it binds oxygen. Oxygen binds
to the iron atom of haemoglobin,
whereas carbon dioxide binds to
the amino group of the protein
partthe globin molecule, forming
carbaminohaemoglobin. As
with oxygen, this is a reversible
reaction and many carbon dioxide
molecules can combine with a single
Figure 2.6 The
transport of carbon
dioxide within the blood
tissue cell
CO2 produced
CO2 transport
from tissues
interstistial CO
2
fluid
blood plasma
within capillary
CO2
H2O
red
blood
cell
capillary
wall
CO2
H2CO3
carbonic acid
HCO3 +
bicarbonate
Hb
haemoglobin
picks up
CO2 and H+
H+
HCO3
to lungs
CO2 transport HCO3

to lungs
HCO3 + H+
H2CO3
H2O
Hb
haemoglobin
releases
CO2 and H+
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
CO2
alveolar space in lung
41
28/5/08 2:21:44 PM
haemoglobin molecule. Only 23% of

carbon dioxide is carried in this form.
Water and salts
Figure 2.7 Transport

of lipids: (a) micelle;
(b) absorption of
the end products of
digestion
Water is the medium of transport of

all substances in the body. It forms
the basis of the cytoplasm in all cells,
the interstitial fluids (tissue fluids)
surrounding cells and blood and lymph
(the transport fluids in animals). About
90% of blood plasma is water. The
other 10% is made up mostly of various
kinds of protein molecules, as well as
other substances, including hormones,
vitamins, end products of digestion and
salts.
Salts are carried in blood as ions
(charged particles) dissolved in the
plasma. For example, the salt sodium
chloride (NaCl) is carried as positively
charged sodium ions (Na+) and
negatively charged chloride ions (Cl)
in solution in the watery medium of
the plasma. Substances (such as salts)
that become ions in solution are often
referred to as electrolytes, because of
their capacity to conduct electricity.
The balance of the electrolytes in our
bodies is essential for normal function
of our cells and our organs. Common
electrolytes found in blood include
sodium, potassium, chloride and
bicarbonate.
amino
acids
lumen of the intestine

fat droplets
glucose
fat
micelle
(a) lipid transport
epithelial
cells
phospholipid
protein
lacteal
ch-esters surface
lipid
micelles
blood
capillaries
chylomicron
chylomicron
remnants
triglycerides
chylomicron
100-1000nm
(b) absorption of end
products of digestion
Lipids and other products of

digestion
The aim of digestion is to break large

molecules down to a size small enough
for absorption through the intestine
wall and into the bloodstream, so that
they can be transported to cells in the
body where they are required. The
digestion of large organic molecules
to their smaller end products is
summarised below:
large organic
compound
carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
(fats and oils)
nucleic acids
end product
of digestion
glucose (simple
sugars)
amino acids
fatty acids and
glycerol
nucleotides
Glucose and amino acid transport
Glucose and amino acids are watersoluble and so they are transported
in the bloodstream dissolved in the
plasma, along with other soluble
substances, such as nitrogenous bases,
vitamins and glycerol, absorbed from
the digestive tract.
Lipid transport
Lipids pose a problem in terms of

transport, since most of the end
products of digestion are insoluble
in water and therefore cannot be
carried dissolved in plasma. A small
proportion of fatty acids and glycerol
are soluble and enter the bloodstream
directly, but most need to be packaged
into small droplets, which pass into
the lymphatic system and then into the
bloodstream.
End products of lipid digestion that
are insoluble in water are transported
as small spherical particles called
micelles. These are transported
in colloidal solutiona mixture
somewhere between a true solution
and a suspensionin the body fluid
(see Fig. 2.7).
42
28/5/08 2:21:46 PM
The absorption of the end products

of lipid digestion differs from that of
amino acids and glucose, because they
pass into lacteals inside the villi of the
small intestine instead of being absorbed
directly into blood capillaries. During
their absorption, they are processed to
form micelles called chylomicrons
and it is in this form that they are
transported. The lacteals, carrying
chylomicrons, are part of the lymphatic
circulation and these eventually join the
main blood supply by emptying into
veins in the region of the shoulders.
Nitrogenous wastes
Nitrogenous wastes are harmful

substances produced in the body
as a result of the breakdown of
proteins. These substances need to
be transported in a diluted form, from
cells where they are produced to the
excretory organs where they can be
eliminated from the body. Nitrogenous
wastes in the form of ammonia, urea,
uric acid and creatinine are all carried
dissolved in blood plasma.
The adapative advantage of haemoglobin
explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin
The structure of haemoglobin

Haemoglobin is a protein made up
of four polypeptide chains (called
globins) and each is bonded to a haem
(iron-containing) group. Each haem is
a red pigment molecule and the iron
necessary for haemoglobin formation
is obtained from the diet. Since small
amounts of iron are lost from the body
regularly in waste products like urine
and faeces (and people lose more iron
when they lose blood), a regular supply
of dietary iron is necessary to maintain
haemoglobin in red blood cells.
A lack of iron in the diet may lead to
a condition known as anaemia, where
there are too few red blood cells or the
blood cells that are present are unable
to carry sufficient oxygen.
The adaptive advantage of

haemoglobin
Haemoglobin has the adaptive

advantage of being able to increase
the oxygen-carrying capacity of
blood. Haemoglobin molecules
each contain four haem units,
giving one haemoglobin molecule
the ability to bond with four
oxygen molecules and so far more
2.3
oxygen can be carried in blood

cells by haemoglobin (1000 million
molecules of oxygen) than could be
carried dissolved in plasma.
Haemoglobin has a further adaptive
advantage because its ability to
bind oxygen increases once the first
oxygen molecule binds to it. The
bonding of each oxygen molecule
causes the haemoglobin to change
slightly in shape, making it easier for
every subsequent oxygen molecule
to bind to it. This increases the rate
and efficiency of oxygen uptake. As
a result, a very small increase in the
oxygen concentration in the lungs
can result in a large increase in the
oxygen saturation of blood. For
example during exercise, we breathe
more deeply and rapidly, increasing
the oxygen intake into the lungs and
this causes an increased uptake of
oxygen by haemoglobin.
Another adaptive advantage of
haemoglobin is that its capacity
to release oxygen increases when
carbon dioxide is present. It is
important for haemoglobin to
combine with oxygen at respiratory
surfaces, but equally important for it
to release the oxygen freely from the
43
28/5/08 2:21:52 PM
(a)
(b)
haem
group
oxygen
% saturation of blood with oxygen
100
(a)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
8
10 12
2
4
6
partial pressure of oxygen/kPa
100
% saturation of blood with oxygen
Figure 2.8
(a) Structure of
haemoglobin molecule,
made up of four
protein chains, each
with an iron-containing
haem group; (b) the
binding of oxygen to a
haem group
blood in tissues where the oxygen

concentration is low, so that oxygen
is delivered to the cells that need
it. Metabolising cells release carbon
dioxide, which combines with
water to from carbonic acid and this
lowers the pH. Haemoglobin has
the adaptive advantage of a reduced
affinity for oxygen at a lower pH
and so it releases the oxygen in
these tissues where it is needed.
(This is known as the Bohr effect).
(See Fig. 2.9.)
In the tissues of the body, once
haemoglobin has released oxygen,
it has an increased ability to pick
up carbon dioxide. In the lungs,
as haemoglobin binds to oxygen,
the haemoglobin releases carbon
dioxide more easily.
The fact that haemoglobin is
enclosed in a red blood cell is also
of advantage because if it were
simply dissolved in the plasma,
oxygen would upset the osmotic
balance of the plasma.
90
80
70
2
3
60
50
40
30
1 2.7 kPa CO2
20
2 6.7 kPa CO2
10
3 10.6 kPa CO2
0
(b)
2
4
6
8
10 12
partial pressure of oxygen/kPa
Figure 2.9 (a) Oxygen saturation of blood as the

concentration of oxygen increases; (b) the change
in the oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin as
the carbon dioxide concentration changes
2.4
Oxygen, carbon dioxide and cell functioning

Oxygen
outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain

why removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential
The need for oxygen by cells and why carbon dioxide must be
removed
Oxygen is necessary for cellular
respiration, a process by which cells
obtain energy from glucose. Energy is

needed for life-sustaining processes
44
28/5/08 2:21:53 PM
such as growth, repair of tissues,

movement, excretion and reproduction.
Although glucose and other food
molecules are energy rich, the energy
stored in them must be converted into
a form that living cells can use for
metabolism. Oxygen combines with
glucose in a sequence of enzymecontrolled steps during cellular
respiration to release chemical energy
as ATP, the form of chemical energy
needed by cells for their metabolism.
This is called the oxidation of glucose
and it takes place in all living cells.
Carbon dioxide is produced in
cells as a waste product of chemical
respiration. It must be removed from
cells to prevent a change in pH in the
cells, bloodstream and body. When
carbon dioxide reacts with water (in the

cytoplasm of cells or in the plasma of
blood), it forms carbonic acid. A buildup of carbonic acid is toxic, as it lowers
the pH of the cells and bloodstream,
affecting the homeostatic balance
within an organism. A low (acidic)
pH would prevent enzymes from
functioning optimally and this affects
cell functioning by reducing metabolic
efficiency in the body. Therefore the
removal of carbon dioxide is essential
for the optimal functioning of enzymes.
The first-hand investigation that
follows (The effect of carbon dioxide
on the pH of water) provides evidence
of the effect of carbon dioxide in
solution in the body.
The effect of carbon dioxide on the pH of water
perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the

effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water
Carbon dioxide is produced in living organisms

as a result of cellular respiration. When carbon
dioxide dissolves in water it forms carbonic acid,
which is toxic to cells. All organisms get rid of
carbon dioxide as quickly as possible, before it
can interfere with the chemical activities of their
cells.
This investigation involves two stepsfirst, it
must be demonstrated that the gas being used
for the investigation is carbon dioxide and,
second, the carbon dioxide must be bubbled
through water of known pH, to investigate
whether the carbon dioxide has any effect on
the pH of the water.
1. To demonstrate the presence of carbon
dioxide, one of two standard tests using
the chemical limewater may be carried
out. Clear limewater turns milky white in
the presence of carbon dioxide. Students
may:
exhale through a drinking straw into a
test tube of limewater, to demonstrate
that carbon dioxide is present in exhaled
air.
add hydrochloric acid to calcium

carbonate marble chips in a delivery
tube and capture the resulting gas in a
test tube containing limewater to show
that the gas is carbon dioxide.
2. To determine the pH of water: the pH of
water before and after the addition of carbon
dioxide should be determined in one of two
ways:
using universal indicator solution
using a pH sensor and data logger.
It is recommended that both methods
of measuring pH be carried out, to provide
an opportunity for students to compare the
accuracy and precision of each. As part of the
HSC course skills, students are expected to
know how to improve an investigation plan and
this provides an ideal opportunity.
FIRST-HAND
INVESTIGATION
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.1; H12.2; H12.4
H13.1
H14.1; H14.2; H14.3
Task 1: Investigating the

effect of carbon dioxide on the
pH of water using universal
indicator solution
To investigate the effect of dissolved carbon
dioxide on the pH of water using universal
indicator solution.
45
28/5/08 2:21:54 PM
TR
General resources
risk assessment:
safety
Aim
Results
1. To demonstrate that carbon dioxide is

present in exhaled air.
2. To determine the effect of carbon dioxide on
the pH on water.
(a) Record the initial pH of the distilled water.

(b) Record the pH of the water after it contained
dissolved carbon dioxide.
(c) State whether each is indicative of a strong
or weak acidic or basic solution.
Safety
Discussion
Discuss risks associated with:

Use of limewater.
Handling glassware.
Blowing into a test tube through a straw.
Answer the discussion questions on the Student

Resource CD worksheet.
Conclusion
MethodPart 1
Pour 10 mL of limewater into a test tube and
gently blow out through two straws. Observe
the colour change to determine whether
carbon dioxide is present in exhaled air.
Discard the solution and straws
appropriately.
Investigation
ti ti
worksheet: carbon
dioxide and the pH of
water
Figure 2.10 Using
data logger technology
to measure the effect
of dissolved carbon
dioxide on the pH of
water
Task 2: Investigating the

effect of carbon dioxide on
the pH of water using a data
logger and a pH probe
Aim
MethodPart 2
SR
Write a valid conclusion for this investigation.
Use a measuring cylinder to measure 20 mL

of distilled water and pour it into a clean
250 mL conical flask.
Place 3 drops of universal indicator solution
into the water and estimate the pH of the
water by comparing the colour against the
standard colours shown on the universal
indicator pH colour chart.
Place 4 plastic drinking straws into the flask
and blow bubbles of exhaled air containing
carbon dioxide into the flask for 2 minutes.
Now estimate the pH of the water again,
noting the change in the colour of the
solution.
Record the results (a worksheet is provided
on the Student Resource CD).
To use computer-based technology such as a

data logger to find the effect of dissolved carbon
dioxide on the pH of water.
Method
Connect the pH probe of a data logger to a
computer and instruct the computer to read
the pH of the solution to be tested.
Calibrate the pH probe of the data logger
(connected to the computer) using distilled
water and buffer solutions.
Using a measuring cylinder, measure 20 mL
of distilled water and pour it into a clean
250 mL conical flask.
Place the pH probe into the distilled water
and instruct the computer to record and
student exhales air, containing

carbon dioxide, into a straw
data logger records
pH change and transmits
information to a computer
straw
graph appears on computer screen

pH
8
exhalation
begins
beaker
6
exhaled
air
water
pH probe
measures effect
of carbon dioxide
on pH of water
data logger
5
Time (seconds)
46
28/5/08 2:21:55 PM
graph any changes in the pH of the water

against time.
Place 4 plastic drinking straws into the flask
and blow bubbles of exhaled air (containing
carbon dioxide) into the flask for 2 minutes
or until the graph no longer shows a change
in pH. The computer should graph changes
in the pH of the water against time.
Print out a hard copy of the graphed results
for analysis. Compare your results with
those of other students.
Results
Insert the computer-graphed result into your
practical report.
Record the initial pH of the distilled
water and the lowest pH of the water
after dissolved carbon dioxide was

introduced.
Calculate the change in the pH of the water.
Describe the change in the water in terms of
acidity or alkalinity.

Comment on the accuracy of using a data
logger for finding the changing pH of water
as the amount of carbon dioxide increases.
Discuss any other benefits of using the
computer-based technology rather than
relying on observations of change with
universal indicator solution.
Write a valid conclusion for this
investigation.
Technologymeasuring blood gases
analyse information from secondary sources to identify

current technologies that allow measurement of oxygen
saturation and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood
and describe and explain the conditions under which
these technologies are used
Aims
To analyse information from secondary sources
to:
(Part 1) identify current technologies that
allow measurement of oxygen saturation
and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood.
(Part 2) describe and explain the conditions
under which these technologies are used.
(Part 3) assess the impact of particular
advances in biology on the development of
technologies (refers to PFA H3).
Extension
To assess the impacts of applications of
biology on society and the environment
(refers to PFA H4).
To identify possible future directions of
biological research (refers to PFA H5).
Part 1: Identify current

technologies to measure blood
gases
The level of certain chemicals in the blood
gives an indication of the state of health of a
person. Correct levels of chemicals in blood
are maintained by homeostasis, so changes

in these levels reflect ineffective metabolic
functioning. Unless this can be corrected, the
imbalance in metabolism will result in poor
health, which may deteriorate to a degree that
is life-threatening.
The concentrations of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the blood are important indicators
of how well the lungs are functioning and the
effectiveness of the circulation of blood within
the body. The pH of the blood is an indicator
of kidney and lung functioning. Both lungs
and kidneys are excretory organslungs
excrete carbon dioxide, preventing a build-up
of carbonic acid and kidneys excrete excess
hydrogen ions (H+). A build-up of either of
these chemicals would affect blood pH, making
it more acidic. The level of electrolytes in the
blood may also be an indication of poor kidney
functioning.
SECONDARY SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
PFA
H3
H4
H5
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.3; H12.4
H13.1
H14.1; H14.3
KNOWLEDGE
H6
Current technologies
There are two main technologies used to
determine the levels of gases in blood.
Pulse oximeters are used extensively in
hospitals. Most people who have, in recent
years, been in hospital for surgery or any
breathing-related disorder (such as asthma)
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28/5/08 2:21:56 PM
TR
Teaching strategy
blood technologies
will probably have had first-hand experience

of the use of this technology. A clip with a
sensor is placed on the finger (or earlobe)
and the sensor is connected to a monitor that
shows the pulse rate and oxygen saturation
level. (See Fig. 2.11.) This technology is used
Figure 2.11 Pulse

oximeter
PFA
H5
Figure 2.12 Arterial
blood gas analysis
extensively because it is non-invasive and

gives a good idea of the oxygen saturation
levels of haemoglobin in the patients
bloodan indication that breathing and
circulation are normal.
Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis is a
more invasive technique of analysis and is
only carried out if abnormalities show up in the
pulse oximeter readings, or in severe cases of
breathing disturbance. ABG analysis involves
removing blood from an artery (usually in
the arm) and performing a blood test using
computer-based technology to analyse the
chemical components in the sample of blood
(see Fig. 2.12). This technology reveals far
more detail about the levels of chemicals in
the blood, measuring the partial pressures of
oxygen and carbon dioxide, the pH and the
level of bicarbonate ions. The main use of ABG
analysis is in the study of lung disease and
conditions of poor gaseous exchange, but the
pH and electrolyte (ion) levels measured also
give important information about how well the
kidneys are functioning.
Current and future technology for
analysing oxygen saturation in blood includes
the use of a mobile phone linked by Bluetooth
to a battery-powered oximeter (see Fig. 2.13).
This equipment can monitor blood oxygen
levels on an ongoing basis in a patient who is
mobile and not hospitalised.
right radial artery
Part 2: Conditions under which

technologies are used
www.youtube.com/
watch?v=stxntv0KkBE
Video showing the procedure of
arterial blood gas analysis.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=k858vGsEVz4
Video showing the use of a pulse oximeter.
signal sent via
bluetooth to
phone
mobile phone
pulse
oximeter
pulse oximeter measures oxygen saturation
Read the information in your textbook, watch

the video clips on YouTube and analyse
information provided in Table 2.2 to become
familiar with the two current technologies used
to determine blood oxygen and carbon dioxide
levels and then answer the questions that
follow. All sources should be acknowledged
appropriately. A worksheet and recommended
websites have been provided on the Student
Resource CD with tables in the form of editable
word documents to assist you to answer the
following questions.
Questions
Figure 2.13 Oximeter with Bluetooth connection
to mobile phone
1. Explain why:
(a) living cells need oxygen
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28/5/08 2:21:57 PM
(b) carbon dioxide must be removed from

cells (in your answer, describe the
relationship between pH and carbon
dioxide levels in cells/blood).
(Table CD2.2 is provided on the Student
Resource CD.)
2. (Tables CD2.3, CD2.4 and CD2.5 are
provided on the Student Resource CD.)
(a) Describe and explain two conditions
under which each of the following
technologies would be used:
blood gas analyser
pulse oximeter.
(b) Assess the relevance, reliability and
accuracy of two of the secondary
sources of information that you have
used to answer Questions 1 and 2 in this

investigation.
PFA
3. (Use Tables CD2.6 and CD2.7 on the

Student Resource CD).
Using the websites provided on the Student
Resource CD:
(a) research and outline current directions
of biological research using smart
phones to detect blood oxygen levels
and describe the conditions under which
these may prove useful
(b) assess the validity each of the three
websites recommended for researching
the section on smart phone technology
and Bluetooth reading of oximeters.
H3
TR
General resources
evaluating websites
Table 2.2 Measuring

g blood g
gases ((oxygen
yg and carbon dioxide))
Type of
technology
and what it
measures
How it
works
Blood gas analyser
Pulse oximeter
Invasive: small sample of arterial blood must be

withdrawn from the patient or an arterial probe may be
inserted into an artery to take measurements.
Non-invasive: consists of a probe attached to the

patients finger or earlobe.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide levels are measured directly

through a blood sample. The levels at a particular point
in time are determined.
Oxygen saturation of a patients blood is measured

indirectly by determining the light absorption caused by
arterial blood. It may proceed on a continuous basis,
without the need for a blood sample to be taken.
Electrochemical: uses a sensor that translates

chemical properties into an electrical signal that can be
measured.
Optical: uses a sensor that translates a physical

property (light emitted) into an electrical signal that can
be measured.
print out
pulse oximetry
light
LED
blood
sample
light
detector
LED
detector
TPO (transmission) vs RPO (reflectance)

pulse oximeters measure oxygen saturation
of blood by detecting transmitted light or reflected light
What it
measures
Figure 2.14 Arterial blood gas analyser
Figure 2.15 Oximeter diodes
Oxygen level in blood:

