(I Part) Proceeding of International Conference On Manufacturing Excellence MANFEX 2012

International Conference
on
MANUFACTURING EXCELLENCE
M
MANFEX 2012
29 - 30 March 2012
Editors
Prof. Vivek Kumar
Prof. Nitin Kr. Upadhye
Mr. Hemant Chouhan
Ms. Megha Sharma
Organized by
Department of Mechanical & Automation Engineering,

Amity School of Engineering & Technology,
Amity University Uttar Pradesh,
Noida-201303 (U.P), India
First Impression: 2012

Amity School of Engineering & Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh
Noida-201303 (U.P), India
International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence

MANFEX 2012
ISBN: 978-93-81583-36-4
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i International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)
MANFEX 2012 Organization

Patron-in- Chief
Dr. Ashok K. Chauhan

Founder President, Amity University
Mr. Atul Chauhan
Chancellor, Amity University Uttar Pradesh
Patron
Maj. Gen. K. Jai Singh

Vice Chancellor, AUUP, Noida
Convener
Prof. (Dr.) Balvinder Shukla

Pro-Vice Chancellor AUUP & D.G. ASET, Noida
Co-Convener
Prof. Vivek Kumar

HOD (Mechanical & Automation Engg. Dept.), ASET
Prof. P.K. Rohtagi
Head CRC & Prof. MAE Dept.
Organizing Secretary
Prof. Nitin Kumar Upadhye
Technical Secretary
Mr. Hemant Chouhan

Ms. Megha Sharma
ii International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)
Committees
Advisory Committee
Prof. Hong Hocheng, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Prof. L.M. Das, IIT, Delhi,
Prof. S. G. Deshmukh ABV IIITM, Gwalior
Prof. Pradeep Kumar IIT, Roorkee
Prof. I.A. Khan, FIT, Jamia Milia Islamia, Delhi
Prof. Naresh Bhatnagar, IIT, Delhi
Prof. S.K. Garg Delhi Technology University, Delhi
Prof. Mohammad Muzammil, AMU, Aligarh
Dr. Kannan Govindan Associate Professor University of Southern Denmark
Mr. Anant Kishore, CEO, INDO RAMA Synthetics (India) Ltd., Delhi
Mr. Anil Varshney, Addl. V.P., BSES Rajdhani Power Ltd., Delhi
Dr. N. Swaminathan, Technical Architect, MSC Software, Delhi
Dr. Rajkumar P. Singh, Director, Kalyani Centre of Tech. & Innovation, Pune
Dr. Nitesh Jain, Global Chief, Goodyear, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
Mr. N.N Radia, V.P. (Operations), GHCL Ltd., New Delhi
Mr. A. Bali, Vice President, Deki Electronics Ltd., Noida
Mr. Nirmal Tiwari, AVP & Plant Head, Kirloskar Bros. Ltd. Dewas
Mr. R.B. Madhekar, CGM, Maruti Suzuki India Ltd., Gurgaon
Dr. Sanjay Ghoshal, G.M. Samsung Heavy Industries Ltd., Noida
Mr. Sanjeev Paul, Group Head Purchase, Yamha Motors, Noida
Mr. Sandeep Mathur, G.M. (Quality), Precision Industries, Noida
Mr. Manoj Kumar Dora, Scientific Researcher, Ghent University, Belgium
Col. A. Yadav , DGM, Tank Division, Pune
iii International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)
Departmental Organizing Committee

1
Mr. R.K. Tyagi
15
Dr. Abhinav Gupta
Mr. Gaurav Gupta
16
Mr. Rahul Sindhwani
Ms. Nazma Ehtesham
17
Mr. Ravi H.
Mr. Manmit Saikia
18
Mr. Harendra Singh
Mr. Swet Chandan
19
Mr. Vikas Salyan
Mr. Ashok Kr. Dargar
20
Mr. Anoop Kr. Shukla
Mr. R.R. Vishwambaram
21
Ms. Punjlata Singh
Mr. Ajay Sharma
22
Mr. Kuldeep Kumar
Mr. Mahendra Verma
23
Ms. Meeta Sharma
10
Mr. Narendra Singh
24
Mr. Shubham Sharma
11
Col. D.K. Sharma
25
Mr. Ram Pravesh
12
Mr. R.P.S. Sisodia
26
Ms. Medhavi Sinha
13
Mr. Kuldeep Narwat
27
Ms. Anu Kamal
14
Mr. Naveen Kumar
Student Organizing Committee

Ishan Kaushik
Student President
Madhur Jain
Student Head Coordinator
Abhinav Atreya
Student Head Coordinator
Nishant Kaushik
Student Co-Coordinator
Tarun Kumar Chenani
Student Co-Coordinator
Indraneel Dutta
Technical Committee Coordinator
Abhudaya Gupta
Registration Committee Coordinator
Prithviraj Singh
Registration Committee Coordinator
Siddharth Arora
Hospitality Committee Coordinator
Rohil Agarwal
Hospitality Committee Coordinator
Anuj Nirmal
Accommodation Committee Coordinator
Gurbinder Gill
Event Management Committee Coordinator
iv International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)
Message from Director General (ASET)
It is matter of great pride that Department of Mechanical & Automation Engineering, Amity School of
Engineering & Technology, is organizing International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence
(MANFEX-2012) on 29th & 30th March 2012.
The theme of the conference Manufacturing Excellence is very suitable for the researchers, decision
makers and students working on advanced areas of manufacturing and looking new research directions.
I am pleased to note that faculty
aculty and researchers from various reputed Universities, Colleges and Research
Organizations across the world are presenting their research papers on varied topics such as Finite Element
Modeling, Rapid Prototyping, Automation and Robotics, Lean Manufactu
Manufacturing,
ring, Six Sigma, Agile
Manufacturing, Quality Function Deployment, Energy Management & Unconventional Manufacturing
Processes and many more advanced areas of manufacturing management
With great enthusiasm, organizing team has put together a rich and var
varied
ied technical research papers as a
proceeding of MANFEX-2012.
2012. I particularly appreciate the invaluable contribution of all the Lead Speakers
from industry as well as from academia.
I am sure that MANFEX-2012
2012 this conference would greatly benefit industry professionals, researchers,
faculty members and young professionals. The contents of the proceeding will surely be helpful.
Organizing MANFEX 2012 is a mammoth task and my compliments and congratulations to organizing
team who made this research confere
conference possible.
I wish MANFEX-2012
2012 a grand success.
Dr. Balvinder Shukla

Converner, MANFEX 2012
Director General, ASET &
Pro Vice Chancellor, AUUP
Sr. Vice President, RBEF
v International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)
Preface
It is a matter of great pride for us to present the Academicians, Personnel from Industries and R&D Organizations,
Environmentalists, Technocrats, Managers, Research Scholars and students, the proceedings of papers presented at
the two day International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX-2012) held on March 29 & 30,
2012 at Dept. of Mechanical & automation Engineering, Amity School of Engineering & Technology, Amity
University Uttar Pradesh, Noida (India).
Manufacturing is and will remain one of the principle means through which wealth is generated. Rapid
advancements in all branches of Engineering and Technology have posed many challenges as well as opportunities
to organizations in the light of global competition in a complex economic, environmental and social scenario. This
situation has lead to innovation and excellence in the area of manufacturing and its related sub areas like R & D,
development of new material and processes, advanced manufacturing philosophies etc. Mechanical Engineering
begins to merge with other disciplines, as seen in Mechatronics, Multidisciplinary Design Optimization (MDO),
biomechanics and many more.
The international Conference MANFEX 2012 is designed with the objective to provide a platform for the industry
personnel, academicians, researchers and the young budding engineers to share their knowledge on the excellence in
manufacturing This knowledge will help them to keep pace with the world to know and learn the advanced
technology & equip them to face the techno-economic challenges of the millennium. The conference aims to provide
an opportunity for students, researchers and engineers:
To interact with key specialists in diversified fields.
To share innovative ideas amongst the participants.
To get exposed to latest trends in Design and Development, Renewable Energy, Thermal Sciences &
Engineering, Industrial Management, Materials and Manufacturing Technology and Engineering to achieve
Manufacturing Excellence.
The proceedings comprises of articles meticulously prepared by leading Academicians, Research Scholars and
Experts from Industries. For the benefit of readers, the research papers have been subdivided into the following
categories:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Design and Development

Industrial Management
Materials and Manufacturing Technologies
Thermal Science and Engineering & Renewable Energy
Diversified fields of Mechanical Engineering.
Such a proceeding of great proportion is not feasible without the wholehearted support received form various
quarters. We extend our wholehearted gratitude to all the eminent authors for enriching this conference with their
praiseworthy contribution.
We will be failing in our duty if we do not acknowledge the excellent cooperation extended by our colleagues and
experts on the review panel, for their painstaking efforts in reviewing the papers.
We sincerely hope that the entire engineering fraternity will find this publication an invaluable storehouse of
knowledge to decipher the latest trends manufacturing Excellence.
Editors
vi International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)
Contents
Design & Development
1.
Creating Microchannels on Polymers Using Underwater Nd: YAG Laser Processing ...................................... 3
Shashi Prakash, Bappa Acherjee, Arunanshu Shekhar Kuar, Souren Mitra
2.
Finite Element Modeling of an Improved Extrusion Process for

the Enhancement of the Product Quality ............................................................................................................... 8
Atul Suri, K. Hans Raj
3.
Finite Element Modelling and Burst Pressure Analysis of

Cylidrical Composite Pressure Vessel................................................................................................................... 13
Medhavi Sinha, Dr. S. N. Pandit
4.
Finite Elemement Based Delamination Damage Analyses of Laminated

FRP Composite Made Bonded Tubular Socket Joints ........................................................................................ 17
R. R. Das, B. Pradhan
5.
Detection of Isomorphism among Kinematic Chains by Assigning Type Number of Different Joints ........... 22
Dharmendra Singh, Dr. Aas Mohd, R.A.Khan
6.
Micro Pressure Sensors Designing & Optimization Methods.......................................................................... 26

Yogesh Kumar, Ajay Sharma
7.
Finite Element Analysis of Disc Brake using RADIOSS Linear......................................................................... 29

Vikas Salyan, G. Bhushan, P. Chandna
8.
Use of Electro Mechanical Impedance Technique to Detect Damage ................................................................ 32

Harmohan Singh, Mansi Jain, T.Visalakshi
9.
Failure Analysis of Protector Screen Grid ........................................................................................................... 38

M. Tripathi, K.V. Sai Srinadh
Thermal Science & Engineering & Renewable Energy

10.
Optimization of Power Generation System Utilizing a Salt Gradient Solar Pond .......................................... 3
Dr. J S Saini, Sanjeev Kumar Joshi, Vivek Kumar
11.
Exploration of Emerging Fiscal and Social Benefits through Energy

Efficient Measures and Renewable Energy Resources in Agra Region ............................................................. 12
Anurag Gupta, D. Ganeshwar Rao
12.
Energy Conservation by Optimizing Insulation Thickness for Building ........................................................... 16

Subhash Mishra, Dr. J A Usmani, Sanjeev Varshney
13.
Experimental Investigation of the Performance and Emission

Parameters of Karanja Oil Blends with Diesel in a CI Engine ........................................................................... 22
Saurabh Kumar Gupta, Dhananjay Singh, Gandhi Pullagura
14.
Low Carbon Future: Challenges and Opportunities for Energy Sector............................................................ 27

Iqbal Khan, Ashish Sharma
15.
Cogeneration in Cement Industry ......................................................................................................................... 31

Vivek Aggarwal, Suresh Pal
16.
Effect of Compression Ratio, Fuels and Reactant Temperature on the

Combustion Irreversibilities in Spark- Ignition Engine ...................................................................................... 38
Munawar Nawab Karimi, Sandeep Kumar Kamboj
17.
Energy Audit of a Hospital .................................................................................................................................... 44

Suresh Pal, Vivek Aggarwal
vii International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)
18.
The Performance and Emission Characteristics of Alcohol-Ether Gasoline Blends on SI Engine ................. 51
K. Chendil Velan, Anuj Raturi
19.
Generalized Mechanism to Institute Energy Management System.................................................................... 56

Pankaj Kamboj, Shruti
20.
The Futuristic Alternative Fuel- HCNG- A Review ........................................................................................ 60

Anuj Raturi, K. Chendil Velan, Hardik Vala
21.
Exergy Analysis of Waste Heat Operated Combined

Power and Ejector Refrigeration Cycle ................................................................................................................ 65
Munawar N Karimi, Basant K Agrawal
22.
Feasibility of Starting the Scramjet at Lower Velocities .................................................................................. 70

Utkarsh K.K., Sayantan Bhattacharya
23.
Development and Test of Low Cost Catalytic Converter from ZnO/CoO in the
Form of Pellet for Petrol Fuelled Engine .............................................................................................................. 79
Charula H Patel, Megha Sharma
24.
Performance Evaluation of Condenser in a Coal-Fired Power Plant ................................................................ 84

Ravinder Kumar, Research Scholar
25.
Alternative Fuels Available in India - The Choice of Future Fuel ..................................................................... 91

Rajesh Kumar Saluja, Ritesh Kumar, Sudeep Kumar Singh
26.
Inverse Heat Transfer ............................................................................................................................................ 99

Dhan Raj Thapa, Medhavi Sinha, Sidhant Verma, Vicky Panwar
Materials & Manufacturing Technologies

27.
Impact of Machine Vision System in Industrial Automation ............................................................................... 3

Tushar Jain, Dr. Meenu
28.
A Study of Phase Change Material and Its Applications in Textile Industry .................................................. 11
Arbind Prasad, Ashwani Kumar, Amir Shaikh
29.
Study of Influence of Atom Sizes on Martensite Microstructures

in Copper-Based Shape Memory Alloys ............................................................................................................... 18
Ashwani Kumar, Arbind Prasad, Amir Shaikh
30.
Mechanical and Microstructural Characterization of

Friction Stir Welded Joints of AA7039 ................................................................................................................. 21
Chaitanya Sharma, Dheerendra Kumar Dwivedi, Pradeep Kumar
31.
Finite Element Analysis of Hard Turning: A Review .......................................................................................... 26

Kunal Saurabh, Sudhir Kumar Singh, A.M.Tripathi, Subham Sharma
32.
Optimisation of Process Parameter in Ultra-Precision

Diamond Turning of Polycarbonate Mmaterial .................................................................................................. 30
V.K. Saini, D. Sharma, S.K. Kalla, Tulsi Chouhan
33.
Modification of Hardfacing Alloy of Crusher Used in Sugarcane Industry to Reduce Wear ......................... 38
A. Doomra, A.P.S. Sethi, S.S. Sandhu
34.
Effect of Weld Groove Design on the Distortion of 304 L Butt Joint in Boiler Drums..................................... 45
A. Sharma, J.S. Oberoi, S.S. Sandhu
35.
Predicting Tensile Strength of Double Side Friction Stir Welded 6082-T6

Aluminium Alloy by a Mathematical Model ........................................................................................................ 52
S.Gopi, P.Saravanan, K.Manonmani, V.Sritharan
36.
Implementation of Green Manufacturing: A review ........................................................................................... 59

Ashok Kr. Dargar, Nitin Upadhye, Hemant Chouhan
viii International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)
37.
Current Research Trends in Wire Electric Discharge Machining: An Overview ............................................ 63

Rajeev Kumar, Anmol Bhatia
38.
Trends in the Field of Rapid Prototyping ............................................................................................................. 68

Manu Srivastava, Dr. Sachin Maheshwari, Dr. T.K. Kundra
Industrial & Operations Management

39.
The Practical Application of ISO 9001 and ISO/TS 16949 to the Mass
Production of Motor Industry Components ........................................................................................................... 3
PG Blaine, PJ Vlok, RT Dobson
40.
Integration of Design Analysis and Estimation into a Web-Based

Product Lifecycle Management Platform............................................................................................................. 15
S. Jyothirmai, R. Ramesh, K. Ajay, A. Vaidehi, Y. Shashank
41.
Effect of Different Mouse Geometries on Human Performance: A Case Study ............................................... 21

Taufeeque Hasan, Mohd.Farhan Zafar, Nidhi Singh, Abid Ali Khan
42.
Waste Detection and Optimization in Supply Chain Using Value Stream Mapping (VSM) ........................... 27
Anil Kumar H Maurya, D. N. Raut, Akshay S. Shrawge
43.
Condition Monitoring in Industry......................................................................................................................... 34

Dr. S.P.Tayal
44.
Improving Quality in Engineering Institute: Six-Sigma Demystified ................................................................ 39

Rajender Kumar, Naresh Kumar, Goarav Gera
45.
Implementing QFD for an Auto Service Station a Case Study ........................................................................... 48

D.Sharma, V.K. Saini, T. Chouhan, N. Upadhye
46.
Achieving Quality Goals by Lean Six-Sigma........................................................................................................ 54

Piu Jain, Garima Sharma
47.
Defect Reduction by Six Sigma Technique ........................................................................................................... 61

Surbhi Upadhyay, Rishu Sharma
48.
Effectiveness of Entrepreneurship Development Programme in Jammu & Kashmir

Region: A Study on Jammu & Kashmir Entrepreneurship Development Institute (JKEDI) ......................... 64
D. Mukhopadhyay, Pabitra Kumar, Jena Kakali Mazumder
49.
Investigation into the Level of Agility in Indian Manufacturing Industry: A Case Study ............................... 71
Gaurav Jain, Puneet Jain, Mudit Lamba, Mohit Rathi
50.
Exergetic and Economic analysis of Economizer for Waste Heat Recovery in Textile Industry .................... 79
Umesh Kumar, Dr. M.N. Karimi
51.
Just in Time Manufacturing and Inventory Management: A Literature Review ............................................ 87

S. Kumar, S. Phogat, Dr AK Gupta, Dr Sultan Singh
52.
Barriers to Green Supply Chain Management Practices: A Literature Review ............................................... 94

Mohammad Asim Qadri, Abid Haleem, Mohammed Arif
53.
Pedestrian Safety Test Procedures and Available Technologies ........................................................................ 99

Devendra Vashist, Mohit Bansal, Lalit Kumar
54.
Vendor Selection in Supply Chain Management -An Empirical Model and Case Study............................... 104
Abhishek Jain, Shiv Kumar Sharma, Rakesh Kumar Jain, Ankit Parashar
55.
Application of AHP in Selection of Vendor for Manufacturing Industries ..................................................... 111

Mohit Singh, Dr. I. A. Khan, Dr. Sandeep Grover
56.
Two Machines Flowshop Scheduling Problem with a Single Transport Agent in Between........................... 114
Qazi Shoeb Ahmad, M. H. Khan
ix International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)
57.
Current Status of Extent of Successful Implementation of TPM: A Study

in Context of Developing Nation India ............................................................................................................... 117
Shruti, Pankaj Kamboj, Mudit Lamba, Puneet Jain
Diversified Fields of Mechanical Engineering

58.
Wall Climbing Robot for Rough, Grooved and Smooth Walls ............................................................................ 3
Faiz Iqbal, Hemant Chouhan
59.
Trends in Cloud-ERP for Small and Medium Sized Manufacturing Industries: A Review .............................. 9
Sapna Shukla, Sugandha Agarwal, Shruti Jain
60.
Creative Problem Solving Approach to Enhance Functionality of Vacuum Cleaner ...................................... 14

Tulsi Chouhan, V.K. Saini, D. Sharma, H. Chouhan
61.
Advanced Architecture with Hardware Software Cosynthesys for Real Time Embedded Systems ............. 20
Richa Agrawal, Deepika Agrawal
62.
The Future of Self Learning Robots through Haptics Technology .................................................................... 24

Dadi Ravi Kanth, Hemant Chouhan
63.
Modified Spoke-Less Bicycle ................................................................................................................................. 28

T.Bothichandar, S.Majumder
64.
A Riview on Use of Smart Materials to Detect Damage ...................................................................................... 32

R.G Sindhu, Nitya Jain, Talakokula Visalakshi
65.
A Review on Permanent Magnet Based PMM & Its Implementation ............................................................... 39

Rajat Saxena, Tulsi Chouhan, Sansar Swaroop Saxena, Dheeraj Chouhan
66.
Structural Optimization with Cado Method for a Three Dimensional Sheet Metal Body ............................... 43
Shubham Sharma, Ankita Awasthi, Medhavi Sinha, Rohan Kumar
Abstracts
1.
Generalised Formulation of Laminate Theory Using Beam Finite Element

for Delaminated Composite Beams with Piezoactuators and Sensors ................................................................ 3
B. Kavi, B.K. Nanda
2.
What Drives the Supply Chain of Manufacturing Organizations? ...................................................................... 4

Dr. Sunil Giri, Rashi Taggar
3.
Value Stream Mapping-Its Role and Scope in the Automobile Industry ............................................................ 5
Saif Imam, Ashok Tripathi, Sudipto Sarkar
4.
Design and Thermal Analysis of Coronary Stent .................................................................................................. 6

Zarna K. Bhavsar, Prof. Ashwin Bhabhor
5.
Oxidation and Hot Corrosion Behavior of Nickel-Based Superalloy Inconel 718 .............................................. 7
V. N. Shukla, R. Jayaganthan, V. K. Tewari
6.
Designing of Automatic Tool Pickup Machine ....................................................................................................... 8

I Kaushik, R Sharma, A Kothapalli, V Khandelwal
7.
ECO Friendly Materials-An Overview ................................................................................................................... 9

Goel Neetu, Kumar Sanjay
DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT
Creating Microchannels on Polymers Using

Underwater Nd: YAG Laser Processing
Shashi Prakash1, Bappa Acherjee2, Arunanshu Shekhar Kuar3, Souren Mitra4
1
Department of Mechanical & Automation Engineering, ASET, Amity University, Lucknow, U.P., India
2,3,4
Production Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata-32, India
spasthana@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In this research work, a novel technique for creating
microchannels on polymers has been investigated.
Microchannels are used as microfluidic channels in
analytical biological measuring instruments and also as
microchannels in miniature electronic industries. These
microchannels were being created by lithography and
etching techniques in earlier days. However the
slumberness of the process with these techniques resulted
in long manufacturing durations and also precise skills
were required by the worker. The use of lasers as
microcutting tool has been a recent trend in micro
manufacturing arena. Lasers have been widely used for
micro-surgery, micro-cutting and drilling process. In this
research work, Poly-methyl-meth-acrylate (PMMA) has
been used as a workpiece material because of its wide
acceptability in microchannels fabricating industries. Nd:
YAG laser with micro-manufacturing capabilities has been
used in this research work. Since laser processing is a
thermal cutting process and results in large heat affected
zone and burr formations around the microchannels.
Hence underwater processing has been used to create
precise microchannels. Mineral water has been used in this
experiment because of its easy availability as well as its
non-reactive nature towards the workpiece surface. The
process has been investigated using response surface
methods in order to determine the effects of basic input
parameters on the output quality parameter of the
microchannels. Lamp current, pulse frequency, pulse width
and cutting speed has been taken as input parameters while
the burr width has been taken as an indication of quality of
the microchannels.
I. INTRODUCTION
Lasers, being able to cut faster with a higher quality are a
new substitution for traditional cutting processes. However,
its use as a micromachining tool is limited because of its
thermal nature of cutting. As the removal of the material
basically depends upon the thermal energy impinging on
the surface, the defects like heat affected zone (HAZ), burr
formation etc. can not be avoided in usual laser cutting
processes. In this paper an attempt has been made to use
lasers in presence of water in order to realize its

micromachining capabilities. In this research work,
microchannels have been created on Poly-methyl-methacrylate (PMMA). Microchannels are mainly used in
microfluidic devices. The new age biological analytical
instruments utilizes these microfluidic channels to reduce
sample consumption, cost, to yield better results and to
increase portability. Earlier these devices have been
manufactured by etching and lithography processes, which
were not only expensive but also time consuming and
apart, a level of skill was required. Creating microchannels
using laser microprocessing is a recent trend and have been
studied by various authors. Lim et al. [1], used high
brightness diode pumped Nd:YAG laser with slab
geometry for fabricating multiple level microfluidic
channels on silicon wafers. Choo et al. [2] studied the
micromachining of silicon using a short pulse excimer
laser. Heng et al. [3] fabricated microfluidic channels on a
PMMA sheet of 1.5 mm thickness by using a 248 nm
excimer laser direct writing technique. Tiaw et al. [4] Used
third harmonic diode pumped solid state (DPSS) Nd:YAG
lasers to achieve high quality precision cuts of thin polymer
films through micro-drilling and micro-cutting as well as
surface patterning of microchannels through direct beam
scanning. Chen et al. [5] investigated both, the near
ultraviolet and mid UV laser micromachining
systematically. The materials used in their research were
sapphire, silicon and Pyrex glasses.
However, no detailed description of effect of individual
process parameters on microchannel characteristics in
underwater processing is available in the literatures. In this
present research work, microchanneling process by
underwater Nd:YAG laser processing has been investigated
with an aim to determine the effects of various process
parameters on microchannel characteristics.
II. EXPERIMENT METHODOLOGY

