ADDIE Model

The ADDIE model is the generic process traditionally used by instructional designers and training
developers. The five phasesAnalysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation
represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for building effective training and performance support tools.
While perhaps the most common design model, there are a number ofweaknesses to the ADDIE
model which have led to a number of spin-offs or variations.
It is an Instructional Systems Design (ISD) model. Most of the current instructional design models are
spin-offs or variations of the ADDIE model; other models include the Dick & Carey and Kemp ISD
models. One commonly accepted improvement to this model is the use of rapid prototyping. This is the
idea of receiving continual or formative feedback while instructional materials are being created. This
model attempts to save time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix.
Instructional theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories such
as behaviorism, constructivism, social learning and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of
instructional materials.
In the ADDIE model, each step has an outcome that feeds into the subsequent step.
Analysis > Design > Development > Implementation > Evaluation

Analysis Phase
In the analysis phase, instructional problem is clarified, the instructional goals and objectives are
established and the learning environment and learner's existing knowledge and skills are identified.
Below are some of the questions that are addressed during the analysis phase:
* Who is the audience and their characteristics?
* Identify the new behavioral outcome?
* What types of learning constraints exist?
* What are the delivery options?
* What are the online pedagogical considerations?
* What is the timeline for project completion?

Design Phase
The design phase deals with learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, content, subject
matter analysis, lesson planning and media selection. The design phase should be systematic and
specific. Systematic means a logical, orderly method of identifying, developing and evaluating a set of
planned strategies targeted for attaining the project's goals. Specific means each element of the
instructional design plan needs to be executed with attention to details.
These are steps used for the design phase:
* Documentation of the project's instructional, visual and technical design strategy
* Apply instructional strategies according to the intended behavioral outcomes by domain (cognitive,
affective, psychomotor).
* Create storyboards
* Design the user interface and user experience
* Prototype creation
* Apply visual design (graphic design)

Development Phase
The development phase is where the developers create and assemble the content assets that were
created in the design phase. Programmers work to develop and/or integrate technologies. Testers
perform debugging procedures. The project is reviewed and revised according to any feedback given.

Implementation Phase
During the implementation phase, a procedure for training the facilitators and the learners is
developed. The facilitators' training should cover the course curriculum, learning outcomes, method of
delivery, and testing procedures. Preparation of the learners include training them on new tools
(software or hardware), student registration.
This is also the phase where the project manager ensures that the books, hands on equipment, tools,
CD-ROMs and software are in place, and that the learning application or Web site is functional.

Evaluation Phase
The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is present
in each stage of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists of tests designed for domain
specific criterion-related referenced items and providing opportunities for feedback from the users.

The ADDIE Instructional Design Model

The ADDIE (analyze, design, develop, implement, and evaluate) instructional design
model is a basic model that holds true for any type of learning, including Web-based
(Hall, 1997, p. 81). The ADDIE model is comprised of the following phases:
The Analysis phase

Who is the audience?

What do they need to learn?

What is the budget?

What are the delivery options?

What constraints exist?

When is the project due?

What will the students do to determine competency (Powers, 1997)?

The Design phase

Select the most appropriate Web-based environment by examining the kinds of

cognitive skills required to achieve your goal (Driscoll, 1998, p. 50).

Write the instructional objectives; select an overall approach and the program's
look and feel; outline units, lessons, and modules (Hall, 1997, p. 231).

Design course content specifically for use with an interactive, electronic medium
(Porter, 1997, p. 127).

The Development phase

Obtain and/or create the required media.

Use the Internet's strength to present information in many different multimedia

formats so that the learners' preferences can be met (Porter, 1997, p. 196).

Determine the appropriate interactions. They should be creative, innovative, and

encourage learners to explore further (Porter, 1997, p. 200).

Plan activities that allow for student group work to help construct a supportive
social environment (Simonson et al, 2000, p. 115).

The Implementation phase

Duplicate and distribute materials.

Install and maintain the course.

Be prepared in the event that technical problems occur and discuss alternative
plans with the students ahead of time (Simonson et al, 2000, p. 115).

The Evaluation phase

Test for instructional standards.