Partial pressure of oxygen (PO2): measures how well
oxygen can move from air space of lungs into blood
Oxygen saturation: measures how much of the
haemoglobin is carrying oxygen
Carbon dioxide level in blood:
Partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2):
Measures how much carbon dioxide is dissolved in the
blood and therefore how well carbon dioxide can move
out of the body
pH of blood: measures hydrogen ions (H+) in blood
(linked to dissolved carbon dioxide in blood)
Bicarbonate ions in blood: these are buffers that
prevent the blood from becoming too acidic. They are
reabsorbed in the kidney and are a good indication of
kidney functioning.
Oxygen level in blood:

two light-emitting diodes, one producing red and one
producing infrared light, are shone through the finger.
The amount of light absorbed is determined by the level
of oxygenation of haemoglobin in the blood. Oxygen
saturation is calculated and displayed on a screen.
Pulse rate is also measured.
Most oximeters do not measure carbon dioxide levels
(it is only as recently as 2005 that some oximeters
with a carbon dioxide sensor were developed).
49
28/5/08 2:22:00 PM
SR
TR
Worksheet and
recommended
websitestechnologies
used to measure blood
gases
Area of study (research)
Part 3: Impact of advances in

biology on technology
4. Assess the impact of particular advances in
biology on the development of technologies.
This question may be tackled in several steps.
(Use the PFA H3 scaffold on the Student
Resource CD to assist with this task.)
(a) Identify the key area(s) of biological
knowledge on which each technology is
based.
(b) Outline the advances in understanding
that were necessary before each
technology could be developed.
(c) Identify each technology that was
Advance in understanding
developed as a result of this advance in

biology and outline its use.
(d) Write a valid conclusion in which you
sum up your assessment of the impact
of the advances in biology on the
development of the technology.
The verb assess asks for a judgement
based on criteria. To make this judgement,
consider all the criteria you have outlined
in the table so far and then write a valid
conclusion in which you sum up your
assessment of the impact of the advances
in biology on the development of the
technology. A guide to the type of wording
you may use is provided in the table below.
Development of technology that has
resulted
This new technology may lead to or has led to new breakthroughs, as they are used in current research to explore
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ .
Assess the impact of the particular advances in biology on the development of technologies.
Therefore the advances in understanding have had a significant/large/insignificant impact because they have led
to technology that is better/more accurate/more advanced and can _______________________________________________________ .
Extension questions
See the Student Resource CD.
2.5
Structure and functioning of the circulatory system

Structu
Transport vesselsblood and
lymph vessels
The transport or vascular system in
mammals consists of the heart, blood
vessels and lymph vessels, as well
as the fluids transported in them
blood and lymph. These systems
are interrelated and it is important to
understand their interactive functioning
to deal with the next section on
changes in chemical composition of
the blood at the tissues, so both will be
introduced briefly below.
Transport vessels all have some

structural features in common: they are
long, hollow structures that consist of a
lumen (cavity), surrounded by a wall.
Blood and blood vessels
Blood is transported by arteries away

from the heart, towards the tissues of
the body. Blood is transported by veins
from the tissues in the body and they
return it back to the heart. Capillaries
are tiny, thin-walled blood vessels in the
tissues of the body that carry blood very
close to the cells, linking the arteries
50
28/5/08 2:22:05 PM
and veins. Arteries branch to form

arterioles (tiny arteries) that lead
directly into capillary networks in
the tissues. Blood flows from the
capillary networks of tissues into
venules which join up to form veins
so that blood can be returned to
the heart. Fluids that seep out of
capillaries into the surrounding
tissues are returned to the
bloodstream by the lymphatic system
(see Fig. 2.16).
to the
heart
from the
heart
vein
artery
lymphatic
vessel
tissues
oxygen
and
nutrients
waste
products
venules
outer
inner
layer
layer
muscle
arterioles
interstitial fluid
Lymph and lymphatic vessels
In the tissues of the body, water

and dissolved substances diffuse
out of the capillaries and bathe
the tissues, as tissue fluid or
interstitial fluid. This occurs partly
as a result of blood pressure and
partly due to the osmotic pressure
of the tissues. Some tissue fluid
returns to the capillaries, but a large
amount does not. Excess accumulation
of fluid in the tissues is overcome by
the presence of tiny lymphatic vessels
which penetrate deep into the body.
The fluid is absorbed into the lymphatic
vessels and, together with the other
substances there, forms the fluid called
lymph. Lymph is a milky white fluid
which contains dissolved substances,
a large number of white blood cells
(called lymphocytes) and chylomicrons
(the end products of lipid digestion
which drain into the lymphatic vessels
from the lacteals in the small intestine).
The lymph flows in one direction
from the tissues towards the heart.
The flow is brought about partly by
contractions of the muscles of the
body through which lymph vessels
pass and partly by the pressure of
lymph accumulation in the tissues.
capillaries
Valves in the lymphatic vessels prevent

backflow.
The lymphatic vessels from all
regions of the body eventually join up
to form two main lymphatic channels
and, in the regions of the shoulders,
these drain into the venous system
where the lymph fluid rejoins the
blood. The lymphatic system therefore
provides a link between the tissue
fluids in the deeper cells of the body
and the blood plasma. It also plays
a role in the defence of the body
lymph nodes are small, oval bodies
at intervals along the course of the
lymphatic vessels. They are the sites of
lymphocyte production and they also
filter out and destroy bacteria. (Tonsils
are examples of lymph nodes.)
The interaction between the blood
and lymphatic systems is important in
the transport of nutrients to and wastes
from the tissues of the body.
Figure 2.16
Transport vessels and
fluids in the tissues of
the body
Structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins
compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins

in relation to their function
The function of arteries and veins is

to carry blood over relatively long
distances, from one organ to another,

whereas capillaries form branching
51
28/5/08 2:22:06 PM
networks to carry blood over relatively

short distances within organs. Arteries
carry blood away from the heart,
whereas veins carry blood from the
tissues and return it to the heart.
Arteries, veins and capillaries have a
similar basic structure, but they differ in
terms of the layers of tissue that make
up the wall of each and the size of the
lumen, so that each vessel is structurally
modified to best carry out its specific
transport function.
Basic structure of arteries,
capillaries and veins (see Fig. 2.17)
1. The walls of capillaries consist of an

endothelium, which is only one cell
layer thick.
2. The walls of both arteries and veins
consist of three layers:
(a) The inner layer consists of a
thin layer of endothelial cells
continuous with the endothelium
of the capillaries with which
arteries and veins join.
(b) The middle layer is made up
largely of smooth muscle, but
also contains some elastic fibres
around the outside of the smooth
muscle layer. The smooth muscle
in this layer controls the diameter
of the vessels and therefore the
amount of blood and its rate of
flow.
(c) The outer layer is composed of
connective tissue which holds
blood vessels in place within
Figure 2.17
Transverse section
through arteries, veins
and capillaries
the body and contains collagen

fibres which are resistant to
overstretching.
Detailed structure and function of
blood vessels
Movement of blood in arteries and

veins differs in terms of the direction
of flow, source of flow (whether blood
seeps into vessels or is pumped) and
the pressure exerted by blood flow.
Their structure is therefore adapted in
relation to their function.
Arteries
The function of arteries is to carry

blood away from the heart to the
various parts of the body. Since the
blood is pumped out of the heart in
regular bursts under high pressure,
the walls of the arteries are thicker
than those of veins, to withstand the
force. Major arteries close to the heart
have thick layers of smooth muscle in
their walls, to allow them to withstand
the increases in pressure as blood is
pumped from the heart. The smooth
muscle also functions to adjust the
diameter of the lumen and therefore
regulates blood flow in the arteries.
When the smooth muscle contracts,
the size of the lumen is decreased
(vasoconstriction) and this slows down
blood flow. When the smooth muscle
relaxes, vasodilation results and blood
flow can speed up once again.
lumen
large lumen
endothelium
endothelium
smooth muscle
(very little
elastic tissue)
elastic layer and

smooth muscle
connective
tissue
connective
tissue
cross section through a vein
lumen
fatty deposits
cross section through an artery
endothelium (single cell layer)

cross section through a capillary
(not drawn to scalecapillaries are microscopic)
52
28/5/08 2:22:10 PM
The walls of arteries also have a

large proportion of elastic fibres in
both the inner layer (surrounding the
endothelium) and in the middle layer
(surrounding the smooth muscle).
This increased elasticity enables
the arteries to expand (stretch) to
accommodate the increased volume
of blood pumped with each heartbeat.
When the heart relaxes, the elastic
fibres allow the arteries to recoilthe
artery walls return to their original
diameter, squeezing the blood forward
and propelling it along, ensuring a
continuous flow in one direction.
In certain parts of the body where
large arteries are near the surface of
the skin, the expansion and recoil of
the arteries (in response to increased
pressure with each heartbeat, followed
by a decrease in pressure) can be felt
as a pulse. The force that blood exerts
against the walls of the blood vessel in
which it is contained is termed blood
pressure. (Additional information is
available on the Teacher Resource CD.)
contract, the relatively thin walls

of the veins allow them to be
compressed and this propels the
blood towards the heart.
2. Veins have valvessmall pocket-like
folds of the endothelium lining the
lumen of veins. These valves occur
at regular intervals along the inside
walls of veins and by their action
they prevent blood from flowing
backwards. Valves work like oneway swing doorsthey open to
allow blood to flow through in one
direction (towards the heart), but
the pressure of blood trying to flow
backwards causes them to swing
shut (see Fig. 2.18).
blood propelled
forward by
muscle
contractions
TR
Student worksheet
additional information
on pulse and blood
pressure
Figure 2.18
Functioning of valves
back pressure
of blood
valve closed
valve open
Veins
Blood enters veins from the capillary

networks of tissues, via venules.
Structurally, veins have walls that are
thinner than those of arteries, since the
blood that they receive flows in under
lower pressure (it is not pumped in).
The walls have very few elastic fibres
as no stretch and recoil is necessary
and the smooth muscle layer is much
thinner. The lumen also has a wider
diameter, for easy flow of blood.
Since blood seeps into veins and is
not pumped, two mechanisms prevent
the backflow of blood (this is especially
important in veins such as those in
the legs, where blood flows against
gravity):
1. Many veins are situated between
large groups of muscles (particularly
in the arms and legs) and their
relatively thin walls allow them to
be easily compressed. When the
muscles in the surrounding tissue
Capillaries
Capillaries are extremely tiny,

microscopic vessels that bring the blood
into close contact with the tissues, for
the exchange of chemical substances
between cells and the bloodstream. The
walls of capillaries consist of only one
layer of cellsthe endotheliumwhich
is a continuation of the endothelium
lining the lumen (cavity) of arteries
and veins. Capillaries have no other
layers in their walls (such as the elastic
fibres, smooth muscle or connective
tissue layers found in arteries and
veins). Diffusion is a fairly slow,
passive process and so the structure of
capillaries is suited to slowing down the
flow of blood. To maximise exchange
of substances between the blood and
cells of the body, capillaries have:
SR
TR
Worksheetarteries,
veins and capillaries:
relating structure to
function
53
28/5/08 2:22:11 PM
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Draw up a table to compare arteries, veins and capillaries in terms of how their structure relates to
their function. Draw a labelled diagram of each as part of your answer. (There is a worksheet with
table outline and headings available on the Teacher Resource CD.)
thin walls to allow for the efficient

diffusion of substances, so that they
do not have far to travel between
the blood and body cells, and
a small lumen (only slightly larger
than the diameter of red blood
cells) to force the red blood cells to
pass through in single file, slowing
2.6
down their flow and increasing their

exposed surface area for gaseous
exchange.
Capillaries form an expansive
network to spread blood flow over a
large surface area so that no cells are
far from the blood supply.
Change in chemical composition in blood during

Changes
circulation
circula
describe the main changes in the chemical composition

of the blood as it moves around the body and identify
tissues in which these changes occur
The circulatory system in mammals

is like a road system within a
cityit is responsible for the transport
of substances to and from various parts.
Most roads are divided into a left- and
right-hand side to allow travel in two
directions, for example towards and
away from the city centre. Similarly,
the circulatory system has vessels to
ensure that blood can flow in either
directiontowards the heart (in veins)
and away from the heart (in arteries).
Arteries and veins that carry substances
to and from the same organ often run
alongside each other within the body.
The transport system within the
body is involved in moving four basic
groups of chemicals:
1. gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen)
2. nutrients
3. wastes
4. hormones (chemical signals).
The importance of the

transport system in assisting
metabolic functioning
The chemical functioning of cells
(metabolism) relies on the correct
balance of chemical reactants being
brought to cells and the removal of
wastes produced.
Energy is the basis of all metabolic
functioningfor any cell to function,
it must produce the energy it requires
by means of cellular respiration. This
energy production depends on the
correct balance of nutrients such as
glucose and the gas oxygen arriving
at the site. Requirements for energy
production must be transported from
their source (glucose and food-based
nutrients from the digestive system
and oxygen from the lungs) to the
sites where they are neededthe
54
28/5/08 2:22:12 PM
cells of the body that require energy,

for example muscle cells or nerve
cells. The transport system of vessels
throughout the body is essential, since
the mammalian body is too large and
complex to simply rely on diffusion for
movement of these substances.
Once the reactants reach the cells,
cellular respiration occursoxygen
is combined with glucose to produce
energy in the form of ATP (the chemical
energy of cells), and carbon dioxide
and water are released as by-products
of this process. Carbon dioxide is
a toxic waste product and must be
removed to prevent a change in the
pH of body fluids, which would affect
enzyme functioning.
Nitrogenous wastes are the end
products of protein breakdown that
occurs during metabolic functioning. All
wastes (nitrogenous wastes and carbon
dioxide) are carried from their sites of
production, to organs where they can
be excreted. The blood vessels are
responsible for this transport of wastes,
to ensure that conditions are right for
enzyme functioning in metabolism.
Of further importance is the
transport of hormoneschemical
messenger molecules produced by
endocrine glands. These are ductless
glands and so they pour their secretions
directly into the bloodstream, which
transports them to their target organs
which are sensitive to the chemical
signals. Hormones such as those
that control water and salt balance
in animals are essential to assist
homeostasis, ensuring the maintenance
of an optimal internal environment for
metabolic functioning.
The changing chemical

The difference in the chemical
concentration of blood entering or
leaving an organ, depends on the
function of that organ:
External gaseous exchange occurs

in the lungs (carbon dioxide is
released from blood and oxygen is
picked up) (see Fig. 2.19).
Internal gaseous exchange occurs
in all organs of the body and is
the result of cellular respiration:
oxygen combines with glucose to
make energy and carbon dioxide is
released as a waste product.
Absorption of nutrients into the
bloodstream takes place in the
digestive tract (and in particular in
the small intestine).
Nitrogenous waste products are
produced in the liver and excreted
by the kidneys.
Hormones are secreted into the
blood by glands and they then
travel to where they are required
and used by target tissue.
Change in carbon dioxide and oxygen

content of blood
The lungs are the organs of external

gaseous exchange in the body (see
Assumed Knowledge on the HSC
Student Resource CD). Deoxygenated
blood arrives at the lungs and it
releases carbon dioxide and picks
up oxygen. The haemoglobin in red
blood cells binds with oxygen and
most oxygen (98.5%) is carried in the
form of oxyhaemoglobin. A very small
proportion (no more than 1.5%) may
travel dissolved in the plasma.
Oxygenated blood is returned to the
lungs via pulmonary veins. The heart
then pumps this oxygenated blood via
arteries to other tissues of the body,
where oxygen is released and used for
the process of cellular respiration.
(All organs in the body other than the
lungs receive oxygenated blood via the
arteries and return deoxygenated blood
to the heart via the veins.)
Internal gaseous exchange occurs
in the tissues of the body, as a result
of cellular respiration. Cells release
carbon dioxide, which diffuses into
the blood capillaries in the tissues.
SR
Assumedd kknowledge
l d
gaseous exchange
55
28/5/08 2:22:13 PM
external gaseous
exchange
in the lungs
blood carrying carbon dioxide

head
pulmonary
artery carries
deoxygenated
blood away
from the heart
to the lungs
pulmonary vein
carries oxygenated
blood from the lungs
towards the heart
lungs
veins carrying
deoxygenated
blood towards
the heart
alveoli in the lungs
heart
liver
O2
CO2
arteries carrying
oxygenated blood
away from the heart
gut
rest of body
internal gaseous
exchange in tissues
in the body
When carbon dioxide enters the blood,

some of it dissolves in the plasma,
some is carried by haemoglobin and
the rest is transported in the form of
bicarbonate ions, all of which make up
deoxygenated blood travelling back to
the heart in veins. (See Fig. 2.19 and
the Assumed Knowledge on the Student
Resource CD.)
Changes in other chemicals in
the blood
An increase in oxygen and a

decrease in carbon dioxide
concentrations are evident in
blood that has passed through
the lungs.
A decrease in oxygen and an
increase in carbon dioxide is evident
in blood that has passed through any
organ other than the lungs (that is,
any organ where cellular respiration
has occurred).
CO2
rest of body
blood carrying oxygen