In this research work Response Surface Methodology has
been used for design and modelling of the experiment.
Statistical package MINITAB has been used for RSM
modelling and analysis. RSM is a set of mathematical and
4 International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)
statistical techniques that are useful for modelling and

predicting the response of interest affected by a number of
input variables with the aim of optimizing the response [6].
RSM also specifies the relationships among
mong one or more
measured response and essential controllable input factors.
When all independent variables (1, 2, ., k ) are
measurable, controllable and continuous in the
experiments, with negligible error, the response surface y
can be expressed by
y = f (1 , 2 ,...., k ) + ;
(1)
where the form of the true response function f is unknown

and perhaps very complicated, and is a term that
represents other sources of variability not accounted for in
f. Usually includes effects such as measurement error of
the response, background noise, the effect of other
variables, and so on. Usually is treated as a statistical
error, often assuming it to have a normal distribution with
mean zero and variance 2.
In the practical
tical application of RSM, it is necessary to
develop an approximating model for the true response
surface. The approximating model is based on observed
data from the processor system and is an empirical model.
Usually, a second-order
order polynomial equation is used in
RSM as given by
= 0 + 1 x1 + 2 x2 + 12 x1 x2 ;
(2)
Fig. 1: Photographic view of Nd:YAG laser system used

in the present research
III.2 Development of Fixture

In this project underwater machining has been performed
on a Nd:YAG laser machine. A fixture has been designed
to accommodate various sizes of workpiece in underwater
conditions. Figure 2 shows the photographic view of the
developed fixture for the present research. Mineral water
has been used as water medium because of easy availability
and its non-reactive
reactive nature to workpiece material even at
higher temperatures. The jammer on the fixture is used for
jamming the workpiece on the fixture to prevent its
movement due to water flow or pressure. The scale has
been attached to measure the water level inside the fixture.
where parameters 1, 2, etc. are called the regression

coefficients [7].
III. DETAILS OF EXPERIMEN

EXPERIMENTS
III.1 Nd: YAG Laser System
A pulsed Nd:YAG laser has been used in this present
research made by M/s Sahajanand
janand Laser Technology, India
(figure 1). This CNC Laser machining system consists of
various subsystems like laser source and beam delivery
unit, power supply unit, radio frequency (RF) Q
Q-switch
driver unit, cooling unit, compressed air supply unit and a
CNC controller for X, Y and Z axis movement.
The output from the Q-switched
switched Nd:YAG laser is directed
to the workpiece using a beam delivery system that first
bends the laser beam at 900, and then focuses it on the work
spot through the focusing lens. The main power supply unit
controls the laser output by controlling the intensity of light
emitted by a krypton arc lamp. The cooling unit consisting
of a three phase chiller unit and a pump, cools the system
by circulating the chilled water to avoid thermal damage of
laser cavity, lamp, Nd:YAG rod and Q-switch.
switch.
Fig. 2: Photographic view of the developed fixture for

the present research
III.3 Input Factors

ctors and Process Output Factor
A lot of pilot experiments have been carried out for getting
the desired dimensions of microchannel width and depth.
After surveying various literatures available and doing
some pilot experiments, it has been found that following
Creating Microchannels on Polymers Using Underwater Nd: YAG Laser Processing 5
four process parameters affect the laser microchanneling

process significantly and have been taken as input factors
for the present research: (a) lamp current, (b) pulse
frequency, (c) pulse width and (d) cutting speed. Lamp
current in amperage directly relates to total laser fluence or
energy consumed by laser to emit desired pulses. Pulse
frequency or pulse repetition frequency is the number of
pulses emitted by laser per unit time. Pulse width denotes
the percentage of ON time duration per unit time while
cutting speed represents the speed of movement of laser
head with respect to the workpiece or vice-versa. Five
levels of each factors has been identified based on the pilot
experiments in order to find the desired depth and width of
microchannels. Table 1 shows the values of different input
process parameters at different levels.
TABLE 1
PROCESS PARAMETERS AND THEIR LEVELS
Input
parameters
levels
Denotes Unit
Process parameters
Exp.
no.
Response
Average Burr
X4
Width
(mm/s)
(m)
0.2
62.41
X1
(A)
X2
(kHz)
X3
(%)
14
16
0.2
59.31
14
0.2
85.40
16
0.2
91.96
14
12
0.2
44.30
16
12
0.2
51.09
14
12
0.2
45.80
16
12
0.2
61.20
14
0.4
71.0
13 14 15 16 17
10
16
0.4
68.99
11
14
0.4
77.94
12
16
0.4
71.80
13
14
12
0.4
75.70
14
16
12
0.4
90.60
15
14
12
0.4
68.58
16
16
12
0.4
71.42
17
13
0.3
58.38
18
17
0.3
72.44
19
15
0.3
63.10
20
15
0.3
74.81
21
15
0.3
61.21
22
15
15
0.3
44.42
23
15
0.1
70.90
24
15
0.5
97.30
25
15
0.3
59.10
26
15
0.3
57.60
27
15
0.3
54.60
28
15
0.3
51.30
29
15
0.3
55.01
30
15
0.3
50.60
31
15
0.3
52.88
X1
Pulse frequency
X2
kHz
Pulse width
X3
12 15
X4
TABLE 2: DESIGN MATRIX AND MEASURED

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
-2 -1
Lamp current
Cutting speed
light at the centre of channels shows that they are uniform

in depth. However, the non-uniformity at the outer edges is
visible in this figure.
mm/s 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
A microchannel is generally specified by its aspect ratio i.e.

its width and depth. But if a comparison has to be made
among manufacturing processes utilized for creating the
channel, the cleanliness of the process and product also
have significant effect. So considering both aspects of
process and product, burr width has been taken as an
indication of quality of microchannels. The output
characteristic has been measured by using Olympus-STM-6
optical measuring microscope.
An objective lens of 10X magnification was used for all the
measurements. For reducing the errors during
measurement, the output factor has been measured at three
different locations across the channel and the statistical
average has been used for response surface analysis and
modelling.
After conducting various pilot experiments with different
water levels, best results have been found when keeping the
water level just 1 mm above the workpiece for this
experiment. Total thirty one numbers of experiments have
been performed. Figure 3 shows the microscopic view of
the microchannel resulting from experiment no. 23. The
photographs have been taken using the Analysis software
specially built for this purpose. The uniform distribution of
Details of the experiment with their corresponding values

of process parameters and responses are given in table 2.
The response values are statistical average of three values
of responses taken across the channel. Input values of
process parameters are based on pilot experiments. These

microchannels have been created in single pass
experiments. While conducting experiments normal
atmospheric conditions have been maintained.
TABLE 3:
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR BURR WIDTH
Adj.
F
P
MS
regress- 14 5662.63 5662.63 404.473 38.69 <0.001
ion
Linear 4 1839.54 1839.54 459.884 43.99 <0.001
Square 4 2040.84 2040.84 510.209 48.81 <0.001
Interact- 6 1782.25 1782.25 297.042 28.42 <0.001
ion
Res.
16 167.25 167.25 10.453
Error
Lack10 108.16 108.16 10.816 1.10 0.475
of-Fit
Pure
6 59.09
59.09
9.848
Error
Total
30 5829.88
Source
DF Seq. SS Adj. SS
V. PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS
Fig. 3: Microchannel resulting from experiment no. 23
V.1 Burr Width

IV. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF THE
RESPONSE BASED ON RSM
Second-order mathematical models has been developed
using the different values of response obtained as above.
The mathematical correlation for burr width (YBW) is given
by equation (3), where X1 denotes lamp current, X2 denotes
pulse frequency, X3 denotes pulse width and X4 denotes
cutting speed.
YBW = 54.44 + 5.28X1 + 6.18X2 9.48X3 + 12.28X4 +
11.48X12 + 15.03X22 1.11X32 + 30.17X42 + 0.52X1X2 +
11.16X1X3 - 4.01X1X4 20.02X2X3 20.95X2X4 +
20.95X3X4 (3)
IV.1 Analysis of Variance

In order to ascertain fitness of the developed empirical
model for the response of microchannel burr width, the
analysis of variance (ANOVA) test is conducted. The
purpose of ANOVA test is to investigate which design
parameters have a significant effect on the microchannel
characteristics.
Table 3 gives the ANOVA table for burr width. From the
table 3 it is found that the calculated lack-of-fit (1.10) is
less than the tabulated value of F10,14 (2.60) which clarifies
that the effect of lack-of-fit is insignificant. This implies
that all the data has been well fitted in the response curve.
The regression factor on the parameters has more effect on
the process parameter. Hence the developed second order
regression model for burr width is adequate at 95%
confidence level.
Burr width is an important parameter which actually

determines the cleanliness of the whole process. A shorter
burr width indicates that process is better than other
processes and also gives reliability in constructing another
channel in close proximity to the channel created.
Figure 4 (a) shows the variation of burr width with change
in pulse frequency and cutting speed. At lower cutting
speeds, due to effective role of monomer layers the burr
width increases with increase in pulse frequency but at
higher cutting speeds it decreases with increase in pulse
frequency. Figure 4 (b) shows the variation of burr width
with change in pulse width and cutting speed. At lower
cutting speeds the burr width decreases with increase in
pulse width but at higher cutting speeds it increases with
increase in pulse width. This can be explained as at lower
cutting speeds the local cooling takes place much
effectively and as pulse width increases the beams possess
lesser energy, thus width of burrs decreases but at higher
cutting speeds the local cooling does not takes place much
effectively hence burr width increases.
Creating Microchannels on Polymers Using Underwater Nd: YAG Laser Processing 7
ANOVA analysis. Cutting speed and pulse width are the

most influencing factors for the burr width.. Multipass
processing can be performed to obtain microchannels of
high aspect ratios.
VII. REFERENCES
[1]
Fig. 4: (a) Variation of burr width with change in pulse

frequency and cutting speed, (b) Variation of burr
width with change in pulse width and cutting speed
[2]
VI. CONCLUSION
It is challenging to fabricate 3D microchannels using
conventional microfabrication technologies such as
photolithography and etching. Multiple exposure and
alignment steps required by conventional techniques often
limit the flexibility and size of the fabrication. The pulsed
Nd:YAG laser in underwater conditions has been employed
successfully to produce microchannels for microfluidic and
other applications. From the in-depth experimental
investigation and analysis, it is evident that Nd:YAG laser
microchanneling in underwater conditions is an effective
process.
The underwater laser processing minimizes the heat
affected zone and burr formation in an effective way.
Microchanneling in underwater cutting is far cleaner and
effective process than cutting in assisted air or open air
conditions.
Mathematical modelling has been developed for burr width
and the model adequacy has been checked by subsequent
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
D Lim, Y Kamotani, B Cho, J Majumdar and S

Takayama, fabrication of microfluidic mixers and
artificial vasculatures using a high brightness diodepumped Nd:YAG laser direct write method, Lab Chip,
2003, 3, 318-323
KL Choo, Y Ogawa, G Kanbargi, V Otra, LM Raff
and R Komanduri, Micromachining of silicon by
short-pulse laser ablation in air and under water,
Materials Science and Engineering A 372 (2004) 145
162
Q Heng, C Tao and Z Tie-chuan, surface roughness
analysis and improvement of micro-fluidic channel
with excimer laser, Microfluid Nanofluid (2006) 2:
357-360
KS Tiaw, MH Hong and SH Teoh, Precision laser
micro-processing of polymers, Journal of Alloys and
Compounds 449 (2008) 228-231,
T Chen and BR Darling, Laser micromachining of the
materials using in microfluidics by high precision
pulsed near and mid-ultraviolet Nd: YAG lasers,
Journal of Materials Processing Technology 198
(2008) 248-253
Montgomery DC, (2010), Design and analysis of
experiments, 5th ed., Wiley New York
B Acherjee, D Misra, D Bose and K Venkadeshwaran,
Prediction of weld strength and seam width for laser
transmission welding of thermoplastic using response
surface methodology, Optics & Laser Technology 41
(2009)
Finite Element Modeling of an Improved Extrusion

Process for the Enhancement of the Product Quality
Atul Suri1, K. Hans Raj2
1,Department of Mechanical engineering, DEI Technical College,
Dayalbagh Educational
ional Institute, Agra
Agra- 282110, India, atulsuridei@gmail.com
2, Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of engineering,
Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra
Agra-282110,
282110, India, khansraj@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Extrusion is a prominent metal forming process used for
making industrial parts. Any improvement in the quality of
extruded product in terms of the mechanical behavior is
responsible for higher financial gain of an industry. The
paper presents the finite element
lement modeling (FEM) of a new
Improved extrusion (IE) of Al 6061 and its comparison
with the simple Extrusion (SE) process in FORGE 2009
environment. The results of Simple Extrusion and Improved
Extrusion (IE) are compared in terms of strain rates, force,
energy etc; and the conclusions are drawn to present the
advantage of improved method. The influence of friction
and punch velocity was considered for both methods. It is
observed, a better extruded product with higher equivalent
strain and consequently a smaller grain size and better
mechanical properties can be obtained at the cost of small
increase in forming energy, using Improved extrusion
method.
Index Terms: Improved Extrusion, Simple Extrusion, FEM.
II. SIMPLE EXTRUSION

Extrusion is a commonly used metal forming method in
which desired shape is obtained by reduction in cross
section of the billett material [7] by forcing it through a die
under compression. The metal flows plastically when stress
reaches the value of flow stress [7]. In cold extrusion
material is made to flow in cold condition under high
pressure between punch and die [8]. Materials
Material that possess
sufficient cold workability eg. Aluminium and its alloy, tin,
zinc, copper etc; can be cold extruded. Punches and dies,
due to severe working conditions are made of wear
resistant tool steel e.g., high alloy chromium steels. The
main advantages
ges of cold extrusion over hot extrusion are
that good mechanical properties are introduced in the billet
due to severe cold working, good surface finish by using
sufficient lubrication and no oxidation of the work piece [9,
10]. Extrusion produces compressive
sive and shear forces in
the billet. Metal flow in the extrusion process is greatly
influenced by billet material property, billet initial
temperature, extrusion ratio, extrusion speed [11, 12] and
friction conditions. The billet is placed in lower die and is
pushed through the die by an upper die.
I. INTRODUCTION
Ultrafine- grained material (UFG) aree produced using
Severe Plastic Deformation (SPD) are gaining a lot of
attention in last few years. UFG materials posses improved
structure with enhanced properties [1-6]
6] and sometimes
they posses unique properties like combination of great
strength and ductility.
The improvement can often be quantified by Hall
Hall-Petch
relation. The quantitative improvement in properties varies
with d-1/2, where d is the grain size. Classic Hall
Hall-Petch
equation relates the yield strength to the grain size is given
by y = 0 +Ky d-1/2. This relation predicts an increase in
yield stress y with decrease in grain size.
An attempt has been made to integrate simple extrusion
process with twist extrusion to form a new hybrid extrusion
process. Finite element modeling and simulation results are
discussed for both process and comparison is made to show
the advantage of the new hybrid method.
Fig. 1: Simple Extrusion

The load is maximum in the beginning of extrusion process
and as the billet length reduces the requirement of force
Finite Element Modeling of an Improved Extrusion Process for the Enhancement of the Product Quality 9
also reduces [13]. At the end of the process the force again
increases because the billet is thin and the material must
flow radially to exit the die.
III. TWIST EXTRUSION

Twist extrusion (TE) was proposed by Beygelzimer et al.
[14,15] in 1999. The principle of TE is to obtain intense
shear deformation via extrusion of rectangular cross section
billets through a die with a twist channel. The billet is
twisted with an angle about its longitudinal axis as
illustrated in Fig.2, the shape and area of the channel cross
section remain constant[15,18] along the extrusion axis.
The shape of the cross section can be arbitrary [2]. TE
allows repetitive extrusion on a work piece to accumulate
plastic strain [2, 15]. Billet is pushed through the twist die
by an upper die or punch. TE is generally adopted for
metallic materials, however systematic investigation of
material properties and deformation homogeneity is still
needed to establish a basic foundation for this new
technology.
The principle of TE is shown in fig. 2. Under TE, a billet is
extruded through a twist die. In multi pass TE billets
cross-section may be deformed in different directions.
Opposite route of twist dies for the consecutive passes is
responsible for more severe values of strain in the billet in
comparison to the common route of twist. Amplitude of
deformation in the opposite route is twice as compared to
common route used repeatedly [7]. The simple shear plane
in TE is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of a
specimen, responsible for the production of new structures
and textures in the material. Similar to HPT its deformation
gradient is quite steep causing excessive grain refinement
and improves ductility [15]. Intense flow within the cross
section homogenizes the structure. In twisted region of die
the billet surface expands by 60-70% and returns to
original size. Such change could allow insertion of alloying
elements in the billet surface if need be.
beginning and end of the twisted region gives the strain

values [16], the value of strain in the central core of the
billet is zero. The maximum strain in the billet takes place
at periphery i.e. of the order of 0.5 0.7 where as the value
of equivalent strain in the twisted part is of the order of 0.20.4 which is in most of the volume except 1-2 mm thick
peripheral layer. Maximum equivalent strain in the
peripheral layer is of the order of 2.0 which is the highest
of the entire volume
IV. PROPOSED IMPROVED EXTRUSION

Using the concept of Twist Extrusion (TE) a new scheme is
developed for the extrusion process. In improved method
the billet is reduced to a smaller cross section first (as in
simple extrusion), then it passes through the twisted part of
the die providing severe plastic strain in the billet material
causing further grain refinement and improved mechanical
properties. Fig. 3a represents the simple extrusion die and
fig. 3b. Represents the improved die adopted for the
proposed method. For the study material of billet is taken
as Al6061. Comparative study of the simple extrusion and
improved extrusion (IE) is done using finite element
modeling.
Fig 3a. Simple extrusion

die
Fig 3b. Improved

extrusion die
V. FINITE ELEMENT MODELING

Fig. 2: Twist Extrusion (Beygelzimer et al.)
TE has certain advantages like easy installation of die, less
distortion of billet (unlike ECAP) and uni- axial flow of
metal (unlike ECAP) which allows TE to be easily
embedded on existing industrial lines. Deformation at the
In this work, the modeling of simple and improved

extrusion processes are done in FORGE environment. This
paper explains the effect of friction on equivalent strain,
forging force and forming energy for both processes.
FORGE is specially intended for 3-D metal forming
process with automatic mesh generation. The software also
takes care of thermal and friction effects.
The material is assumed to be homogeneous, isotropic and

incompressible. The elastic strains in comparison to visco
viscoplastic ones are considered to be negligible. The material
behavior is assumed to follow that of Norton
Norton-Hoff law.
core of the billet. So in order to produce homogeneous

grained structure multiple numbers of passes are needed.
A fully automated remeshing procedure is incorporated

into the analysis. The material parameters chosen are:
k = 1 and m = 1.
Generalized coulomb friction law is used in the current
analysis given by:
= n n m 0
3
=m
0 V
n m 0
V
3
3
where,
= friction stress tangential to the surface
= coefficient of friction
n = compressive stress normal to the surface (contact
pressure)
m = Tresca coefficient
The dies are assumed to be rigid. Dimensio
Dimension of billet was
considered as 20 mm (width) X 20 mm (bredth) X 105 mm
(length) and the material was chosen as Al 6061 where as
punch dimensions were considered as 20 mm (width) x
20mm (bredth) X 25 mm (height). FE simulations are
carried out for simple extrusion
rusion and improved extrusion
where the die angle ()) was considered as 60O from
horizontal, Reduction ratio is taken as 4:1. For improved
extrusion the angle of twist (
90O and the
length of twist is taken as 25mm. The simulations are
conducted
ed for both methods considering the different
values of friction ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 and two different
punch velocities 10mm/sec and 15mm/sec. The results
drawn are tabulated and compared to show the advantaged
of improved extrusion method. Adiabatic cconditions are
considered during the processes and the temperature is
maintained at room temperature i.e. 300.
) is taken as
Improved Extrusion
Simple extrusion
Fig. 4: Comparison in equivalent strain at =0.2 and

V=10mm/sec
Table 1. Comparison of FE simulation results of simple
extrusion and improved extrusion at different values of
friction and punch velocity.
Parameter
Velocity
Simple Extrusion
Frictio
n ()
Avg.
equivalen
t strain
Formin
g
Energy
(KJ)
Avg.
equivalen
t strain
(KJ)
Formi
ng
Energ
y
0.5
2.29
12.50
2.98
15.53
1.0
2.46
12.51
3.01
15.74
1.5
2.48
12.51
3.13
15.89
2.0
2.59
12.67
3.07
15.97
2.5
2.64
12.74
3.16
15.99
0.5
2.36
12.61
3.12
16.01
1.0
2.41
12.63
3.17
16.23
1.5
2.52
12.81
3.42
16.46
2.0
2.64
12.79
3.51
16.47
2.5
2.67
12.92
3.57
16.73
VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

The FE Simulations are carried out to illustrate the
importance in developing practical Improved extrusion
process. A comparative
tive analysis between improved and
simple extrusion process for = 0.2 is depicted in fig. 4a &
4b The simulation results tabulated in Table1 show that
the improved method incorporates higher amount of strain
in the workpiece and hence is more effective in terms of
deformation, grain refinement and improved mechanical
properties. The equivalent strain is compared for single
pass at two different punch velocities and results is
compared through line graph as shown in fig. 5 & 6.
Maximum deformation takes place on the peripheral layer
where as minimum deformation takes place in the central
Punch
velocity:
10mm/se
c
Punch
velocity:
15mm/se
c
Improvd Extrusion
Finite Element Modeling of an Improved Extrusion Process for the Enhancement of the Product Quality 11
2.98
3.01
3.13
Eq. Strain
2.5
2
2.29
2.64
2.59
2.48
2.46
3.16
3.07
1.5
1
Simple Extrusion
Improved Extrusion
0.5
0
20
Energy (KJ)
3.5
16.01
16.23
16.46
12.61
12.63
12.81
1.5
2.5
16.73
15
10
12.79
12.92
Simple Extrusion
Improved Extrusion
5
0
0.5
0.5
16.47
1.5
2
2.5
1
Coefficient of friction ()
Fig. 5a: Comparison of average equivalent
quivalent strain with
Friction for SE and IE Processes at punch velocity
10mm/sec.
4
3.5
3.12
3.42
3.57
3.51
3.17
3
Eq. Strain
2.5
2
2.36
2.41
2.52
2.67
2.64
Simple Extrusion
Improved Extrusion
0.5
0
0.5
2.5
1
1.5
2
Fig. 5b: Comparison of average equivalent

quivalent strain with
Friction for SE and IE Processes at punch velocity
15mm/sec
Energy (KJ)
The value of equivalent strain in IE is significantly higher

as compared to SE for same friction conditions and punch
velocity of 10mm/sec. At increased punch velocity of
15mm/sec the value of Equivalent strain has been increased
for both the processes. Fig. 6 shows the graphical
representation of forming energy for varying friction values
in SE and IE. It clearly shows that
hat the forming energy is
higher in IE as compared to SE.
VII. DISCUSSION
1.5
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Fig. 6b: Comparison of forming energy with Friction

for SE and IE Processes at punch velocity 15mm/sec.
Finite Element modeling of simple and improved extrusion

processes are performed considering the influence of punch
velocity and different values of friction. Following
observations are made:
Twisted improved extrusion imparts larger plastic strain to
the work piece and hence responsible for better grain
refinement and enhanced properties of the work piece with
slight increase in forming energy.
Additional forging load and energy must be considered
c
while designing extrusion die and press for practical
investigation.
15.53
15.74
12.5
12.51
15.89
15.97
15.99
Optimal parameters can be chosen for extrusion process

depending upon desired properties of the material.
12.51
12.67
12.74
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
Simple Extrusion
Improved Extrusion
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Fig. 6a: Comparison of Forming energy with Friction

