Preliminary Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

0.1

The living and non-living compounds of Earth contain mixtures

Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical
reactions as they are encountered

General types of chemical reactions

Single replacement A + BC
E.g. 2Na + 2HCl

B + AC

2NaCl +

Double replacement AB + CD
E.g. NaOH + HCl

AD + CB

NaCl +

Synthesis (or combination) A + B

E.g. 2Ca +

2CaO

Decomposition AB
E.g. CaC

AB

A+B

CaO +

Specific reactions
Active Metal + Acid

Salt + Hydrogen Gas

E.g. Ca + 2HCl

Ca

Active Metal + Water

E.g. 2Na + 2
Active Metal + Salt

Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen

2NaOH +

New Salt + Metal

E.g. Ca + Zn
Acid + Base
E.g.

Ca

+ Zn

Salt + Water
+ 2NaOH

Salt + Salt

2 New Salts

E.g. NaCl +
Acid + Carbonate

+ AgCl
Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water

E.g. 2HCl +
Heat on Carbonate
E.g.

+
Metal Oxide + Carbon Dioxide
CaO +

Combustion (reacting with oxygen)

-

Element + Oxygen
2Ca +

2CaO

Hydrogen + Oxygen
C

Oxide

Carbon Dioxide + Water

+2

Identify the difference between elements, compounds and

mixtures in terms of the particle theory

Elements
-

Pure substance
Only contains one type of atom
It can not broken down by physical and chemical means

Compounds

Two or more elements chemically bonded together in a fixed

proportion
Can only be separated chemically
Different chemical and physical properties to elements

Mixtures
-

Two or more substances physically combines

Can be separated physically
Can be homogeneous or heterogeneous
Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of elements and
compounds

Biosphere
The biosphere is the part of earth where there are living organisms. The
biosphere contains a big variety of living things with many chemical
characteristics in common. All living things on earth are composed of
compounds based on the element carbon.
Elements in the biosphere include oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, aluminium,
silicon, calcium , sulfur and phosphorus.
Compounds include water and carbon dioxide.
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is composed mostly of rocks and soil which are mixtures
of minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring solid elements or compounds
with a definite or range of composition.
Elements in the lithosphere include oxygen, silicon, potassium, calcium,
carbon, aluminium and iron.
Atmosphere
Elements in the atmosphere include nitrogen, oxygen, argon, hydrogen
and carbon. Compounds include water, carbon dioxide and methane.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere includes the earths oceans, seas, lakes, rivers and
underground water. Its major constituent is water.
Elements in the hydrosphere include chlorine, sodium, magnesium,
potassium, calcium, sulfur and bromine.

Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate

naturally occurring mixtures of
o Solids of different sizes
Sieving

Sieving the process of separating solid particles of various sizes. This

procedure is used to sort foodstuffs and is commonly used in the mining
industry to separate mineral particles to different sizes.

Sedimentation

Sedimentation occurs when solid particles are allowed to settle in a liquid

or air. This occurs if the water or air is not moving. It can easily be used
when water is mixed with soil or mud. Sedimentation is an essential
process in the purification of water supplies and in waste water treatment.
o Solids and liquids
Evaporation
This method of separation relies upon the substances in the mixtures
having different vitalities. One of the substances evaporates far more
readily leaving the other behind.

Crystallization

Components in a mixture have different solubilities in water and

crystallize separately from solution.
o Dissolved solids in liquids
Filtration
In the filtration process, undissolved solid particles are separately from a
liquid by passing the mixture through a screen such as filter paper which
is fine enough to collect the particles of the solid.

Decanting

Separation of a liquid from a solid by pouring off the liquid.

o Liquids if miscible
Simple distillation
Distillation involves boiling a liquid and cooling the gas produced to
condense it back to the liquid state. Distillation is effective where the
components in a mixture have very different boiling points.

Fractional distillation

Fractional distillation is the separation of a mixture of several different

liquids with similar boiling points. The process involves numerous
vaporization condensation steps which the components are gradually
separated.
o Liquids if immiscible
Separation funnel
A separating funnel is a simple piece of laboratory equipment which
allows liquids to be separated efficiently. The denser liquid is run off
through a tap leaving the less dense liquid in the funnel.
o Gases
Fractional distillation
To separate two gases, example, oxygen and nitrogen, the air must first
be treated to remove carbon dioxide, water and particles, then liquefied
and final separated by fractional distillation.

Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating

examples of earth materials, identifying the difference in
properties which enable these separations

Separation method
Sieving
Evaporation
Distillation
Fractional distillation
Filtration
Separating funnel
Froth flotation

Property used in separation

Particle size
Liquid with lower boiling point than
solid
Big difference in boiling points
Liquids with small difference in
boiling points
Solid and liquid/ solution
Immiscible liquids
Density of components

Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful

data for chemists and other scientists

Gravimetric analysis is an analytical technique used to measure

proportions by their masses. The proportions of components in a mixture
can be written as a weight percentage.

This technique allows chemists to test products for composition and purity.
This can be used in the
-

Food industry where the amount of food ingredients are listed on

the package
- Medications where the pharmacists get the accurate amount of
each medicine in each mixture of medicine they make
- Soil to see if the soil is suitable for growing crops
Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are
introduced in the laboratory
Ionic compounds
Case 1 BINARY COMPOUNDS
To name binary compounds
-

Write the name of the metal first E.g. Calcium

Write the beginning of the name of the non metal E.g. Sulf
Add ide suffix to the ending E.g. Calcium sulfide

In case of elements with variable valencies, the roman numerals are used
to indicate the valency of the element.
E.g. FeO Iron (II) oxide
Metals with more than one valency
Fe (Iron)

+2 or +3

Cu (Copper)

+1 or +2

Sn (Tin)

+2 or +4

Pb (Lead)

+2 or +4

Case 2 IONS ARE NOT MONATOMIC

Must remember the name of the polyatomic ions
Common polyatomic ions and their valencies
+1

-1

-2

-3

Ammonium

Hydroxide

Carbonate

Phosphate

Nitrate

Sulfate

Nitrite

Sulfite

Acetate

Chromate

Hydrogen Carbonate

Dichromate

Chlorate
Chlorite
Binary covalent compounds
To name covalent binary compounds
-

The name of the element closer to the bottom or left hand side of
the periodic table is written first E.g. Nitrogen
- The second part of the name is obtained by adding the suffix -ide
to the stem of the name of the second element E.g. Nitrogen
oxide
- Where a molecule contains more than atom of one type, then
number of atoms is indicated by the prefixes mono-, di-, tri-,
tetra-, penta- and hexa- which stand for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
respectively. The prefix mono- is not used for the first names
element.
Identify the IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are
encountered
3 main families of carbon compounds
Series

Name Ending

ALKANE
ALKENE
ALKYNE

-ANE
-ENE
-YNE

General Formula

Bonding in C
Series
Single Bond C C
Double Bond C
C
Triple Bond C C

0.2 Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some

elements are found uncombined
Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and
the likelihood of its existing as an uncombined element
- The more reactive an element, then more chance it will be found
as a combined element on Earth
- The most unreactive elements are the noble gases which exist as
single atom molecules

Most naturally occurring metals are found in the Earths crust.

Gold, platinum, mercury and silver are called native metals and are
unreactive enough to occur naturally as uncombined elements.
Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals
according to their physical properties

Metals
Shiny/ lustrous
High electrical
conductivity
High heat conductivity
Strong
Malleable and ductile

Semi metals
Low sheen
Semi-conductor

Non metals
Dull
Electrical insulators

High heat conductivity

Variable strength
Moderate malleable/
ductile

Thermal insulators
Low strength
Brittle

Good conductor at 25

Poor conductors at 25

Do not conduct

Conductivity decreases
with temperature

Conductivity increases
with temperature
increase

Account for the used of metals and non-metals in terms of their

physical properties

Metals
Metals
Copper

Properties
Good thermal and
electrical conductor,
malleable and ductile,
low reactivity

Iron

Ductile, malleable,
magnetic, good
thermal and electrical
conductor, fairly
reactive

Aluminium

Low density, ductile

when pure, good
thermal and electrical
conductor, malleable
and ductile, reflects
heat and light

Titanium

Strong, high melting

point, low reactivity

Uses
Electrical cables ad
wiring, radiators,
refrigeration systems,
water pipes, bronze
and brass
Usually converted to
steel which is used in
buildings and bridges,
automobiles,
machinery and
appliances
Saucepans, frying
pans, drink cans,
cooking foil, food
packaging, window
frames, appliance trim,
decorative furniture,
electrical cables,
aircraft and boat
construction
Spacecraft and aircraft,
pipes and linings