Figure 2.19 Gaseous
exchange in the body
showing changes in
carbon dioxide and
oxygen levels in the
blood as it travels
around the body
O2
An increase in digestive end

products is evident in blood that has
passed through an organ involved in
absorbing digested food, such as the
small intestine. These products of
digestion travel in the bloodstream
from the digestive tract directly to
the liver (see Fig. 2.20).
A decrease in digestive end products
(such as glucose, fatty acids and
amino acids) is evident once blood
has passed through the liver as this
is the centre of food metabolism.
An increase in nitrogenous wastes
is evident in blood that has passed
through the liver, the organ where
proteins are de-aminated to form
these wastes.
A decrease in nitrogenous wastes
is evident in blood that has passed
through the kidneys, since they filter
nitrogenous wastes out of the blood
and excrete them.
56
28/5/08 2:22:13 PM
Figure 2.20 The

circulation of blood
throughout the body
head and anterior extremities
vein from head

artery to lungs
artery to lungs
lung
blood is oxygenated
aorta (main artery)
heart
blood pumped
vein from
lower body
liver
urea made
kidneys
wastes are excreted
SR
TR
digestive tract
end products
of digestion added
Student worksheet
changes in the chemical
posterior extremities
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Read the preceding text and then, in the form of a table, summarise the forms in which chemicals
are transported in the blood and state their source (how they got into the bloodstream) and their
destination (where they will be released by the bloodstream). Use the headings below to construct
the table and insert one row for each of the following chemicals: oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, salts,
lipids, other products of digestion and nitrogenous wastes. (A template of this table is available on the
Student Resource CD.)
TR
Table headings
Substance
Source (carried
from)
Destination
(carried to)
Form of chemical
in the blood
Component of
blood in which it
travels
Answers to student
activity
57
28/5/08 2:22:15 PM
2.7
PFA
H5
Blood replacement technologiesdonated blood

and artificial blood
The sections of the syllabus that deal
with research and its progress in the
development of donated blood and
its products, as well as current (and
future) developments in the research
of artificial blood provide the ideal
opportunity for you to address the
Prescribed Focus Area of Current issues,
research and developments in biology.
At the end of these investigations,

you should develop knowledge and
understanding of:
areas currently being researched
career opportunities in biology and
related fields
events reported in the media that
require an understanding of some
aspect of biology.
PFA H5: Current issues, research and developments in biology: identifies possible future directions
of biological research
Scientists rely on research to develop scientific principles. If these principles stand the test of
experiment and are supported by sufficient evidence, they become broadly accepted by the scientific
community until they are disproved. Biology, like all science, is in a constant state of change. There
are two types of biological research: basic and applied.
Basic research
Applied research
This type of research adds to the body of
This involves the application of discoveries
scientific knowledge to improve knowledge and

understanding.
made in basic research. These impact on

society and the environment and may be
contentious.
How students should tackle this prescribed focus area
SR
Additionall
Additi
informationPFA H5
Identify and describe scientific principles on which the current research is based.
Identify and describe the driving forces behind such research.
Identify and describe the current research and possible future directions of biological research.
Identify the publications (both scientific journals and the media) in which the research or analysis of
the research is reported and assess the reliability and validity of these sources.
Analyse the response of scientists and society to this current research.
Discuss the different viewpoints if there are contentious issues or new developments.
Outline any Australian achievements and involvements.
Donated blood and its products

SECONDARY
S
EC
SOURCE
IINVESTIGATION
NVE
PFA
H3
analyse information from secondary sources to identify

and describe the products extracted from donated blood
and the uses of these products
H4
H5
Almost 200 years ago, humans trialled humanto-human blood transfusions in an attempt
to treat massive bleeding and its associated
risks. At first, these transfusions gave mixed
resultssome were highly successful, whereas
others resulted in death in patients. It was
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.3; H12.4
H13.1
H14.1; H14.3
only discovered 80 years later that people

have specific, inherited blood types and that
transfusions of incompatible blood groups were
fatal.
Cross-matching of blood groups became
the first and critical step before blood donation
could take place and, as the number of
successful transfusions increased, many lives
58
28/5/08 2:22:17 PM
were saved, particularly during wars. Since the

early 1900s, major advances in blood donation
technology have been made, largely driven by
the military.
Research challenges
The initial challenge facing blood transfusion
units was the lack of available on-site donors.
Research into blood donation technology
progressed and the shelf life of blood was
increased by adding chemicals such as citrateglucose, making the storage of blood and the
development of blood banks possible.
Challenges facing blood banks continued,
including insufficient supplies, short shelf life
and the difficulty in transporting donated blood
under the necessary refrigerated conditions,
particularly in war zones. Up to half the deaths
of soldiers on battlefields were due to severe
bleeding, because suitably stored donated
blood could not reach them in time.
Continued research led to a move away
from using whole blood. Instead, donated
blood was separated by centrifugation and
filtration into its component parts, commonly
referred to as products of donated blood.
These products, including red blood cells,
platelets, plasma and plasma proteins (or
alternative substitutes for these products) allow
the treatment of the particular need of each
patient by transfusing only the specific required
blood product into the patient. The use of blood
products rather than whole blood has tripled
the number of transfusions that can be given for
each unit of blood donated.
Research then began in earnest, directed
towards the development of better techniques
for processing and storing blood products to
increase their shelf life and make them easier to
transport (for example, to battlefields and sites
of natural disasters). Three main uses of blood
products were identified and are still applicable
todayto assist in blood clotting, to allow
oxygen transfer and as volume expanders.
An enormous problem which arose in the
1980s was the risk of contracting infections from
donated blood. Patients such as haemophiliacs,
who were regular recipients of blood products
that contained coagulants, were particularly
affected. (Recommended reading is the novel
titled April Fools Day, written by Australian
author Bryce Courtenay, based on the true
story of the life of his haemophiliac son.)
Blood and blood products were being
screened for infective agents, but the viruses
which caused diseases such as AIDS and
hepatitis could bypass normal screening
methods, because of a window period between
the infection of the donor and the possibility of
their presence being detected in donated blood.
This led to a new surge in research for safer

blood products.
One common trend that arose at around this
time was a change from allogenic transfusion
(blood donated by one person and transfused
into another) to autologous transfusion
(collection of blood and its re-transfusion into
the same person; for example, some patients
would donate their own blood and have it stored
for their own future use, such as impending
surgery).
Current research continues to try to
improve blood screening methods, as well as
to evaluate and improve the quality of stored
blood and its products. There is also research
to try to increase the shelf life by implementing
new methods of preservation such as freeze
fractioning and recombinant manufacturing
technology.
Another idea that arose as a result of
ongoing shortages of blood and blood products,
was to create artificial blooda suitable
chemical blood substitute which could be
transfused into patients to temporarily provide
some of the essential life-giving functions of
blood until the patients bone marrow could
make enough blood to replenish their normal
supply.
Note: Research into the development
of artificial blood will be dealt with in the
secondary-source investigation on page 61, but
an understanding of the difficulties and risks
of transfusions of donated blood and blood
products gives a good idea of the importance of
the development of suitable blood substitutes.
Figure 2.21 Products

of donated blood
Products of donated blood

Blood products are currently grouped into two
main categories, depending on their shelf life:
59
28/5/08 2:22:20 PM
SR
TR
Student activity
webquest: products of
donated blood
SR
Template
l t ttables
bl
donated blood and
blood products
1. Labile products are perishable blood

components that have a short shelf life
and must be transported under specific,
refrigerated conditions. Examples include
packed red blood cells, platelets, plasma,
plasma proteins and cryoprecipitate.
2. Stable products have a much longer
shelf life and are produced by
fractioning (separating) the different
protein components from plasma or by
recombinant (genetic) manufacturing
methods. Examples include blood clotting
factors, immunoglobulins and the blood
protein albumin (all of these products are
associated with little or no plasma).
Blood products and blood substitutes can
also be grouped according to their function.
Some examples are listed below:
Category (based on
function)
Blood products
Blood volume
expanders
Plasma, albumin
Oxygen carriers
Packed red blood

cells
Coagulants
Platelets, clotting
factors
Products for immune

defence
Immunoglobulins
A table summarising blood components

and the alternative donated products that can
be received in transfusions is available on the
Student Resource CD. This table also provides
a column for students to complete when
researching the uses of the products of donated
blood.
Task
This is an inquiry-orientated, web-based
activity providing students with secondary
sources in the form of a series of websites.
The information on each website should be
processed and analysed constructively to
reach a conclusion.
The questions to be researched are listed
below without any website references, but
they appear as a fully referenced web-based
activity on the Student Resource CD, with
relevant websites hyperlinked for each
question.
Aims
To identify and describe the products
extracted from donated blood and the uses
of these products.
To assess the impacts of advances in

biology on the development of technology
(refers to PFA H3).
To assess the impacts of applications of
biology on society and the environment
(refers to PFA H4).
To identify possible future directions of
biological research (refers to PFA H5).
Note: A guided worksheet with table
templates and websites is provided on the
Student Resource CD for this investigation.
1. Identify four to six key events that shaped
the history of donated blood and blood
products. List these events in chronological
order and, for each, include a date and a
brief outline of the role that the event played
in advancing blood transfusion technology
(PFA H3).
2. Distinguish between allogenic and
autologous blood transfusions and give one
advantage and one disadvantage of each.
3. With progress in the technology of blood
donation and transfusion, there has been a
trend towards giving patients blood products
rather than whole blood. Describe the main
advantages of using blood products in
transfusions, rather than whole blood (refers
to PFA H4).
4. In the form of a table, list the normal
components of blood and the function of
each and then compare these with products
extracted from donated blood and the use of
each product.
5. (a) Outline the difficulties and risks
associated with transfusions (of whole
blood and of blood products) in general
and in war zones specifically.
(b) Justify your answer (that is, use
evidence to support your answer).
(c) Outline current areas of research being
carried out to make blood transfusions
safer and more efficient (PFA H5).
6. Select three products of donated blood (at
least one cellular product and one acellular
product) and prepare a detailed report
on each, covering information as outlined
below. (Your answer to Question 4 may
help you to decide which blood products
to research. Additional information can be
obtained from additional secondary sources
if necessary.)
For each product of donated blood:
(a) describe how the product is produced
(b) discuss the uses, as well as the
difficulties and risks, associated with the
use of the product (PFA 4).
60
28/5/08 2:22:21 PM
Artificial blood and its importance
analyse and present information from secondary

sources to report on progress in the production of
artificial blood and use available evidence to propose
reasons why such research is needed
www.virtualbloodcentre.com/
videopage.asp?vidid=135
Videoclip: A haematologist
explains the importance of developing
artificial blood, the different types of artificial
blood, their advantages and the difficulties in
stabilising and using these products.
Progress in the production of

artificial blood
In the past
In 1616 when William Harvey first described the
circulation of blood, scientists started thinking
about whether blood could be replaced by other
liquids to cure diseases. (Wine and milk were
amongst those considered!)
Attempts to treat massive bleeding in
soldiers during World Wars I and II often failed
and this spurred on modern efforts to produce
artificial blood in the hope that this could prove
more effective in replacing lost blood.
Severe bleeding is a life-threatening
condition because of the loss of two main
functions of blood:
1. transport of oxygen and its delivery to the
cells
2. maintenance of fluid volume, water and salt
concentration and blood pressure in the
internal environment.
Although these functions could be served
by transfusing donated blood or blood products
into patients, blood transfusions bring with
them their own problems (as dealt with in the
secondary-source investigation on donated
blood). The need for artificial blood was at
first identified to overcome early setbacks
associated with transfused blood, such as:
cross-matching of blood types
the short storage life (only a few weeks)
before donated blood and products must be
discarded
the difficulty transporting blood into battle
zones.
There was a resurgence in military-driven
efforts in research for a blood substitute in the
1960s, in response to difficulties in supplying
blood to soldiers in the hot jungle conditions
during the Vietnam war (American and

Australian soldiers were there between 1962
and 1972). The search was on for an oxygencarrying solution that could expand the blood
volume and also deliver (release) the oxygen to
tissues where it was required.
Research progresses slowly
It was during this era that a breakthrough
was made by Dr Leland Clark, who began
experimenting in the mid-1960s with
oxygen carrying compounds know as
perfluorocarbons. Research into artificial
blood continued slowly and with poor results
until the late 1980s, when active and urgent
research began in response to the sudden
appearance of HIV (the virus which causes
the disease AIDS) in patients who had been
given blood transfusions. This brought with it
concerns of the transmission of other infectious
diseases (such as hepatitis C) that have a
similar window period during which they
cannot be detected in donated blooda further
incentive for progress to be made in research
of artificial blood.
The ideal characteristics expected in an
artificial replacement for blood have become
more complex and include characteristics that
were identified in the past as well as some new
requirementsthat the product:
can be stored for long periods and easily
transported
does not need to be cross-matched for
different blood types
can be produced in large quantities at low
cost
is completely safe (has no toxic effects on
the body and is free from disease)
does not trigger an immune response
continues to circulate (does not settle
out) and, once the patients own blood is
restored, may be safely excreted.
SECONDARY SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H13.1
H14.1; H14.3
TR
Teaching strategy
artificial blood
Areas of research
One area of research has been that of
increasing the volume of blood after massive
bleedingsaline solutions and other
compounds such as crystalloids and colloids
which act as blood expanders are commonly
used. Saline solutions that replace lost
electrolytes are also used.
61
28/5/08 2:22:22 PM
normal blood
anaemia
artificial blood
capillary
red blood
cells
oxygen delivery to
tissues (represented
as many grey dots)
Figure 2.22 Artificial
blood increases oxygen
delivery to tissues
too few red

blood cells
poor oxygen delivery
to tissues
artificial blood
added to plasma
artificial blood
increases oxygen
delivery to tissues
The main area of current research,

however, targets the transport of oxygen so
that it is easily picked up and, more importantly,
efficiently released where it is required.
Three main types of oxygen carriers are
being developed: perfluorocarbons (PFCs),
haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs)
and artificial red cells called microcapsules.
Perfluorocarbons carry oxygen in a
dissolved form. They can carry up to 50 times
more dissolved oxygen than plasma, enough
to supply sufficient oxygen to tissues in the
absence of red blood cells.
The main difficulty with these products is in
enabling them to mix with the bloodstream
they must be combined with lipids to form an
emulsion. The lipid tested was approved by the
Food and Drug Administration in the United
States of America, but has not been successful
because it cannot be given in large enough
quantities to produce a significant result.
Future research includes improved versions
of perfluorocarbon emulsions for easier
combination with blood.
Haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers
(HBOCs) involve extracting haemoglobin from
outdated donated human blood (or bovine
blood) and modifying it to a form in which it can
be used in artificial blood. Raw haemoglobin
(haemoglobin not contained within red blood
cells) cannot be used, as it exists in an
unstable form that is potentially toxic and can
damage surrounding tissues and the kidneys
in particular. It also has a greater affinity for
oxygen than haemoglobin found in blood,
so it does not release oxygen as readily in
tissues where it is needed. Current research
for the development and use of HBOCs in
artificial blood involves the cross-linking of
the haemoglobin to enzymes found naturally
in blood, to create a more stable second
generation HBOC that will not break down.
They also have a short circulation time.
Second generation HBOCs will not be ideal
as they are not protected by a red blood cell
membrane. Future research involves enclosing

the haemoglobin, with the required enzymes,
inside an artificial cell membranea lipid
vesicleto increase the circulation time.
Artificial red cells are currently being
developed as microcapsules of phospholipid
into which haemoglobin can be placed, but
research is still in early stages.
Current research
At present there is no safe and effective artificial
blood product being used in Australia and the
United States of America, where scientists
continue to develop and test possible blood
replacements. However, the AIDS crisis in
South Africa has been a driving force in it
becoming one of the first countries in the world
to clear artificial blood for limited use in patients.
The brand Haemopure is made from stabilised
bovine (cattle) haemoglobin in a balanced salt
solution; it has a shelf life of 36 months and can
be stored at room temperature. The Haemopure
molecule is 1000 times smaller than a red
blood cell, allowing it to flow through partially
blocked arteries and so it may be useful in heart
surgery.
Polyheme, currently awaiting approval in
Australia and the United States of America, is a
brand of artificial blood that has been produced
in laboratories in South Australia. It is made
from modified haemoglobin from human red
blood cells. It can deliver oxygen up to three
times more efficiently than red blood cells.
Both of these have a very short circulation
time (1224 hours) compared with 50 days for
donated red blood cells.
Another area of current research is the
study of crocodile red blood cells. Using a
neutron-scattering technique, scientists
have found that crocodile haemoglobin
molecules can link together to form more
stable haemoglobin (raw human haemoglobin
tends to break up and enter the kidneys,
causing damage; linked crocodile haemoglobin
molecules do not enter the kidneys).
Advantages of artificial products
The main advantages of the current artificial
bloods available is that they meet the following
expectations:
They can be sterilised.
They can be stored for long periods of time.
No cross-matching is needed (no cell
membranes).
There is no risk of infection.
Perfluorocarbons are relatively cheap to
produce.
No substitutes have been developed as
yet to carry out immune defence or clotting of
blood. These are areas for future research.
62
28/5/08 2:22:22 PM
Task
the first experiments by Dr Leland Clark to

current research in Australia and the use of
Haemopure in South Africa.
Part 1: Questions
(Recommended websites are available on the
Student Resource CD for research of all of the
following questions.)
1. Describe what artificial blood is and outline
what it is used for.
2. Outline reasons why research into the
production of artificial blood is important
(see the problems associated with blood
transfusions in the previous task).
3. Identify the main driving forces that
propelled research in the area of the
development of artificial blood at various
intervals in its history. In your answer, list
three or four significant dates and names
(if available) and, for each factor, explain
how it provided an important reason for the
continuation of research to produce artificial
blood.
4. Identify the most important features
that were expected in an artificial blood
substitute in the past and new features that
are expected in current developments.
5. Table 2.3 lists examples of artificial
substitutes, grouped according to their
functions. For each:
(a) give a brief description of the product
(b) describe the function it performs
(c) discuss any advantage it has compared
with whole blood (or a similar product
of donated blood) and one difficulty that
must still be overcome, with current
research.
6. Outline the progress that has been made
in the development of artificial blood, from
Part 2: Reporting on progress and

proposal of reasons for research
Skill: A report text type
SR
Skilla reportt text

t t
type
A report is a specific text type that identifies

and describes the features of something
(for example, identify and describe artificial
blood and the functional features it is
expected to possess).
Reporting can also classify things
into categories (for example, the different
types of artificial blood currently being
developed).
How to prepare a reportsee the
Student Resource CD.
Report and proposal
Developers of blood substitutes have formed
an international networkThe International
Society for Artificial Cells, Blood Substitutes
and Immobilisation Biotechnologyto promote
their work and request a higher profile. Imagine
that you are a member of this international
group and have been requested to seek
assistance from the Australian government for
funding to subsidise further research within your
organisation. Prepare a report on the progress
of artificial blood and use available evidence
to propose reasons why such research is still
needed.
TR
Suggested answers for

investigation
Table 2.3 Artificial blood substitutes

Category (based on function)
Artificial substitute
Blood volume expanders
Crystalloids and colloids
Oxygen carriers
1.
2.
3.
4.
Coagulants
Not yet available
Products for immune defence
Not yet available
Modified red blood cell antigen preparations