For SE and IE Processes at punch velocity 10mm/sec.
The study represents a new scheme of Severe Plastic

Deformation
tion (SPD) for the production of components with
better mechanical properties and improved grain structure.
The method may also be visualized for the production of
bulk ultra fine grained materials by taking high reduction
ratio or by processing the billet for multi passes. A
comparative study of improved and simple extrusion is
done using finite element process in FORGE environment.
Results of Finite element simulations on various friction
conditions and punch velocities are reported and their
feasibility is demonstrated. It has been shown that a well

defined and uniform strain distribution is obtained in both
cases which progressively increase with increasing
coefficient of friction. The average equivalent strain in
improved extrusion is larger than that of simple extrusion
for same friction conditions. These strains were found even
larger at high punch velocity. However the forging force
and energy required by improved method is slightly more
than simple extrusion process which must be considered
while designing the dies and selection of press for the
improved method. Development of ultra fine grains with
better mechanical properties is the primary advantage of
improved extrusion developed and analyzed in this work.
Thus improved extrusion provides better products with
little investment in terms of forming energy and is quite
suitable for easy adaptation by industry
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
IX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the inspiration and guidance
provided by Most Revered Professor P. S. Satsangi Sahab,
Chairman of Advisory Committee on Education,
Dayalbagh.
[11]
[12]
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alloys, Int. J. Mater. Forum, 3, pp.387-390 (2010).
Beygelzimer, Y., Reshtov, A., Synkov, S., Prokofeva,
O., and Kulagin, R.,Kinematics of metal flow during
twist extrusion investigated with a new experimental
method, Mater. Proces. Tech., 209, pp.3650- 3656
(2009).
Orlov, D., Beygelzimer, Y., Synkov, S., Varyukhin,
V., Tsuji, N., and Horita, Z.,Microstructure evolution
in pure Al processed with twist extrusion Material
Transaction, 50(1), pp.96 100 (2009).
Beygelzimer, Y., Varyukhin, V., Synkov, S., and
Orlov, D.,Useful properties of twist extrusion,
Mater. Sci. Engg., A503, pp.14 17 (2009).
Finite Element Modelling and Burst Pressure Analysis

of Cylidrical Composite Pressure Vessel
Medhavi Sinha1, Dr. S. N. Pandit2
1

Amity School of Engineering & Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida - 201303, India
medhavisinha.02@gmail.com
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Noida Institute of Engineering & Technology, Greater Noida 201306, India
psomnath66@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The composite pressure vessels have become very popular
in oil and gas transport industries. These pressure vessels
are subjected to very high internal pressures during their
service. This study is performed on cylindrical shaped
carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composite
pressure vessels. The pressure vessel is modeled using the
finite element software ANSYS 11. The step by step
procedure for the finite element modeling of multilayered
composite pressure vessels has been discussed in the
paper. The modeling is performed for both hoop and
helical windings of the fibers. The pressure vessels once
designed and modeled are then subjected to high working
pressures. The stress distributions in the composite
pressure vessel are investigated for various orientations of
fibers in the composite pressure vessel under internal
pressure. Further, the burst pressure for each of the fiber
orientations is also calculated based on the Tsai-Wu
failure criteria.
I. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the resin matrix composite pressure vessels
have found out there applications in various industrial areas
such as, aerospace, automobiles, aeronautics, chemical
engineering etc [1]. Besides these, the composite pressure
vessels have suddenly become an attraction for the piping
and sewage as well as oil and gas transport industries. This
is all because, in these applications the weight is a very
important concern and the composite pressure vessels
provides an excellent compromise between high
mechanical properties and low weight [2]. It can be very
well understood that in all of these applications, the resin
matrix composite pressure vessels are subjected to very
high pressures during their service life. Therefore, the
deformation and stress strain analysis becomes a very
important concern must be conducted for every composite
pressure vessel while designing itself. Few researchers
have proposed some methods to study, design and analyze
the resin matrix composite pressure vessels for stress and
deformation under different conditions. For example, R.R.

Chang studied the first ply failure strength of composite
pressure vessels when the fibers were oriented
symmetrically for different number of layers [3]. Levend
Parnas et al. predicted the behavior of a rotating fiber
reinforced composite vessel [4]. M.A. Wahab et al.
analyzed composite pressure vessels of five different
polygonal shapes [5]. While, R.M. Guedes evaluated the
performance of a glass-fiber reinforced (GFRP) composite
cylindrical pipe under transverse loading and large
deflections [6]. Also, H. Bakaiyan et al. analyzed
multilayered composite pressure vessels under thermomechanical loadings. The results were evaluated for
various winding angles [7]. Besides these, Frank Ratter et
al. performed finite element analysis for the prediction of
lateral crushing behavior of segmented composite tubes [8].
The design and analysis of a composite pressure vessel
considers complex decisive factors and for the design to be
accurate the optimum choice of these decisive factors is
necessary. This paper presents a study of the deformation
behavior and the static stress analysis of CFRP (carbon
fiber reinforced polymer) cylindrical, pressure vessel under
internal pressure. The study is performed with the
utilization of the finite element software ANSYS. The
FEM modeling is developed by ANSYS 11. ANSYS 11
features all the capabilities that are necessary for modeling
a system with characteristics of the given problem.
II. THE FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

A. CFRP cylindrical pressure vessel
This study deals with a resin matrix composite pressure
vessel. The composite pressure vessel is cylindrical in
shape and consists of carbon fibers as the reinforcement
material into a polymeric matrix. The Fig. 1. shows the
CFRP cylindrical pressure vessel. The composite materials
are orthotropic in nature and therefore the finite element
modeling of these materials requires the determination of
nine different properties. The material properties of fiber
reinforced composite depends upon the properties of both
the matrix and the fibers. The angle of orientation of the

fibers in the composite also plays a very important role
determination of the properties and the behavior of the
composite, since the fibers have superior mechanical
properties along its length.
layer properties and therefore the properties of the

composite as a whole depends greatly on its layered
laye
configuration. The material properties, the fiber orientation
angle, the layer thickness and the number of integration
points per layer must be specified for individual the
definition of the layered configuration to be complete.
B. Selection of appropriate element type

It is very necessary to select the appropriate element type
before conducting the finite element analysis of the
composite pressure vessel. ANSYS 11 provides the various
shell and solid element types
ypes to model layered composite
materials. A solid element can be utilized to model thick
layered composites but it requires that the mesh divisions
in thickness directions must be the same as the number of
material layers. This increases the analysis and the
calculation time for these elements. While, the shell
elements does not require the mesh divisions in thickness
direction and the calculation as well as the analysis time for
these elements is much lesser than for the solid elements.
Because of this property
operty of the shell elements we have
selected SHELL 99 as the appropriate element type for the
purpose of our study. SHELL 99 is a linear layered
structure shell element. Very thin to moderately thick
layers can be modeled with this element. It may be used for
the purpose of modeling layered structures and up to 250
uniform thickness layers can be modeled by this element. It
is a 3D shell element and consists of 8 - nodes, with six
degrees of freedom at each node. Among the 8 nodes,
four nodes are the corner
ner nodes and the remaining four are
the mid - side nodes. This element allows the user to define
elastic properties, layer orientation and density for each
layer.
The finite element model of the composite pressure vessel
shown in Fig. 1. The whole model iss established through
finite element software ANSYS 11.
The CFRP layers in the composite pressure vessels are

assumed to be orthotropic. Therefore nine material
properties are required for the purpose of the analysis. The
material properties for CFRP are listed in Table 1.
The cylindrical composite pressure vessel is designed for
various
rious fiber orientations. The modeling is performed for
the CFRP cylindrical pressure vessel for both, the hoop and
the helical windings of the carbon fiber. For the hoop
windings of the carbon fibers, the fibers are oriented at an
angle of 0 with the axiss of the cylindrical pressure vessel.
The fibers are also oriented helically for various fiber
orientations such as 35, 45, 55, 65 and 75.
The Fig. 2. shows the stacking sequence for 35 fiber
orientation.
Table 1. Material properties of CFRP
Ex (MPa)
127700
Ey (MPa)
7400
Ez (MPa)
7400
Gxy (MPa)
6900
Gyz (MPa)
4300
Gzx (MPa)
4300
xy
0.33
yz
0.188
zx
0.188
The cylindrical composite pressure vessel is modeled for
six uniform thickness layers and the number of integration
points are taken as three to define the layered configuration
completely.
Fig. 1: Finite Element model of the

composite pressure vessel
C. Defining the layered configuration

The layered configuration is the most important
characteristic of a composite material. The layered
configurations are determined by specifying individual
Fig. 2: The stacking sequence for 35 fiber orientation
Finite Element Modelling and Burst Pressure Analysis of Cylidrical Composite Pressure Vessel 15
III. ANALYSIS
IV. RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION

DISSCUSS
The CFRP pressure vessel is analyzed by loading it by high

internal pressures. The Tsai-Wu
Wu failure criterion is utilized
for the purpose of analysis. The analysis is performed for
two different cases. In the first case normal working
pressure of 35 MPa is applied for hoop as well as helical
fiber orientations of 35, 45, 55, 65 and 75.
The stress distributions for these various orientations are
then predicted.
After the analysis of the stress distribution for the different

fiber orientations, the maximum stress in the cylindrical
composite
te pressure vessel is found to be minimum for
45 fiber orientation and maximum for 65 fiber
orientation in the composite pressure vessel. The Fig. 5
shows the graph between the maximum stress and the
angles of fiber orientations when the composite pressure
pr
vessel is subjected to the working pressure of 35 MPa. The
graph gives a decreasing slope from hoop to 45 and the
slope further increases drastically from 45 to 65 fiber
orientations.
While, the second case involves the calculation of burst

pressure for the pressure
ure vessel. The burst pressure for the
pressure vessel is predicted by increasing the internal
pressure from the working value of 35 MPa to the value of
burst pressure step by step. For every increment in the
internal pressure, the value of maximum stress obtained is
compared with value of ultimate stress for the pressure
vessel. The maximum stress and the ultimate stress must
satisfy the relation given by the Eq. 1.
max u (Eq. 1)
Where, max , u are the maximum stress and ultimate stress
of the pressure vessel, respectively. The value of ultimate
stress for the CFRP pressure vessel is 1210 MPa.
Maximum Stress
The Fig. 3. And Fig. 4 gives the stress distribution for this
pressure vessel for hoop and 35 fiber orientation.
The burst pressure is calculated in the second part of the

analysis. The Fig. 6 shows the graph between the burst
pressure and the different fiber orientations. The graph
gives an increasing slope from hoop to 45 and the slope
decreases from 45 to 65 fiber orientations. It can be
further predicted thatt the pressure vessel can sustain the
maximum internal pressure of 59 MPa when, the fibers are
orientated at 45, which is regarded as its burst pressure
at 45 fiber orientation. The Fig. 7 shows the stress
distribution in the composite pressure vessel
vesse at 45 fiber
orientation angle when, the pressure vessel is subjected to
its burst pressure of 59 MPa. It can be seen from the figure
that, the maximum stress obtained is 1178 which is less
than 1210 MPa.
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
35
45
55
65
75
Angle of fiber orientation

Fig. 5: Variation of the maximum stress with different
angles of fiber orientations
Burst Pressure in MPa
Fig. 3: Stress distribution for hoop fiber windings in

composite pressure vessel
80
60
40
20
0
0
Fig. 4: Stress distribution for 35 fiber orientation
35
45
55
65
75
Angle of fiber orientation
Fig. 6: Variation of the burst pressure with different

angles of fiber orientations
V. CONCLUSION
In this study, the finite element model of CFRP, cylindrical
composite pressure vessel is established using finite
element
nt software ANSYS 11. The models obtained for
various fiber orientations are meshed using a linear layered
structure shell element, SHELL 99.
The study discusses a step by step method for the analysis
of cylindrical composite pressure vessel which is subj
subjected
to internal pressure loading. The maximum stresses and the
burst pressures for various fiber orientations are predicted
using the Tsai-Wu
Wu failure criteria. The optimum winding
angle is obtained 45 for the composite pressure vessel
subjected to internal
ernal pressure. At 45 fiber orientation the
maximum stress in vessel is found minimum and the burst
pressure for the vessel is found maximum.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Fig. 7: Burst stress at 45 fiber orientation
Buarque, E.N., and Almeida, J.R.M., The effect of

cylindrical defects on the tensile strength of glass
fiber/vinyl-ester
ester matrix reinforced composite pipes,
Composite Structures, 79 (2007) pp. 270279.
270
Duell, J.M., Wilson, J.M. and Kessler, M.R, Analysis
of a carbon composite overwrap pipeline repair

system, International Journal of Pressure Vessels and
Piping 85 (2008) pp. 782788.
788.
Chang, R.R., Experimental and theoretical analyses of
first-ply
ply failure of laminated composite pressure
vessels, Composite Structures,49 (2000), pp. 237-243.
237
Parnas, L. and Katrc, N., Design
Design of fiber-reinforced
fiber
composite pressure vessels under various loading
conditions, Composite Structures, 58(2002) pp. 83-95.
Wahab, M.A., Alam, M.S., Pang, S.S., Peck, J.A., and
Jones, R.A., Stress analysis of non-conventional
non
composite pipes, Composite Structures, 79 (2007) pp.
125132.
Guedes, R.M., Stressstrain
strain analysis of a cylindrical
pipe subjected to a transverse
nsverse load and large deflecttions, Composite Structures, 88(2009) pp.188194.
pp.188
Bakaiyan, H., Hosseini, H. and Ameri, E., Analysis of
multi-layered filament-wound
wound composite pipes under
combined internal pressure and thermomechanical
loading with thermal variations, Composite Structures
88 (2009) pp. 532541.
Ratter, F., Lueddeke, D., and Huang, S.C., Finite
Element Analysis of the Lateral Crushing Behavior of
Segmented Composite Tubes, Journal of Engineering
Technology and Education, Vol. 6, No.1, March
Ma
2009,
pp. 1-16
Nagesh, Finite-element
element Analysis of Composite
Pressure Vessels with Progressive Degradation,
Defence Science Journal, Vol. 53, No. 1, January
2003, pp. 75-86.
Finite Elemement Based Delamination Damage

Analyses of Laminated FRP Composite Made Bonded
Tubular Socket Joints
R. R. Das1, B. Pradhan2
1
Associate Professor, KIIT-University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

ra_swa@yahoo.com
2
Former Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT, Kharagpur, West Bengal, India
Presently Director, Gandhi Institute of Education and Technology, Bhubaneswar, India
bpradhan@gietbbsr.com
ABSTRACT
Finite Element Method (FEM) based modelling and
simulation of through-the-circumference delamination
damage analyses of a Tubular Socket Joints (TSJ) made
with laminated FRP composites is the major concern of the
present research. Numerical analysis of the bonded TSJ
has been carried out using ANSYS 12.0 a Finite Element
(FE) based software. Three-dimensional non-linear FE
analyses have been carried out to study the effects of
through-the-circumference delaminations on interlaminar
stresses in the bonded TSJ.
Stress analyses revealed that the interface of surface ply (in
contact with the adhesive) with the next ply i.e. first plyinterface of both the adherends shows maximum intensity
of interlaminar out-of-plane stress concentration, which is
gradually reduced for the subsequent ply-interfaces.
Tsai-Wu coupled stress criterion has been used to identify
the location of delamination damage initiation in the
adherends. Accordingly, free edges of the first plyinterfaces of both the adherends showing maximum values
of failure index are simulated with delamination damages
using sub laminate technique. Contact FE analyses have
been performed in order to avoid interpenetration of
delaminated surfaces.
Strain Energy Release Rate (SERR), a Fracture mechanics
based parameter has been used in the present analyses to
characterize the growth of the delamination failures.
Modified Crack Closure Integral (MCCI) vis--vis Virtual
Crack closure Technique (VCCT) has been implemented to
calculate the three components of SERR (GI, GII, and GIII)
numerically.
Keywords: Delamination damage; FEM; Fracture
Mechanics; FRP composites; MCCI; SERR; VCCT
I. INTRODUCTION
In response to significant corrosion problems with metallic
pipes in the chemical processes in pulp and paper
industries, composite piping systems were developed using
fibre glass reinforced thermoset plastics. With
advancement of material science and manufacturing
processes, the mechanical properties of composite pipes
have been dramatically improved. Limitations of
component size imposed by manufacturing processes and
requirement of inspection, assembly, repair and
transportation necessitate provision of some load carrying
joints in most piping systems. The overall system
performance usually comes from the capacity of these pipe
joints, and hence they play a critical role in the overall
integrity of most piping systems. The estimation that one
joint is to be installed for every 4 ft of composite pipe for
marine applications further emphasizes the importance of
efficient design of composite pipe joints.
Adhesive bonding is the most attractive connection method
in composite pipe joints because it can effectively lower
the stress concentration through smoother load transfer
between the connecting members. In addition to this,
adhesive bonds are generally corrosion free as compared to
mechanical fasteners.
When the adherends are laminated FRP composites, they
are vulnerable for various types of failures, viz.
interlaminar failure and delaminations, etc., besides the
conventional failures like cohesion and adhesion failures.
Fracture mechanics parameters such as SERR, J-integral
and SIF can be used to characterize the propagation of such
failures or damages. Although literature [1-6] is available
for the adhesion and/or delamination damage prediction
and its propagation in adhesive bonded flat laminated FRP
composites, only a few have been devoted to the adhesive
bonded TSJ. Also, the literature contains very limited
research on the calculation of SERR which is one of the
key parameters for the study of adhesion or/and
delamination damage peropagation. Raju et al., [7]
emphasized on SERR for the problem with skin stiffener

debonding. The importance of SERR to characterize the
delamination damages are discussed in detail by Pradhan
and Chakraborty [8-9]
9] and Pradhan and Panda [10].
Interlaminar or interply delamination is a major failure
mode in the adherends of a FRP composite bonded joint.
As a result of this, the structures having bonded joints
reduce their strengths and stiffness and thus the lives of the
structures are limited.
mited. Due to the low transverse tensile
strength, the TSJ experiences peel loading, and so the
adherends are likely to fail in transverse tension before the
adhesive layer fails. Like the shear stresses, the values of
the peel stresses are the highest at the overlap ends and
hence can induce adherend failures due to the low tensile
strength in the circumferential direction. Also, the severity
of joint failure would be enhanced due to loading
eccentricity in case of Single Lap Joints (SLJ). In such
cases, even
ven though the remote loading is of in
in-plane type,
the local loading effect near the discontinuities prevailing
around the overlap portions of the joint may be out
out-ofplane type. Although work has been done to understand
and predict the failure behaviour off laminated FRP SLJ [1
[13] to understand the effect of presence of through
through-the-width
delamination when embedded in the adherends on
delamination propagation parameters. But these works are
based upon the assumptions of presuming the location of
the delamination
tion damages without taking into consideration
the exact location in the adherends prone to delamination
damages under the remote tensile loading conditions.
However, the present work is based upon a complete stress
analyses to evaluate the interlaminar stresses
tresses for various
adherends of the bonded TSJ. Tsai-Wu
Wu coupled stress
criterion has been used to calculate the failure indices
based on which the locations prone to delamination damage
initiation under tensile loading conditions are identified.
Study of effect of through-the-circumference
circumference delamination
damage propagations on the strength of the joint is the
main concern of the present study.
II. FINITE ELEMENT ANALY

ANALYSES
The geometry, configuration, loading and boundary
conditions of the TSJ specimen analyzed aalong with the
finite element mesh used to discretize the bonded TSJ has
been shown in Fig. 1. The adherends and socket of the
bonded TSJ are made with GR/E [90]4 laminated FRP
composite and epoxy is used as the adhesive. The plies of
the socket and adherends
ds are oriented in the direction of
applied tensile load ([90]4), as recommended Das and
Pradhan [18] for increasing the resistance of the structure
against the interfacial failures. The geometry, boundary
conditions, material properties along with their sstrength
values for the adhesive and the laminated FRP composite
adherends have been taken from the analysis of Das and
Pradhan [18]. The applied tensile load at the far end of the
inner tube is equivalent to a uniform loading of intensity 10

MPa.
Fig.1: Adhesive bonded TSJ along with the FE mesh,

considered for delamination analyses with plies
oriented in the direction of applied loading.
In order to facilitate the extraction of interlaminar stresses
from different ply interfaces of the adherends and for
f easy
modelling of the delaminations at the ply interface of the
adherends the adherends in the bonded TSJ are modelled
separately with SOLID 46 elements with a single layer
defined as a real constant. However, the isotropic adhesive
has been modelled using
ing Solid 45 elements.
Crack growth studies in orthotropic media are quite
complex in nature due to the mismatch of material
properties at the interface. The singularities of the stress
field at the tip of the delamination in laminated composites
and at thee tip of the delamination damage zones are
generally more complex than those associated with cracks
in homogeneous medium. Oscillatory stress fields at the
interface were observed by Rice [11]. To account for this,
Tay et al., [12] have discussed the adequacy
adequ
of local neartip mesh sizes in greater details. They also observed that an
extreme fine mesh could result in non-convergence
non
when
the region enters the zone of oscillatory stress fields. The
FE work of Raju et al., [13] suggests that choosing element
size or characteristic length between 0.25 to 0.5 of the ply
thickness evaluates the components of SERR well.
Finite Elemement Based Delamination Damage Analyses of Laminated FRP Composite Made Bonded Tubular Socket Joints
19
Accordingly, a mesh pattern of 120 elements

(circumferentially) x 1 or 2 elements (radially) x (5 x 2c)
elements (axially) have been adopted to ddiscretize the
adherends and adhesive in the overlap region (2c) for the
TSJ under consideration. Such a mesh density is seen to
yield stress values in the mid-surface
surface of the adhesive which
compares well with the available literature for the cases of
isotropic
pic [14] and FRP composite adherends [15]. These
are shown in Figs. 2(a) and 2(b), respectively.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2: Normal and shear stress distributions along the

adhesive mid-plane
plane in TSJs with, (a) isotropic
adherends and (b) composite
ite adherends, subjected to
uniform tension.
III. CRITERIA FOR ONSET AND

ND GROWTH
OF FAILURES IN BONDE
BONDED TSJ
Onset of Failures in Bonded TSJ
The delamination damage failures at the ply
ply-interfaces
generally can be evaluated by the Tsai-Wu
Wu QFC [16] which
takes into account the interaction of all six stress
components at the critical and ply-interfaces
interfaces and is given
by:
are responsible for the initiation of delamination failures

and hence only the interlaminar shear stresses (
( r and zr)
and the radial stress or peel stress (
( r) are required to
predict the damage initiation. Therefore, the reduced
equation is:
RT
+ r
S
+ zr
S
zr
= e 2 .......... .......... ........( 2)
where, RT is the interlaminar normal strength and Sr and

Szr are the interlaminar shear strengths, respectively among
the two orthogonal shear coupling directions. The FRP
composite laminates considered in this research have Sr =
Szr, because of material symmetry.
Cohesion failure is the inability of the adhesive to resist
internal separation. The failure index of the TSJ within the
adhesive layer is formulated by a cohesion failure
philosophy. Following the parabolic yield criterion for
isotropic materials proposed by Raghava et al. [17] the
identification of location
tion of cohesion failure initiation in
the adhesive bonded TSJ can be made. The criterion is
given by:
(1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2
+ 2 (YC YT )( 1 + 2 + 3 ) = 2 YC YT e.......... .......... ........( 3)
where, 1, 2 and 3 are the principal stresses in the
isotropic adhesive material causing yield and YC and YT
are the absolute values
alues of the compressive and tensile yield
strengths, respectively. It may be noted that when YC and
YT are equal, the above yield criterion reduces to the most
familiar von-Mises yield criterion.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