Test for criterion-related referenced items and also test through evaluation of
research papers, class participation, and completion of competency skills (Powers,
1997).

Continually evaluate -- relying on one midterm and a final paper puts students at
a serious disadvantage (Schrum, 1998).

Plan several points during the course when students can provide anonymous
feedback so that the instructor is aware of student confusion and
misunderstanding (Schrum, 1998).

Conduct formative evaluations to improve the course and summative evaluations

to judge the effect of the course (Bourne et al, 1997).

Rapid Prototyping
The idea of rapid prototyping as it applies to instructional design, is to develop learning experiences in
a continual design-evaluation cycle that continues throughout the life of the project. This cycle, known
as the spiral cycle or layered approach, is considered to be iterative, meaning that products are

continually improved as they cycle continues. This can be seen more clearly by comparing Rapid
Prototyping with a traditional development model:

Classic Design
(waterfall) Model

Rapid Prototyping
(spiral) Model
1. concept definition

1. concept definition
2. requirements
definition
3. preliminary design

2. implementation of
a skeletal system
3. user evaluation
and concept
refinement

4. detailed design
5. code
implementation
6. test and
acceptance
7. [griping because
you now realize
that there was
something that got
left out back in
step 2]

4. implementation of
refined
requirements
5. user evaluation
and concept
refinement
6. implementation of
refined
requirements
7. [etc., etc., in a
continuous cycle]
The image of a spiral is often used to express the cyclical

Based on:
http://dsnra.jpl.nasa.gov/prototyp.html#definition

nature of rapid prototyping or iterative design

Rapid prototyping allows the designer to start with a low fidelity medium (such as paper and pen) and
move to increasingly higher fidelity prototypes as time goes on. There are two types of prototypes that
can be developed:

Vertical Prototypes - in-depth functionality for a few features

Horizontal Prototypes - entire screen with no underlying functionality

In addition, there are multiple approached to prototyping:

Paper prototypes (example: portal.acm.org) - easy to change. users perceive that it is easier
to change. Often throwing in color or artwork make a use thing that they cannot suggest
changes.

Post-it Prototypes (example: www.pocketppcmac.com/_archives/may03/e_prototyping.asp)

Wizard of Oz Prototyping

Wireframe Prototypes / Wireframing - nothing visual, just shaded blocks explaining what will
be there

Storyboarding

Electronic prototypes (inspiration)

Iterative Design
Iterative design is an approach of incrementally developing and refining a design based on feedback
and evaluation. Iterative design can apply to a learning experience, the creation of media, or the
development of learning systems.
Some practical examples of iterative design:

Wiki - A wiki is a natural repository for iterative design. The 'Page History' facility allows
tracking back to prior versions. Modifications are mostly incremental, and leave substantial
parts of the text unchanged.

Common law - The principle of legal precedent builds on past experience. This makes law a
form of iterative design where there should be a clear audit trail of the development of legal
thought.

Evolution - There is a parallel between iterative and the theory of Natural Selection. Both
involve a trial and error process in which the most suitable design advances to the next
generation, while less suitable designs perish by the wayside. Subsequent versions of a
product should also get progressively better as its producers learn what works and what
doesn't in a process of refinement and continuous improvement.

There are several instructional design models based on the principle of iterative design:

Rapid Prototyping

Spiral Model

Discovery Learning
Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction. Discovery learning is a constructivist
based approach to education. It is supported by the work of learning theorists and psychologists Jean
Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and Seymour Papert.

Jerome Bruner is thought to have originated discovery learning in the 1960s, but his ideas are very
similar those of earlier writers (e.g. John Dewey). Bruner argues that Practice in discovering for
oneself teaches one to acquire information in a way that makes that information more readily viable in
problem solving" (Bruner, 1961, p.26). This philosophy later became the discovery learning movement
of the 1960s. The mantra of this philosophical movement suggests that we 'learn by doing'. Discovery
learning takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his own experience and
prior knowledge. Discovery learning is a method of instruction through which students interact with
their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies,
or performing experiments.