Cell-free haemoglobin preparations (HBOCs)
Liposome-enclosed haemoglobin (microcapsules)
Perfluorocarbon emulsions
63
28/5/08 2:22:26 PM
2.8
Transport of nutrients in plants

Transp
describe current theories about processes responsible

for the movement of materials through plants in xylem
and phloem tissue
The function of xylem and

phloem in transport
The role of transport in plants is mainly
to carry materials for photosynthesis
to the cells and to move cell products
away to other parts of the plant. In
small plants, this may be achieved by
diffusion and active transport, but in
larger plants, specialised vascular tissue
has developed to serve this transport
function, since diffusion and active
transport by themselves would not be
sufficient to move these substances over
large distances. The vascular system in
plants consists of vessels of xylem and
phloem and the movement of materials
from one part of the plant to another is
known as translocation.
Chemical substances that are
needed for photosynthesis (such as
PFA
H2
SR
Assumedd kknowledge
l d
structure and function
of the xylem and
phloem
Theories about how materials

move in xylem and phloem
Experimental evidence has shown
the type of materials that move
through xylem and phloem in plant
stems and the directions in which
they move, but the explanation of
how this movement occurs in each is
presented as a theorya scientists
explanation of the phenomenon,
based on observation and evidence.
The theories of how movement of
substances occurs in plants have
Transport of materials in xylem:
the transpiration stream theory
(cohesion-adhesion-tension theory)
The transpiration stream in xylem

occurs due to physical forces that result
from water (and ions) being moved by
water mineral ions) are carried by

xylem tissue from the roots (the site
of absorption) up to the leaves where
they will be used for the manufacture
of food (photosynthesis). Xylem tissue
consists of xylem vessels, tracheids,
fibres and parenchyma cells (Assumed
Knowledgesee the Student Resource
CD).
Most photosynthesis in plants occurs
in the leaves. Phloem vessels are
involved in the transport of organic
nutrient products (particularly sugars,
amino acids and plant hormones) to all
parts of the plant. Movement occurs in
two directionsup towards the flowers
and down to the roots. Phloem tissue
consists of phloem fibres, phloem
parenchyma, sieve cells and companion
cells.
been tested by examining whether
their consequences (predictions)
are borne out by observation and
experimentation. They have been
modified over time, but the current
most commonly accepted theories
are:
the transpiration stream theory
(cohesion-adhesion-tension theory)
of movement of water and mineral
ions in xylem
the pressure flow theory (sourcepath-sink theory) of translocation
of organic nutrients in phloem.
passive transport. A column of water is
sucked up the stem by the evaporative
pull of transpiration and is known as
the transpiration stream. More detail
on how this occurs is given on the
following pages.
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28/5/08 2:22:28 PM
1 as the sun warms the leaves, stomata

open and water evaporates through the
openings (transpiration occurs)
Figure 2.23 The

transpiration stream:
moving water and
mineral ions up xylem
2 increased evaporation at the leaf surface

creates a pull at the upper end of the
water column
3 the pulling force is extended to the water

column and creates a force that pulls
water upwardsthe transpiration stream
(depends on properties of water)
4 this creates a force that pulls water into
the roots
3
transverse
section
dicot leaf
phloem
xylem
phloem
xylem
transverse section
young root
Once water has been absorbed

into the roots of plants (by osmosis)
along with mineral ions (by diffusion
and active transport), these substances
move across the root into the xylem. A
small amount of root pressure results
from the continual influx of more water
and ions, forcing the solution already
present in the xylem upwards. This
pressure, however, is not sufficient to
lift the water and ions very high.
Most of the upward movement in
xylem seems to be as a result of the
transpiration streamthat is, water
is drawn up the xylem tubes to replace
the loss of water from the leaves by
transpiration (the evaporation of water
through stomata). This is based on
evidence gathered by biologists:
transverse section
dicot stem
Xylem vessels are hollow and

narrow, offering very little resistance
to the flow of water.
The physical properties of water
contribute to the formation of a
continuous stream: adhesive forces
(the attraction between the water
molecules and the walls of the
xylem vessels) lead to capillarity
(water rises up the narrow bore
(central lumen) of xylem), and
cohesive forces (the attraction
of water molecules to each other
to form a continuous stream).
Together these forces ensure that
a continuous column of water that
moves upwards is maintained in the
xylem vessels.
A concentration gradient exists
across the leaf:
65
28/5/08 2:22:28 PM
Figure 2.24 Pressure

flow: moving organic
nutrients in phloem
At the surface of the leaf, the

osmotic pressure is high (water
concentration is low) because
water is continually being lost by
evaporation through the stomata
(transpiration).
In the centre of the leaf (e.g. the
xylem and leaf tissues nearest the
veins) the osmotic pressure is low
(water concentration is high).
The flow of the transpiration stream
can be explained as follows. (Trace this
on the diagram provided in Fig. 2.23.)
Water loss at the leaf surface (e.g.
from cells in the spongy mesophyll
to the air chambers of the stomata
or through the guard cell opening)
results in the osmotic movement
of water across from the adjacent
internal cells into those that have
just lost some water. This osmotic
flow continues across the leaf, right
to the xylem tissue. When molecules
of water leave the xylem and move
along the concentration gradient, this
creates tension in the column of water
rising up the xylem. Because of the
properties of adhesion and cohesion,
the water column does not break and
so the whole column of water is pulled
xylem
phloem
sugars
source
water
leaf mesophyll
cell
companion cell
root cell
sink
upwards (much like the suction pull

when you drink through a drinking
straw lifts the column of water). The
combination of adhesive and cohesive
forces, together with the suction pull
of transpiration create the transpiration
stream. Mineral ions dissolved in
the water are carried along by the
transpiration stream and can move out
by active transport, to reach the tissues
where they are needed.
The only way that plants suffering
water stress can control water loss is by
closing their stomata. However, stomata
must be open for at least part of the
day so that carbon dioxide can enter for
photosynthesis.
Transport of materials in phloem:
the pressure flow theory (sourcepath-sink theory)
Translocation in phloem tissue moves

products of photosynthesis (such as
glucose, sucrose and amino acids)
by active transport. Up to 90% of the
dissolved substances in the sap of
phloem is sucrose (common sugar
such as that which we have in tea and
coffee). When sucrose reaches the cells,
it may be converted back to glucose for
respiration or to starch for storage.
The flow of materials in phloem is
an active process that requires energy.
The mechanism of flow is driven by an
osmotic pressure gradient, generated
by differences in sugar and water
concentrations. It involves the active
loading sugar into phloem at one end
(known as the source) and then the
active unloading from phloem into
surrounding tissues it at the other end
(the sink). The loading of sugar into
phloem at the source attracts water
to flow in (because of differences in
osmotic pressure) and the offloading
at the sink causes water to flow out of
the phloem, hence the name pressure
flow.
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28/5/08 2:22:45 PM
Loading at the source
Offloading at the sink
Amino acids, sucrose and other mineral

nutrients are loaded into the phloem in
the leaves. There are two theories as to
how this may occur:
1. symplastic loadingsugars and other
nutrients move in the cytoplasm
from the mesophyll cells to the sieve
elements through plasmodesmata
(strands of cytoplasm that pass
through pits in the cell walls)
2. apoplastic loadingsugars and
nutrients move along a pathway
through the cell walls until they
reach the sieve element. They then
cross the cell membrane to enter the
phloem tube. These sugars pass into
the sieve cell by active transport.
As sugars enter the phloem,
the phloem sap becomes more
concentrated and so the osmotic
pressure at the source end is high. This
draws water into the phloem, from the
adjacent xylem tissue, by osmosis (see
Fig. 2.24, blue arrows).
Materials flow to the sink. At the sink

(for example roots, flowers or any other
parts of the plant that need nutrients),
sugars and materials are removed from
the phloem by active transport (see
Fig. 2.24, red arrows). As sugars move
out of the phloem, they draw water out
with them (by osmosis). This results
in a lower osmotic pressure (due to
the higher water concentration) in the
phloem at the sink region.
Pressure flow (along the path)
This difference in osmotic pressure

between the source and the sink in
the phloem drives the phloem sap to
flow. The direction of flow depends
on where the sink areas (roots or
flowers) of the plant are, in relation to
the source (leaves). Water can move
into the phloem by osmosis at any
point along the gradient. The flow
is continuous, because sucrose is
continually being added at one end and
removed at the other.
SR
TR
Student worksheet
transport in xylem and
phloem
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Create a flow chart to show the sequence of steps in pressure flow, from
loading the sugars at the source to offloading them at the sink. (Include
any changes in the osmotic pressure.)
Investigating xylem and phloem tissue in plants

(using a light microscope)
choose equipment or resources to perform a first-hand

investigation to gather first-hand data to draw transverse
and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue
Locating xylem and phloem in

plant organs
Examine Figure 2.23 and Figure 2.25 to
identify the location of xylem and phloem in the
stems and roots of plants and the directions

in which plant material may be cut. (Also see
Assumed Knowledge on the Student Resource
CD.)
FIRST-HAND
INVESTIGATION
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H11.3
H12.1; H12.2
H13.1
H14.3
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28/5/08 2:22:46 PM
C
R
D
S
A
B
cortex
parenchyma
cells
longitudinal
sections:
A
B
C
D
TR
Light micrographs and

worksheet to assist
students with the
investigation
SR
Assumedd kknowledge
l d
and guided practical
investigation of xylem
and phloem tissue
epidermis
xylem
cambium
phloem
transverse/cross section:
S
R
Figure 2.25 Diagram

representing cutting
planes in a plant organ
parenchyma (packing cells)
supporting tissue
(collenchymal sclerenchyma)
Microscopic examination of phloem

and xylem
Plant organs may be cut in different planes
(sections) in order to study the distribution of
tissue within them.
There are two types of sections:
A longitudinal section (L.S.) is cut along
the length of the organ (see Fig. 2.25).
A transverse section (T.S.) or crosssection is cut across the width of the organ
(i.e. at right angles to the lengthsee
Fig. 2.25).
Task
It is strongly recommended that students
refresh their knowledge of the structure of
xylem and phloem by referring to the diagrams
on the Student Resource CD under Assumed
knowledge: Diagrams of xylem and phloem
distribution and structure.
Aim
To observe and draw transverse and
longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem.
Materials
Students should list all materials used.
Safety
Students should identify risks and describe safe
work practices to overcome these (see Risk
AssessmentSafety on the Student resource
CD).
Method
1. Set up a slide of a longitudinal section of
a plant root or stem (showing phloem and
xylem) on the microscope.
2. Locate the appropriate tissue types under
low power using the additional notes in
the guided investigation on the Student
Resource CD and in Fig. 2.23. Identify the
colours that xylem and phloem are stained
(see step 3 below)this will help you to
recognise them under high power.
3. Investigate the structure of:
xylemmost easily identified by its
pink-stained walls
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28/5/08 2:22:48 PM
phloemappears green in colour,

elongate and much narrower than
parenchyma cells.
4. Using the most appropriate magnification,
draw the phloem and xylem. Write a heading
for your diagram, label each part identified
and state the magnification.
When drawing xylem in L.S., include
at least two different patterns of wall
thickening.
When drawing phloem tissue, include
sieve tube elements, companion cells
and sieve plates.
5. Remove the slide and repeat the process
using the slide of the transverse section.
6. Answer the discussion questions on the
Student Resource CD.
Results
1. Highlight the tissue distribution of xylem
(pink) and phloem (green) provided on the
worksheet on the Student Resource CD
(Fig. CD2.4).
2. Draw clear, fully labelled diagrams of each
of the following:
(a) T.S. xylem and T.S. phloem (seen in a
plant stem or root)
(b) L.S. xylem and L.S. phloem (seen in a
plant stem or root).
TR
Drawings in biology
Conclusion
Write a conclusion for this investigation.
Discussion
See questions on the Student Resource CD.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Compare the role of haemoglobin in transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.
2. Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin in terms of its being pH sensitive.
3. In a table, identify the forms in which carbon dioxide is transported in the blood and the
proportion of each form.
4. Distinguish between the terms oxygenated and deoxygenated blood and identify in which blood
vessels in the body one would expect to find the mostly highly oxygenated blood and why.
5. Compare arteries, capillaries and veins in terms of the structure of their walls, the size of the
lumen and the direction of blood flow.
6. Explain,
Explain in terms of their functions, why:
(a) the walls of arteries need to be thicker than those of veins
(b) the walls of capillaries are so thin
(c) veins have valves.
7. Outline the advantages of the use of blood products as opposed to whole blood.
SR
TR
8. Identify the main substances that need to be transported in plants and state the importance of
these substances in the plant.
9. With the aid of a labelled diagram, illustrate the forces involved in lifting water and dissolved
mineral ions up the xylem.
10. In a table, compare the translocation of materials in xylem with translocation in phloem.
Answers to revision
questions
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28/5/08 2:22:56 PM
CHAPTER 3
Excretionwastes, water and salt balance

Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases,
water and waste products of metabolism in cells and in
interstitial fluid
The maintenance of relatively constant
concentrations of gases, water
and waste products in the internal
environment of living organisms (cells
and body fluids) is an important aspect
of homeostasis. The concentration
of these substances directly affects
metabolism in cells. Excretory wastes
produced by cellular functioning in
the body include carbon dioxide and
nitrogenous wastes such as ammonia,
urea and uric acid. Nitrogenous wastes
are produced in the liver as a result of
protein breakdown. Excretory products
of cells alter the normal internal
environment of cells of the body
and body fluids (such as blood and
interstitial fluid in animals) and, unless
they are removed, they can poison the
organism, interfere with metabolism
and ultimately lead to death.
Excretion is the process by which
waste products, which have been
produced as a result of metabolism,
are removed from the body. The
3.1
excretory system is made up of those

systems and organs that carry out the
removal of metabolic wastes from
the body. Carbon dioxide is excreted
via the lungs (respiratory system) and
nitrogenous wastes are removed,
along with excess salts and water,
via the kidneys (urinary system). In
mammals, sweat glands in the skin
may also excrete some excess salts,
as well as nitrogenous wastes in a
dilute form. In aquatic animals such as
tadpoles and fish, gills act as excretory
organs to eliminate excess carbon
dioxide (in addition to their function of
oxygenating blood), while in plants the
elimination of carbon dioxide at night
occurs through the stomata of leaves.
Note: Excretion in animals should
not be confused with elimination,
which is the removal of unabsorbed
food from the body, since this
undigested food was never a part of the
metabolic functioning of the body.
The iimportance of excretion (and water and salt

balance) in humans and other animals
balan
Homeostasis, the maintenance of a
steady internal state, is essential for
cell functioning. Cell metabolism
is controlled by enzymes which
catalyse each chemical reaction in
living organisms. In addition to being
extremely sensitive to temperature and
pH, enzymes are substrate specific,

and do not function effectively in
an environment where there is an
accumulation of waste products or
the optimal concentrations of water
and dissolved substances are not
maintained.
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28/5/08 2:37:06 PM
EXCRETIONWASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
In this chapter, we deal with the role

of the excretory system in regulating
the levels of water and salts (ions) in
the body, as well its role in eliminating
wastes which are toxic to cells (even
in relatively low concentrations)in
keeping with the theme of this HSC
module: Maintaining a balance.
The excretory system regulates the
concentrations of essential substances
and wastes in the internal environment
by:
removing metabolic wastes

(including nitrogenous wastes and
carbon dioxide)
maintaining optimal water and salt
levels (i.e. osmoregulation).
Additional functions of the excretory
system in humans and other mammals
are the maintenance of:
blood pH
blood volume (and therefore blood
pressure).
Water balance: the importance of maintaining water

concentration
explain why the concentration of water in cells should be

maintained within a narrow range for optimal function
Water makes up at least two-thirds

of the body composition of most
living organisms, and the internal
concentration of water and dissolved
substances in cells is similar to that of
sea water. (This is not surprising if we
consider that all early life forms are
thought to have evolved in the sea.)
Water is the solvent that forms the
basic aquatic medium of cytoplasm
in cells and also of body fluids
such as blood, interstitial fluid and
digestive juices in animals. It is also
the transport medium in plants, acting
as a medium for the translocation of
ions in xylem and sugars in phloem
tissue. Solutes that dissolve in water
in living organisms include inorganic
dissolved ions (such as sodium,
potassium, chloride and hydrogen ions)
and organic solutes such as glucose
and amino acids (end products of
digestion), as well as urea and ammonia
(nitrogenous wastes that accumulate as
a result of protein breakdown).
Changes in water concentration
lead to corresponding changes in solute
concentration in cells: the relative
concentration of solutes: water in cells
determines the osmotic pressure
of cells. Water enters and leaves cells
by the process of osmosis and the
net direction of water movement is
dependent on the osmotic gradient

water moves from a high to a low
water concentration through the
selectively permeable cell membrane.
The movement of water into and out of
cells therefore depends directly on the
concentration of solutions both inside
and outside the cells.
Water provides the necessary
medium in which all chemical reactions
of metabolism can occur : chemical
reactions in cells can proceed only if
the reactants are dissolved in water.
Water and solute concentration in cells
and fluids in living organs must be
maintained at a relatively constant level,
within a narrow range so that these
cellular reactions can take place.
Water itself may participate as a
reactant in some metabolic processes
(such as photosynthesis) and may be
a product (for example, in cellular
respiration).
Problems associated with change in
water concentration
If the balance of water and solutes in

cells is not maintained at an optimal
concentration, too much water may
move into cells, causing them to burst
(if they are animal cells) or too much
water may move out, causing the cell
contents to shrink and the cytoplasm
71
28/5/08 2:37:07 PM
to become too concentrated for normal

cell functioning.
The osmotic pressure of living tissue
can also affect the pH in cellsfor
example, too little water leads to an
increase in the concentration of solutes
such as carbon dioxide and this in turn
lowers pH. Both osmotic pressure and
pH must be maintained within a narrow
range so that enzymes can function
under optimal conditions, to allow
effective metabolism. Homeostasis is
the regulatory process by which these
levels are maintained.
Correct fluid concentrations
maintain the osmotic pressure of cells
and this is responsible for structural