DISCUSSI
2
2
2 2
r2 z2 r zr
+
+
+
+
+ z +
2 S2
RT2 T2 ZT2 S2r S zr
z
1
1
1
1
1
1
+ z
+
r
R
T RC
T C
ZT ZC
e ..........
..........
1, ...(1)
fr r + f zr z r + f z z = e2..........
failure
where, RT, T, ZT are the allowable tensile strengths and

RC, C, ZC are the allowable compressive strengths in the
three principal material directions, respectively. Sr, Szr and
Sz are the shearing strengths of the orthotropic layer in
various coupling modes. The coupling coefficient
reflecting the interaction between r, and z directions are
given by fr, fzr and fz, respectively. Failure index (e) is
defined as the parameter to evaluate the condition whether
the structure is likely to fail or not. If e 1 failure occurs,
else there is no failure. Generally, the out-of
of-plane stresses
Stress Analyses within the

he Joint
The combined effect of the out-of-plane
out
interlaminar
stresses can be observed from the failure index plots shown
in Fig. 3 where the failure index at the various plyply
interfaces of the adherends are calculated using Tsai-Wu
Tsai
criterion. Out-of-plane
plane interlaminar stress concentration
makes the outer adhered more prone to delaminate at the
free edge of the first ply-interface
interface which can clearly be
observed from Fig. 3. It can also be observed that failure
index is attaining its maximum value near the free edges of
both the adherends. The emax for both the adherends are
almost in close range. Accordingly, both the adherends are
considered with delaminations at the free edges of the first
ply-interface
interface in the present analyses. The effect of
delamination propagation on
n the strength of the joint,
interlaminar stresses in the adherends are to be analyzed
along with the study of delamination damage growth
characteristics in the present analyses.
(a)
Fig. 3: Failure index distributions at different ply

plyinterfaces of both the adherends of the bonded TSJ.
(b)
V. EFFECT OF FAILURE PROPAGATION

OPAGATION
ON STRENGTH OF THE JJOINT
Both the adherends of the bonded TSJ are delaminated at
the free edges of the first ply-interfaces,
interfaces, clo
close to the
junction of the adherends. At these ply-interfaces,
interfaces, duplicate
nodes have been defined at the interface of adhesive resin
and the sublaminates. In the undelaminated region
corresponding nodes of the top and bottom sublaminates
are constrained by MPC
PC elements so that the continuity
condition prevails, and interpenetration is avoided. By
sequentially removing the constraints, self
self-similar
propagation of the delamination damage fronts have been
realized. Contact elements are used within the delaminate
delaminated
region to prevent mutual interpenetration of the
delaminated surfaces. This contact processor (CONTA
178) always maintains a positive value of the displacement
difference along the r direction between the pairs of
nodes inside the delaminated zone of the
he top and bottom
delaminated surfaces (Fig. 3.13). Furthermore, it has been
assumed that the delamination plane is the weakest and the
delamination will propagate parallel to the z plane.
Thus, the possibility of out-of-plane
plane propagation of the
delamination has been carefully excluded.
(c)
The combined effect of all the stresses ( r , r , and rz )

is evident through the failure index plots shown in Fig. 7.6.
Propagation of the delamination damages fro
from the free
edges of the first ply-interfaces
interfaces of both the adherends
increases the chances of adhesion and cohesion failures at
the bondline interfaces within the joint. However, the
magnitude of the failure indices reveals that propagation of
the delamination
on damages from the free edges of the first
ply-interfaces
interfaces increases the chances of adhesion failure at
the free edges of the adherend-adhesive
adhesive interfaces than the
cohesion failures within the adhesive mid-layer.
layer.
ation damage propagations in

Fig. 4. Effect of delamination
both the adherends on the failure index distributions
along: (a) adherend-adhesive
adhesive interfaces, (b) adhesiveadhesive
mid layer, and (c) socket-adhesive
adhesive interfaces of the
bonded TSJ.
Finite Elemement Based Delamination Damage Analyses of Laminated FRP Composite Made Bonded Tubular Socket Joints
21
VI. CONCLUSIONS
[7]
The major conclusions drawn from the present analyses are

as follows:
[8]
Both the adherends of the bonded TSJ are prone to

delaminate at the free edge of the first ply-interface
under tensile loading conditions.
As the delamination damages propagate in both the

adherends from the free edges of the first plyinterfaces, the intensity of stress concentrations in all
the critical bondline and ply-interfaces near the free
edges of the coupling region are increased, whereas
magnitude of the stress concentrations at the junction
of the adherends are decreased.
Propagation of the delamination damages from the free

edges of the first ply-interfaces of both the adherends
of the bonded TSJ increases the chances of adhesion
failures at the free edges of the adherend-adhesive
interfaces within the joint.
[9]
[10]
[11]
VII. REFERENCES
[12]
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Panigrahi, S. K., and Pradhan, B., Adhesion failure

propagation in adhesively bonded single lap laminated
FRP composite joints, Journal of Adhesion Science
and Technology, 21, pp. 379-398 (2007)
Panigrahi, S. K., and Pradhan, B., Delamination
damage analyses of adhesively bonded lap shear joints
in laminated FRP composites, International Journal of
Fracture, 148, pp. 373-385 (2007)
Panigrahi, S.K., and Pradhan, B., Three dimensional
failure analyses and damage propagation behaviour of
adhesively bonded single lap joints in laminated FRP
composites, Journal of Reinforced Plastics and
Composites, 26, pp. 183-201 (2007)
Panigrahi, S. K., and Pradhan, B., Onset and growth
of adhesion failure and delamination induced damages
in double lap joint of laminated FRP composites,
Composite Structures, 85, pp. 326-336 (2008)
Panigrahi, S.K., and Pradhan, B., Through-the-width
delamination damage propagation characteristics in
single lap laminated FRP composite joints,
International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, 29,
pp. 114-124.
Panigrahi, S.K., and Pradhan, B., Damage analyses of
adhesively bonded single lap joints due to delaminated
FRP composite adherends, Applied Composite
Materials, 16 (4), pp. 211-223( 2009)
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
Raju I.S., Sistla, R., and Krishnamurthy, T., Fracture

mechanics analysis of skin-stiffener debonding,
Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 54(1), pp. 371-385
(1996)
Pradhan, B., and Chakraborty, D., Fracture behaviour
of FRP composite laminates with embedded elliptical
delaminations at the interface, Journal of Reinforced
Plastics and Composites, 19(13), pp. 1004-1023 (2000)
Pradhan. B., and Chakraborty, D., Effect of ply
thickness and fibre orientation on delamination
initiation in broken ply composites, Journal of
Reinforced plastics and composites, 18(8), pp. 735-757
(1999)
Pradhan, B., and Panda, S.K., The influence of ply
sequence and thermoelastic stress field on asymmetric
delamination crack growth behaviour of embedded
elliptical delaminations in laminated FRP composites,
Composite Science and Technology, 36(3-4), pp.
1004-1023 (2006)
Rice, J. R., Elastic fracture mechanics concepts for
interfacial cracks, ASME Transactions, Journal of
Applied Mechanics, 55, pp. 98-103
Tay, T. E., Shen, F., Lee, K. H., Scaglione, A., and M.,
Di Sciuva, Mesh design in finite element analysis of
post-buckled delamination in composite laminates,
Composite Structures, 47, pp. 603-611(1999)
Raju, I.S., Crews, J.H., and Aminpour, M.A.,
Convergence of strain energy release rate components
for
edge-delaminated
composite
laminates
Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 30, pp. 383-396
(1988)
Adams , R.D., and Peppiatt, N.A., Stress analysis of
adhesive bonded lap joints, Journal of Adhesion, 9,
pp. 1-18 (1977)
Thomsen, O.T., Elasto-static and elasto-plastic stress
analysis of adhesive bonded tubular lap joints,
Composite Structures, 21, pp. 249-259 (1992)
Tsai, S.W., and Wu, E.M., A general theory of
strength for anisotropic materials, Journal of
Composite Materials, 5, pp. 58-80 (1971)
Raghava, R.S., Cadell, R.M., and Yeh, G.S., The
macroscopic yield behaviour of polymers, Journal of
Material Science, 8, pp. 225-232(1973)
Das, R.R., and Pradhan, B., Finite element based
design and adhesion failure analyses of bonded
tubular socket joints made with laminated FRP
composites, Journal of Adhesion
Science and
Technology, 25, pp. 41-67 (2011).
Detection of Isomorphism among Kinematic Chains by

Assigning Type Number of Different Joints
Dharmendra Singh1, Dr. Aas Mohd2, R.A.Khan3
1
Mech.Engg.Deptt. Raj kumar goel Engg.College, Pilkhuwa, Ghaziabad

dharmendrasinghs@yahoo.com
2,3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Technology,
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025,India
2
am200647@rediffmail.com
3
rasheed_jmi@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper presents a new method for identification of
inversions of kinematic chain (KC) A computer aided
method has been proposed for detecting isomorphism
among planar kinematic chains with simple joints using a
new invariant called shortest path of total distance ranks of
all the links (SPTDR). This invariant takes into account the
degrees of links, and degrees-of-freedom and type number
assign to types of joints of the kinematic chain. A computer
aided method has also been developed for identifying
distinct mechanisms of a planar kinematic chain with
simple joints. The basic aim of this work is to facilitate the
designer at the conceptual stage of design to select the best
mechanism /kinematic chains for the required specific task.
Key Words: kinematic chain, Invariants, kinematic Pairs,
Link-Link relation Matrix
I. DEFINITIONS
In the process of developing the new invariant for a chain,
some new terms have been introduced and defined [10] as
follows:
(i) Link-path: A link-path in a chain is an alternating
sequence of distinct links and distinct joints starting and
ending with links, such that each joint connects the links
preceding and following it in the sequence. For example,
the sequence l, 2, 9, l0 is a link-path in the chain shown in
Fig. 1.
(ii) Degree vector:
The degree of link actually
represents the type of link binary, ternary, quaternary etc.
Let d(vi)=2, for binary link d(vi)=3, for ternary link,
d(vi)=4, for quaternary link
V= [v1 v2 v3 v4 - - - - - -vn]
The degree vector for KC shown in Fig-1 is
V=[5,5,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,2]
(iii) length of a link-path. The length L of a link-path is
defined as L=D+W
Where D and W are, respectively, the sum of the degrees of
all the links and the sum of the weights of all the joints in
the link-path. The weight of a joint is defined as the sum of
its degree-of-freedom and type value assigned The
proposed type values for different types of joints are
presented in Table 1. The type values are so chosen that no
two different types of joints have the same weight. For
example, the length of the link-path 1, 2, 9, 10 in Fig. 1, is
9. And 1, 2, 9 in Fig. 1, is 13.
(iv) Distance between two links: It is defined as the length
of the shortest link-path (based on the concept of length of
a link-path) whose terminal links are the given links.
(v) link-link relation matrix: The link-link relation matrix
of an n-link chain is defined as an (n x n) matrix whose any
i, jth element, Rij, is defined as
(weight of the joint between links i and j)

+ (degree of link j)
if links i and j are directly connected,
Rij =
if i is equal to j,
z (infinity),
otherwise.
(vi) link-link distance matrix: The link-link distance

matrix of an n-link chain is defined as an (n x n) symmetric
matrix whose any i, jth element, Dij is defined as the
distance between links i and j. Accordingly, Dij is equal to
zero for all i.
Detection of Isomorphism among Kinematic Chains by Assigning Type Number of Different

D
Joints 23
Table 1. Proposed
roposed type value for different types of
joints (Kinamatic pairs)
Joint type
Type
value
(a)
Degree of
freedom
(b)
Weight
(a+b)
I. Revolute
2. Prismatic
3. Screw
4. Gear
5. Cam
6. Cylindrical
7. Spherical
10
8. Planer
11
II. LINK-LINK
LINK DISTANCE MATRIX
ALGORITHM
In order to make this algorithm suitable for computer

implementation, each of the infinite elements, z, of the
modified link-link
link relation matrix has to be replaced by a
large
rge but finite number. As per requirement of the
algorithm, the value of z should be greater than the largest
element of the link-link
link distance matrix of the chain. So z
has been replaced by 99 in the present work.
III. STRUCTURAL INVARIANTS

INVARIANT
We define a new structural
ructural invariant for a link of a chain,
called the total distance rank. It is the sum of the distances
of a link to all other links of the chain, and is given by the
sum of all the elements of the row (or column) of the linklink
link distance matrix of the chain
hain corresponding to the link.
The total distance rank is an invariant for the link as it is
independent of the labeling of the chain. We call this
invariant the shortest path of total distance ranks of all the
links (SPTDR). For example, we consider the chain shown
in Fig. 1. The link-link
link relation matrix of this chain is given
by equation (1)
It is cumbersome to generate the link-link

link distance matrix
of a given chain directly by just its visual inspection. So an
algorithm has been developed in the present work to derive
the link-link distance matrix of a chain from its link
link-link
relation matrix with the help of the computer. The
algorithm consists of the following steps:
Step 1- Write down the link-link
link relation matrix of the
given chain.
Step 2- Take any kth column of the matrix.
Step 3- Take any finite element, Rik, on this column.
The link-link
link distance matrix of the chain derived from its
link-link
link relation matrix is given by equation (2): MD=
Step 4- Take any finite element, Rkj, on the k th row.

Step 5- Let S = Rik + Rkj. If S is less than Rij, replace Rij
by S.
Step 6- Repeat steps 4 and 5 for all other finite elements
on the kth row.
Step 7- Repeat steps 3-66 for all other finite elements on
the kth column.
Step 8- Repeat steps 2-77 for all other columns of the
matrix.
Step 9- Add the degree of each ith link to all the elements,
except the main diagonal element, of the ith row
of the resulting matrix. The matrix so obtained is
the link-link
link distance matrix of the given chain.
The total distance ranks DR of all the links of the chain are
presented in equation (3) in the matrix. By arranging the
total distance ranks of all the links we get a finite sequence
of integers.
IV. DETECTION OF ISOMORPHISM AMONG

KINEMATIC CHAINS
If any two chains have identical SPTDR, they are
isomorphic, otherwise not. The proposed test, being simple
and computationally efficient, is probably the most suitable
for being incorporated in computerized structural synthesis
of kinematic chains. SPTDR for all known nonisomorphic
chains with up to 10-1inks and three-degrees-of-freedom
have been determined and analyzed in the present work. It
has been found that all the nonisomorphic chains have
distinct SPTDR. So it is proposed that SPTDR of a chain
may be used as a reliable index for detecting isomorphism
among planar chains with simple joints.
V. IDENTIFICATION OF DISTINCT
MECHANISMS OF A KINEMATIC CHAIN
The number of distinct mechanisms that can be derived
from a given chain is equal to the number of distinct links
in the chain. So the problem reduces to that of identifying
distinct links of a chain. The relative disposition of a link is
reflected in the arranged row of the link. So in this method,
the number of distinct links in a chain is determined by
comparing the arranged rows of all the links of the chain.
For example, we consider the chain shown in Fig. 1. By
arranging the total distance ranks of all the links given by
equation (3), in decreasing order, it may be concluded that
there are only two distinct links so two DM in this chain.
Example -2
The second example concerns the KC of 10 bar as shown
in Fig-2
The MR matrix and DR Matrix is as given
Structural invariants of Example-2 are as given
The result reported that 10 DMS can be derived from this

chain as there are 10 different values of distance rank DR of
the KC as shown in Fig-2
The numbers of distinct mechanisms for different cases of
planar chains with simple joints, determined in the present
work, are presented in table 3.
Table 2: Number of distinct mechanism for some
known cases of KC with simple revolute joints
Category
chain
of
Total number
of chains
Total No of
DMs Derived
1-F,6-Link
1-F,8-Link
16
71
1-F,10-Link
230
1821
2-F,7-Link
14
2-F,9-Link
40
253
3-F,6-Link
3-F,8-Link
26
3-F,10-Link
98
683
The proposed method is simpler and faster than any other

method. It may be pointed out that the number of distinct
mechanisms of 98, 3-F, 10-1ink chains determined by
method is 683, as against 682 reported in the literature [4].
However, the results for I-F, 6-1ink, I-F, 8-1ink, I-F, 101ink, and 2-F, 9-1ink chains are in agreement with those
available in the literature [12, 14]. As far as the authors'
knowledge go, the results for the remaining cases of chains
are not available in the literature for comparison.
VI. CONCLUSION
In the proposed method, the Link-Link relation matrix is
able to distinguish the type of KP between two links along
with the degree of freedom. In this paper, a computer aided
method, based on the concept of shortest distance between
link path has been proposed for detecting isomorphism
between two given planar chains with simple joints. The
proposed methods are heuristic and intuitive in nature.
However, this worked well on all the known cases of
planar chains with simple joints. Such a new identification
system would be extremely selective and would minimize,
if not completely eliminate the possibility of duplicate
identification for structurally different mechanism. The
result of this work contribute to the automation for the
process of creative mechanism design.
Detection of Isomorphism among Kinematic Chains by Assigning Type Number of Different Joints 25
VII. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
J. J. Uicker and A. Raicu, Mech. Mach. Theory 10,

375-383 (1975).
T. S. Mruthyunjaya and M. R. Raghavan, Trans.
ASME, J. Mech. Des. 101, 488-494 (1979).
T. S. Mruthyunjaya and M. R. Raghavan, Mech. Mach.
Theory 19, 357-368 (1984).
T. S. Mruthyunjaya and H. R. Balasubramanian, Natl
Conf. Mach. Mech. LLSc., Bangalore, India, pp. 53-60
(1985)
A. G. Ambekar and V. P. Agrawal, Mech. Mach.
Theory 22, 453-461 (1987).
E. R. Tuttle, S. W. Peterson and J. E. Titus, Trans.
ASME J. Mechanisms Transmissions Automtn Design
111,498-503 (1989).
V. P. Agrawal and J. S. Rao, Mech. Mach. Theory 24,
309-321 (1989).
J. T. Kim and B. M. Kwak, Trans. ASME, J. Mech.
Des. 114, 103-108 (1992).
A. C. Rao and D. Varada Raju, Mech. Mach. Theory
26, 55-75 (1991).
J. N. Yadav, Ph.D. Thesis, Ranchi University, Ranchi,
India (1992).
Aas Mohammad, Khan R. A., Agrawal V.P., March
2006, .IMeche, 221, 81-88.
T. S. Mruthyunjaya, Mech. Mach. Theory 19, 497-505
(1984).
R.A.Khan, A hasan Mechanism and mechanics
(NaCoMM07) IISc, Bangalore,India Dec 12-13, 2007
E. R. Tuttle, S. W. Peterson and J. E. Titus, Trans.
ASME, J. Mech. Des. 111, 494-497 (1989)
Ali Hassan, Khan R.A., Aas Mohd, Systematic
Development of Kinametic chain from a Given
Assortment of LinksIE(I) Journal-MC Volume-88
septamber-2007 pp-15-19
[16] Ali Hassan, Khan R.A.IE(I) Journal-MC Volume-90

June-2009 pp-10-19
[17] LohumiM.K,Aas Mohammad,KhanI. A. March
2010 International Journal of Applied Engineering
Research, Volume : 5, Issue : 1 0973-4562
Micro Pressure Sensors Designing &

Optimization Methods
Yogesh Kumar1, Ajay Sharma2
Dept. of Mechanical & Automation Engineering, ASET, Amity University, U.P.
asharma3@amity.edu
ABSTRACT
Pressure sensors are widely used in various industrial
purposes .these sensors have their own limitation in terms
of sensitivity, size and application when compared with
micro pressure sensors. Micro pressure sensors have much
more sensitivity than its previous counterpart and at the
same time it can be advantage of location setting and can
be located at much higher temperature area. This paper
gives a wide overview of micro pressure sensors. Being of
very small size, they can be used in any environment and
other reasons are their high sensitivity, low cost, small
sizes, fast response, etc. MEMS (micro electromechanical
systems) is a technology used to manufacture them.
General micro pressure sensors consist of a silicon
diaphragm to give the desired output. Diaphragm sizes
classify them into several categories; circular, rectangular,
and square shaped diaphragm. Deflection and maximum
stress is calculated in all these categories when a uniform
loading or pressure is applied on it. On the basis of
maximum deformation and maximum stress generated we
can optimize the sensor for the selection purpose. After this
optimization is performed, in which effective length of
resistor is determined.
Keywords: Sensitivity, MEMS, micromachining, resistor
length.
I. INTRODUCTION
Micro pressure sensors a device used in many industries,
mostly in a biometrical one have certain advantages among
which are their small size, easy mass-production, high
performance and low cost. Fast response and high level of
sensitivity makes them very important for industrial as well
as in daily needs. It consists of a single and multi-mode
segment, which are fusion-spliced together .The high level
of sensitivity achieved by modern technologies gives a
chance to use these sensors in micro fluid mechanics,
biomedical branch and for a number of other applications.
They are used whether in sophisticated or in rugged
environment where operating range may vary from zero to
several thousands of psi. Analysis and gathering of data
about motion i.e. deformation of solids, as in deformable
diaphragms in micro pressure sensors is done. Micro-
electromechanical system (MEMS) is a technology used to

create most of these micro pressure sensors or systems that
combine mechanical and electrical components. They are
fabricated using integrated circuit (IC) batch processing
techniques and can range in size from a few micrometers to
millimeters.
Bulk
micromachining
and
surface
micromachining are the two processes used to fabricate
these sensors. Bulk-micro machined pressure sensors are
one of the earliest products made by silicon
micromachining [1]. Pressure sensors based on surface
micro machined diaphragm is first fabricated in 1980s, but
surface micro machined pressure sensors may be more
attractive than the bulk-micro machined because of several
reasons. Some of the reasons are; small area is consumed
for silicon etching in case of surface micromachining,
surface micro machined pressure sensors doesnt require
post processing, etc. MEMS pressure sensors work on the
principle of mechanical bending of thin silicon diaphragm
by the contact medium like gases, fluids etc. The geometry
and dimensions of the diaphragm have to be properly
selected for the optimal performance of the sensor. Some
application of micro pressure sensors in different
departments are:
(i)
Automotive: Air bag sensors, AC compressor

sensors, fuel level and vapour pressure sensors, etc.
(ii)
Medical: Blood pressure sensors, implanted pressure

sensors, pacemakers, prosthetics, etc.
(iii) Electronics: Earthquake sensors, avionics pressure

sensors, projection screen TV, etc.
(iv) Defence: Aircraft control, arming system, embedded
sensors, etc.
II. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

On the application of uniform pressure on the silicon
diaphragm, internal strain changes and being a piezoresistive material the resistance of silicon changes with
variation in its internal strain. If the pressure sensing
resistors is constructed and placed on the top of thin
diaphragm, pressure can be measured by monitoring the
resistance change.
Micro Pressure Sensors Designing & Optimization Methods 27
III. CLASSIFICATION
Based on the structural design of diaphragms, micro
pressure sensors are broadly classified into following
divisions:-
I. Circular Diaphragm
The circular diaphragm has the lowest stress on its edges
when applying the same pressure as on a square diaphragm,
but the largest centre deflection can be seen in circular
diaphragm.
So, in applications which maximum deflection plays the
prime role the circular diaphragm is suggested. The circular
diaphragm is most favored from design engineering point
of view.
III. Square Diaphragm

Square diaphragm has the highest induced stress hence it is
the preferred geometry for pressure sensors because the
high stresses generated by applied pressure loading result
in high sensitivity. They are common in micro pressure
sensors. This geometry is favored because of easy dicing of
silicon sensing element from wafers [2]. Since its a square,
has all edges a.
Maximum stress occurs at the center of each edge:
Maximum deflection of the plate occurs at the center of the

plate:
For a circular
cular diaphragm with fixed edge, some formulas
for computing maximum stress and deflection are:
are:Both the maximum radial and tangential stress at the center
of plate becomes
In all the above equations (1), (2),.(6); p is the

applied pressure, a the side length, and h the diaphragms
thickness[4]. E, h, and
are the Youngs modulus,
thickness, and Poissons ratio, respectively of the
diaphragm.
The maximum deflection occurs at the center is
Where
Negative sign
attached to the deflection indicates its downward direction.
II. Rectangular Diaphragm

Calculation of a rectangular plate diaphragm with all edges
fixed and having a & b as its edges is done on these
formulas
Maximum stress occurs at thee center of the longer edges:
IV. OPTIMIZATION
For optimal sensitivity, geometry of resistor including
length and shape is determined. Line shape resistors are
designed for detecting the strain changes, which are placed
on the edges of either circular or rectangular diaphragm for
maximum sensitivity.
Since mis-alignments
alignments are unavoidable during fabrication,
the sensing resistors are designed to have a non-effective
non
portion of 2
outside the diaphragm [2].
For example, a circular diaphragm of 100

and 2
m in diameter
m in thickness, the effective resistor length is
about 12 m. Increasing or decreasing this value decreases

the sensitivity.
And for square diaphragm with same dimensions and
Maximum deflection of the plates occurs at the centroid:
100psi pressure, the effective length is 10

single turn.
with one
V. FABRICATION
Usually, silicon wafers are used as substrates which can be
anisotropically wet etched for bulk micromachining to
form highly regular structures [3]. This etch has the
advantage of the fact that silicon has a characteristic crystal
structure,
cture, which means its atoms are all arranged
periodically in lines and planes. Fabrication steps include:
include:-
REFERENCES
FERENCES
[1]
(i)
Wet Etching of silicon dioxide, silicon nitrate;
(ii)
Thin film deposition of nitride, polysilicon;
(iii)
Oxidation and drive-in

in processes.
[3]
VI. CONCLUSION
As we can see its just scratching the surface; what micro
pressure sensors are and some categories on the behalf of
their diaphragm geometry are studied in this paper. We got
also a small overview of MEMS technology. Circular
diaphragms are used where maximum deflection plays a
prime role and square diaphragms are used in case of
maximum induced stress. The effective resistor lengths
used in both cases have different values i.e. 12
circular diaphragm and 10
for square diaphragm.
[2]
for
[4]
[5]
[6]
Peterson KE. Silicon as a mechanical material.