Critiques of Discovery Learning

Several groups of educators have found evidence that discovery learning is a less effective
instructional strategy for novices than direct instruction (e.g. Tuovinen and Sweller, 1999). While
discovery learning is very popular, it is often used inappropriately to teach novices (Kirschner et al,
2006). Learners should be given some direct instruction first... and then later be allowed to apply what
they have learned.
While people can learn by doing, today a debate in the instructional community questions the
effectiveness of this model of instruction (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).It is posited that students
are more likely to remember concepts they discover on their own than those they are taught, however
there is little empirical evidence to support this claim, quite the contrary in fact. Kirschner, Sweller, and
Clark (2006) suggest that fifty years of empirical data does not support those using unguided
instructional methods. They call for those using these techniques to explain their actions in terms of
empirical data.
Many believe debates about instructional strategies (like direct instruction and discovery learning) are
driven by ideology. More often than not it is driven by research and empirical studies, that can be
found in the literature. While it is easy to adopt a set of beliefs, this should be done thoughtfully.
Consider the evidence, read the literature, and make sound decisions based upon evidence-based
research.
Document courtesy of Wikipedia

Cognitive Apprenticeship
Cognitive apprenticeship is a theory of the process where a master of a skill teaches that skill to an
apprentice.
Constructivist approaches to human learning have led to the development of a theory of cognitive
apprenticeship [1]. This theory holds that masters of a skill often fail to take into account the implicit
processes involved in carrying out complex skills when they are teaching novices. To combat these
tendencies, cognitive apprenticeships are designed, among other things, to bring these tacit
processes into the open, where students can observe, enact, and practice them with help from the
teacher (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1987, p. 4). This model is supported by Albert Bandura's
(1997) theory of modeling, which posits that in order for modeling to be successful, the learner must

be attentive, must have access to and retain the information presented, must be motivated to learn,
and must be able to accurately reproduce the desired skill.
By using processes such as modeling and coaching, cognitive apprenticeships also support the three
stages of skill acquisition described in the expertise literature: the cognitive stage, the associative
stage, and the autonomous stage (Anderson, 1983; Fitts & Posner, 1967). In the cognitive stage,
learners develop declarative understanding of the skill. In the associative stage, mistakes and
misinterpretations learned in the cognitive stage are detected and eliminated while associations
between the critical elements involved in the skill are strengthened. Finally, in the autonomous stage,
the learners skill becomes honed and perfected until it is executed at an expert level (Anderson,
2000).
Like traditional apprenticeships, in which the apprentice learns a trade such as tailoring or
woodworking by working under a master teacher, cognitive apprenticeships allow the master to model
behaviors in a real-world context with cognitive modeling (Bandura, 1997). By listening to the master
explain exactly what she is doing and thinking as she models the skill, the apprentice can identify
relevant behaviors and develop a conceptual model of the processes involved. The apprentice then
attempts to imitate those behaviors with the master observing and providing coaching. Coaching
provides assistance at the most critical level the skill level just beyond what the learner/apprentice
could accomplish by herself. Vygotsky (1978) referred to this as the Zone of Proximal Development
and believed that fostering development within this zone leads to the most rapid development. The
coaching process includes additional modeling as necessary, corrective feedback, and reminders, all
intended to bring the apprentices performance closer to that of the masters. As the apprentice
becomes more skilled through the repetition of this process, the feedback and instruction provided by
the master fades until the apprentice is, ideally, performing the skill at a close approximation of the
master level (Johnson, 1992). Part of the effectiveness of the cognitive apprenticeship model comes
from learning in context. Cognitive scientists maintain that the context in which learning takes place is
critical (e.g., Godden & Baddeley, 1975). Based on findings such as these, Collins, Duguid, and Brown
(1989) argue that cognitive apprenticeships are less effective when skills and concepts are taught
independent of their real-world context and situation. As they state, Situations might be said to coproduce knowledge through activity. Learning and cognition, it is now possible to argue, are
fundamentally situated (Brown, Collins, Duguid, Brown, 1989, p. 32). In cognitive apprenticeships, the
activity being taught is modeled in real-world situations.
[This entry is an excerpt from R. Shawn Edmondson's doctoral dissertation, entitled Evaluating the
Effectiveness of a Telepresence-Enabled Cognitive Apprenticeship Model of Teacher Professional
Development (2006).]
1. ^ Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1987; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989