Chromium
Cobalt
Nickel

Shiny silver
appearance, resists
corrosion
Magnetic
Magnetic

Zinc

Fairly reactive with

protective oxide layer

Gold

Shiny gold appearance,

good thermal and
electrical conductor,
unreactive

Plating other metals, as

an additive in steel
alloys
Permanent magnets
Invar used in scientific
instruments, coins,
nichrome used in
electrical heating
elements
Galvanizing iron, outer
casing and negative
electrode of dry cells,
fitting and fixtures
Electrical connections,
jewellery, monetary
standard and dentistry

Non metals
Non - metals
Carbon (graphite)

Properties
Electrical conductivity

Carbon (diamond)

High melting point,

hardness, transparent
Abundance and
reactivity

Sulfur

Phosphorus

Reactivity

Helium

Very low density and

lack of reactivity
Ability to glow red
Reactivity in
decolourising other
chemicals, bactericide,
algaecide

Neon
Chlorine

Uses
Lead pencils, lubricant,
electrodes in batteries
Jewellery and drill tips
Vulcanizing rubber,
fungicides, insecticide
and hydrogen sulfite
bleaches
Smoke bombs and
match heads
Airships
Neon light
Water treatment and
algaecides

0.3 Elements in Earth material are present mostly as compound

because of interactions at the atomic level
Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously
moving and interacting

Shape

Solid
Closely packed,
vibrates in a
fixed position
Definite

Volume

Definite

Liquid
Less closely
packed, vibration
and translation
Take shape of
container
Definite

Compressibility

Negligible

Negligible

Particle position

Gas
Widely spaced,
move freely, only
translation
Take shape of
container
Take on the
volume of
container
Easily
compressed

From the table above, it shows that matter is made up of particles that are
continuously moving whatever form it is in whether it is solid, liquid or
gas.

Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atom

In an atom, electrons exist in energy shells. The further away the shell is
from the nucleus, the more energy it has. Each energy shells can only hold
a limited number of electrons. The first electron shell has only hold two
electrons.
The formula for the number for the maximum number of electrons per
shell is:

Where n is the number of the shell

Describe atoms in terms of as number and atomic number

The atomic number, Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

This has a fixed value for atoms or any one element.
E.g. Carbon has an atomic number of six. Each carbon atom contains six
protons in the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons and
protons are equal. Therefore, if an atom has no charge, the atomic
number determines the number of electrons and the number of protons in
the nucleus.

The mass number, A, is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom.

Where X is the element symbol

Z is the atomic number
A is the mass number

Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing

electrons

All elements (except for noble gases) usually undergo chemical reactions
in order to gain a stable electron configuration of a nearby gas.
There are two ways in which atoms can obtain noble gas configuration:
-

Direct transfer of electrons from one atom to another to form ions,

positively or negatively charged particles. This is known as ionic
bonding.
- Sharing electrons between pairs of electrons is called covalent
bonding
Apply the periodic table to predict the ions formed by atoms of
metals and non-metals
Group I (alkali metals) all tend to lose one electron and form single
charged positive ions:

Group II (alkali earth metals) tend to lose two electrons and form doubly
charges positive ions:

Group VI (non metals) tend to gain two electrons and form doubly
charged negative ions:
Group VII (halogens) elements all tend to gain one electron and therefore
they form single charged negative ions:

Apply Lewis electron dot structure to:

o The formations of ions
o The electron sharing in simple molecules

Electron dot diagrams or Lewis dot diagrams are used to show the
formation of ionic or covalent compounds. They are a simple way of
showing the arrangement of valence electrons in atoms and when bonds
are formed between atoms.

E.g.

Na

E.g.

Cl

Mg

Cl

Mg

E.g.

Mg

Mg

E.g.

Cl

E.g.

Cl

E.g.

H
Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the
attraction of ions of opposite charge

Ionic compounds consist of cations (positively charged ions) and anions

(negatively charged ions). The ions form a lattice held together by strong
electrical attraction between the cations and anions. The greater the
charge of the positive or the negative ions, the stronger the attraction.

Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of

each other

Many elements exist in nature as simple molecules. A molecule is a group

or two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.
Molecules are particles that can move independently of each other. Some
molecules are made up of single atoms such are the noble gases.
The atoms that join to form molecules are non metals. Non metals
usually bond with non metals by sharing electrons.

E.g.

Molecules can move independently of each other due to the fact that the
atoms are chemically bonded obtaining a stable electron configuration
through the sharing of electrons.

Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble

gases) and The noble gases exist as single atoms called
monatomic molecules. For all common gas elements (except for
the noble gases), they contain more than one atom such as:

Diatomic molecules
Triatomic molecules
Tetratomic molecules

Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing

of electron

Non metal atoms bond with each other by sharing electrons. The
formation of covalent bonding is the result of the sharing of an electron
pair. The two atoms that bond together donate an electron to share.
There are three types of covalent bonds:
-

Bonds in which two electrons are shared are called single covalent
bonds and is represented by a line drawn between the atoms. E.g.
H-H
A covalent bond in which there are two shared pairs of electrons is
called a double covalent bond and is represented by two parallel
lines joining the atoms. E.g. O=O
A covalent bond in which three electrons are shared is called a
triple covalent bond. E.g. H-C C-H

0.4 Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring

sources
Identify the difference between physical and chemical changes in
terms of rearrangement of particles
Physical Change
Physical changes occur without a change in the composition of the
particular substance. Physical changes are changes in physical properties
such as volume or density, or changes in states such as from solid to

liquid. Physical changes generally involve relatively small amounts of

energy being absorbed or released.
E.g. When water is heated, it absorbs energy. Its temperature increases as
the molecules move with greater speed. Eventually the water molecules
have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the intermolecular forces
between water molecules in the liquid and escape into a gaseous state.
The breaking of these intermolecular for when water boils from liquid to
gas requires energy, heat.
Chemical change
Chemical changes are those in which new substances with different
compositions and properties are formed. Chemical changes usually
involve large quantities of energy being absorbed or released, generally in
the form of heat, light or electricity.
E.g. To decompose water, electricity is need to break them into hydrogen
and oxygen. It involves the breaking of strong covalent bonds between the
hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms. Much larger amounts of energy are
involved.

Summarise the difference between the boiling and electrolysis of

water as an example of difference between physical and
chemical change

Boiling of water
Energy is used to overcome the
intermolecular forces
No new substance is formed
Requires less amount of energy

Electrolysis of water
Energy is used to break the covalent
bond between hydrogen and oxygen
Oxygen and hydrogen gas are
formed
Requires a lot of energy

Identify light, heat and electricity as common forms of energy

that may be released or absorbed during the decomposition of
synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes
occurring in everyday life

Heat, light and electricity are common forms of energy that can be
released or absorbed during various decomposition or synthesis reactions.
Heat energy
When heat is absorbed in a chemical change the reaction is said to be
endothermic.

When heat is evolved in a chemical change the reaction is said to be

exothermic.
E.g.
- Decomposition of calcium carbonate

The carbon dioxide is evolved in this process which can be found using
lime water.
Light energy
Light energy can be released or absorbed in some chemical changes
-

Combustion of magnesium when magnesium burns in oxygen a

bright, white light and some heat energy is released. A white
powder is produced for the end result. This is usually used in
fireworks display.

Electrical energy
Electrical energy is used to decompose chemical compounds or mixtures
in various industries. Electrolysis is used to decompose aluminium oxide
to form aluminium metal. It is also used to decompose salt water to
produce chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide. Decomposing a
substance through electrolysis involves electricity

Explain the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a

compound is an indication of the strength of the attraction, or
between them

The strength of a chemical bond formed between two elements can be

determined by the energy used to decompose the binary compound of the
element. The strong the chemical bonding in a compound, the more
energy is needed to break the compounds into atoms.
0.5 The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their
bonding and structure
Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of
elements, compound and mixtures
Mixture
Can be separated into two or more
substances using physical or

Pure substance
Can not be separated into two or
more substances

chemical separation techniques

May be homogeneous or
heterogeneous
Displays the properties of the pure
substances in it
Has a variable composition where
the amount of pure substance is
varied

Is homogeneous
Has properties such as appearance ,
colour, density, melting and boiling
points
Has a fixed composition, no matter
where it came from

Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as

ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network

Ionic bonds
Due to strong ionic bonds, it has a high melting point and boiling point.
The ions are held in a fixed position, so it does not conduct electricity in
solid state.
It conducts electricity in aqueous or molten state due to free moving ions.
It is brittle
Ionic compounds consist of oppositely charged ions held together by
electrostatic attractions to form a crystal lattice. The electrostatic
attraction between the oppositely charged ions is called ionic bonding.
The strong ionic bonds make the ionic substances hard and have high
melting points. In solid state, there are no mobile charge carriers, so the
crystal does not conduct heat or electricity. When a crystal lattice is
heated above the melting point, then ionic bonds partially break and the
ions become mobile.