Proceedings of the IEEE 1982:70(5):420-57.
1982:70(5):420
Lin Liwei, Yun W. Chu H--Chi, Chiao M. Surface
micro machined diaphragm pressure sensors with
optimized piezoresistive sensing resistors. 1995 IEE
TENCON. Hong
g Kong, 1995, pp. 24-7.
24
Fuller, L.F; Sudirgo, S. Bulk micro machined pressure
sensor, UNIVERSITY GOVERNMENT INDUSTRY
MICROELECTRONICS SYMPOSIUM. 2003, 317-320.
Timoshenko S and Woinosky-Krieger
Woinosky
S Theory of
Plates andShells 1987.
Tai Ran Hsu Mems and Microsystems
Mic
Tata
McGraw-Hill 2002.
Madhavi, Sumithradevi and Krishna M. Diaphragm
Design for MEMS pressure Sensors using a Data
mining Tool, Proceedings of the world congress of
Engineering 2011, Vol. II, July 6-8
6 2011, London,
U.K.
Finite Element Analysis of Disc Brake

using RADIOSS Linear
Vikas Salyan1, G. Bhushan2, P. Chandna3
1
2,3
Dept. of Mechanical & Automation Engineering, ASET, Amity University U.P.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra
1
vikassalyan11@gmail.com, 2aroragian@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The main objective of the work is to understand the static
stability of a ventilated cross slotted front end disc brake
rotor used in racing bicycle. The cad model of ventilated
disc brake have been developed in CATIA V5 R14 and then
imported in HyperMesh for pre processing. In this work,
finite element analysis of the disc brake of a racing bicycle
has been performed using RADIOSS Linear. The maximum
deflection and stress distribution have been calculated for
the given loading condition. It is observed that Vonmises
stresses and displacements are within safe limits and
structure can withstand the given load. An alternative
design of the disc brake has also been proposed. The FEA
results of this alternative design model are found to be
slightly better than previous one under same loading
condition.
Keywords: Disc Brake, CATIA, Finite Element Analysis,
HyperWorks.
I.
INTRODUCTION
For slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel while it is

in motion the device used is known as disk brake. A disk
brake consists of a cast iron, alloy steel or may be some
other materials bolted to the wheel hub and a stationary
housing called caliper. The caliper is connected to some
stationary part of the vehicle like the axle casing or the stub
axle as is cast in two parts each part containing a piston.
The friction material in the form of brake pad is fixed
hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against
both sides of the disc to stop or slow down the wheel or
axle. Brakes convert the friction to heat, but they cannot
dissipate enough heat. They will become less effective
when the brakes get too hot and this condition of failure is
known as brake fade.
Y. YIldiz et al [1] explained crack formations, particularly
under high brake loads or from the associated stresses
during braking of the ventilated brake discs. In this study,
three different ventilated brake discs, the cross drilled disc,
the cross-slotted disc, and the cross-slotted with a side
groove disc, were manufactured, and their braking force
performances were investigated experimentally together

with a solid disc. Analyses results showed that the
maximum stress generations were formed on the ventilated
discs in comparison to the solid disc reduces the stresses on
ventilated discs by 8.8% to 19.1%.
B.-C.Song et al [2] introduced a new disk brake design of a
front-wheel-drive passenger car using circumferential
friction on the disk. The paper compares mechanical
performance between the conventional and suggested disk
brakes under dynamic braking conditions. An optimization
technique is using to minimize the weight of the suggested
disk brake. For simple optimization problem, the response
defined in the optimization formulation is expressed in a
mathematically explicit form with respect to the design
variables by using a kriging surrogate model. Then, the
simulated annealing algorithm is utilized to find the global
optimum.
Xue Jing et al [3] explained about the contact model of
rough surface profile and temperature field model of brake
disks. He explained the bad influence of the thermo-elastic
instability due to frictional heat energy at the rough sliding
interfaces. The results, shown in the full paper, show the
importance of the roughness in the temperature field and
the practicability of the model.
Ji-Hoon Choi et al [4] presented the transient analysis for
thermo elastic contact problem of disk brakes with
frictional heat generation by considering the coupled heat
conduction and elastic equations are with contact problems
using the finite element method The thermo elastic
instability (TEI) phenomenon (the unstable growth of
contact pressure and temperature) is investigated in the
present study, and the influence of the material properties
on the thermo elastic behaviours (the maximum
temperature and contact ratio on the friction surfaces) is
investigated to facilitate the conceptual design of the disk
brake system.
II. OBJECTIVES
The main objective of the work is to determine the
equivalent Vonmises stress and total deformation. In this
paper, only the static FEA of the Disc Brake was
performed. The maximum deflection and stress distribution

have been calculated for the given loading condition then it
was validated with experimental data.
Vonmises stresses and displacement for different sets of

loading conditions/designs are shown in Figs. 2 to 7.
Static analysis
III. MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF
DISC BRAKE
Material selected
Alloy Steel
Youngs Modulus,(E)
2.0* 105 MPa
Poissons Ratio
0.29
Tensile Ultimate strength
250 Mpa
Tensile Yield strength
140 Mpa
Density
785* 106 m3
Behavior
Isotropic
Fig. 2 Vonmises Stress for 180 Kg Load
IV. MODEL OF DISC BRAKE

[5] The model of Disc Brake was generated in CATIA V5
R14 from the 2D drawing of ventilated cross slotted front
end disc brake rotor.
V. MESH GENERATION
[6] The meshed model of Disc Brake is shown in fig.2
Fig. 3 Displacement Contour for 180 Kg load.
Fig. 1: Meshed model of Disc Brake
VI. FEA RESULTS OF DISC BRAKE.

As the real exposure surface are bolted surface. Therefore,
all the nodes at the bolted area and the outer periphery are
fixed and force is applied on the inner periphery of the disc.
The linear static structural analysis of the ventilated disc
brake has been carried out using RADIOSS Linear. The
Fig. 4 Vonmises Stress for 1550 kg load.
Finite Element Analysis of Disc Brake using RADIOSS Linear 31
Table 1: - Comparison Table (For Static Analysis) For

load =1764 N
Name
Max.
Vonmises Stress
Displacement
Existing
Results
18.9
MPa
0.00055
mm
FEA
Results
15.23 MPa
0.00047
mm
Variation
19.4%
14.54%
The values of the stresses considered here only the

maximum values of the equivalent Vonmises stress and
total deformation.
VII. CONCLUSION
Fig. 5 Displacement Contour for 1550 kg load.
1.
2.
3.
The maximum Vonmises stress observed in FE

analysis of the disc brake rotor is 15.23 MPa for the
load of 180 Kg and the maximum deformation is
0.00047 mm which is negligible.
At a load of 1550 kg, the stress developed is near to
yield stress.
The maximum Vonmises stress observed in FE
Analysis of the alternative design model of disc brake
rotor is 13.66 MPa for the same load of 180 kg and
the maximum deformation is 0.00035 mm.
VIII. REFERENCES
[1]
Fig. 6 Vonmises stress for alternative design modal for

same load.
[2]
[3]
[4]
Fig. 3 Displacement contour of alternative design

modal for same load.
[5]
[6]
Y. Yildiz and M. Duzgun, stress analysis of ventilated

brake discs using the finite element method,
Mechanical Department, Faculty of Technical
Education, Gazi University, Turkey, Vol. 11, No. 1,
2010, Pages 133-138.
B.C. Song and K.H. Lee, structural optimization of a
circumferential friction disc brake with consideration
of thermoelastic instability, Research Engineer, R&D
Center, Nexen Tire Corporation, Yangsan-si,
Gyeongnam, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Dong University, Korea, Vol. 10, No. 3, 2009, Pages
321-328.
Xue Jing, Li Yuren and Liu Weiguo Tian Guanglai
and Wei Hanbing, The finite element model of
transient temperature field of airplane brake disc with
Rough Surface Profile, College of Automation,
Northwestern, Polytechnical University, China, Issues
5-7, 2009, Pages 41-44.
Ji-Hoon Choi, In Lee, Finite element analysis of
transient thermo elastic behaviours in disk brakes,
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Korea
Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Vol.
257, Issues 1-2, 2004, Pages 47-58.
Dassault Systems CATIA V5 R14, user Manual.
Altair Hyperworks 9.0, user Help.
Use of Electro Mechanical Impedance

Technique to Detect Damage
Harmohan Singh1, Mansi Jain2, T.Visalakshi3
1,2,3
Department of Civil Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Uttar Pradesh
1
harmohan.singh90@hotmail.com, 2mansijain17@gmail.com, 3basavishali@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this article is to present a brief overview
and recent studies of impedance-based structural health
monitoring (SHM). It reports the recent achievements of
novel SHM techniques for damage diagnosis of critical
members of civil, mechanical and aerospace structures
using electro-mechanical impedance technique. SHM is a
damage detection process used to monitor the system
continuously over time. In the electro-mechanical
impedance (EMI) technique, a piezoceramic sensor (PZT
patch) is bonded to the surface of the monitored structure
using a high strength epoxy adhesive, and electrically
excited via an impedance analyzer. In this configuration,
the PZT patch essentially behaves as a thin bar
undergoing axial vibrations and interacting with the host
structure. The response of this area is transferred back to
the PZT wafer in the form of admittance function,
comprising the conductance (the real part) and the
susceptance (the imaginary part). Any change in the
structure will change the impedance and is reflected the
admittance signature, therefore confirming the
occurrence of damage. The paper hence incorporates the
advantages and applications of the EMI technique using
PZT sensor.
I. INTRODUCTION
Increased awareness of the economic and social effects of
aging, deterioration and extreme events on aerospace,
civil and mechanical engineering infrastructure has been
accompanied by recognition of the need for advanced
structural health monitoring and damage detection tools.
The process of identifying any damage to the aerospace,
civil and mechanical engineering infrastructure is referred
to as SHM. Here, damage is defined as a change in the
material and/or geometric properties of these systems,
including changes to the boundary conditions and system
connectivity, which adversely affect the systems
performance [1]. A wide variety of highly effective local
non-destructive evaluation tools are available for such
monitoring. Most of the conventional non-destructive
evaluation (NDE) methods have serious limitations and
are impractical for in-situ application. Hence, there is a
great interest in the development of in-situ health
monitoring techniques using piezoelectric materials in the

academic and industrial community. Efforts in this field
have led to the establishment of three well-known
interrogative methods: elastic wave method, transfer
function method, and electromechanical impedance
method. One of them, the electromechanical impedance
method has increased in attention for in-situ health
monitoring due to its distinct advantages. This method
utilizes the electromechanical coupling property of
piezoelectric materials, which detects the damage by
monitoring variations of the electric impedance or
admittance of the piezoelectric material bonded to
structures in a high-frequency band.
Lead zirconate titanate oxide, PZT, is the most widely
used type Piezoceramic. It is a solid solution of lead
zirconate and lead titanate, often doped with other
materials to obtain specific properties. The PZT patches
can be manufactured in any shape, size and thickness at
relatively low-cost as compared to other smart materials
and can be easily used over a wide range of pressure
without serious non-linearity. Due to high stiffness the
PZT sheets are good actuators and they also exhibit high
strain coefficients, due to which they can act as good
sensors, these features make the PZT materials very
suitable for use as collocated actuators and sensors.
However, due to their brittleness, the PZT sheets cannot
withstand bending and also exhibit poor conformability to
curved surfaces. This is the main limitation with PZT
materials [2].
II. PRINCIPLE
The electro mechanical impedance technique utilizes
smart materials like piezoceramic sensors. The
piezoceramic sensors have a unique property of
generating surface charges in response to the applied
mechanical stress and simultaneously undergo mechanical
deformations in response to the applied electric field.
They act in the direct manner to produce an electrical
charge when stressed mechanically and conversely, a
mechanical strain is produced when an electrical field is
supplied to them as shown in Fig. 1 [3]. The PZT
materials because of their direct (sensor) and converse
(actuator) capabilities are utilized for diagnosing the
condition of the structures and the same patch plays the
Use of Electro Mechanical Impedance Technique to Detect Damage 33
dual roles, as an actuator as well as sensor. For a linear

piezoelectric material, the relation between the electrical
and mechanical variables can be described by linear
relations [4] as
T
D j = ij E j + d imd Tm
(1)
S k = d cjk E j + S kmTm
(2)
Fig. 2 A PZT patch bonded to an unknown host

structure
The PZT patch is assumed to be infinitesimally small and
possessing negligible mass and stiffness as compared to
the host structure. When an alternating electric field is
applied to the PZT patch it undergoes harmonic variations
with time. The patch (length 2l, width w and thickness h)
behaves as a thin bar undergoing axial vibration. The
complex electro-mechanical admittance Y of the coupled
system was derived by Bhalla and Soh [6] as
Fig.1: Direct and Converse effect of the piezoceramic

material.
Pioneering work on utilization of EMI technique was
presented by Liang et al [5] who performed the coupled
electromechanical analysis of adaptive systems driven by
a surface bonded PZT patch. During the last few years,
the EMI technique has demonstrated its potential for cost
effective SHM for a wide of engineering structures.
The basic principle behind EMI technique is to apply
high-frequency structural excitations (typically greater
than 30 kHz) through surface-bonded PZT transducers as
shown in Fig. 2. The PZT patch undergoes deformation
and produces local vibrations in the host structure. The
response of the system (i.e. the structure) is transferred
back to the PZT patch as an electrical response,
comprising of conductance and susceptance signatures, as
functions of frequency. Any change in the structural
stiffness, mass and damping, causes the response of the
system to change, which can be seen as a phase shift or
magnitude change in the conductance and susceptance.
Admittance signatures are acquired using impedance
analyser. Impedance analyser measures conductance (real
part) and susceptance (imaginary part). These two
parameters are used to find admittance whose inverse is
impedance. Since impedance is a function of damping,
stiffness and mass, any change in the structural parameter
will be reflected in the impedance signature.
=

2

+

(3)
where d31 is the piezoelectric strain coefficient of the PZT

E
material, Y the complex Youngs modules under

constant electric field, the complex electric permittivity at
constant stress, Za the mechanical impedance of the PZT
patch, the angular frequency and k is the wave number.
The electro-mechanical coupling represented by Eq. (3) is
utilized in damage detection in EMI technique. The
mechanical impedance, Za.eff of the host structure is the
function of the structural parameters, i.e., the stiffness, the
damping and the mass. Any damage to the structure will
cause these parameters to change, and hence changes the
drive point mechanical impedance, Za,eff. Consequently,
the electro-mechanical admittance Y will undergo change
and this serves as an indicator of the state of health of the
structure. Due to high frequency of excitation, the EMI
has very high sensitivity to damage, typically of the order
of the ultrasonic techniques.
III. EARLIER USEFUL APPLICATIONS OF

EMI
The experimental efforts to utilize the E/M impedance
method for complex structures were highly investigated.
The application of the method was observed in various
fields, such as: aerospace and civil structures. For the
future aircrafts, a concept is being developed to monitor
and analyze temperatures, pressures and vibrations like
the nerves of a bird. This is possible by covering the

entire wing surface with tiny embedded sensors and
actuators. There are many other areas where the sensors
have been used and are being used to monitor the objects
and observe and record the changes in them. Some of
them have been discussed in the next section.
Na and Lee [7] found out that EMI method was
unsuccessful in detecting damage in case of composite
structures with large surface areas. In addition, a threshold
value is usually defined to differentiate a damaged case
from an intact case. They presented the concept of
enhanced detection ability of EMI method using a
piezoceramic material. The proposed technique eliminates
the trial-and-error approach when determining a suitable
frequency range by using a resonant frequency range
acquired in the lower frequency range below 80 kHz,
covering a large sensing area. The major advantages of
the proposed technique is the utilization of the lower
frequency range for damage identification using EMI
method, while eliminating the time consuming problem of
the trial-and-error method.
Gresil et al [8] showed that active elements of EMI
technique are Piezoelectric Wafer Active Sensor (PWAS)
that are bonded on the structure. Any damage in the
structure is detected by comparing high frequency
structural dynamic signatures reflected in the
electromechanical impedance measured at the sensor
terminals.
They also developed analytical and numerical modelling
of various aspects of EMI technique using Abaqus finite
element software. They considered issues related to
energy dissipation in PZT sensor and host composite
structure, as well as its effect on detecting ability of
structural damage. The finite element method
implementation allowed for considering contributions of
active material, adhesive bond and structural damage.
They also proved that the position of sensor may directly
control damage detection in EMI signature. Also, effect of
thickness of adhesive bond was found out to be
comparable in magnitude to the effect of bond stiffness.
Influence of piezoelectric mechanical losses on the
impedance signature is different for damaged and
undamaged cases.
Visalakshi et al [9,11] detected corrosion in bare steel
rebars. The detection mechanism is based on the fact that
the occurrence of corrosion changes structural stiffness,
mass and damping, which in turn causes the response of
the system to change, which is shown as a phase shift or
magnitude change in the conductance and susceptance
signatures. Experiments were performed on simple bare
rebar bonded with (PZT) sensors using the EMI
technique. Both normal as well as accelerated corrosion
tests were performed.
Bhalla et al [10] monitored bolted steel joints using the

equivalent stiffness determined by surface bonded PZT
patch. The equivalent stiffness was found to be related to
the residual stiffness of the joint and the remaining life of
the component in terms of the load cycles that can be
sustained. It was also found that it circumvents
determination of the actual stiffness of the joint and
employs the admittance signature of the surface-bonded
piezo-transducers directly.
Cai et al [12] carried out experiment in a steel beam to
identify damage. An impedance analyzer HP4294A was
used to extract and analyze the admittance signals in a
wide range of frequency from the original undamaged and
damaged model steel beam. The experiment results
showed that, the conductance signals shifted to the left
with the propagation of damages in the beam. The
conductance signals responded differently to the same
damaged model at different frequency domain, and a
suitable frequency domain signals could detect the
damages more effectively. Three different damage
indexes were employed to analyze the severity of damage
quantitatively. The results showed that the only index
MAPD (mean absolute percentage deviation) could
quantify the damage degree precisely and effectively.
Also, location of the damages in the structures could be
identified through reasonable distribution of piezoelectricceramic patches and by analyzing the peak offset of
conductance signals.
Shanker et al [13] conducted experiment on a two-storey
reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C.) frame with PZT
patches embedded in it. The simultaneous application of
the local EMI and the global dynamic techniques using
the same set of PZT sensor patches for structural health
monitoring were proposed. As the EMI technique, is very
sensitive to incipient damage, the initial cracks could be
successfully detected whereas only severe type damages
were identified and suitably quantified by the global
dynamic techniques. The simultaneous use of the two
techniques results in an improved structural health
monitoring.
Gopal et al [14] conducted experiment on 3 different
materials: (a) steel to monitor its load carrying capacity,
(b) aluminium to detect crack and (c) concrete specimens
to determine its strength. Admittance signatures of all the
specimens were acquired for a wide range of frequency.
Later, statistical index was adopted to measure and
compare the sensitivities for various narrower ranges.
Also, a novel signature gradient was used to characterize
the admittance signatures at each frequency. They
evaluated sensitivity of EMI technique for various
frequency bands to monitor load, crack and curing.
Shin and Oh [15] developed EMI sensing technique
utilizing smart piezoelectric materials for structural health
monitoring. Many NDE methods for strength gain

monitoring have limited capabilities in monitoring of the
strength gain in a continuous manner. They investigated
the feasibility of the EMI sensing technique for the online
strength gain monitoring of early-age concrete. The
experimental study was conducted on the piezoelectric
patch instrumented concrete specimen. It is found that the
EMI signature is very sensitive to the strength gain in
early age concrete.
Park et al [16] suggested that the basic concept of the
EMI technique is to use simultaneously both highfrequency structural excitations and responses employing
piezoelectric sensors to monitor the local area of a
structure for changes in structural impedance that would
indicate imminent damage.
A new impedance model is proposed that incorporates the
effects of sensor and bonding defects for sensor self
diagnosis. Temperature effects-free impedance-based
damage detection algorithm using effective frequency
shifts based on cross-correlation coefficients is presented.
In a sense of tailoring wireless sensing technology to the
impedance methods, an active sensor node incorporating
miniaturized impedance sensing device, an on-board
microcontroller, and a radio frequency (RF) telemetry is
introduced. A data compression algorithm is embedded
into the on-board chip of the active sensor node to
enhance its local data processing-capability.
Gelebart et al [17] studied the thermo-oxidative ageing of
plates up to 5000 hours (at 160 or 180degC). The EMI of
a commercial transducer (2.25 MHz or higher) coupled to
the composite plate is measured. They determined the
speed and the attenuation of longitudinal waves,
propagating along the thickness direction, using an
inverse procedure on the impedance of the composite
plate. They then studied the system of the transducer
coupled with the composite plate. They proved that the
acoustic impedance of the propagation medium can be
extracted provided the transducer's parameters are known.
Park et al [18] proposed a self-contained active sensor
system for the practical use of an EMI based structural
health monitoring for civil infrastructures. This system
consists of a miniaturized impedance measuring chip
(AD5933) and a self-sensing macro-fiber composite
(MFC) patch which can be used in a number of in-situ
SHM applications in civil, mechanical, and aerospace
systems. While the AD5933 is cost effective, portable,
and readily combined with a wireless telemetry and the
MFC patch can be permanently attached to a structure.
They studied the effectiveness of the proposed active
sensor device by inspecting loosening bolts in a boltjointed structure and detecting corrosion in an aluminum
beam.
Giurgiutiu et al [19] monitored aging aircraft structures

using piezoelectric wafer active sensors. Two main
detection strategies are considered: (a) the wave
propagation method for far-field damage detection; and
(b) the EMI method for near-field damage detection. The
experimental methods, signal processing, and damage
detection algorithms, tuned to the specific method used
for structural interrogation, are discussed. In the wave
propagation approach, the pulse-echo and acoustoultrasonic methods were considered. In the EMI method
approach, the high-frequency spectrum is processed using
overall-statistics damage metrics. The simultaneous use of
the EMI method in the near field and of the wave
propagation method in the far field opens the way for a
comprehensive multifunctional damage detection system
for aging aircraft structural health monitoring.
Bhalla and Soh [20] presented a new method for
structural identification and non-destructive evaluation by
piezoimpedance transducers. The damage was evaluated
on the basis of the equivalent system parameters
identified by the surface-bonded piezoimpedance
transducer.
Park et al [21] suggested that impedance-based techniques
use high frequency structural excitations to monitor the
local area of a structure for changes in structural
impedance that would indicate imminent damage. A new
aspect of the impedance method based on electric circuit
analysis was proposed. Signal processing procedures
based on statistically rigorous algorithms were also
incorporated into the impedance methods to assess the
conditions of a structure in a more quantifiable manner.
Bhalla and Soh [22] conducted study on a model
reinforced concrete (RC) frame subjected to base
vibrations on a shaking table. They used both the real as
well as the imaginary component of the admittance
signature to detect the damage quantitatively. A complex
damage metric is proposed to quantify damage
parametrically based on the extracted structural
parameters, i.e. the equivalent single degree of freedom
(SDOF) stiffness, the mass, and the damping associated
with the drive point of the PZT patch. The proposed
scheme eliminates the need for any prior information
about the phenomenological nature of the structure or any
model of the structural system.
Ong et al [23] presented EMI method for structural health
monitoring as a means of structural in-situ stress
monitoring and measurement. They developed a
impedance model derived from the Euler-Bernoulli beam
theory to investigate the influence of in-situ stress on the
dynamic and electro-mechanical response of a smart
beam interrogated by a pair of symmetrically bounded,
surface-bonded piezoceramic sensors. They performed
experiment for smart beam subjected to a multitude of
axial loads at the ends. It was found that natural frequency

shifts takes place in the presence of in-situ stress.
However, in terms of the electro-mechanical response,
which can be measured directly, the shift of peaks of the
EM admittance signature is not directly indicative of the
natural frequency shifts.
range of 200-1100 kHz. The decrease in structural

stiffness was used to assess damage progression in the
specimen. The root mean square deviation (RMSD)
impedance change was calculated and damage index
values were observed to increase as crack damage
increases.
Bhalla et al [24] studied the long-term consistency of the

electro-mechanical admittance signatures of PZT patches.
The EMI technique utilizes "smart" piezoceramic patches
as collocated actuator-sensors. This technique utilizes the
electro-mechanical admittance of a PZT patch surface
bonded to the structure as the diagnostic signature of the
structure. They also talked about behaviour of the bonded
PZT patch over sufficiently long periods under "harsh"
environment. It is found that a suitable cover is necessary
to protect the PZT patch, especially against humidity and
to ensure long life. They also found that the patch exhibits
a high sensitivity to damage even in the presence of the
protection layer.
Giurgiutiu and Rogers [29] found out that EMI

technology has high potential for in-situ health
monitoring. They presented the fundamental principles of
EMI method. They discussed the equations of piezoelectric material response and the coupled electromechanical impedance of a piezo-electric wafer
transducer as affixed to the monitored structure. Due to
the high frequency operation of this NDE method, wave
propagation phenomena are identified as the primary
coupling method between the structural substrate and the
piezo-electric wafer transducer.
Giurgiutiu and Zagrai [25] predicted electro-mechanical