support in many living organisms
(such as plants and some invertebrate
animals). For example, in plants
osmotic pressure maintains cell
shapethe outward osmotic pressure
of the vacuole is counteracted by
the inward pressure of the cell wall,
making plant cells turgid.
If water accumulates in high
quantities as an end product of
metabolism in cells, it may dilute
reactants and slow down metabolism;
therefore excess water must be
removed from living organisms.
The importance of the removal of wastes
explain why the removal of wastes is essential for

continued metabolic activity
Any accumulation of wastes may be

toxic to cells and so metabolic wastes
must be removed from the body to
maintain homeostasis. If wastes are
not continuously removed, their levels
in the body will increase and alter the
conditions in the internal environment.
This in turn inhibits enzyme functioning
and prevents cells from undergoing
normal metabolic activity. Examples are:
the build-up of nitrogenous wastes
such as ammonia, which causes an
increase in pH in cells, resulting in
them becoming more alkaline
3.2
carbon dioxide accumulation, which

lowers pH, resulting in the internal
environment becoming more acidic.
These changes to the acidity or
alkalinity of cells slow down or inhibit
enzyme functioning in metabolism.
The accumulation of wastes
that do not alter the pH may cause
other problemsincreased solute
concentrations interfere with reaction
rates and an osmotic imbalance
adversely affects membrane
functioning.
The role
ro of the kidney in excretion and
osmoregulation
osmor
The excretory system is a group of
organs that function together to remove
metabolic wastes from the tissues of an
organism and expel them to the outside
(see Fig. 3.1a). The kidneys are the
main excretory organs responsible for
removing nitrogenous wastes from the
bodies of vertebrate animals, including
fish and mammals.
The function of the kidney in

excretion is to filter the blood that
enters it, removing wastes (in solution)
from the bloodstream so that they
can be excreted from the body. This
filtration is carried out in millions of
tiny excretory units called nephrons.
Urine is the excretory solution finally
produced by these microscopic tubules
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28/5/08 2:37:07 PM
renal cortex
renal medulla
kidneys
renal artery
renal vein
ureter
aorta
inferior
vena cava
bladder
urethra
renal arterycarries
blood to kidney
renal
pelvis
renal pelvisfunnels
urine into the ureter
renal veincarries
blood away from kidney
(a)
Figure 3.1
(a) Excretory system
of mammals;
(b) macroscopic
structure of
mammalian kidney
(longitudinal section);
(c) microscopic
structure showing the
distribution of tubules
in the mammalian
kidney; (d) nephron
and associated
capillaries
ureter
(b)
distal tubule proximal tubule
proximal
convoluted
tubule
distal
convoluted
Bowmans
tubule
capsule
efferent arteriole
from glomerulus
afferent arteriole
from renal artery
Bowmans capsule
glomerulus
renal
cortex
decending limb
ascending limb
branch of
renal vein
loop of
Henle
collecting
duct
renal
medulla
to
renal
pelvis
collecting
duct
(c)
(d)
and it drains out of the kidneys, carrying

wastes out of the kidney via ducts, the
ureters. In vertebrates, the ureters lead
to a urine storage organ, the bladder,
which passes urine via the urethra to
the outside. In other vertebrates, the
ureters carry urine directly to a chamber,
the cloaca (the common opening of
the urinary, digestive and reproductive
tracts), which empties to the outside
(see Fig. 3.2).
The oxygenated blood arriving
at the kidney, via the renal artery,
carries nitrogenous wastes and these,
together with water and other solutes,
are filtered to form urine. The kidney is

drained of its fluids by two vessels:
the renal vein, which carries
purified blood back into the general
circulation
the ureter, which carries urine
(a watery solution containing
nitrogenous wastes) out of the
kidney (see Fig. 3.1a and b).
The blood that was filtered in
the kidney tubules returns to the
general circulation via the renal
vein. This blood has been purified
(all nitrogenous wastes have been
removed).
loop of Henle
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28/5/08 2:37:08 PM
bladder
ureter
renal portal
vein
kidney
aorta
opening
of ureter
cloaca
Figure 3.2 Cloaca

of fish, showing the
opening of the urinary
tract
3.3
Animals use water to flush metabolic

wastes out of the body. Excretion
therefore brings with it the problem
of regulating the amount of water lost,
while ensuring that wastes are removed.
The role of the kidney includes both
the excretion of nitrogenous wastes
and osmoregulationmaintaining the
Active and passive transport (diffusion and osmosis)

in kidne
kidney functioning
SR
Assumedd kknowledge
l d
osmosis, diffusion and
active transport
water and salt (electrolyte) balance in

animals. The maintenance of a stable
blood volume, blood pressure and pH
depends upon a stable water balance
within a narrow range in the body. The
importance of conserving water varies
in different animals, depending on the
environment which each inhabits.
The main environments inhabited
by living organisms are freshwater,
marine and terrestrial habitats. Each
habitat presents its own problems for
organisms in terms of maintaining
their internal water and salt balance.
The kidneys of animals have evolved
to function in both excretion and the
removal or conservation of water and
salts, maintaining optimal levels of
these substances within the bodies
of animals that live in different
environments.
distinguish between active and passive transport and

relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian
kidney
Movement of materials into and out

of cells takes place either passively or
actively. Passive movement includes
the processes of diffusion and osmosis.
These types of movement require
no energy input from the cell, since
molecules move along a concentration
gradient (see Assumed Knowledge
on the Student Resource CD). Active
transport requires an input of cellular
energy to actively move molecules
against a concentration gradient.
Passive transport in the

mammalian kidney
Diffusion and osmosis result from
the random movement of particles,
called Brownian motion, whereby
particles continually collide and move
randomly. When they are in a higher

concentration in one region, this
constant movement slowly results in
an overall spreading out from the most
concentrated point, finally bringing
about their even distribution within
a space. The main limitations of
passive movement are that it depends
on the presence of a difference
in concentration of substances (a
concentration gradient) between two
regions and that it is relatively slow,
especially when the concentration
gradient is not steep.
Diffusion is the movement of
any molecules from a region of high
concentration to a region of low
concentration of that substance, until
74
28/5/08 2:37:17 PM
equilibrium is reached. This does not

require an energy input.
Osmosis is the movement of
water molecules from a region of
high water concentration to a region
of low water concentration through a
selectively permeable membrane. This
does not require an energy input.
Within the kidney, the movement of
substances between the bloodstream
and excretory fluid in the microscopic
tubules (called nephrons) involves
both active and passive transport. A
balance in the optimal concentrations
of blood chemicals is maintained by the
selective excretion of wastes, as well
as any excess water and salts, in urine.
Therefore the ability of the kidney to
alter the urine concentration plays a
vital role in homeostasis.
Within the kidney tubules, there is a
two-way movement of substances:
Waste substances pass from the
bloodstream into the kidney tubules,
to be excreted in urine (filtration and
secretion).
Substances required by the body
are removed from the urine in the
kidney tubules (before it is excreted)
and returned to the bloodstream
(reabsorption).
Passive transport moves water
(by osmosis), and some nitrogenous
wastes such as urea and ammonia (by
diffusion) in the kidney of mammals.
In the kidney, only excess water and
salts are excreted; homeostasis requires
that sometimes water and salts should
be conserved to maintain the required
levels within the body and at other
times they should be excreted. Salt
movement is via active transport (see
below) and this in turn draws water by
osmosis (passive movement).
Active transport in the

mammalian kidney
Active transport is the movement
of molecules from an area of low
concentration to a region of high
concentration, requiring an input of
energy.
Sometimes in living organisms there
is a need to move a chemical against
the concentration gradient, and to do
this, active transport occurs. Active
transport involves a carrier protein that
spans the membrane and this carrier
molecule can actively move chemicals
from a low to a high concentration,
utilising cellular energy.
Active transport moves mainly
sodium ions, glucose, amino acids and
hydrogen ions across the wall of the
nephron:
All glucose and amino acids are
reabsorbed by kidney cells so that
they are not lost in urine and so
they move against a concentration
gradient.
Additional nitrogenous wastes (e.g.
uric acid) and hydrogen ions (H+)
are added to urine (from the blood
capillaries) in the kidney tubules.
A sodium pump mechanism
operates in the tubules of the
kidneys, actively transporting ions
(salts) from the urine back into the
kidney cells. Besides conserving
salts, this process also brings about
the conservation of water within
the bodythe active transport of
salts draws water out of the urine,
because water follows by osmosis
(passive transport). Water is drawn
by the osmotic pull of the salts in
solution.
(These are explained in greater detail in
section 3.4.)
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28/5/08 2:37:19 PM
3.4
Why osmosis
o
and diffusion may be inadequate for
waste removal
explain
expla
ain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are
inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes in
inade
some organisms
Diffusion and osmosis are both types

of passive transport that require no
energy input and so they are slow
the movement of molecules relies
on differences in the concentration
gradient between two solutions
(they move from a high to a low
concentration), and so both diffusion
and osmosis slow down as the
difference in concentration gradient
becomes smaller, and they stop once
the concentration gradient reaches
equilibrium.
Problems with relying on

diffusion
The rate of movement is too slow.
Nitrogenous wastes and toxins such as
drugs that accumulate in the body must
be dissolved in water when they are
removed. If their removal by the kidney
was dependent on diffusion only,
wastes would be able to move only if
they were more concentrated inside
the cells or the bloodstream than in the
fluids outside. As the concentrations
begin to equalise, their movement
would slow down and eventually stop.
Not all wastes can be removed by
diffusion. Since nitrogenous wastes
are toxic, it is essential they are all
removed. If concentrations within the
blood and urine equalised and no
further wastes were removed, their
accumulation would change the pH
of cells and become toxic. Active
transport is therefore essential at this
point to move wastes such as uric acid
against the concentration gradient from
blood into urine in the kidney.
Problems with relying on

osmosis
Too much water may be lost in urine.
If urine contains a large number of
nitrogenous wastes in solution, water
will be drawn into the urine by osmosis,
to dilute the wastes and try to equalise
the concentration of the fluid inside the
urine and in the surrounding kidney
tissues. However, excretion of dilute
urine means the loss of large amounts
of water from the bodya loss many
terrestrial animals cannot afford.
Movement of water may make wastes
too dilute for excretion by diffusion.
Organisms that live in freshwater
environments have a different
problemosmosis results in water
moving into the body tissues from the
surrounding environment. Although this
dilutes the toxic wastes in the body,
it also slows down their excretion by
diffusion (lowers the concentration
gradient). Therefore a mechanism is
essential to remove wastes against a
concentration gradient.
Solution to the problems

combined active transport and
osmosis
Active transport, which requires energy,
is quicker and more effective than
diffusion as it removes most wastes,
even against a concentration gradient.
It can also be used to pump salts from
urine back into the kidney tissues and
these in turn will draw water with them
(by osmosis), ensuring in this way that
the amount of water lost in urine does
not affect the bodys water balance.
(Note : Water cannot be moved directly
by active transport.)
76
28/5/08 2:37:19 PM
Investigating the structure of a mammalian kidney
perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of

a mammalian kidney by dissection, use of a model or
visual resource and identify the regions involved in the
excretion of waste products
Aim
To identify the parts of a mammalian kidney and
to identify the regions involved in the excretion
of waste products (relate the parts to their
functions).
The kidneys lie on either side of the midline on
the dorsal (back) wall of the abdomen in the
region of the waist. In humans, each kidney is
bean-shaped, about 10.513 cm long, 6 cm wide
and 3 cm thick. The indentation in the kidney is
termed the hilum and blood vessels (the renal
artery and vein), the ureter and nerves enter
and leave the kidney at this point. The kidneys
of a well-nourished person are embedded in fat.
They function to filter out wastes, such as urea
and some salts, and to regulate the water and
salt balance in the body. The kidneys are also
responsible for regulation of blood pressure and
maintenance of pH within the body.
This investigation may be undertaken as a
dissection, using fresh kidneys obtained from
a butcher (request that they are provided still
embedded in fat). The alternative is to use a
model of a kidney and/or a visual resource such
as the website listed below.
http://webhome.broward.edu/
~ssimpson/!videowebsite/
dissection.htm
Website featuring kidney dissection.
Materials
Dissecting tray, newspaper, sharp scalpel,
forceps, probe, scissors, pins and label flags,
kidney, latex gloves (with non-slip grip), hand
lens
Safety
(Refer to the safety guidelines on the Teacher
Resource CD.) Students should draw up a table
in which they identify three risks associated with
this investigation, describe each and propose a
suitable strategy to overcome the risk.
Method
1. Work in pairs or in groups of four. Lay the
kidney on the dissecting tray.
External structure
2. Examine the external structure of the
kidney, noting its surrounding fat (adipose
tissue) before removing it. Remove the fat,
leaving the vessels at the hilum intact.
3. Compare the size of the kidney that you
have for dissection with the dimensions
given for an average human kidney.
4. Identify the vessels, distinguishing
between the renal artery, vein and ureter.
Locate the adrenal gland (in the fat).
5. Detach the renal capsule. Describe its
appearance and function.
6. Draw a life-sized diagram to show the
external structure of the kidney.
Internal structure
7. Cut the kidney in longitudinal section,
making an incision along the side opposite
to hilum. Note the opening to the ureter.
Insert a probe through the hole and
observe where it exits.
8. Identify the regions of the kidney: the outer
cortex, the medulla and the renal pelvis.
Compare the colour and appearance of the
cortex and medulla.
9. Insert a probe below the renal pyramids,
slip the lower blade of the scissors into
the gap and slit through each pyramid to
follow the path of the calyces. Urine from
the collecting tubules drains into these
calyces, which carry the urine to the renal
pelvis, ureters and bladder.
10. Draw a diagram of a longitudinal section
through the kidney, showing the internal
structure as seen in the dissection.
Annotate the diagram by writing the
function of each structure labelled (a
minimum of six structures). Do not draw
the textbook diagram.
11. Identify each of the following regions of
the kidney, using toothpicks with coloured
flags.
Red flagthe part of the kidney containing
collecting tubules.
Blue flagthe region of the kidney
containing glomeruli and Bowmans
capsules.
Yellow flagthe part of the kidney that
carries urine from the collecting tubules.
FIRST-HAND
INVESTIGATION
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H11.3
H12.1; H12.2
H13.1
H14.1
SR
Guidedd iinvestigation
ti ti
of the structure of
a mammalian kidney
with an investigation
template
TR
General resources
risk assessment:
safety
77
28/5/08 2:37:20 PM
3.5
Figure 3.3 The

nephronfunctional
unit of the kidney
Results
Record all results appropriately. A worksheet

has been provided on the Student Resource CD
to assist students.
Answer all discussion questions on the Student

Resource CD and write a valid conclusion.
Micros
Microscopic
structure and the functioning of the
mammalian kidney
mamm
Microscopic structure of the
kidney
The basic functional unit within the
kidney is a microscopic tubule called
the nephron, the smallest structural
part of a kidney that is capable of
producing urine. Each kidney contains
millions of these tiny units, which
coil and twist across both the cortex
and medulla. A nephron consists of
four functional parts: the Bowmans
capsule, a proximal (first)
convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle
and a distal (second) convoluted
tubule which leads into a collecting
duct (see Fig. 3.3).
Total solute concentration (mOsm)
Bowmans
capsule
p
glomerulus
distal tubule
proximal tubule
Na+
N
CI
300
H2O
loop of
Henle
cortex
600
collecting
tubules
H2O
Na+ H2O
CI
H2O
urea
outer medulla
1200
inner medulla
H2O
The Bowmans capsule occurs

at one end and is an enlarged part of
the nephron tubule. It is a doublewalled sac, indented on one side to
accommodate a spherical network
of blood capillaries called the
glomerulus. A useful analogy is to
think of the Bowmans capsule as a
baseball mittdouble-walled, hollow
(where your hand fits inside) and
curved around to accommodate a
baseball. The glomerulus is represented
by the baseballin close contact
with and partly surrounded by the
Bowmans capsule. If these were
cut through in longitudinal section,
their structure would appear as in
Figure 3.4.
The hollow part the Bowmans
capsule is filled with fluid called
glomerular filtrate. This fluid
continues its flow along the length of
the nephron and by the time it reaches
the collecting tubule at the far end, it is
known as urine. As it flows along the
nephron, the chemical composition of
the fluid is adjusted. Various substances
are removed or added to obtain the
final producturine.
The Bowmans capsule and first
and second convoluted tubules lie in
the cortex, while the loop of Henle
and the collecting tubules pass into the
medulla. (The distribution of the parts
of the nephron within the cortex and
medulla can be seen in Fig. 3.3.)
78
28/5/08 2:37:21 PM
Nephron functioning: filtration, reabsorption and tubular

secretion
explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption

in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid
composition
Three main processes that lead to urine

formation occur in the nephron. These
are filtration, reabsorption and
secretion, described in detail below
(also see Fig. 3.4).
Filtration
The renal artery that enters the kidney

branches into numerous smaller and
smaller vessels, each terminating in a
globular network of capillariesthe
glomerulus. The filtration of blood
takes place at the surface between the
glomerulus and the inner lining of each
Bowmans capsule. A high pressure
system exists in the blood flowing
through the glomerulus, created partly
by size of the blood vessels entering
and leavingthe vessel entering the
capillary network is slightly larger
than that exiting. Substances within
the blood that are small enough are
squeezed through the capillary wall
under pressure; they pass through
the cellular layer lining the Bowmans
capsule and move into the lumen.
Blood cells and proteins are retained
in the blood, while large volumes of
water pass through, carrying dissolved
substances including amino acids,
glucose, salts (ions), nitrogenous wastes
and other toxic molecules (see Fig. 3.5).