Covalent molecular
Low melting point and boiling point
Does not conduct electricity
Covalent molecular substances have low melting and boiling points due to
weak intermolecular force of attraction. They do not conduct electricity in
all states due to lack of free moving charged particles. In covalent
molecular compounds the formula represents the number of atoms of
each element in one molecule of the compound. In each molecule, atoms

are bonded covalently, but the forces between the molecules involve
weak intermolecular attractions.
Covalent network
It has a very high melting point due to strong covalent network
Does not conduct electricity in solid state
Insoluble, hard and brittle
Covalent network compounds do not occur as simple molecules. They are
covalently bonded together in a tetrahedral fashion with each atom
sharing electrons with the surrounding four electrons. They do not contain
any ions and none of them can move freely. They are insulators.

Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

Metallic bonds
The properties of metals include:
-

Relatively high densities (although lithium, sodium and potassium

are less dense than water)
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Malleable and ductile
Have a shiny surface when freshly cut or cleaned
Relatively high melting points (although mercury and gallium have
quite low melting points)

The structure of metals is that the valence electrons in metal atoms move
about freely within a three dimensional arrangement or lattice of
positively charge metal ions. The metal consists of positive ions
surrounded by a sea of mobile electrons. The outer electrons are
delocalized as they are not associated with a particular ion and can move
through the lattice of metal ions. The negatively charged electrons are
attracted to the positive charged metal ions in the lattice and electrostatic
attraction holds them together. This is called metallic bonding.
Metals are good conductors of electricity because of the mobility of the
delocalized electrons within the lattice.
The high melting and boiling points of most meals are due to the strong
electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions and the
delocalised electrons.
Ionic bonds
The physical properties of ionic compounds include:

Hard and brittle

Non conductors of electricity in the solid state, but good when
molten or in aqueous solution
High melting and boiling points

Ionic lattices are held together by electrostatic attractive forces between

oppositely charged ions. This is called ionic bonding.
The high melting and boiling points of ionic substances are due to the
strength of the electrostatic attractive forced between the oppositely
charged ions.
Ionic solid do not conduct electricity because although they contain
electrically charged particles the ions occupy fixed positions and are not
free to move. Molten ionic compounds do not conduct electricity because
in the molten state the ions are able to move though the melt.
In aqueous solutions of ionic compounds, the ions are separated from
each other and are free to move. Mobile ions are responsible for the
conduction of electric current in aqueous solution and in molten state.
Covalent bonds
The properties of covalent network substances include:
-

Very high melting and boiling points

Non conductors of electricity in the solid and liquid states
Extremely hard and brittle
Chemically inert
Insoluble in water and most other solvents

The properties are found in the three dimensional network of strong

covalent bonds which hold the lattice together.
The high melting points and boiling points and the extreme hardness of
covalent network substances suggests that atoms in these solids are
joined by very strong covalent bonds. These strong covalent bonds
produce rigid three dimensional network structures.
The non conductivity of the covalent molecular substances is due to the
lack of mobile charged species in the solid and liquid states. There are no
delocalised electrons nor charged ions capable of conducting an electric
current.

Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical

formula

The empirical formula of a compound specifies the simplest whole number

ration of the numbers of atoms of each element in the compound. A
molecular formula specifies the actual number of atoms of each element
in a molecule,
For example, the compound hydrogen peroxide has the molecular formula
of

each hydrogen peroxide molecule contains two hydrogen atoms

and two oxygen atoms bonded together. The empirical formula of

hydrogen peroxide is HO and represents the simplest who number ration
of the numbers of atoms of each element.
For ionic compounds, the formulae specify the ratios in with the atoms are
present.

Explain the relationship between properties of conductivity and

hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and
covalent network structures

Property

Metallic
crystal

Ionic crystal

Chemical
bond
Melting point
Electrical
conductivity

Metallic

Ionic

High
Solid: high
Liquid: high

High
Liquid: high

Other
properties

Malleable
Ductile
Lustrous

Hard
Brittle

Covalent
network
crystal
Covalent

Covalent
molecular
crystal
Covalent

Very high
Does not
conduct
electricity
Very hard
Brittle

Low
Does not
conduct
electricity
Brittle