(E/M) impedance response using the theory of
piezoelectricity, as it would be measured at the
piezoelectric active sensors terminals. Experiments were
conducted on turbine blade specimen. It was observed
that the piezoelectric active sensor recorded the E/M
impedance spectrum accurately represented the
mechanical response of a structure. Also, presence of the
sensor did not alter the response of the structure. Such
sensors, of negligible mass, can be permanently applied to
the structure for on line structural identification and
health monitoring.
The electro mechanical impedance technique was found

to be very effective in detecting damage. This gives a new
advanced technique for real-time damage detection for
civil, mechanical and aerospace structures. A significant
safety enhancement and broad cost savings are predicted
through the wide application of this novel method for
damage detection and failure prevention.
Zagrai and Giurgiutiu [26] monitored thin plates using

EMI technique. In this experiment, a crack was simulated
with an electric discharge machining (EDM) slit placed at
various distances from the sensor. It was found that the
presence of crack modifies the EMI spectrum and this
modification decreases as the distance between the sensor
and the crack increases. Careful selection of the high
frequency band and proper choice of the appropriate
damage metric were found to be essential for successful
damage detection and structural health monitoring.
Park et al [27] presented the electromechanical coupling
property of piezo electric materials to detect and locate
structural damage. Any structural damage can be
qualitatively measured by monitoring the electrical
impedance. This technique utilizes a high frequency
structural excitation (greater than 30 kHz) through the
surface-bonded piezoelectric sensor/actuators.
Giurgiutiu et al [28] monitored spot welded lap shear
structural joint specimen using the EMI technique. The
specimens were instrumented with PZT sensors and the
base admittance signature was recorded in the frequency
IV. CONCLUSION
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Monitoring, 4th International Workshop on
Structural Health Monitoring, pp. 1423-1430, 15-17
Sept. (2003).
Bhalla S. and Soh C. K., Structural impedance based
damage diagnosis by piezo-transducers, Earthquake
Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 32(12), pp
1897-1916, Oct. (2003).
Ong C. W., Yang Y., Naidu A. K. S., Lu Y. and Soh
C. K., Application of the electro-mechanical
impedance method for the identification of in-situ
stress in structures, The International Society for
Optical Engineering, Proceedings of SPIE 4935, 503,
(2002).
Bhalla S., Naidu A. K. S., Ong C. W. and Soh C. K.,
Practical issues in the implementation of electromechanical impedance technique for NDE, The
International Society for Optical Engineering,
Proceedings of SPIE 4935, 484, (2002).
Giurgiutiu V., and Zagrai A. N., Embedded SelfSensing Piezoelectric Active Sensors for On-Line
Structural Identification, Journal of vibration and
acoustics, ASME, 124, pp 116-125, (2002).
Zagrai A. N. and Giurgiutiu V., Electro-Mechanical
Impedance Method for Crack Detection in Thin
Plates, Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
Structures, 12(10), pp 709-718, (2001).
Park G., Cudney H.H. and Inman D. J., An
Integrated Health Monitoring Technique Using
Structural Impedance Sensors, Journal of Intelligent
Material Systems and Structures, 11, pp 448, (2000).
Giurgiutiu V., Reynolds A. and Rogers C. A.,
Experimental Investigation of E/M Impedance
Health Monitoring for Spot-Welded Structural
Joints, Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
Structures, 10, pp 802, (1999).
Giurgiutiu V, and Rogers C. A., Recent
Advancements in the Electro-Mechanical (E/M)
Impedance method for Structural Health Monitoring
and NDE, SPIEs 5th Annual International
Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials,
(1998).
Failure Analysis of Protector Screen Grid

M. Tripathi1, K.V. Sai Srinadh2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, S.I.E.T, Uttar Pradesh,

Greater Noida-201306, India; akhilmech07@gmail.com
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Instititute of Technology,
Andhra Pradesh, Warangal-506004, India; kvsaisrinadh@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Protector screen grid is used in exhaust pipe of
locomotives to prevent the emergence of tiny components
along with the exhaust gases.
Due to the interaction of exhaust gases the protector
screen grid undergoes varying temperature conditions
which results in expansion and contraction of it.
Therefore it must be properly heat treated so that it can
withstand without cracking. Moreover the components
attached with this must have almost same coefficient of
thermal expansion, so that stresses will not be developed
between protector screen grid and the components with
which it is fitted.
In this case study the protector screen grid had failed due
to the improper heat treatment during manufacturing
itself. Multiple cracking was observed.
I. INTRODUCTION
I.1 General Practice for Conducting Failure
Analysis
The primary objective of any failure analysis is to
determine the primary root cause of failure and to
establish the appropriate corrective action. There are
several stages of an analysis, which can proceed one after
the other or occur at the same time. There is no set fixedin-stone procedure, because it is highly dependent on the
part and procedures/capabilities of the specific laboratory
[1].
These stages of analysis are:
Collection of background data

Preliminary visual analysis
Chemical analysis
Mechanical testing
Micro examination
Discussion
Conclusion
Remedial measures
I.1.1 Collection of Background Information

An understanding of the purpose of the part will be done
during the collection of background data. The design
criteria, service conditions, failure conditions, the
operating details and manufacturing history is to be
examined and collected. This manufacturing history
should include all the mechanical processing, thermal
history or processing, and any chemical process
performed on the part.
The service history should include all the maintenance
records of the part. It should also include the expected
environment and loading at the time of failure, as well as
the normal environment and loading.
I.1.2 Preliminary Visual Examination

During visual inspection, the analyst should verify the
number of parts, note and photodocument the condition of
the parts as received condition. As-received photo
documentation is very useful especially once the parts are
sectioned for testing. Documentation should be conducted
throughout the analysis so that the information can later
be shared and described. Colour photography is
recommended to illustrate the contaminants and show
discoloration or temper marks. [2]
I.1.3 Chemical analysis

Chemical analysis is carried out for failed component to
compare the chemical composition with specification or
standard and also to analyze any important surface
corrosion products, deposits, or coatings. [3]
I.1.4 Mechanical Testing

Mechanical testing is useful to determine the properties of
the part and to verify that it meets expected properties and
specifications. There are many types of mechanical
testing available, including hardness and tensile testing.
I.1.5 Hardness testing

Hardness testing is probably the most versatile and widely
used. It is often used to evaluate heat treatment and can be
used as an approximation for tensile strength. It can be
Failure Analysis of Protector Screen Grid 39
used to detect the

he presence of work hardening or
softening and hardening or softening from localized
thermal events such as grinding.
about 60 mm towards the circumference of protector

screen.
I.1.6 Microscopic Examination

This examination technique is essential for determining
processing history, e.g., heat treatment, exposure to
environment, presence of internal defects, e.g., inclusions,
porosity. A certain amount of skill is required during
sample preparation and knowledge of the proper etchant
is critical to ascertain the presence of certain features,
which include ferrite, austenite, Martensite, sigma phase,
and carbides for steel and similar features for non
non-ferrous
metals. Knowledge of the microstructure will allow the
failure analyst to reach conclusions. [4]
II. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

II.1 Visual Inspection
Visual examinationn revealed that protector screen grid
had cracked at eight places from the circumference.
(Fig.1&2). Crack was opened from hole. Topography of
fracture face revealed that the fracture of protector screen
grid was crystalline in nature (Fig.3). Fracture had
initiated from hole and propagated about 170mm towards
the screen. On the opposite side of the hole it propagated
Fig.1 Photograph of the protector screen grid showing

cracks through holes.
holes
Cracks on circumference
Fig.2 Photograph showing close view of crack.

Hole
Initiation zone
Fig.3 Photograph showing crack initiation zone
II.2 Chemical analysis

Chemical analysis of the protector screen grid material was analysed and compared with the specified chemical composition
for the material. The typical analysis of the material for the sample is given in Table 1.
Table 1Chemical analysis of protector screen grid material (% wt) and comparison with 321 grade austenitic steel [5]
Sample no.
Piece-A
Specified as per
SS grade 32193
%C
0.087
0.08
max
%Mn
1.38
2.00m
ax
%Si
0.65
0.75
max
%P
0.023
0.045
max
%S
Trace
0.03
max
%Cr
16.94
17.019.0
%Mo
0.27
-
%Ni
9.31
9.012.0
%N
0.03
0.10
%Ti
0.49
5.0
Max
II.3 Hardness Test

Hardness Test was conducted on a transverse slice at the depth of about 5mm&35mm below the existing tread surface and
non standard location. The wearing of the tread surface of wheel was about 47mm. The results are given as under:
Sample No.
203/10
Specified as per SS grade 321 [Ref-6]
II.4 Micro Examination
Standard metallographic technique was employed for
sample preparation and the mirror polished surfaces were
etched with Nital (2 cm3 HNO3 in 98 cm3 Alcohol).
Location
Circumference
Not speci/ied
Observation in BHN
166, 167
217 Max
At screen microstructure revealed elongated austenitic

grains along with heavy carbides precipitation (Fig.5). A
large no. of transcrystalline cracks were also noticed
(Fig.6).
Two specimens are made for the optical microscopy, one

is from the circumference and other is from screen to
analyse the microstructure of protector screen grid.
At circumference microstructure
rostructure revealed elongated
austenitic grains along with precipitation of carbides.
Interlinking microcracks were noticed at many places
(Fig.4).
X500
Fig.4 Photo micrograph of the circumference showing
elongated austenitic grains along with precipitation of
carbides. Interlinking microcracks were noticed at
many places.
X500
Fig.5 Photomicrograph showing elongated austenitic
grains along with heavy carbides precipitation.
Failure Analysis of Protector Screen Grid 41
the end product with the shortest possible path so as to

reduce the production cost. It is suggested to incorporate
the following heat treatment [8]
1) Heat the Protector Screen Grid at a temperature of
950oC 1100oC for the sufficient duration so as to
achieve single phase austenitic structure followed by
rapid cooling in water or forced air.
2) Carry out stabilising heat treatment by heating the
component at the temperature of 870oC 900oC for
about 45 minutes followed by cooling in air.
3) Stress relief at 700oC for about one hr. followed by
cooling in air.
X200
Fig.6 Photomicrograph showing a large no. of
transcrystalline cracks across the screen in protector
grid.
III. DISCUSSION
Visual examination revealed that protector screen grid
had cracked at eight places from circumference. Crack
was opened from hole and topography of fracture face
revealed that the fracture was crystalline in nature.
4) The microstructure of the component in above

mentioned heat treated condition should be austenitic
grains with dispersed carbides throughout the matrix.
V. CONCLUSION
The cracking of Protector Screen Grid may be attributed
to the fact, that the austenitic steel was not given
solutionising, stabilising & stress relieving heat treatment
and it was rigidly tightened along with the other structures
which were having comparatively low coefficient of
thermal expansion.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Fracture had initiated from hole and propagated about
170mm towards the screen. On the opposite side of hole it
propagated about 60mm towards the circumference of
protector screen.
Chemical analysis of the component revealed carbon
content on higher side i.e. 0.087% as against 0.08% max
Specified limit. Hardness conforms to the specification.
The micro examination of the component in the vicinity
of cracked location shows that the component was neither
subjected to solution annealing nor stabilization heat
treatment nor stress relieving heat treatment. Since the
coefficient of thermal expansion of austenitic steel is
much higher & its thermal conductivity is lower as
compared to structural steel [7], it is prone to cracking
due to thermal shocks if it is not allowed to expand and
contract freely. The tendency of cracking is further
aggravated if its structure is not stabilized by appropriate
heat treatment.
The authors are thankful to Mr. Radheshyam E.D. /M&C

Dte of Research Designs & Standards Organization,
Lucknow for his support.
VII. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
IV. REMEDIAL MEASURES

[8]
The component has not laid down any heat treatment as a
result the manufacturers have taken liberty to manufacture
Chapter 2 Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel

Component (#05113G) www.asminternational.org
Failure
Analysis
Semih
Genculu,
P.E.
www.PDHcenter.com
ASM Handbook Vol.11 Failure analysis and
Prevention pg.700
Elements of Failure Analysis Wayne Reitz, PhD, PE
Reitz Consulting, Ltd
ASM Handbook Vol.09 Metallography and
Microstructures pg.1583 Table.1
http://www.iupjindal.com/CHEMICAL.pdf
http://www.lincolnelectric.com/assets/en_US/Product
s/Consumable_StainlessNickelandHighAlloyUltraCore-UltraCoreFCP316L/c64000.pdf
ASM Handbook Vol.04 Heat Treating pg.1746-1748
Table.16
THERMAL SCIENCE & ENGINEERING &

RENEWABLE ENERGY
Optimization of Power Generation System

Utilizing a Salt Gradient Solar Pond
Dr. J S Saini1, Sanjeev Kumar Joshi2, Vivek Kumar3
1
Dean R&D, Dehradun Institute of Technology, Dehradun

Asst. Prof., Uttaranchal Institute of Technology, Dehradun; ersanjeevjoshi@gmail.com
3
Prof. & Head, MAE, ASET, Amity University, Noida; ervivekkumargupta@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Solar ponds are thought to be among the most cost
effective devices that can yield thermal energy at very low
unit cost. In the present work, thermal analysis of the
system which includes Rankine cycle power plant and the
solar pond has been carried out. The effect of various
system and operating parameters on the system
performance has been investigated. The optimum values
of these parameters that results into minimum pond area
has been determined as function of average value of
global solar radiation, local latitude and thickness of
non-convecting zone (NCZ) of the pond. A procedure to
determine the optimum values of solar pond for a given
set of values of system and operating parameters has been
developed. Optimum values of pond area corresponding
to different sets of system and operating parameters have
been presented in the forms of plots and tables which can
be used by the designer.
Keywords: Solar energy, Salt gradient, solar pond, Large
Area Solar Collector, Design & Simulation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Increasing world demand for energy, the use of fossil fuel
to produce power has become wide spread. Unfortunately
fossil fuels are non renewable energy sources, and they
pollute the environment and are considered as the largest
source of emissions of carbon dioxide, which is largely
blamed for the global warming and climate changes. This
trend can be reduced by the construction of power plants
using renewable energy sources [1].
Solar ponds are used for collection and storage of solar
energy. The advantage of solar pond lies in their ability to
collect solar energy on a large scale and provide long term
heat storage. Solar ponds, as a source of low-grade heat,
have been found to be competitive with conventional heat
sources in many applications, such as the heating of
buildings, green house heating, industrial hot water, and
process heat in dairy plants, desalination and power
production. Solar pond contains layers of salt solutions
with increasing concentration (and therefore density) to a
certain depth, below which the solution has a uniform

high salt concentration. When solar radiation is absorbed,
the density gradient prevents heat in the lower layers from
moving upwards by convection and leaving the pond.
Increasing world demand for energy, the use of fossil fuel
to produce power has become wide spread. Unfortunately
fossil fuels are non renewable energy sources, and they
pollute the environment and are considered as the largest
source of emissions of carbon dioxide, which is largely
blamed for the global warming and climate changes. This
trend can be reduced by the construction of power plants
using renewable energy sources [2].
Solar ponds are used for collection and storage of solar
energy. The advantage of solar pond lies in their ability to
collect solar energy on a large scale and provide long term
heat storage. Solar ponds, as a source of low-grade heat,
have been found to be competitive with conventional heat
sources in many applications, such as the heating of
buildings, green house heating, industrial hot water, and
process heat in dairy plants, desalination and power
production.
Solar pond contains layers of salt solutions with
increasing concentration (and therefore density) to a
certain depth, below which the solution has a uniform
high salt concentration. When solar radiation is absorbed,
the density gradient prevents heat in the lower layers from
moving upwards by convection and leaving the pond.
This means that the temperature at the bottom of the pond
will rise to over 90C while the temperature at the top of
the pond is usually around 30C.
The salt gradient solar ponds consists basically three
zones: upper convective zone (UCZ), non-convective
zone (NCZ) and lower convective zone (LCZ). In the
non-convective zone, the salt content increases with depth
resulting in an increase in density in the downward
direction, which inhibits free convection. The lower
convective zone serves as a heat storage from which heat
can be extracted eventually. The upper convective zone is
caused mainly by surface wind mixing [3].
SOLAR POND POWER GENERATION

SYSTEM
III.1 Solar pond as a heat source for the Rankine

cycle
Solar energy utilization system to generate power from

low temperature thermal energy available from solar pond
is shown in Fig. 1. In this system heat is transferred from
solar pond to the working fluid (refrigerant) in an
evaporator. The heat transfer mechanism that drives a
closed Rankine power cycle is the circulation of a
working fluid through a cycle of evaporation, vapor
transfer to turbine, expansion, condensation, and liquid
return [4]. Fresh water circulates through an internal heat
exchanger, located in the lower convective zone of the
pond, and transfers its thermal energy to evaporator. The
power cycle gets the energy from absorbing the heat from
the solar pond. The heat that is absorbed increases the
temperature of a working fluid inside of the evaporator
tubes and causes the working fluid to evaporate at an
elevated pressure [5].
As indicated earlier solar pond presents an economical

way to obtain large amounts of low grade heat. The most
common type of solar pond is the salt gradient pond,
which has the three different layers of salt concentration.
Sunlight passes through the water with the majority of the
sun light being absorbed by lower salt layers of water and
the heat absorbing lining [7]. This heats the lower layers
of the pond. The concentrations of the salt layers are
created such that the bottom layer of very salty water is
denser than the second layer, even when heated to near
boiling temperatures. Likewise, the middle layer of salty
water is designed to be denser than the fresh water on top.
This inhibits the convection of heat throughout the pond.
The heat is extracted from the bottom layer of the pond,
which is the saltiest and reaches the highest temperatures
[5]
Useful work can be extracted from the expansion process

in the turbine where refrigerant vapor expands from high
pressure to low pressure. The vapor is then sent to the
second heat exchanger (condenser) where heat is
transferred from the vapor to cold water and thus, the
working fluids returns to a saturated liquid back to the
first heat exchanger where the process is repeated [6].
III.2 Heat source and Heat sink
II.
A reasonable temperature for a solar pond is to reach up

to 900C. A reasonable temperature for the ambient
temperature of the air is 200C. For this reason, a heat sink
temperature of 200C is assumed. Since not all the heat
would be transferred from the heat sink and heat source to
the Rankine cycle, the assumed evaporator temperature in
the cycle is 800C and the condenser temperature of our
Rankine cycle is 220C.
III.3 Working fluid for the Rankine cycle

The working fluid for a phase-change cycle like the one
found in a Rankine cycle power plant has the following
desirable characteristics. Critical temperature well above
the highest temperature that can be used in the cycle. This
makes it possible to vaporize the working fluid and thus
adds a heat to it at the maximum temperature. In this
investigation, R-134a is used as working fluid because of
its saturation pressure being in a suitable range
corresponding to temperature range of 22C to 80C and
its superior high thermal efficiency, conductivity and
ozone-friendly nature.
III.4. Rankine Cycle Model
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of Rankine cycle solar pond

power generator
III. SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Important components that are employed are described
below:
A mathematical model of Organic Rankine cycle and

solar pond is developed for simulation and analysis
(Fig.2). The system analysis assumes a fixed power
capacity; the maximum cycle temperature T3 is assumed
to be the fluid temperature of LCZ, the vapor expands in
the turbine isentropically to the state 4 where it enters the
condenser and the condensed fluid at temperature T1
comes out of the condenser. The fluid is pumped to state 2
where it enters the evaporator to attain the vapor at state 3
Optimization of Power Generation System Utilizing a Salt Gradient Solar Pond 5
layer (UCZ) absorbs a large portion of the solar radiation

(less than half penetrates to a depth of 0.2m). This portion
of the solar input cannot be utilized and is dissipated to
the atmosphere. Evidently, a proper evaluation of
absorption of solar radiation, along its path in salt water,
is very important for studying
dying the thermal behavior of
solar ponds.
The following equation is used to calculate the angle of
incidence and refraction on the equinox day (
( =0) at
1400h (LAT)
(3.5)
Angle of refraction
Fig.2 Ideal Rankine cycle on a temperature entropy
diagram
From the state point enthalpies, the heat transferred to the
working fluid in the boiler, the heat transferred from the
working fluid in the condenser, work generated by the
turbine, work generated by the pump, net work generated
by the heat engine, thermodynamic cycle efficiency, mass
flow rate of the refrigerant, boiler and co
condenser heat
transfer rate, mass flow rate of warm and cold water,
boiler and condenser surface area and specific power
output of the closed Rankine cycle plant can be calculated
as follows[6]
Turbine work (kJ/kg)
The reflectivity
vity is related to the angles of incidence and
refraction by the equation
(3.7)
(3.8)
and
being the reflectivities of the two
components of polarization.
(
(3.1)
(3.6)
(3.9)
where ,
R
is coefficient of reflectance
Cycle Network (kJ/kg)

Then transmissivity
is given by an expression;
(3.2)
Acknowledging the fact that is a 103 kW power plant, the
mass flow rate (
) of the working fluid can be found
via;
(3.3)
Heat transfer in the evaporator is given by (kJ/s)
(3.4)
(3.10)
III.6
.6 Estimation of area of solar pond
Rabl and Nielsen [8] have given an equation for
calculating the area of a solar pond for a given
requirement. They proposed a sum of four exponentials,
each one with its own extinction coefficient
corresponding to the division of the solar spectrum in four
wavelength intervals. Expression relating the temperature
of LCZ to the variables like pond area
, load
and pond depth can be written as;
III.5 Salt Gradient Solar Pond Model

The performance of the solar pond largely depends on the
amount of radiation which reaches the bottom region,
from where the heat is extracted. The upper convective
(3.11)
6 International Conference on Manufacturing Exce

Excellence (MANFEX 2012)
Where
Table 4.1 Values of Fixed Parameters of the system
annual average
convective zone(C).
temperature
in the
lo
lower
annual average ambient temperature(C).
S.
No
1
annual average daily global radiation (W/m2).