Once inside the Bowmans capsule, this
fluid is termed glomerular filtrate.
The process of filtration separates
substances from the blood based on
their size. It does not take into account
whether they are wastes to be excreted
or nutrients that are still required in the
body. Glomerular filtrate is therefore
not the final fluid excretedits
composition is adjusted as it flows
along the remainder of the nephron:
Substances that the body needs are
reabsorbed from the filtrate into the
kidney cells or bloodstream so that
they are not lost with urine.
Additional wastes that may still be in
the bloodstream (those that were not
squeezed out of the blood under the
high pressure of filtration) must be
added (secreted) into the fluid.
These processes, called tubular
reabsorption and tubular secretion,
adjust the composition of the fluid in
the nephron to form urine (see Fig. 3.5).
Students may complete Task 1 on
the Student Resource CD at this point.
SR
TR
Student worksheet
the functioning of the
kidney
Reabsorption
Figure 3.4 The

processes involved in
urine formation in the
nephron
The chemical composition of body

fluids is precisely regulated by selective
Urine results from the following three processes:

1. Filtration
2. Reabsorption
3. Secretion
Filtration (blue arrow) is the movement

of materials across the filtration
membrane into the lumen of
Bowmans capsule to form filtrate
Solutes are reabsorbed (orange arrow)
across the wall of the nephron by
transport processes, such as active
transport. Water is reabsorbed (purple
arrow) across the wall of the nephron
by osmosis
Solutes are secreted (green arrow)
across the wall of the nephron into
the filtrate
peritubular capillaries
to general circulation
filtrate
rest of nephron
Bowmans capsule
glomerular capillaries
urine
renal corpuscle
efferent arteriole carries blood away from glomerulus

afferent arteriole brings blood to the glomerulus
79
28/5/08 2:37:24 PM
Figure 3.5 Nephron

functioning showing
Bowmans capsule and
glomerulus in detail
glomerulus
capillary
glomerular
filtrate
Bowmans
capsule
1. Filtration
Pressure forces fluids and
dissolved substances through
walls of the glomerular capillaries
into the Bowmans capsule
1
water
arteriole
entering
CI
AA
Na+ ammino
acid glucose
AA
CI
CI
red blood
cells
glucose
arteriole
leaving
water
urea
protein
2. Reabsorption
Water, salts and nutrients move by
diffusion or active transport from
the tubule into the surrounding
capillaries
blood
2
urine
2001500mL of urine daily
includes:
water: 9597%
solids: 35% including:
urea
30g
creatinine
12g
ammonia
0.5g
uric acid
1g
ions (salts)
25g
CI
AA
3. Secretion
Excess ions and chemicals such
as drugs are secreted
Na+
glucose
4. Excretion
Excess water and solutes are
eliminated in the form of urine
reabsorption of certain solutes from the

glomerular filtrate at various points along
the nephronthe proximal tubule,
loop of Henle and distal tubule (see
Fig. 3.6). The filtrate contains molecules
that the body needs (e.g. amino acids,
glucose, certain ions and some water)
and so they are actively reabsorbed from
the nephron and passed back into the
interstitial fluid and blood capillaries
surrounding the nephron, a process
called tubular reabsorption. These
capillaries join up to form larger vessels
which drain into the renal vein, where
they are carried from the kidney back
into the general circulation.
Substances that are reabsorbed: water
and some solutes
All nutrients are reabsorbed from

the filtrate and varying quantities
of inorganic ions are reabsorbed,
depending on the particular

requirements of the body at that time.
Solute reabsorption: all amino
acids and glucose and varying
quantities of ions such as Na+, K+, Cl,
Ca2+ and HCO3 (sodium, potassium,
chloride, calcium and hydrogen
bicarbonate ions) and some vitamins
are reabsorbed. The differing rate of
reabsorption of particular ions depends
on feedback from the body. All solutes
that are reabsorbed from the nephron
move by means of active transport
and facilitated diffusion (see table on
the Teacher Resource CD). Glomerular
filtrate also contains a relatively high
concentration of dissolved urea and
other wastes, most of which are not
reabsorbed.
Water reabsorption: As the solutes
are actively reabsorbed, water follows
by the passive process of osmosis.
An enormous quantity of water is
80
28/5/08 2:37:26 PM
1 proximal tubule
NaCI nutrients
HCO3 H2O
K+
H+
NH3
Figure 3.6
Filtration, reabsorption
and secretion of
solutes in the nephron
4 distal tubule
H2O
NaCI HCO3
K+ H+
cortex
2 descending
limb of loop
of Henle
H2O
filtrate
H2O (water)
salts (NaCI, etc)
HCO3 (bicarbonate ions)
H+ (hydrogen ions)
urea
glucose; amino acids
some drugs
active transport
passive transport
3 thick segment
of ascending
limb
NaCI
NaCI
outer
medulla
3 thin segment
of ascending
limb
NaCI
5 collecting
duct
urea
H2O
inner
medulla
reabsorbed by osmosisapproximately
99% of the huge volume of filtrate
that passes into the Bowmans capsule
is reabsorbed along the length of
the nephron and only 1% is actually
excreted as urine.
The membranes of the cells
lining the nephron can change their
permeability to water and ions,
thus regulating the amount of these
substances that are reabsorbed.
Hormones control these changes in
membrane permeability. This is a
homeostatic mechanism which allows
the body to maintain its blood volume
and chemical composition within the
narrow range required for effective
metabolism.
Parts of the nephron involved in
reabsorption
In the proximal tubule, all organic

nutrients (amino acids and glucose)
are reabsorbed, as well as some ions
such as sodium, potassium, chlorides,
hydrogen carbonate, calcium and
magnesium ions.
The loop of Henle descends into

the medulla and then ascends up
towards the cortex, leading into the
distal tubule. In the ascending limb of
the loop of Henle, a large number of
ions (sodium in particular) are actively
pumped out into the interstitial fluid
in the medulla, since the membranes
are permeable to salts (dissociated
into ions) but impermeable to water.
Some urea may move by diffusion
out of the collecting tubule and
into the surrounding interstitial fluid.
These solutes which accumulate in
the medulla draw water by osmosis.
Some water moves from the descending
limb of the loop of Henle and a large
amount of water moves from the
collecting tubules, both of which
have membranes that are permeable
to water, allowing it to move passively
by osmosis into the surrounding tissue
of the medulla. (Energy is used to
ensure that urea does not return to the
capillaries, so this is not true tubular
reabsorption.)
81
28/5/08 2:37:27 PM
Figure 3.7
The sodium pump
mechanism in the
loop of Henle
asscen
ascending
a
ndin
ng
off
lilimb
m o
mb
loop
lo
o of
oop
o
Henle
H
enle
e
capillary
descending
limb of loop
of Henle
H2O
H 2O
CI
H2O
Na+
H2O
CI
H2O
H2O
Na+
H2O
Key
active
activ
ve
e ssodium
odium reabsorption
reabsorptio
on
Note: Water is reabsorbed in all

parts of the tubule except the ascending
loop of Henle.
Tubular secretion
Tubular secretion is the third process

that contributes to urine formation in
the nephron. It involves the removal
of toxic substances from the blood
capillaries and tissues and their
active secretion into the nephron.
Metabolic wastes such as urea, uric
acid, ammonia and hydrogen ions
are secreted into the fluid within
the nephron, along with drugs such
as penicillin, saccharin, morphine.
Movement of urea and ammonia is
mainly by means of diffusion, whereas
all other tubular secretion involves
active transport.
collecting
tubule
passive water movement by osmosis
Parts of the nephron involved in tubular

secretion
H+ and drugs such as penicillin and

saccharin and morphine are secreted
into the proximal part of the nephron.
Urea is secreted into the descending
limb of the loop of Henle (the
ascending limb and distal tubules are
impermeable to urea).
Urea may be recycled in the
nephron to help move water by
osmosissome urea may move from
the collecting tubules into the interstitial
fluid to help draw water out of the loop
of Henle. It then diffuses back into the
descending limb of the loop of Henle
so it may be continuously recycled if
the body needs to reabsorb water.
Students may complete Tasks 25 on
the Student Resource CD.
82
28/5/08 2:37:29 PM
Hormonal regulation of kidney functioning
outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH

(anti-diuretic hormone) in the regulation of water and
salt levels in blood
The role of aldosterone and

ADH in regulating kidney
functioning
Hormones are chemical control
substances that are secreted by
endocrine (ductless) glands, directly
into the bloodstream. They travel via
the general circulation to parts of the
body and when they reach their target
cells, these cells (in this case, cells
within the kidney nephrons) respond.
The passage of the filtrate from
Bowmans capsule to the distal parts
of the nephron occurs as outlined
above, without variation. Adjustments
to the concentration of water and salts
within the urine takes place mainly in
the distal parts of the tubules and the
collecting tubules, by alterations to
the permeability of the membranes of
cells lining the nephron walls. These
changes in permeability are brought
about by two main hormones:
Aldosterone brings about retention
(conservation) of salts within the
body.
ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
brings about water reabsorption
(conservation) within the body.
Aldosterone
A decrease in the concentration of

sodium ions in the bloodstream leads
to a decrease in blood volume and
this stimulates cells in the cortex of
the adrenal gland (above the kidney)
to secrete the hormone aldosterone.
When aldosterone reaches the kidney
(via the bloodstream), it increases the
permeability of the nephron to sodium,
particularly in the ascending limb of
the loop of Henle. Reabsorption of
sodium ions from the nephron into
the surrounding kidney tissue and
capillaries occurs, resulting in the

retention (conservation) of salt by the
bodythat is, less salt is lost in urine.
In the absence of aldosterone, the salt
concentration in urine is higher (see
Fig 3.8(b)).
Anti-diuretic hormone
3.6
SR
TR
Student worksheet
hormone regulation of
kidney functioning
When a mammal begins to dehydrate,

blood volume drops and this is
detected in the hypothalamus of the
brain. It stimulates the pituitary gland
to release the hormone ADH, which
acts on the nephrons of the kidneys
to increase the reabsorption of water.
The presence of ADH increases the
permeability of the membranes of
the cells lining the distal tubules and
collecting tubules to water. As a result,
water is reabsorbed from these tubules
into the kidney tissue and bloodstream
and so water is conserved within the
body (less water is lost in urine). The
name of the hormone describes its
functiona diuretic is a substance that
causes the loss of water from the body
(alcohol, tea and coffee are diuretics),
so anti-diuretic refers to a substance
that reduces water loss. (See the flow
chart, Fig. CD3.5, on the Student
Resource CD.)
Both ADH and aldosterone therefore
play an important role in helping the
kidney to carry out its homeostatic
functions of osmoregulation:
regulation of the solute concentration
of the blood: regulating the amount
of sodium and other ions that are
reabsorbed or secreted in urine)
regulation of blood volume:
maintaining a constant fluid
volume by producing either a large
volume of dilute urine or a small or
concentration of concentrated urine.
83
28/5/08 2:37:36 PM
Figure 3.8 Hormone

regulation of kidney
functioning: (a)
ADH and water
conservation;
(b) aldosterone and
salt conservation
hypothalamus
stimulus: decrease in blood volume
posterior
pituitary
(b)
Na+
aldorsterone
adrenal cortex
Na+
CI
(a)
CI
ADH
loop of Henle
sINCREASEDPERMEABILITYOF
membrane to sodium ions
sSALTREABSORBEDRETAINED
LESSFLUIDLOSS
less Na+ loss
H2O
H2O
H2O
response: blood volume increases
collecting tubules
s INCREASEDPERMEABILITY
OFMEMBRANESTOWATER
s WATERISREABSORBED
CONSERVED
3.7
PFA
H3
Technology related to kidney functioning

An understanding of how the kidney
functions to remove wastes, as well
as the hormonal regulation of kidney
functioning to maintain homeostasis has
played a key role in the development
of technologies such as:
renal dialysis for people suffering
from reduced kidney functioning
hormone replacement therapy
for patients suffering from
abnormally low levels of the
hormone aldosterone.
These applications of the use

of biology have helped to improve
the lifestyle and increase the life
expectancy of people who suffer
from these diseases. The secondarysource investigations that follow
provide suitable material to address the
prescribed focus area, showing how
advances in our knowledge of biology
have affected the development of
technology.
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28/5/08 2:37:37 PM
Technology 1renal dialysis replaces lost kidney

functioning
gather, process and analyse information from secondary

sources to compare the process of renal dialysis with the
function of the kidney
Aim
To gather, process and analyse information
from secondary sources on the process of
renal dialysis.
To compare the process of renal dialysis
with the function of the kidney.
To describe how advances in our knowledge
of biology have affected the development of
the technologies for renal dialysis (PFA H3).
(See the Student Resource CD.)
Video clip: Students should view the

video clip on the following website as
a resource for this investigation.
http://www.davita.com/kidney_
animation/#introA video
showing how dialysis works.
The kidneys are responsible for filtering our
blood, removing metabolic wastes so that
they may be excreted via urination. If a person
suffers from kidney failure, there is no natural
means by which these wastes can be removed
and their toxic effect eventually leads to death.
(Incidental to this excretory function is the ability
of the kidney to regulate the ion concentration,
pH and volume of blood).
The process of renal dialysis has been
developed to carry out the function of failed
kidneys so that blood may be effectively
filtered. There are two types of renal dialysis
haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. The
process of haemodialysis is outlined below,
giving a brief introduction to the technology.
Students research both technologies and take
into account the outcomes achieved by each,
as well as the limitations encountered, when
comparing them with kidney functioning.
The main function of a dialysis machine is
to remove metabolic wastes that have built up
in the persons blood. The patient is connected
to a dialysis machine, which pumps their blood
through a system of tubes (coiled to increase
their surface area and therefore the rate of
diffusion) which have artificial semi-permeable
membranes. The tubes are submerged in
dialysis fluid (dialysate), which flows in the
opposite direction to the blood in order to

maximise diffusion. Dialysate has the same
concentration as blood plasma without the
metabolic wastes, and since the concentration
of metabolic waste is higher in the blood than
in the dialysing fluid, the waste materials move
through the semi-permeable membrane into
the dialysing fluid by diffusion. Since dialysis
relies on passive transport for the removal of
wastes from the blood, the dialysing fluid must
constantly be replaced so that the concentration
gradient is maintained away from the blood.
Renal dialysis must be carried out for
3 to 4 hours, two or three times per week. As
well as its time-consuming nature, another
disadvantage of the process is that only limited
amounts of fluid/wastes can be removed from
the blood; other substances such as sodium
phosphate and potassium ions do not diffuse
quickly enough and therefore may accumulate
in the blood and so it is recommended that
patients follow a specific diet to prevent this, as
renal dialysis is not effective in regulating the
concentration of these ions in the blood.
SECONDARY SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
PFA
H3
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.3; H12.4
H14.1
TR
General resources and

PFA H3 scaffold
Figure 3.9 A patient

receiving renal dialysis
SR
Skills ffor iinvestigation,

ti ti
recommended
websites and
PFA H3 scaffold
renal dialysis
85
28/5/08 2:37:40 PM
(a)
from an artery
blood
diffusion
of waste
products
such as
urea
blood pump
to a vein
bubble
trap
diffusion of waste
products across the
dialysis membrane
dialysis
membrane
compressed
CO2 and air
fresh
dialysis
fluid
(b)
constant
temperature
bath
(i)
used
dialysis
fluid
dialysate fluid
(ii)
abdominal
cavity
dialysis
fluid
(iii)
abdominal cavity
bag is rolled up and
tucked around waist
bag is lowered and fluid

is allowed to flow out
Figure 3.10
Renal dialysis:
(a) haemodialysis;
(b) peritoneal dialysis
TR
Answers to
investigation
Task
Use the text and diagrams on pages 8586 and
the recommended websites and scaffold on the
Student Resource CD to answer the questions
that follow.
1. Define renal dialysis and briefly outline the
two types of renal dialysis.
2. Describe the functioning of the kidney under
the following headings:
Filtration of blood
Role of diffusion, active transport and
osmosis in kidney functioning
Mechanism to ensure all wastes are

removed from the blood
Mechanism to ensure no required
substances are removed from the blood
Regulation of water and salt balance.
3. Draw up a table to compare the process
of renal dialysis with the functioning of the
human kidney.
4. Describe how advances in our knowledge
of biology have affected the development of
the technologies for renal dialysis (use the
scaffold for PFA H3, provided on the Student
Resource CD, to answer this question).
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Technology 2aldosterone and hormone

replacement therapy
present information to outline the general use of

hormone replacement therapy in people who cannot
secrete aldosterone
Task
Read the background information given below
and then present information in the form of a
report. (The Student Resource CD contains
recommended websites and information on a
report text type to assist students completing
this task.) Select ONE option from the list
below:
Write a letter to your local newspaper in
order to raise awareness of the importance
of hormone replacement therapy for people
who lack aldosterone.
Write a sequence of diary entries from the
perspective of a patient, beginning when
you first find out you have insufficient
aldosterone until after you are on hormone
replacement therapy. Report in each entry
on how your developing condition affects
your lifestyle.
Write a newspaper report on an occurrence
involving a person who was suffering from
Addisons disease and explain how hormone
replacement therapy may have changed
this.
Whatever your choice of presentation,
you are required to outline the general use
of hormone replacement therapy and its
importance. Base your presentation on fact, but
try to be creative and original in your ideas
you may use emotive language.
The function of aldosterone in the
body
Aldosterone increases the amount of salt
reabsorbed from kidney tubules and as a result
it also helps regulate blood pressure.
Why some people lack aldosterone

Addisons disease results from abnormally low
levels of aldosterone in the body. The causes
are not always known, but include:
damage to the adrenal glands that produce
aldosterone, due to accident, surgery or
disease (such as bacterial infections or
cancer of the gland)
damage to the pituitary gland that controls
the adrenal gland (for example, because of
a tumour).
Consequences of an inability to
secrete adequate aldosterone
Inadequate aldosterone may lead to
Addisons disease, where the adrenal cortex
is unable to secrete sufficient (or, in severe
cases any) aldosterone.
It results in low sodium levels and high
potassium levels in the bloodthis is a
potentially dangerous situation, initially
leading to symptoms such as weakness,
fatigue and weight loss.
In severe cases of mineral ion imbalance,
blood pressure drops due to the low
amounts of sodium and potassium ions,
an imbalance of hydrogen ions leads to a
lowering of blood pH and blood glucose
imbalance may arise (this results from a lack
of another associated hormone produced
by the adrenal cortex). Symptoms such as
these restrict the patients lifestyle as they
cannot stand for long periods of time, may
faint from low blood pressure (which brings
dangers of its own, restricting activities and
independence, such as not being able to
drive) and are often too tired to do much.
Without treatment, this may result in the
potentially lethal condition of heart failure.
In a medical emergency, large amounts of
salt and water must be given intravenously,
as well as rapid intravenous adrenal
replacement therapy.
SECONDARY SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
PFA
H4
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.3; H12.4
H13.1
H14.2; H14.3
SR
Reportt ttextt ttype andd

relevant websites
TR
Summary
aldosterone and
hormone replacement
therapy
Hormone replacement therapy