2
2 is the angle of refraction
corresponding to an effective angle of incidence on the
equinox day at 1400 h (LAT) at the location
extinction coefficient for wavelength band
(m-1)
depth of the pond at the bottom of tthe nonconvective zone(m).
3
4
Description
Maximum Cycle
Pressure (bar)
Minimum Cycle
Pressure (bar)
Minimum Cycle
Temperature (C)
Thermal
conductivity of
water (W/mK)
values of the
pond
values of the
pond (m-1)
annual average heat extraction rate.
Parame
Param
ters
transmissivity
thermal conductivity of water (
area of solar pond (m2).
and
values of coefficients
IV. OPTIMUM SOLAR POND S

SIZING
As can be seen from the analysis of the Rankine Cycle
and the solar pond, the following parameters decide the
performance of power generation system utilizing a solar
pond:
S.
No
c)
b) Intensity of solar radiations and ambient

temperature.
c)
Angle of incidence of solar radiation as

determined from the pond location (i.e. latitude of
the location).
As can be observed from the discussion regarding the

performance of solar pond with respect to power
generation, sizing of the pond i.e. the calculation of aarea
of the solar pond can be carried out for given values of
system and operating parameters that influence the
performance. These parameters have been listed in Tables
4.1 and 4.2.
20
0.648
0.237,
0.193,
0.167,
0.179
0.032, 0.45,
3, 35
Description
Parameters
Value
60-90
Annual average global

radiation (W/m2)
175325
Depth of the pond at the

bottom of NCZ (m)
Latitude (N)
Thermo physical properties of the working fluid.
Pond dimensions including the pond area,

thickness of various zones.
T4
Temperature of the
lower convective zone
(C)
2) Solar Pond parameters:

a)
1
Temperature range of the cycle.
b) Pressure range of the cycle.
16
Table 4.2 Values of Variable Parameters of the

system
1) Rankine Cycle parameters:

a)
Value
0.8-1.5
0-40
The designer of the system aims at determination of

system parameters which will correspond to minimum
unit energy cost. The parameters which determine the
energy generation cost includes
1) Initial cost of system .i.e. land, excavation, liner, salt,
maintenance
ance and construction related cost.
2) Equipment and operation cost.
It has been found [9] that out of these costs pond related
cost constitutes the major component, the equipment and
the operation cost being small as compared to pond
related cost.
The pond related cost can be shown to be directly

proportional to area of pond. It can therefore be concluded
that minimum pond area will represent the most
appropriate objective function for optimization of the
system.
V.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSI

DISCUSSION
Mathematical simulationn of the solar pond based power

generation system as described in the previous section has
been carried out in the form of procedure of calculation of
pond area required to collect and store sufficient energy to
supply thermal energy to the boiler (evapora
(evaporator) as a
function of LCZ temperature (TLCZ) for assumed set of
values of average solar radiation intensity (Hg), depth of
the pond at the bottom of non-convective
convective zone (L2) and
Latitude of the site. It can be stated that the LCZ
temperature is the major parameter
arameter that decides the losses
to the environment; higher the temperature higher is the
loss and hence lower efficiency of collection whereas a
higher boiler or evaporator temperature leads to higher
overall efficiency of the power generation i.e. Rankin
Rankine
Cycle. In view of this it is likely that there will be an
optimum value of collector area that will corresponds to
minimum solar pond area for fixed values of other
parameter.
In this chapter, result with respect to the variation of pond
area as a function
on of LCZ temperature, determination of
minimum area, and the variation of this minimum area as
function of average solar radiation, Latitude of the site
and the depth of the pond at the bottom of non
non-convecting
zone are being presented and discussed.
The results obtained from the mathematical simulation of
solar pond based power plant system as per the
calculation procedure described in section 5 have been
reported and discussed in this section.
VI.1
.1 LCZ Temperature and Concept of Minimum
Area
As mentioned above, the LCZ temperature is the major
parameter that influences the solar pond and Rankine
cycle efficiency; higher temperature leading to better
Rankine cycle performance but poor performance of pond
because excessive heating of the storage zone turns out to
be counterproductive, since it leads to an increase in heat
losses through the NCZ.
Fig 6.1 Effect of temperature of LCZ on solar pond

area at Hg = 200W/m2
Fig 6.1 shows a plot of pond area as a function of LCZ
temperature for fixed values of other parameters
(Hg=200W/m2, LAT=10N, L2 =1.4m).for a nominal
power plant capacity of 1MW. The collector area is found
to decrease with an increase of LCZ temperature from
60C to 75C, attains minima at about 75C and then
increases with further increase of temperature of LCZ. It
is likely that a low temperature results in
i low Rankine
cycle efficiency whereas a too high a temperature leads to
low pond efficiency. The LCZ temperature corresponds to
minimum area can be function of other parameters.
VI. EFFECT OF SYSTEM AND

OPERATING PARAMETERS ON
SOLAR POND AREA
As indicated earlier following are the major system and
operating parameters that affect the magnitude of the solar
pond area.
1) Temperature of Lower Convective Zone (TLCZ) (0C).
2) Annual average global radiation
3) Latitude of the site (LAT).

4) Depth of the pond at the bottom of the non
nonconvective zone (L2).
The effect of these parameters on pond area is discussed
below:
Fig 6.2 Effect of temperature of LCZ on solar pond

area at Hg = 225W/m2

Fig.6.2
.6.2 has been plotted for annual average solar
radiations of 225W/m2 where it can be seen that the
minimum area condition occur at a relatively higher
temperature of about 80C. The value of minimum area
has also come down from a value of about 131498 m2
(that corresponds to Hg =200W/m2) to about 110914m2
for average solar intensity (Hg) of 225 W/m2. The thermal
losses will increase corresponding to a temperature rise
but reduction in area will more than offset the losses and
hence there is overall advantagee of relatively higher
Rankine cycle efficiency and hence a pond of much
smaller area can do the job if solar radiation intensity is
higher and the system is properly optimized.

temperature for a fixed values of other parameters i.e.
LAT and L2 and for two different values of annual global
radiations (Hg=225,250W/m2) for a nominal power plant
capacity of 1MW. Clearly, for a high yearly average value
of solar radiation the solar pond area is low.
VI.2
.2 Effect of Annual Global Radiation (Hg)
6.3 Effect of Latitude on

n Solar Pond Area
As stated in the previous section that solar pond area is

not only a function of LCZ temperature but it also
depends on the site specific parameters, solar radiation
intensity. So there is bound to be large varaiation in the
area of solar ponds with variations in the solar radiation
intensity.

temperature
for
fixed
values
of
parameters
(Hg=250W/m2, L2 =1.2m) and for different values of
LAT= 0N, and 40N for a nominal
nomin power plant capacity
of 1MW.
Fig.6.5 shows the plot of pond area as a function of LCZ

temperature for fixed value of average solar intensity of
225 and 250W/m2 for a fixed value of LAT. It can be seen
that the value of minimum area 116075m2 corresponds to
Hg= 225 W/m2 and value of minimum area has come
down to about 99679m2 for Hg=250 W/m2.
It is obvious from the graphs that the lower values of solar

pond area are obtained at LAT=0N and pond area
increases as the latitude increases this is because high
value of transmissivity is obtained near the equator and
the penetration of solar radiation is effective close to
equator and clarity of brine is also an important factor in
achieving good thermal performance, suspended particles
in a solar pond can seriously diminish solar energy input
to the storage zone.
Fig 6.4 Effect of Annual Global Radiation on solar

pond area for LAT = 10N
Fig 6.5 Effect of Annual Global Radiation on solar

pond area for LAT = 20N
Fig
g 6.6 Effect of Latitude on solar pond area for Hg =
250W/m2
Fig 6.8 shows the variation of solar pond area as a

function of temperature of LCZ for depth of bottom of the
pond below NCZ (L2 = 1.2m) and for fixed value of other
parameters. It is observed that the minimum collector area
corresponds at a temperature of 65C and then collector
area increases with the
he increase in temperature.
Fig 6.7 Effect of Latitude on solar pond area for Hg =

275W/m2
Fig 6.9 shows the variation of solar pond area as a

function of temperature of LCZ for different depth of
bottom of the pond below NCZ (L2 =
0.8m,0.9m,1.0m,1.1m,1.2m,1.3m,1.4m and 1.5m) and for
fixed value of other parameters. It
I is observed that
collector area is minima for high value of L2 thickness
this is because for large values of thickness of L2 strongly
lessen heat transfer towards the surface.
VII. OPTIMUM POND AREA

VI.4 Effect of Depth of the pond at the bottom of
the NCZ
The thickness of the NCZ is most important because of
the tradeoff between
en an increase in the thermal insulation
with a concurrent decrease in the solar radiation
penetrating into the storage zone (LCZ). The increase of
this zone will decrease the solar radiation penetrating to
the storage zone. But, the increase in the thickn
thickness of the
NCZ will increase the insulation property, thus reducing
the upwards thermal loses.
As mentioned earlier, the minimum pond area

corresponding to a given set of system and operating
parameters, namely annual average global solar radiation
(Hg), latitude of the place (LAT) and depth of the pond at
the bottom of non-convective
convective zone (L2) represents the
minimum energy cost and therefore can be considered
consider as
the optimum pond area. Mathematical simulation of solar
pond based power generation system, as discussed in the
previous sections of this chapter, has resulted into the
determination of optimum area. These optimum values
are being presented and discussed
ssed in this section.
VI.1
.1 Effect of Annual average global radiations
(Hg)
Figs 7.1 and 7.2 show the plots of optimum area as a
function of global radiation. It can be observed that the
optimum area decreases with an increase of radiation
intensity as the energy input increases with the increase of
radiation intensity resulting in the lower value of pond
area for producing same power.
Fig 6.8 Variation of pond area for fixed value of L2
Fig 6.9 Effect of L2 on solar pond area for Hg = 200

W/m2
The trend of variation of values of optimum area can be

seen to be similar under different sets of combination of
parameters.
Fig 7.1 Effect of Annual average global radiation on

optimum solar pond area for L2 = 0.8 m

the plots that as the depth of pond at the bottom of NCZ

increases there is a decrease in the optimum
opt
pond area
because the large values of NCZ thickness reduces the
thermal losses from the pond.
Fig 7.2 Effect of Annual average global radiation on

optimum solar pond area for L2 = 1.0 m
VII.2 Effect of Latitude (LAT)

Figs 7.3 show a plot of optimum values of pond area as a
function of Latitude. The values of pond area are seen to
increase with the increase of Latitude from 0N to 40N
as can be seen in Fig7.3 for fixed values of other
parameters. The rate of increase of value appears to be
sharper at higher values of latitude because the solar
radiations are oblique to the receiving surface for the
higher latitudes. Latitudes close to the equator results in
increase in transmissivity which results in higher fraction
of radiation reaching the lower convective
vective zone resulting
in higher energy collection and hence decrease in
optimum pond area. The trend of variation is seen to be
similar under varying sets of values of other parameter.
Fig 7.4 Effect of L2 on optimum solar pond area for

Hg = 225 W/m2
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
In this work, thermal analysis of Rankine Cycle and the
Solar Pond has been carried
arried out to arrive at the optimum
pond area. It has been found that there exists a minimum
pond area that results into optimal power generation
conditions. Plots and Tables have been prepared for
minimum area as a function of system and operating
parameters
ers which can be used for optimal system design.
Major conclusions from this work are as follows:
1) There exists an optimum temperature of lower
convective zone (LCZ) of the solar pond that
corresponds to minimum energy costs.
2) The optimal pond area is a strong
st
function of system
and operating parameters namely, average global
solar radiations (Hg) of the place, the latitude of the
place (LAT) and depth of pond at the bottom of NCZ
(L2) for given power capacity.
3) Optimal pond area decreases as the global radiations
radi
increases.
Fig 7.3 Variation of optimum pond area with Latitude
VII.3
Effect of Depth of pond at the Bottom of

NCZ (L2)
Figs 7.4 shows a plot of optimum pond area as a function

of L2 for fixed values of other parameters. It is clear from
4) Optimal area increases with an increase of Latitude

of the place, the increase been sharper for the higher
values of latitude.
5) The value of depth of pond at the bottom of NCZ
affects the optimum pond area by changing the
insulating capability
lity of the pond; the optimal area
decreasing with an increase of depth.
6) A procedure to select the optimal pond area for a

given capacity and for given values of system and
operating parameters has been indicated.
[5]
[6]
IX. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Assaf, G., Solar Energy, 1976, 18(4), 293.

Srinivasan, J., 1993, Solar Pond Technology,
Sdhan 18(1): 39-55.
Hirschmann, J.R., 1970, Salt flats as solar heat
collectors for industrial purposes, Solar Energy 13,
83-97.
Akbarzadeh, A., Johnson, P., Nguyen, T., Mochiziki,
M., Mashiko, M., Sauciuc, I., Kusaba, S., and Suzuki,
H., 2001, Formulation and analysis of the heat pipe
turbine for production of power from renewable
sources, Journal of applied thermal engineering, Vol
21, PP 1551-1563, UK.
[7]
[8]
[9]
Rai, G.D., 2002, Non-Conventional Energy Sources,

Khanna Publishers, India.
Wu, C and Burke, T.J., 1998, Intelligent computer
aided optimization on specific power of an OTEC
Rankine power plant, Applied Thermal Engineering,
Vol 18, PP 295-300, UK.
Mehmet, K., Ibrahim,D and Marc,A.R., 2006,
Performance investigation of a solar pond, Journal of
applied thermal engineering, Elsevier Ltd, Vol 26, PP
727-735, UK.
Rable, A. and Nelson, C. E., 1975, Solar Ponds for
Space Heating, Solar Energy, Vol.17, p.1.
Fiorenza G., Sharma V.K., Braccio G., 2006,
Techno-Economic Evalution of a Salt Gradient
Solar Pond: A Potential Energy Source for Seawater
Desalination and Power Generation, International
Energy Journal: Vol. 7, No. 1.
Exploration of Emerging Fiscal and Social Benefits

through Energy Efficient Measures and Renewable
Energy Resources in Agra Region
Anurag Gupta1, D. Ganeshwar Rao2
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Anand Engineering College, Keetham, Agra; anurag_aec@rediffmail.com
2
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Dayalbagh Educational Institute (Deemed University) Dayalbagh, Agra; dgrao.dei@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
India is the country most affected in terms of shortage of
energy and increasing energy price and has come in the
leading row of the countries of the developing world to
adopt energy management measures in all sectors of the
economy on the priority basis including promotion and
popularization of the renewable energy technology and
resources. With globalization and liberalization of
economy, energy management aims at enhancing total
energy efficiency that will become a major factor in
determining the comprehensive competitiveness of the
economy. In the present paper, the authors explore the
potential fiscal and social benefits of promoting energy
efficiency measures and renewable energy resources at
the industrial, institutional, and domestic levels in Agra
region and thus draw the attention towards the
development of energy efficiency market as a means to
meet the ever increasing demand for energy services in
country.
Keywords: Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency, Energy
Management, Energy Systems.
I. INTRODUCTION
With increasing agricultural, domestic and industrial
activities in the country, the demand for energy is also
increasing day by day. During the last couple of years
numerous new concepts of energy planning, management
and such as object oriented planning, energy conservation
through improved technologies conservation etc. have
been developed. As a result energy efficient measures,
integrated energy planning, introduction of renewable
energy sources and energy demand estimation techniques
have gained importance [1, 2].
It is essential to implement energy efficient measures and
adopt renewable energy resources to have the prolonged
growth in terms of GDP. The renewable energy resources
based devices can be used in combination with existing
conventional energy resources to meet out the existing

and future demand. In this present energy scenario,
energy efficiency programs should be mandatory due to
their fiscal and social benefits to society [6].
II.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Energy efficiency should be taken critically because the

age of low-priced energy is completely over.
Furthermore, investment in energy efficiency measures
and solar power operated devices has tremendous fiscal
and social benefits as it often provides quick and better
financial returns [6].
II.1 Fiscal benefits

The fiscal return of energy efficiency measures is of
considerable amount. For example, European Union
estimates that realizing 1020% of efficiency potential in
the European use of electricity would save 1020 billion
European currency unit (ECU) annually in terms of fossil
fuels used [8], while in Malaysia, it is expected that
aggressive deployment of energy efficiency could save
about US $1.38 billion by 2015 [7].
A good example of the expected fiscal benefits of energy
efficiency measures is in the replacement of incandescent
electric bulbs with compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) or
light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Incandescent bulbs of
various ratings 60W, 100W, and 200W are the most
commonly used electric lamps in Agra. Out of which
100W and 200W bulbs are commonly used for brighter
illumination due to consistent drop in voltage experienced
by consumers,
Life cycle costing for the replacement of a 60W
incandescent bulb with a lifespan of 1,000 hours and
initial cost of Rs. 20 use in a room for 2,000 hours/year
with a 15-W CFL of initial cost of Rs. 85 and lifespan of
10,000 hours gave an annual savings of per bulb. When
considered from a point of view that millions of these
incandescent bulbs are in use all over the country, the
Exploration of Emerging Fiscal and Social Benefits through Energy Efficient Measures and Renewable Energy Resources in
Agra Region 13
saving potentials can then be appreciated. From every

indication, this is one area that holds the greatest
socioeconomic and environmental benefits in relation to
implementation of energy efficiency measures, not only
because of the low investment portfolio but also the quick
returns.
One can get the advantages of the fiscal benefits by
adopting the following measures as mentioned under a)
No-cost measures which may include actions such

as shutting doors to minimize air infiltration in airconditioned rooms, turning off lights when not in
use, increasing energy awareness, switching off air
conditioner, behavioral change, and switching to
low powered energy sources [6].
b) The low-cost measures needs low initial investment

and also having a payback period of less than a year
such as replacement of incandescent light bulbs with
CFLs.
c)
High-cost measures requiring high investment

capital with payback period usually more than 1
year, e.g., presence-detector control, promotion of
star rating appliances, installment of solar energy
operated devices such as solar water heater, solar
operated batteries, solar cooker etc.
such that it collects large amount of solar radiations

during sunny days. Hence, solar energy can be invariably
used to compensate the energy requirement. The
Government of India is also providing the substantial
subsidy for promotion of installation of the solar operated
devices in domestic sector, industrial sector and in
institutions.
However, these devices need an initial bulk investment
for installation and therefore, these are not so popular in
domestic users. But on the other hand these devices have
been significantly appreciated due to their long life by
institutions, commercial sectors, and the domestic users
living in a community. Also these devices have a great
potential to provide considerable amount of energy and
save money [9].
III. PARAMETERS INFLUENCING THE

ENERGY CONSUMPTION
There are various parameters which consistently influence
the energy consumption. The major factor is the mindset
of users that energy is abundantly available also it is
relatively not so cost effective. The other factors
identified may include income levels, size of settlements,
organizational structure, city, price of fuels, the
availability and accessibility of modern commercial fuels,
the efficiency of the end-use equipment, and availability
of renewable energy operated devices.
II.2 Social benefits

Also the energy efficiency measures provide a number of
social benefits. These benefits can be summarized as
followsd) It reduces costs and release funds for further
investment or in other social engagements.
e)
It ensures environmental savings since energy not

consumed cannot pollute the environment.
f)
Other social benefits include resource savings,

sustainable development, cleaner production, product
quality improvement etc.
III.1 Future Energy scenario

According to the Bureau of Energy Efficiency,
Government of India, the projected (peak) demand for
power will touch 125705 MW by the end of the 11th Plan
period. The power available or generated during the
above mentioned period will however be only 111725
MW. This indicates a national shortfall of nearly 13980
MW (11.12%) [4].
III.2 Energy surveys and audit
In connection to the above discussion, there is a need to

develop national standards and ratings for energy
application in order to discourage the use of below
standard and inefficient energy systems and take harsh
action against their future use [6].
II.3 Benefits of Renewable energy resources

Renewable energy resources can be considered as clean
and efficient sources of energy. The different sources of
renewable energies are solar, wind, tidal, biomass, biofuels etc. The geographical location of Agra region is
An energy audit is a study of a plant or facility to identify

the consumption areas of energy and also to explore
measures for energy savings. There is now a global
identification of the fact that Renewable energy resources
provide the most hopeful prospects for the future.
An Energy Audit is also defined as a systematic
procedure that obtains knowledge of the existing energy
consumption profile of the site and also identifies the
factors that have an effect on the energy consumption and
identifies the cost effective saving opportunities. This
procedure is summarized in three steps which represent
the basic requirement of all energy audit:
Evaluating the present energy consumption.
Identifying of energy saving possibilities.