Hormone replacement therapy involves
restoring the balance of the hormones at
levels that are normal for the body, by giving
the patients hormones.
When applied appropriately, it can increase
fluid retention, raise blood pressure and
remove the danger of heart failure, allowing
sufferers to lead normal lives.
Since 1927, when the first hormone
replacement therapy began (using an
extract from the adrenal cortex of cattle),
hundreds of human lives which would have
been lost to Addisons disease in the past
have been saved. Modern day hormone
replacement therapy involves administering
a genetically engineered hormone called
fludrocortisone.
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28/5/08 2:37:49 PM
3.8
Excret
Excretion
of nitrogenous wastes and
osmoregulation in animals
osmor
identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of

fish and mammals
Water and solutes are continually

exchanged between the environment
and a living organisms body fluids.
Water accumulates within the body of
an animal when it eats or drinks, or as
a by-product of cellular metabolism.
Nitrogenous wastes accumulate in
animals as a result of metabolism.
The role of the kidney in fish

and mammals
The kidneys in fish and mammals are
excretory and osmoregulatory organs
and their main functions are outlined
below.
Marine fish: their kidneys conserve
water, excrete excess salts and
nitrogenous wastes.
Freshwater fish: their kidneys excrete
excess water and nitrogenous wastes
(produce large amounts of dilute
urine), conserve salt.
Mammals: their kidneys conserve
water and salts when required,
excrete excess water and salts and
excrete nitrogenous wastes.
The water potential of living cells
is similar to that of sea water, but
lower than that of fresh water or the
surrounding air. (Water potential is the
tendency of a solution to lose water
by osmosis, typical of solutions that
have a high water concentration.) The
concentration of water in the immediate
environment of an organism determines
its need to conserve (retain) water or
lose it.
In aquatic animals such as fish,
the concentration of solutes in the
surrounding aquatic environment has
a direct influence on the direction of
movement of waterwhether it will
move into or out of the body of the

fish.
Freshwater fish live in rivers and
lakes, where the water potential is
highthese habitats contain very few
dissolved salts and water is therefore
freely available (not a limiting factor).
Freshwater fish urinate frequently,
as water tends to accumulate in
their tissues as a result of passive
movement by osmosis from a higher
concentration in the surroundings to
a lower water concentration in the
animal. These fish are faced with the
problem of too much water being
present in their bodies. The kidneys in
freshwater fish therefore excrete excess
water (gained by osmosis from their
surroundings), as well as nitrogenous
wastes (as ammonia). Their kidneys are
structurally suited to this role by having
large glomeruli for the filtration of
blood in large volumes. Their kidneys
are not involved in salt balance, since
these fish do not face the problem of
salt accumulation from their freshwater
environment. Any excess salts that they
consume in their diets are excreted via
the gills.
Organisms that live in marine
habitats (in the sea) or terrestrial
habitats (on land) tend to lose water to
their surroundings, and so they have
evolved mechanisms to conserve water.
Marine fish urinate less. They tend
to lose body water (by osmosis), across
the body surface and gills, into their
salty surroundings. Excess salt tends
to accumulate in their bodies, moving
in by diffusion from the surrounding
sea water. The main function of the
kidneys in these fish is therefore to
remove excess salt. Marine fish tend
to drink sea water, extract the salt
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28/5/08 2:37:50 PM
from it and then use the water for

metabolism. They excrete the extracted
salt to keep salt levels in the body to a
minimum. Their kidneys tend to play
a role in conserving water rather than
excreting it. To meet this need, their
kidneys tend to have small glomeruli
as well as a mechanism for removing
excess salt taken in with sea water. The
kidney is also responsible for excreting
nitrogenous wastes (usually in the form
of urea) in marine fish.
Terrestrial mammals lose water
and solutes from the body as a result
of evaporation from the lung surface
during respiration and as a result of
excretion (for example, the production
of sweat and urine).
The kidneys of mammals excrete
urine that is composed mainly of water
and nitrogenous wastes (urea), as well
as some (excess) salts. The mammalian
kidney can adjust the reabsorption of
nitrogenous wastes, water and salts,
varying the concentration of urine
produced. Mammals have a complex
control mechanism to ensure that a
balance is maintained between the
amounts of sweat and urine excreted.
In hot weather, more water is excreted
as sweat (since sweating is a form
of evaporative cooling and this has
the advantage of lowering body
temperature) and as a result less urine
is produced. In cold weather, more

water is lost in urine and very little in
sweat.
A relatively large quantity of salts
is also lost during sweating and
needs to be replaced to maintain a
stable osmotic pressure within body
fluids and cells in an organism. Any
adjustment to water and salt levels in
urine is brought about by the action
of the hormones ADH and aldosterone
on the kidney tubules. Urine produced
may be more dilute (e.g. in animals
that have been drinking large amounts
of water) or concentrated (in those
that have been sweating) and this
adjustment is made depending on the
needs of the body.
SR
TR
Student worksheet
role of the kidney in
excretion in mammals,
freshwater fish and
marine fish
Task: Role of the kidney in

excretion and osmoregulation
Read the notes on the preceding
pages and then complete the table
provided on the Student Resource CD
to compare the role of the kidney in
mammals, freshwater fish and marine
fish, under the following headings:
Excretion: type of nitrogenous waste
excreted.
Osmoregulation: regulation of water
concentration in the body.
Osmoregulation: role in salt balance
(which assists with electrolyte levels,
pH and blood pressure).
Urine concentration and water balance in animal

excretion (mammals, marine and freshwater fish)
analyse information from secondary sources to compare

and explain the differences in urine concentration of
terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish
The concentration of urine produced by different
animals depends on their need to conserve
water. The amount of solutes dissolved in the
watery solvent of urine is a measure of how

dilute or concentrated the urine solution actually
is. Nitrogenous wastes and salts are the most
abundant solutes in urine. If urine is high in
SECONDARY SOURCE
INVESTIGATION
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.4
H13.1
H14.1; H14.3
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28/5/08 2:37:51 PM
solutes, it is said to be concentrated, but if it is

very watery and contains relatively few solutes,
it is termed dilute. All vertebrates are able to
produce urine that is the same concentration as
or more dilute than that of blood. However, only
those with specialised excretory systems can
produce urine that is more concentrated than
blood. This requires energy and specialised
mechanisms of functioning.
Mammalsa varied concentration

of urine
SR
TR
Recommended websites
and investigation
worksheeturine
concentrations in
terrestrial mammals,
marine fish and
freshwater fish
TR
Extension taskurine
concentration in
animals
Some organisms, such as mammals and birds,

are able to vary their urine concentrations
according to the changing needs of the body.
When the body needs to conserve water (e.g. if
large amounts of water have been lost in warm
weather as a result of sweating or panting) the
body will excrete concentrated urine so that
water is conserved. On cooler days when the
animal does not sweat or on days where large
amounts of water are consumed, dilute urine is
excreted by the kidneys. As a result, the water
content of the blood is maintained at a relatively
constant level because the kidneys are able
to adjust the concentration of urine excreted
and so the kidneys play a role in assisting the
maintenance of a relatively constant blood
volume (and therefore pressure) in the body.
The kidneys of mammals also regulate the
concentration of salts excreted in urine (and
therefore those that remain in the blood plasma)
and they keep the blood pH within a narrow
range by varying the amount of hydrogen ions
excreted in urine.
The concentration of urine in mammals
therefore varies in terms of the concentration
of water and of dissolved substances such as
nitrogenous wastes, salts and hydrogen ions
that it contains. Humans produce, on average,
urine that is about 4.2 times more concentrated
than their plasma (that is, their urine is slightly
more salty than sea water). The concentration
of the urine of desert mammals is greater; for
example, the urine of camels is eight times
as concentrated as their blood and that of the
spinifex hopping mouse can be even higher.
Kangaroo rats can live on a diet of plant
parts that contain almost no waterthey can
survive on dry seeds and not drink water for
prolonged periods of time. Their bodies are
able to make use of metabolic water that
they generate by processes such as cellular
respiration and they rely on this for their

survival. The urine that they produce may be up
to three times as salty as sea water. The loop of
Henle in their kidneys is almost three times as
long as that in human kidneys, allowing them
to reabsorb vast quantities of water from their
urine. (See the recommended websites on the
Student Resource CD.)
Fisha set concentration of urine

The physiology of fish allows them to produce
urine of one particular concentration, rather
than varying the concentration as is seen in
mammals. The concentration of urine that is
excreted is dependent on the type of aquatic
environment in which the fish lives. The
exchange of water and dissolved salts occurs
between the cells and body fluids of the fish and
its environment, and each aquatic environment
(marine and fresh water) presents its own set of
problems that must be overcome by structural,
physiological and behavioural adaptations in the
fish.
In freshwater fish (for example, native
bass), the water surrounding the fish has a
lower concentration of solutes than the cells of
the fish. The main problem facing the animal
is that, since water moves by osmosis from a
higher water concentration (fresh water) to a
lower water concentration, it tends to move from
the surrounding environment into body tissues
of the fish. To overcome this problem, large
quantities of very dilute urine are excreted.
In marine fish (for example, whiting), the
sea water surrounding the fish has a higher
concentration of solutes than the cells of the
fish and so water tends to move out of the fish
by osmosis, from a higher water concentration
(in the cells of the fish) into the surrounding
environment (lower water concentration). The
fish therefore needs to conserve water and
so small quantities of concentrated urine are
excreted.
Task: Urine concentration in

animals
Analyse the background information and
the diagrams provided, and refer to the
recommended websites on the Student
Resource CD, to draw up a table to compare
the concentration of urine excreted in fresh
water fish, marine fish and mammals (see the
Student Resource CD for a sample table).
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28/5/08 2:37:52 PM
diffusion
ions
lower water
potential
higher solute
concentration
osmosis
water
active tubular
reabsorption
of salt
large
glomerulus
salt
body fluids
Na+= 150 mM
K+= 4 mM
Cl= 120 mM
osmotic concentration = 290 mOsm
salt
kidney tubule
fish does not drink

food, fresh water
very few
solutes
high water
potential
fresh water
Na+= 0.08 mM
K+= 0.01 mM
Cl= 0.05 mM
Kidney:
excretion of dilute
urine with ammonia
Gills:
active absorption of
salt, water enters
gills osmotically
urine
(a)
diffusion
ions
lower salt
concentration
higher water
potential
osmosis
water
higher
concentration
of salts
glomerulus
reduced or
absent
lower water
sea water
potential
Na+ = 470 mM
K+ = 10 mM
Cl = 584 mM
salt
body fluids
Na+= 183 mM
K+= 4 mM
Cl= 146 mM
salt
active tubular
secretion
of salts
fish drinks
sea water,
ions, food,
Gills:
active secretion of
NaCl, water loss
Kidney:
excretion of concentrated
urine,urea, little water
(b)
Figure 3.11 (a) Osmoregulation in freshwater fish; (b) osmoregulation in marine fish
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Nitrogenous wastes and water conservation

in animals (Australian insects and terrestrial
mammals)
SECONDARY
S
EC
SOURCE
IINVESTIGATION
NVE
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H12.3; H12.4
H14.2; H14.3
use available evidence to explain the relationship

between the conservation of water and the production
and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a
range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals
SR
Assumedd kknowledge
l d
de-amination and
the production of
nitrogenous wastes
All animals must eliminate nitrogen-containing

metabolic wastes that arise from the breakdown
of protein so that they do not accumulate
in toxic amounts. Excess amino acids (and
nucleic acids) in the bodies of vertebrates
are de-aminated and the nitrogen-containing
amino group is removed and combined with
carbon dioxide to produce ammonia (see
Assumed Knowledge on the Student Resource
CD).The ammonia is still fairly toxic and so it
must be excreted directly, diluted with large
quantities of water, or it may be changed to a
less toxic form of nitrogenous waste. (Just as
carbon dioxide changes the pH of solutions
to become more acidic, so ammonia makes
the pH more alkalinethus changing the
internal environment from its optimal range and
affecting enzyme functioning and metabolism.)
Urea and uric acid are less toxic forms of
nitrogenous wastes which can be excreted in a
less dilute form. The formation of all nitrogenous
wastes occurs in the liver and they are then

carried to the kidneys for excretion.
Nitrogenous wastes and water

conservation
The environment in which an organism lives
determines how important the conservation
of water is for the survival of that organism. In
environments where water is scarce, for example
some arid terrestrial habitats, natural selection
has favoured the survival of those organisms that
secrete less toxic forms of nitrogenous wastes,
because they are able to conserve more water
while still flushing out their wastes.
Ammonia is very toxic compared with other
nitrogenous wastes. It requires no energy to be
made, but must be excreted immediately and
in a dilute form with a great deal of water. It is
therefore most commonly secreted by aquatic
invertebrates and fish that live in fresh water,
where the availability of water is not a limiting
factor.
Urea is the most common form of
nitrogenous waste excreted by terrestrial
Figure 3.12 Urine

concentration in
animals
gut
blind
blind-ending
excretory
tubule
freshwater fish
copious dilute urine
containing
ammonia
dilute urine
terrestrial
mammal
concentrated urine
containing urea
spinifex hopping
mouse
extremely concentrated
urine containing urea
insect
semi-solid uric acid
concentrated urine
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28/5/08 2:37:54 PM
absorb water vapour from the air through the

mouth or anus. Water that enters the anus of
the meal worm is absorbed through the rectum
and is then drawn into the adjacent kidney
tubules by osmosis. These are simple forms of
tubular reabsorption, more primitive versions
of that in mammals that need to conserve water.
mammals, adult amphibians and some fish.

It is not as toxic as ammonia and so it can
be excreted in a less dilute form, resulting in
less water loss. It does, however, require more
energy for its production.
Uric acid is the least toxic form of
nitrogenous waste and so it is excreted (as
a semi-solid, whitish paste) by animals that
have a particular need to conserve as much
water as possible, for example birds and most
invertebrates, including insects. The synthesis
of uric acid uses a large amount of energy
in contrast to ammonia and urea, although it
has the smallest amount of water loss in the
process of excretion. The excretion of uric
acid, which is not very soluble in water, allows
animals such as insects to conserve water
within the body, as its low toxicity means it can
be excreted with minimal water loss.
SR
TR
Table for investigation

task
Conclusion
TR
The challenge of regulating water content

during excretion is therefore solved by varying
the type of nitrogenous waste excreted, which
in turn determines whether urine needs to be
dilute (to safely flush out more toxic forms of
waste), or if it can be more concentrated (to
flush out less toxic forms).
This affects the physiology of the animal:
the amount of water that must be reabsorbed
into the body or the amount that can be lost
in urine depends on the type of nitrogenous
waste excreted, as well as the concentration
of salts that are being excreted. All of these
factors contribute to determining the eventual
concentration of urine that is excreted.
Excretion of nitrogenous wastes

in insects
Insects have blind-ending kidney tubules
(Malpighian tubules) that open directly into the
hind part of the digestive tract (see Fig. 3.13).
Water and waste solutes are drawn into the blind
end from the fluid in the body cavity of the insect.
The open end of each kidney tubule empties
into the hindgut of the digestive tract. In some
insects (e.g. the blowfly) the blind-ending kidney
tubules lie close to the end of their digestive
tracts and the solutes in the tubules draw water
by osmosis across the epithelium (lining) of the
rectum, in this way modifying their excretory fluid
so that most water is reabsorbed from their rectal
contents into the body. As a result, they produce
very dry faeces (which contain nitrogenous
wastes as well as undigested food).
Some insects such as the desert silverfish
and the larval forms (meal worms) of a
particular moth (Tenebrio molitor) are able to
Extension activity
Figure 3.13 Excretion

in insects: (a) the
hindgut of mealworm
larvae absorbs water
vapour from the air
and passes it into the
kidney tubules; (b) the
rectal pad of blowfly
reabsorbs water from
the hindgut
Task: Nitrogenous wastes and

the conservation of water
Complete the table provided on the Student
Resource CD to explain the relationship
between the conservation of water and the
production and excretion of concentrated
(b)
rectal pad
(a)
KCl
blood
+
+
+
Malpighian tubule K Cl K Cl K Cl
ions
water
water
faeces
rectum
water
water vapour
cuticle
medulla
water
ions
cortex
rectal
lumen
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nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian

insects and terrestrial mammals.
Identify the type of nitrogenous waste
excreted, its toxicity and the amount of
energy needed for its production.
3.9
Outline the availability of water in the

environment of each animal.
Explain the relationship between the type of
nitrogenous waste and the need to conserve
water in each organism.
Enantiostasis and estuarine organisms

Enanti
define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic

and physiological functions in response to variations in
the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine
organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations
Some organisms live in environments

where they experience extreme
fluctuations in conditions. To survive,
these plants and animals have evolved
adaptations that allow them to cope
physiologically with these fluctuations,
a survival mechanism called
enantiostasis.
Enantiostasis is the maintenance of
metabolic and physiological functions
in response to variations in the
environment.
The survival of species that live in an
environment such as an estuary, where
salt and water concentrations fluctuate
broadly on a daily basis, depends
on their ability to either avoid these
changes or to tolerate them. Organisms
that move freely between the sea and
rivers experience similar fluctuations
in environmental conditions, and they
too have developed mechanisms of
avoidance or tolerance. Enantiostasis
is not limited to fluctuations in salt
levels. For example, extreme changes in
environmental pressure are experienced
by diving birds and so these animals
must also rely on enantiostasis for their
survival.
Estuarine organisms
maintaining a water and salt
balance
In estuaries, the daily change in tides
affects the salinity of the environment
in the following ways:
At high tide, sea water flows into the

river mouth, creating an environment
with a higher salt concentration (a
higher osmotic pressure) than the
cytoplasm of cells and body fluids
in organisms. This salt water has the
tendency to draw water out of cells
by osmosis.
At low tide, sea water flows out
of the river mouth and fresh water
flows into the estuary. Plants and
animals in the estuary which are
subjected to this predominantly fresh
water environment with a high water
potential face the challenge of water
tending to move into living tissue.
Osmoregulation in organisms
inhabiting an estuary is a challenge
they need to maintain normal metabolic
functioning, despite these enormous
fluctuations within the environment.
Living organisms employ one of two
strategies in enantiostasis:
1. Osmoconformers are organisms
that tolerate the changes in the
environment by altering the
concentration of their internal solutes
to match the external environment
(their body fluids conform to that of
the environment). Their metabolism
is able to tolerate changes in salinity
in their own body fluids and cells.
2. Osmoregulators are organisms
that avoid changes in their
internal environment and have
the ability to keep the solutes at
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28/5/08 2:38:03 PM
an optimal level (regulate solute

concentrations within the body),
regardless of the differing external
environment. These organisms
are unable to tolerate a range of
salt concentrations in their body
fluids and cells and so they have
mechanisms to exclude salt to keep

the internal fluid concentration
constant, despite fluctuations in the
environment.
Table 3.2 compares estuarine
animals that use these two methods to
bring about enantiostasis.
Table 3.2 Enantiostasis in estuarine organisms

Osmoconformers
Osmoregulators
They modify the salt concentration in their body to match

fluctuations in external conditions.
Metabolism and cell functioning are able to continue within a
broad range of salinity.
They maintain a constant salt concentration in their bodies,

despite environmental fluctuations.
Their cell metabolism and physiology is not able to tolerate a
range of salt concentrations.
Mechanism: They use small organic molecules (e.g. nonessential amino acids or molecules like trimethylamine oxide) to
vary the solute concentration in their cells to match that of the
surroundings.
Mechanism: Their body fluids are similar to those in a marine

environment, so when exposed to fresh water, the water tends
to accumulate by osmosis. To counteract this, the animal
produces more dilute urine, to reduce the internal water
concentration to a level at which the cells can function.
Result: The osmotic pressure inside the body and outside (in
the external environment) are the same.
Result: A higher osmotic pressure is maintained inside the body

than in the external environment.
Examples:
The fiddler crab (Macrophthalmus punctulatus), when in
salt water, accumulates additional solutes in its tissues and
muscles to reach an equal salt concentration and it pumps
out excess salt from its gills when exposed to water with a
lower salinity than normal seawater.
Sharks use trimethylamine oxide to regulate osmotic
pressure in cells to equal that of the environment.
Examples:
Mussels in rock pools close their valves when the tide is out
to keep the salt concentrations inside their bodies the same
as the seawater.
Salmon show adaptations in their physiology: in salt water,
they drink continuously and eliminate salts through their
gills, whereas in fresh water they stop drinking, absorb
salt through their gills and excrete very dilute urine as do
freshwater fish.
Polychaete worms and marine fish are also osmoregulators.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.14 Estuarine organisms that use enantiostasis strategies for survival: (a) a fiddler craban
osmoconformer; (b) musselsosmoregulators
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Salt balance in plants

SECONDARY
S
EC
SOURCE
IINVESTIGATION
NVE
BIO
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H11.1
H12.3; H12.4
process and analyse information from secondary

sources and use available evidence to discuss processes
used by different plants for salt regulation in saline
environments
Salt regulation in plants in

saline environments
H13.1
H14.1; H14.3
Salt, even in relatively small concentrations
in soil water, has a damaging effect on cell
ultrastructure and cellular metabolism. Plants
that are adapted to saline environments are
called halophytes. The plants use either salt
tolerance (salt accumulation) or salt avoidance
(salt exclusion) as strategies to survive in
environments where they are exposed to high
salt concentrations.
Salt tolerant plants (e.g. sea grass and
mangroves) are able maintain metabolic
functioning even though their cells accumulate
sodium and chloride ions. They minimise salt
Figure 3.15 Salt

glands in the salt bush
Atriplex vesicaria
vacuole
bladder cell
epidermis
mesophyll
bundle sheath
xylem
SR
TR
toxicity by increasing their water content in large

vacuoles.
In contrast, salt avoidant plants (salt
excluders) minimise the salt concentrations
of cells through structural and physiological
adaptations such as stopping salt from entering
at the roots.
Examples of halophytes
Saltbush (Atriplex vesicaria) is an excluderit
actively transports excess sodium and chloride
ions into bladder cells situated on the tip of
hairs on the surface of leaves (see Fig. 3.15).
When the bladder cell reaches capacity it
bursts, releasing the salts into the environment.
Palmers grass (Distichlis palmeri) also actively
secretes salts from specialised cells to avoid
high salt concentration within the cells.
Succulents minimise the salt toxicity through
increasing water content in large vacuoles,
where the accumulation of excess salt is
balanced with additional water drawn into the
cells. Pickleweed (Salicornia) uses this method
and also actively transports salts from the
cytoplasm by a sodiumpotassium pump on
the vacuole membrane. Pigface (Carpobrotus
glaucescens), a succulent that grows on coastal
sand dunes, tolerates salt by increasing water
uptake to dilute the salt. It also stores excess
salt in a location away from sensitive cells.
Task
Student worksheet
salt regulation in plants
Complete the worksheet on the Student

Resource CD on salt regulation in mangroves
and the flowchart showing salt movement in the
saltbush.
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Water conservation in plantsadaptations in

Australian plants to minimise water loss
describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian

plants that assist in minimising water loss
Problems facing plants that

minimise water loss
The main form of water loss in plants
is by means of transpiration
evaporation of water from the stomata
of leaves. Transpiration serves two main
functionsit lifts water and dissolved
ions up the stem to the top of plants
in a continuous transpiration stream
and it is a form of evaporative cooling,
a process that is essential in regulating
temperature in plants. Those plants
that live in areas where water is in
limited supply (usually hot, dry areas)
must achieve a balance between how
much water the plant can afford to lose
for cooling purposes and the risk of
dehydration.
Xerophytes are plants that live in
arid conditions and possess adaptations
that equip them to achieve this
balance and survive in their hostile
environment.
Leaves of plants contain stomata
and so they are the organs where
most transpiration in plants occurs.
Generally, stomata are most abundant
on the undersides of leaves, with
fewer stomata on the upper leaf and
even less on leaf stalks and the stems
of herbaceous (green) plants. Stomata
are stimulated to open in the presence
of light and/or excess heat in wellhydrated pants, leading to a loss of
water by the process of transpiration.
About 98% of water loss from plants
occurs as a result of transpiration. The
advantage of the opening of stomata
is to allow evaporative cooling and
to allow carbon dioxide to enter
the leaves for photosynthesis. The
disadvantage is that it exposes plants
to the risk of dehydration.
3.10
Most of Australia is hot and dry, so

water (like soil nutrients) becomes a
limited resource for plants, available in
short supply or only in sporadic bursts.
Stomata close in response to darkness,
dehydration and a lack of carbon
dioxide.
Three main problems face plants
with regard to minimising water loss:
1. If plants lose too much water
through transpiration they run the
risk of dehydrating, yet loss of
water by this evaporative cooling
mechanism is an essential part of
temperature regulation to keep plant
cells within the optimal temperature
range for metabolic functioning.
2. If plants reduce the surface area
of their leaves or lose their leaves,
the number of stomata exposed to
the external environment may be
reduced, but the reduced exposure
of photosynthetic surface area to
sunlight may be inadequate for
photosynthesis to occur.
3. If plants retain their leaves, but
develop ways of ensuring that
stomata do not open, gaseous
exchange between the leaf and the
surrounding air becomes limited
and, as a result, may not allow
sufficient carbon dioxide into the
planta necessary requirement for
photosynthesis.
Adaptations in Australian
plants to minimise water loss
Many plants that live in arid
conditions display complex xerophytic
adaptations, features which have
evolved and allow these plants to
minimise water loss while maintaining
functions such as cooling of the plant
and photosynthesis. Most of these
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SR
TR
Student worksheet
features in plants to
minimise water loss
adaptations are evident as modifications

of leaves, but other organs may
also show modifications. Stems and
leaf stalks (petioles) have sparsely
distributed stomata, but are green and
thus have adequate photosynthetic
tissue. This can be used to advantage
in allowing xerophytes with reduced
leaves to carry out other essential
functions to survive in their arid habitat.
Xerophytes, such as some Australian
plants, live in hot, dry habitats where
they are exposed to bright sunlight.
They minimise water loss in four main
ways, as outlined below.
Reducing the internal temperature
Some plants have developed structural

features or physiological mechanisms
other than transpiration to reduce
their internal temperature, allowing the
plants to use less water for evaporative
cooling, but still keep their temperature
within the correct range for metabolism.
For example, their leaves may be
coated in a shiny waxy cuticle or they
may have white hairs to reflect sunlight.
Australian examples
The saltbush has waxy leaves that

reflect heat and light.
Eucalypts and banksias have coarse,
leathery leaves with a thick cuticle
to protect them from the excessive
sunlight by giving some insulation
and reducing the small amount of
evaporation that sometimes occurs
through thinner leaf cuticles. Plants
with these tough, dry leaves are known
as sclerophylls (Greek: sclerohard
and phylloleaf).
In addition, both of these features
ensure that all the epidermal cells are
waterproof, preventing loss of water by
evaporation from these surface cells to
the outside.
Reducing the exposure of transpiring
plant structures to sunlight
Plant organs that have the most

abundant stomata (leaves and leaf-like
organs such as flower petals) have the

greatest rates of transpiration. Some
plants reduce the exposure of these
organs (and their stomata) to light by:
changing the orientation of leaves
so that stomata are not exposed
to direct light (and so they do not
open)
reducing the surface area of organs
that have the highest proportion of
stomata
the complete loss of transpiring
plant organs (for example, leaves or
leaf-like parts of the plant such as
flowers).
(These plants need to have
some additional adaptations to
prevent overheating, increase their
photosynthetic tissue or ensure
pollination, as a result of their loss leaf
or petal surface area.)
Australian examples
Reduced leaves
Plants like Hakea and Acacias
(wattles) also have leaves that have
become reduced in size, where each
leaf is divided into pinna or leaflets.
(These and other Australian plants
that show reduced surface areas of
leaves will be viewed in the firsthand investigation that follows.)
Some plants have their leaves
reduced to tiny brown bracts or
scales and their photosynthetic
function is taken over by other parts
of the plant, for example cladodes
(photosynthetic stems) and phyllodes
(photosynthetic leaf stalks). The
photosynthetic stems or stalks
that take over the function of the
leaves have very few stomata and
therefore the amount of water lost
by transpiration is reduced, while
the photosynthetic surface area is
still sufficient. Many phyllodes and
cladodes have the added features of
hairs and/or sunken stomata.
Cladodes are common features of
Australian she-oaks (casuarinas).
The green, needle-like structures
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that resemble leaves are in fact

modified stems. These needles
have tiny light-coloured markings
at regular intervals along their
length. Closer examination (for
example, with a hand lens) reveals
that these light areas are actually
rings of tiny brown scale leaves,
a feature to reduce the surface
area of leaves and therefore
their exposure to the sun (see
Fig. 3.16a).
Phyllodes, common to Acacia
species (Australian mulga, for
example Acacia Aneura), are
broad, flat leaf-shaped leaf stalks
(petioles) that take over the
function of leaves. These are
common in Acacia species and
the tiny, brown scale at the tip of
each phyllode is all that remains
of the reduced leaf.
Reduced size of flowers or having no
petals can also reduce the amount of
water a plant requires; for example,
the Acacia has small clustered
flowers, reducing the energy and
water required to needed to produce
them. (Petals are considered to be
modified leaves, so reducing the
size of flowers or loss of petals also
reduces evaporation of water from
their surfaces.)
Shedding leaves is another way of
reducing the water lost by leaves, for
example the river gum.
Orientation of leaves on the stem
is another feature of plants
to prevent overheating is the
orientation of leaves on the stem
(see Chapter 1). In addition,
eucalypts have an adaptation
that helps them to survivetheir
leaves hang in a vertical position
to reduce the surface area that is
exposed to the sun during the heat
of the noonday sun. This serves
an additional functionthat of
minimising water loss because the
stomata are not directly exposed to
sunlight during the hottest part of
(a)
Figure 3.16 Plant

features which
minimise water loss:
(a) the cladodes of
a she-oak; (b) crosssection through leaf
of an Australian
xerophyte (dune grass)
showing rolled leaf
with sunken stomata;
(c) Calandrinia
eremaea (parakeelya),
a desert succulent
(b)
(c)
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the day and will close. Eucalypts

therefore regulate the times of
stomatal opening and closing
during the cooler early morning and
late afternoon, stomata are open
for photosynthesis, but when the
temperatures increase to a level that
causes water stress to the plant the
stomata then close.
Reducing the difference in water
concentration between the plant
and the outside air
The difference in water concentration

(or water potential) between the plant
and the surrounding atmosphere
determines how much water is lost by
transpiration. On a hot, dry day, the
water concentration in the air is much
lower than that in the internal tissues
of the leaf and so more water is lost by
transpiration than on a cooler or more
humid day.
Since plants cannot change the
overall external environment, many
have adaptations that allow them to
create their own smaller microclimate
in the air immediately surrounding
each leaf. Structures such as hairy
leaves or rolled leaves trap water in
the immediate vicinity and in this way
they keep air around the plant humid
by preventing the moist air being swept
away by dry air currents and they also
create a barrier to evaporation.
Australian examples
Sunken stomata or stomatal pits occur

in Hakea and in the cladodes of sheoaks. The actual stoma (breathing
pores) are lower than the main surface
of the leaf and this allows moist air
to be trapped in the pit, therefore
reducing the difference in water
potential immediately outside the stoma
(in the pit) and inside the leaf.
Epidermal hairs trap a moist layer

of air, resulting in a smaller difference
between the concentration of water
in the leaf tissue and the water
vapour in the layer of air trapped by
the hairsfor example, hairs on the
under-surface of leaves of the coastal
banksia.
Curled or rolled leaves, such as
those of porcupine grass (Miscanthus
sinensis), enclose a microclimate of
humid air to reduce the difference in
water potential (see Fig. 3.16b).
These adaptations allow plants to
keep their stomata open for a longer
period of time, as there is not as
much water being lost and so gaseous
exchange for photosynthesis can occur
freely.
Water storage
Some plants, called succulents, have

adaptations such as fleshy stems
or leaves which are able to swell
up and retain moisture when it is
available; they then survive by using
this moisture during dry periods.
Australia has some succulent species,
including the desert plant Calandrinia
(parakeelya), an important food for
Aboriginal people (the leaves provide
an excellent source of moisture in
desert environments and were eaten
as a green salad leaf). The word
parakeelya was derived from the
word periculia, an Aboriginal name
for the bread-like seed meal that is
made from the cooked seed (see
Fig. 3.16c).
Fruits are structures that are removed
from plants so that the seeds that
they contain can be dispersed. Many
Australian plants produce woody fruits
rather than fleshy fruits, as this reduces
the amount of water lost from the plant
when the fruits fall off.
100
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Structures in plants that assist the conservation

of water
perform a first-hand investigation to gather information

about structures in plants that assist in the conservation
of water
It is recommended that students review

Adaptations in Australian plants to minimise
water loss on pages 97100 and answer
Question 1 in the Revision Questions at the end
of this chapter in preparation for, or as a followup activity to, this first-hand investigation.
Aim
To gather information from plant specimens
about structures that assist in the conservation
of water.
Safety
Students should complete a table in which they
outline three risks that they may encounter in
this investigation, and identify and describe
strategies that they could put in place to
overcome these. Discuss what is meant by
non-destructive investigation.
2. Using a stereo dissecting microscope

or hand lens, observe the presence of
scale leaves in some specimens such as
Casuarina (the she-oak).
3. Using a compound microscope, observe the
position of stomata in the cross-section of a
xerophytic leaf.
1. On a piece of A4 paper, draw three plant

specimens that you have observed and
label on each diagram the structures that
reduce water loss.
2. For each of the plant specimens studied (a
minimum of three specimens), complete
a table in which you identify the different
features evident for water conservation and
describe how each reduces water loss in
the example that you have studied. (See the
Student Resource CD for a sample table.)
A range of plant material that demonstrates

adaptations to minimise water loss (e.g.
Eucalyptus, Banksia, Acacia, Casuarina,
Callistemon, Grevillea, Hakea and
porcupine grassMiscanthus sinensis)
Hand lens
Stereo dissecting microscope
Compound microscope
Prepared microscope slide: cross-section
through the leaf of a xerophyte. (If this is not
available, you may refer to the micrograph in
Fig. 3.16b on page 99.)
1. The need to reduce water loss has

presented three problems in plants.
Identify these three problems and describe
how one plant specimen that you have
studied has overcome each of these
problems. (A table is provided on the
Student Resource CD to guide you when
answering this question.)
2. Name one plant studied that has
sunken stomata and describe two other
characteristics that help that plant to reduce
water loss.
3. Describe measures taken to ensure that this
investigation was conducted in a manner
that is non-destructive.
1. Analyse the plant material provided to

identify structures present that assist with
minimising water loss. Refer to the notes on
pages 97100 to assist you.
BIOLOGY SKILLS
H11.3
H12.1; H12.2; H12.4
H13.1
H14.1
SR
TR
Results
Materials
Method
FIRST-HAND
INVESTIGATION
Table and questions for

investigation
Conclusion
Students should write a valid conclusion.
101
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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. In the form of a table, summarise the features in plants that minimise water loss under the
following headings:
Mechanisms that minimise
water loss
Features evident in plants
Explanation of how this

conserves water
Include the following mechanisms (in the first column):

features to reduce the internal temperature of plants
adaptations to reduce exposure of the leaves (or stomata) to the sun:
reduced exposure of stomata
reduced surface area of leaves or leaf-like structures
adaptations to reduce the difference in water concentration between the plant and the outside
air
features related to water storage:
storing water
reducing water loss in fruits.
2. Explain why it is essential to remove carbon dioxide and the nitrogenous waste ammonia from
cells.
3. Identify three reasons why it is essential to maintain the water concentration in living organisms.
4. Explain why energy is required for the reabsorption of glucose and amino acids in nephrons.
5. Copy a version of Figure 3.17 and complete the figure, showing the movement of water, salts,
urea, drugs and hydrogen ions. Provide a key and indicate which movement is by means of active
transport and which by means of passive transport (distinguish between osmosis and diffusion).
6. Analyse the information in Figure 3.18 and then use evidence from the diagram to explain the
relationship between the type of nitrogenous waste produced and the type of environment in
which the organism lives.
SR
7. In renal dialysis, blood is taken from a vein and run past a dialysate fluid, separated by a
selectively permeable membrane. Describe what would happen if the concentration of glucose in
the dialysate was lower than the concentration of the patients blood.
TR
8. Compare the chemical composition of blood arriving at the glomerulus with the composition of
glomerular filtrate.
9. Identify the hormone absent from people who suffer from Addisons disease and explain the
main role of this hormone in kidney functioning.
Answers to revision
questions
10.
Name one Australian insect and one Australian plant that are adapted to minimise water loss and
1
describe this adaptation in each.
glomerulus
proximal
arm
neck
glucose
distal arm
amino
acids
divalent
ions
intermedia
segment
(loop of Henle)
collecting
duct
reptile
semi-solid uric acid
Figure 3.17
Figure 3.18
102
28/5/08 2:38:14 PM

Bio - Maintaining A Balance

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MAINTAINING

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 1

Enzymes function under

All metabolic reactions in living cells

Metabolism is the sum total of all

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 2

Enzymes and metabolism

identify the role of enzymes in metabolism

By understanding the chemical

The chemical composition of

altered if the enzyme is to function (see

Some enzymes have a non-protein

Figure 1.1 The

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 3

functioning. The heavy metals mercury

The role of enzymes in

Enzyme catalysts are able to speed

Figure 1.2 Scheme

Action on specific substrates

Enzymes are therefore substratespecific, meaning that one particular

Enzymes within cells function best

In chemical reactions that occur in the

oxygen and glucose may be chemically

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 4

Temperature of reaction (C)

organism in which they occur. In

Each enzyme has its own narrow

in an acidic or alkaline medium. For

Figure 1.3 (a) Graph

Enzyme molecules are specific,

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 5

lemon juice, vinegar

grapefruit, soft drink

tomato juice, acid rain

Great Salt Lake

liquid drain cleaner

saliva (pH 6.5)

hydrochloric acid (stomach acid)

Figure 1.4 pH scale

blood (pH 7.4)

How enzymes work: models to describe enzyme specificity on

molecules allows the reaction to be

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 6

1 substrate is sucrose, which is

products are released

substrate is sucrose, which is

products are released

induced fit: the

The rate of enzyme reactions

Enzymes are highly efficientthey work

The rate of an enzymecontrolled reaction is affected by the

Module 1-Chapter 1.indd 7

as the saturation point. Increasing

Investigating enzyme activity

Table 1.1 Advantages

identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or

In each of the investigations that follow,

Creates a fizzing effect

Measure the height of

Starch can be stained

Milk curdles and a

Time how long milk

Enzyme and source