Reporting audit.
The critical investigation of possible energy savings

through energy surveys and audits provide great
opportunity to measure progress towards the common
goal which is to develop in terms of GDP.
IV.
METHODOLOGY
Energy audit studies have been conducted to identify the

major consumption areas and also to explore the energy
savings potential. This potential has largely remained
untapped for a number of reasons. The main reason has
been the limited availability of expertise for carrying out
energy audits. Secondly, there has been inadequate
awareness of the energy audit process amongst the users,
which limits opportunities to save energy costs.
In the present work, an energy audit survey of an
organization and an institute in Agra region has been
carried out which shows a general use of old and less
efficient electric motors, inefficient lighting systems,
unacceptable use of electric power generators, and
insignificant use of renewable energy based devices.
V.
are replaced with energy efficient CFLs and LEDs then a

considerable amount of saving in energy and money
occurs simultaneously. Another saving opportunity is
explored by replacing poor motors with improved power
factor motors which gives a lot of amount of energy
saving.
Electricity and diesel are the two main sources of energy
which is commonly used in the factory audited. While
electricity is from the national grid, diesel is consumed in
generators to provide electricity due to frequent power
failures. Overall, the results of the audit show a great
potential for energy savings.
A survey of hostels of Dayalbagh Educational Institute
(Deemed University) in Agra region has also been carried
out. The solar water heater with headers have been
installed to compensate the requirement of energy to cook
the food and heat the water. At present the conventional
system i.e., LPG and solar water heating system is
running in parallel but in near future the LPG system will
be completely replaced with this system i.e., Solar Water
Heater.
The technical performance data collected from this solar
water heating system is shown in table-2.
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
A typical result of the industrial energy audit is shown in

table-1.
Table-1: Results of Energy Audit of Agra Industry
1.
Name of concern
B.L. Sinha and Sons
2.
Nature of concern
Small Scale Type
3.
Products
Precision Weights, beam

scales & measuring
Instruments
Table-2: Technical Performance Data of Solar Water

Heating System
Type of Fuel used (Previously)
LPG
Average Fuel Consumption

before installation of SWHS
42 in summer and
48 in winter (per
month)
Average fuel consumption after

installation of SWHS
30 in summer and
36 in winter (per
month)
Saving of LPG cylinder
12 (per month)
4.
Location
Indra Puri, Agra
No. of Solar collectors (It should

be replaced after 5 years)
05
5.
Working days/hours
of operation
6 days/week; 8 h/day
Type of food is cooked and for

how much time
Regular food and

two times
No. of Pressure double vessels

used (75 liters capacity)
01
No. of Vessels used for cooking

the food (75 liters capacity)
04
Steam Consumption
40-60 Kg per day
Pressure of Steam developed in

Header pipe (Gauge Pressure)
0.5 Bar 1.0 Bar
Temperature of steam developed
150oC - 200oC
Enthalpy of Steam
2706.7KJ/Kg
2722.1KJ/Kg
Data collected on energy consumption

1.
Energy types in use:
Electricity and diesel
2.
Quantity of diesel
consumed/week
20 liters; diesel cost, Rs.

42 per liter
The above industry has also one diesel-powered

generator. The company withdraws electrical power from
the national grid and consumes about 900 KWh of energy
monthly with utility charges of Rs. 5/KWh. A general
observation shows a significant use of incandescent lamps
of capacities ranging from 60 to 200 W. If all the bulbs
Exploration of Emerging Fiscal and Social Benefits through Energy Efficient Measures and Renewable Energy Resources in
Agra Region 15
The economic analysis of solar water heating system has

been evaluated and reported in tables 3, 4 and 5. Table-3
indicates the initial investment.
Table 3: Initial Investment
Cost of the system (Mainly 5 Rs. 15.5 Lakhs
collectors, 4 Vessels, Pipe etc. plus
5% Tax)
Govt. Subsidy
Rs. 4.32 Lakhs
Civil Construction
Rs. 75,000
Fixed cost component of new installation has been
calculated on annual basis and has been presented in
table-4.
Table 4: Fixed Cost Components
Fixed Cost Component
Rs/Yr
Depreciation only for five mirrors
Rs. 6000
collectors
Interest @ 8%
1,20,000
Maintenance
50,000
Wage / Salaries
36,000
Total Fixed Cost/Yr
2,12,000
The cost of energy considering fixed cost and recurring
component is summarized in table-5.
Table-5: Total cost of energy per unit basis.
Energy Cost, Rs/Kg
SHS Output
Fixed Cost, Rs/Kg
Rs. 26.57
Total Energy Cost, Rs/Kg
Rs. 26.57
LPG Cost per Kg.
Rs. 68
The fixed cost of energy is calculated by dividing the total
fixed cost by total energy consumed per year in Kg (570 x
14 = 7980Kg). The economics of energy cost has been
depicted in the figure 1.
VI. CONCLUSION
The investigation reveals that the energy efficiency
measures and renewable energy technologies considered
are similar drivers for adoption and uncovered benefits in
actual use. The deliberated implementation of energy
efficiency measures will improve the overall profitability,
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and worker health risks,
and promote corporate social responsibility as well as
sustainable development. However, in order to derive
maximum benefits offered by energy efficiency measures,
there is a need to evolve a national standard for energy
appliances and exploit the synergy between energy
efficiency and renewable energy systems.
The Government should also lay down the objective plan
about the energy efficiency and conservation program to
train the people specifically end users to adopt such
devices. These programs must be organized in every
organization and production units so that large number of
users get benefitted.
VII. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
National Energy Map for India: Technology Vision

2030. A PSA Report Summary.
Energy management handbook, John Wiley and Sons
- Wayne C. Turner
Guide to Energy Management, Cape Hart, Turner and
Kennedy
The Bureau of Energy Efficiency India, www.beeindia.nic.in
Sally Caird et al., Improving the energy performance
of UK households: Results from surveys of consumer
adoption and use of low- and zero-carbon
technologies, Energy Efficiency (2008) 1:149166.
Godwin et al., Potential economic and social benefits
of promoting energy efficiency measures in Nigeria,
Energy Efficiency.
Keong, C. Y. (2005). Energy demand, economic
growth, and energy efficiencythe Bakun daminduced sustainable energy policy revised. Energy
Policy, 33, 679689.
Jin-Li, Hu, & Kao, C.-H. (2007), Efficient energy
saving targets for APEC economies. Energy Policy,
35, 373382.
Gupta, A., Rao, D.G., Energy efficient measures and
renewable energy resources to improve energy saving
in domestic sector, Proceedings of National
Conference at Gwalior, p.p., 85-89, 2012.
Energy Conservation by Optimizing

Insulation Thickness for Building
Subhash Mishra1, Dr. J A Usmani2, Sanjeev Varshney3
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, M.T.U., Indraprastha Engineering College, Ghaziabad (U.P.), India.
1
subhashmishra.2008@rediffmail.com
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, J.M.I., Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India.
2
jausmani@yahoo.com
3
Mechanical Engineering Department, M.T.U., Indraprastha Engineering College, Ghaziabad (U.P.), India.
3
svarshney_ipec@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
optimizing the thermal insulation thickness are the energy

requirement, and insulation cost.
The thermal energy conservation in commercial building

by using the critical thickness of insulation is discussed in
this paper. The thermal insulation has a very important
and direct role to play in the conservation of thermal
energy. To cope up with the enormous increase in energy
costs, over the years, there have been significant changes
in the materials, design considerations and application
practices in thermal insulation systems. For insulation, it
is not always necessary to have low thermal conductivity.
Aluminum foil have five thousand times greater
conductivity than low temperature insulation but also
works as insulator when used with air space. In recent,
the design of thermal insulation system is given due
importance. How much insulation is to be used and how
is to be applied is discussed?
Keywords: Optimum insulation thickness, life-cycle

analysis, heating load, environmental impact
In Thermal insulation, those materials are used which are

resistance to heat, fire and non expensive. While using
proper type, size and thickness of insulation and
improving maintenance of the insulation, the system could
result in saving in cost as well as power. Evacuated multilayer insulation has become widely used for high
performance insulation application. We consider resin
bonded rockwool products for hot insulation and foam
insulation materials like polyurethane material for cold
insulation.
The life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) method is used to
calculate the total heating cost of the insulating building.
Optimization technique is used to calculate the optimum
thickness of insulation.
This paper has presented the results of a parametric
analysis which is carried out to investigate the effect of
various parameters on the optimum insulation for
external walls by considering payback period, total cost
and energy savings. This paper has also showed that the
parameters having the most significant effect on
I. INTRODUCTION
The use of insulation materials to decrease heat transfer
to/from surfaces has been in practice for many years.
Recent concerns of energy conservation and awareness of
the limited energy resources encouraged revisiting the
problem of thermal insulation. Most of the available
studies focus on insulating air-conditioned buildings.
Energy conservation is an increasingly important issue for
the residential sector, which accounts for a substantial
share of global energy demand (approx. 30-40%).
Thermal insulation appears to be one of the more valuable
tools in achieving energy conservation in buildings and
determining the economic thickness of insulation
materials used in building envelops has become the main
goal of many investigations. For that reason, numerous
studies have been conducted to optimize the thermal
insulation thickness based on degree days. Increasing the
insulation thickness of a building decreases the heats of a
building. But increasing insulation thickness that you
have to invest more money. Total cost of heating consist
of two cost parameter; fuel and insulation costs insulation
materials used, all have a certain lifetime. Therefore, after
a certain value of insulation thickness, although the fuel
cost still continuous to decrease, this decrease is not
enough for the compensation of the increased insulation
cost. So, there is a thickness value which is an
economically optimum.
II.
LITERATURE REVIEW
ABDALLAB M.A et.al.[1] described the saving energy

lost from steam boiler vessels . Aytac.A. [2], calculated
the optimum insulation thicknesses based on heating fuel
types. Aziz, A [3] presented a comprehensive literature
Energy Conservation by Optimizing Insulation Thickness for Building 17
review on the critical insulation thickness. In this analysis,

the optimum economic insulation thickness for all
building types is determined. The effects of insulation
thickness on the total heating cost of insulated buildings
are also study. BUNDAY,D.B.,[4] explain the basic
optimization methods for different types of building
materials. Comakli and Yuksel [5] determined the
optimum insulation thicknesses for the cities of Erzurum,
Kars, and Erzincan located in the cold regions of Turkey,
and found that the optimum insulation thicknesses were
0.104, 0.107 and 0.085m, respectively, for each city when
coal was used for heating. Dincer. I.[6] describe the
globally significant pollution due to emission of
CO2,SO2,NOx and CO. Environmental concern has
extended to the control of hazardous air pollutants which
are usually toxic chemical substances that are harmful
even in small doses, as well as to other globally
significant pollutants such as carbon dioxide. Dombayer.
O. A.et.al.[7] investigated the environmental impact of
optimum insulation thickness. In the calculations, coal
was used as the fuel source and the expended polystyrene
as insulation material. He found that when the optimum
insulation thickness is used, the emissions of CO2 and
SO2 are decreased by 41.53%. Dombayer,O.A. [8], in his
studies, used different fuels and insulation materials. At
the end of the study, it is indicated that when the coal is
used as fuel and expended polystyrene is used as a
insulation material, they determine the life cycle saving
for optimum insulation thickness is 14.09$/m2 and
payback period is 1.43 year. Dombayer,
O.A. [8], in his studies, used different fuels and insulation
materials. At the end of the study, it is indicated that when
the coal is used as fuel and expended polystyrene is used
as a insulation material, they determine the life cycle
saving for optimum insulation thickness is 14.09$/m2 and
payback period is 1.43 year. Hasan.A. [9] used life-cycle
method in determination of the optimum insulation
thickness. The results showed energy saving as 21 $/m2
for polystyrene and rock wool. At the end of the study,
the payback period is determined as 1-1.7 year for rock
wool and 1.3-2.3 years for polystyrene.
Kaynakli. O.A. [10], the variation of annual heating
energy requirement of the building for various
architectural design properties (the air inflation rate, the
glazing type, and the glazing area) and the optimum
insulation thicknesses for different fuel types were
investigated. Ocak. M. [11] focused only on the excessive
use of fossil fuel causes air pollution and is accepted as
the main cause of global warming. These are the costs of
insulation materials and fuel. For 1 m2 external wall CO2
and SO2 emissions were calculated. During the use of
different fuels, alteration of CO2 and SO2 emissions for
1m2 external wall were indicated in fig1.
III. BUILDING MATERIALS AND

STRUCTURE OF EXTERNAL WALLS
In India, the external wall insulation applications are
generally made by the sandwiches wall type. The
structure of external wall is made by 2cm internal plaster,
13.5cm horizontal hollow brick, 8.5cm insulating
material, 13.5cm horizontal hollow brick and 2cm
external plaster. In this analysis, the calculations were
carried out for a sample wall as shown in figure 1.
Fig. 1: Structure of sandwich wall
IV. MATHEMATICAL MODELS FOR

HEATING LOAD
Heat loss in building is because of the surface of external
wall, window, ceiling and air infiltration. In the analysis,
heating loss is observed only on the external wall surface.
The heat loss per unit area of external wall is
q= U (Tb Ta)
(1)
Where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient. Tb is the

base temperature and Ta is mean daily temperature.
Annual heating loss can be calculated according to value
of the degree day
qA = 86400DDU
(2)
Where DD is the degree days.
The annual energy requirement can be calculated by
dividing the annual heat loss to the efficiency of the
heating system ns .
EA= 84600DDU/ns
(3)
The overall heat transfer coefficient U for a typical wall
that includes a layer of insulation
U = 1/ Ri+Rw+Rins+Ro
(4)
Where Ri and Ro are the inside and outside air film
thermal resistance respectively. Rw is total thermal
resistance of the composite sandwich wall material

without the insulation and Rins is the thermal resistance
of the insulation layer. If Rtw is the total wall resistance
excluding the insulation, then equation (4) can be written
as
U = 1/ (Rtw+ Rins )
(5)
If x and k are the thickness and thermal conductivity of
the insulation.
Then Rins = x/K
(6)
Putting the value of Rins in equation (5), we get
U = 1/ (Rtw+ x/K )
( 7)
As a result, the annual heating load is then given by

EA = 86400DD/ (Rtw+ x/k ) ns
(8)
The cost of insulation is given by

Cins = Ci x
(14)
Where Ci is the cost of insulation.

The total heating cost of the insulated building is
Ct = CA PWF + Ci x
(15)
The optimum insulation thickness is obtained by

minimizing total heating cost of insulation building (Ct).
So the derivative of Ct with respect to x is taken and equal
to zero from which the optimum insulation thickness Xopt
obtained.
Xopt = 293.94( DD Ct PWF K / HU. Ci ns )0.5 K Rtw (16)
Then payback period (PP) is calculated by solving the
equation
Where ns is the efficiency of space heating system.

Cins/As = (1+ r )PP 1 / r (1+ r)PP
And the annual fuel consumptions is
mfa= 86400DD/ (Rtw+ x/k ) LHV. ns
(9)
Where LHV is lower heating value of fuel.
V. ENERGY SAVING AND

OPTIMIZATION OF INSULATION
THICKNESS
The life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) is used in this
analysis. It determines the cost analysis of a system. The
total cost of heating over the life time of the insulation
material which was taken as 10 years. Total heating cost
is indicated together with life cycle (N) and presents
worth factor (PWF). PWF can be calculated by using
inflation range g and interest rate i. Inflation and the
interest rate are calculated as 10 % and 8 %. The interest
rate adapted for inflation rate r is given by
Where Cins/As is the simple pay-back period and this

value does not take interest rate into account. As is the
amount of annual savings obtained by insulation.
Energy saving during the life time of insulation material
can be calculated
Es = Cto - Cins
(18)
Where Cto = Total heating costs of building when
insulation is not
Cins = total heating costs of building when insulation is
applied
and expression of energy saving = ( Es / Cto ) x 100 (19)
calculation of combustion process
All the unit prices, lower heating values and efficiencies
of heating systems that were used in the analysis are given
in table 1.
Case I, If i>g , then

r = ( i g ) /(1+g )
(10)
Case II, If g>i , then

r = ( g i ) /(1+ i)
(11)
FUEL
(12)
Coal
Natural
Gas
Fuel oil
and PWF = (1+ r )N 1 / r (1+ r)N

Case III, If i=g , then
PWF = N /1 + i
The annual energy cost used for heating the unit of area is
calculated by
CA = 86400DD Cf /[ (Rtw+ x/k ) HU ns]
13)
Where Cf is the cost of the fuel and HU is the heating
value of fuel.
17)
Table 1 : Properties of fuels and heating systems.
LPG
Electricity
PRICE
18 Rs/kg
LHV
23.023x106 j/kg
ns (%)
70%
7.954Rs/m3
34.534x106 j/m3
90%
25 Rs/kg
40.604x106 j/kg
82%
30Rs/kg
3.25Rs/kwh
46.046x10 j/kg
3.599x106 j/kwh
90%
99%
In building, increasing the insulation thickness reduces

heat loss. This situation causes to bring down the fuel
consumption and air pollution. The general chemical
formula of combustion for fuels is
Cx Hy Oz Su Nv + a(O2 + 376 N2 ) = x Co +y/2(H20)+ u

(20)
SO2 +( -1)a O2 + B N2
Where a= (x+y/4+u-z/2)
B = 376 x (x+y/4+u-z/2) +V/2
(21)
NOx and CO emission are neglected.

For finding the cost of insulation, properties and cost of
rockwool insulation material is given in table 2.
Table 2: Properties and cost of insulation materials
Thickness
(m)
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.1
Rockwool
cost
(Rs/m3)
7500
7150
6500
6000
Rockwool (
=52kg/m3) R(thermal
resistant)
0.75
1.00
1.25
2.5
The emission rate of combustion products resulting from

the burning 1kg of fuel
M CO2 = x. CO2 /M = Kg. CO2 / Kg fuel
(22)
M SO2 = x. SO2 /M = Kg .SO2 / Kg fuel
(23)
M CO2 = 44x mf / M
(24)
M SO2 = 64U mf / M
(25)
Table 2: Degree days for a base temperature of 20C

and main daily temperatures
Place
Degree Days
Main Daily
(0c Days)
Tempratures (0c)
Hot Place
1481
+3
Cold Place
3214
-12
Table 3: The parameters used in calculation of
optimum thickness
Parameter
Value
Degree-Days(0c Days)
From Table 2
Fuel
From Table 1
Extruded Polystyrene Conductivity
0.031w/m-k
(K)
Cost (Ci)
4400 Rs/m3
Rock Wool Conductivity (K)
0.039 w/m-k
Cost (Ci)
3200 RS/m3
External Walls Interior Plaster
0.872 w/m-k
Conductivity (K)
Brick Conductivity (K)
0.45 w/m-k
External Plaster Conductivity (K)
0.872 w/m-k
R+W
0.59 m2k/w
Lifetime, N
10 Years
Optimum Ins ulation T hic knes s Vs S td. G las s wool
T hic knes s in Hot C limate
0.12
0.1
opt
(m )
0.08
Where M is the weight of mole for fuel which can be

calculate M = 12x+y+16Z+32U+14V results
C oal
0.06
F ill Oil
0.04
Natural G as
E lectricity
0.02
0
0
Increasing the insulation thickness of a building decreases

the heat loss of a building, but, increasing insulation
thickness means that you have to invest more money.
Total cost of heating consists of two cost parameters; fuel
and insulation costs. Insulation materials used, all have a
certain lifetime. Therefore, after a certain value of
insulation thickness, although the fuel cost still continues
to decrease; this decrease is not enough for the
compensation of increased insulation cost. So there is a
thickness value which is an economically optimum.
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
S tandard G lass w ool Thic kness (m)
Fig. 2: Optimum insulation thickness versus standard

Glasswool thickness for hot climate
Optimum Ins ulation T hic knes s vs S td. R oc kwool T hic knes s in C old
C limate
0.09
0.08
0.07
opt
0.05
C oal
0.04
F ill O il
From equation (16), it can be seen that the optimum

insulation thickness depends on parameters such as the
price of fuel, price of the insulation material, properties of
the wall, insulation material and the PWF. The optimum
economic insulation thickness is calculated from equation
(16), and the parameters being used are given in table 2
and table 3.the unit prices, lower heating values and
efficiencies of heating systems that were used in the
analysis are given in table 1.
(m )
0.06
Natural G as
0.03
E lectric ity
0.02
0.01
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
S ta nda rd R ockwool T hic kness (m)

rockwool thickness in cold climate
Optimum Insulation Thicknes s vs S tandard Glass wool Thickness for

cold climate
E mis sion of C O 2 vs Insulation Thicknes s

90
y ea r)
0.16
opt
(m )
0.12
Coal
0.1
Fuel Oil
0.08
LP G
0.06
Natural Gas
0.04
E lectricity
0.02
E m i s s i o n o f C O 2 ( k g /m
0.14
80
70
60
50
40
C oal
30
Fuel Oil
20
10
0
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.05

Glasswool thickness in cold climate
0.2
0.25
Fig. 6: Emission of co2 versus insulation thickness

E mis s ion of S O 2 vs Ins ulation Thicknes s in C old C limate
Optimum Insulation Thickness vs S tandard R ockwool Thickness in cold

climate
y e a r)
0.12
Coal
0.08
Fule Oil
0.06
LPG
Natural Gas
0.04
E lectricity
0.02
E m i s s i o n o f S O 2 ( k g /m
0.14
0.3
0.1
(m )
0.15
Insulation Thickness (m)
S tandard Glasswool Thickness for cold climate (m)
opt
0.1
0.25
0.2
0.15
Coal
Fuel Oil
0.1
0.05
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Insulation Thickness in cold climate (m)
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
S tandard Rockwool Thickness (m)

rockwool thickness in cold climate
From the figure (2-5), it can be concluded that the
optimum insulation thickness change by increasing the
insulation material thickness due to the decrease in the
unit cost of the materials. It is important to note that the
standard thicknesses in the X axes of these figures
actually do not represent sizes but unit prices. Therefore
the optimum values found are actually the values
corresponding to that unit price. For 1m2 external wall
CO2 and SO2 emission were calculated by equation 24 &
25. During the use of different fuels, alteration of CO2 and
SO2 emissions for 1m2 external wall were presented in
fig. 6 & 7. By raising the insulation thickness, the annual
heating loss of the external wall is decreased. As a result
of this emission are decreased too.
Fig. 7: Emission so2 versus insulation thickness in cold

climate
CO2 and SO2 emissions amount which were calculated for
different insulation materials. Annual CO2 and SO2
emissions when coal is used as fuel is presented in table 4
Table 4: Annual CO2 and SO2 emissions when coal is
used as fuel
Insulation
Material
Place
Rock
Wool
Cold
Climate
Emission
CO2
(kg/m2year)
8.2
Emission SO2
(kg/m2year)
.025
It is possible to decrease of CO2 and SO2 emissions in big

amounts by implementations of insulation especially in
the cold regions.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
According to the results obtained, insulation becomes
more necessary if you are in a colder climate and using a
more expensive heating system. In any case insulation
means less fuel consumption therefore less emission.
Considering this all the governments should promote
ways of decreasing energy use including insulation. With
increasing insulation thickness the emission of CO2 and
SO2 is gradually decrease. The decision to using
additional insulation on walls with little thermal
resistance is adopted as an economic and technical
solution. This decision has to be made after analyzing the
variation curves of the annual costs of energy. The energy
saving is maintained by reducing the energy consumption
in buildings. For this reason, the energy saving can be
obtained by using proper insulation material in external
walls and roof of building. The result of the study shows
that optimum insulation thickness is between 0.15 to 0.20
m.
VII. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
ABDALLAB M.A.; ISMAIL L.A., Saving energy

lost from steam boiler vessels, Renewable Energy
23(3-4), PP 537-550, 2001.
AYTAC, A.; AKSOY, U.T., The relation between
optimum insulation thickness and heating cost on
external walls for energy saving., Faculty Engg.
Archit, Gazi University, 21, PP 753-758, 2006.
[3]
AZIZ, A., Critical thickness of insulation., Heat

Transfer Eng., vol.18, no. 2, PP 61-91,1997.
[4] BUNDAY, D.B., Basic optimization methods, PP
93-97, Edward Arnold, London, 1984.
[5] COMAKLI, K.; YUKSEL, B., Optimum insulation
thickness of external walls for energy saving., Appl.
Therm. Eng. 23, PP 473-479, 2003.
[6] DINCER, I, Energy and environmental impacts;
present and future perspectives, Energy Sources
20(4-5), PP 427-453, 1998.
[7] DOMBAYER, O.A., The environmental impact of
optimum insulation thickness for external walls of
buildings, Building and Environment 42, PP 38553859, 2007.
[8] DOMBAYCR, O.A; GOLCU, M.; PANCER Y.,
Optimization of insulation thickness for external
walls using different energy sources., Applied
Energy, 83, PP 921-928, 2006.
[9] HASAN, A., Optimizing insulation thickness for
building using life cycle cost., Applied Energy, 63,
PP 115-124,1999.
[10] KAYNAKLI, O.; A study on residential heating
energy requirement and optimum insulation
thickness, Renewable Energy, 33, PP 1164-1172,
2008.
[11] OCAK, M., OCAK,Z., BILGON,S. Energy
utilization environmental pollution and renewable
energy sources in Turkey, Energy Conversion and
Management 45(6), PP 845-864, 2004.
Experimental Investigation of the Performance

and Emission Parameters of Karanja Oil Blends
with Diesel in a CI Engine
Saurabh Kumar Gupta1, DhananjaySingh2, Gandhi Pullagura3
1, 2, 3
Department of mechanical engineering, Lovely Professional University

guptasaurabh365@gmail.com, 2dhananjay200891@gmail.com, 3gandhipullagura@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
An experimental investigation has been carried out to
analyze the performance and emission characteristics of
esterified Karanja oil (a bio-diesel) in different
proportions with diesel. We all know that in present
alternative & Non conventional fuels is the future of
transportation and power sector and karanja is one of
them. Karanja oil a non-edible has more high viscosity
and density so low efficient then after heating with
alcohols (transesterification process) in presence of
potassium hydroxide(KOH) as a catalyst we found
glycerine and karanja oil as a more efficient bio-fuel
called methyl ester of karanja(KME). In this experiment
to evaluate the performance and emission parameter we
use a compression ignition engine of duel fuel mode. We
pick diesel and mix the more efficient karanja oil in
different proportions as (10% KME + 90% diesel), (20%
KME+ 80% diesel), (30% KME + 70% diesel) and (40%
KME + 60% diesel) so investigating the thermal
efficiency, break specific fuel consumption(BSFC) and
exhaust gas temperature we found the higher
performance and lower emission parameter relative to
diesel.
Keywords: Bio-diesel, emission, bio-fuel proportion, CI
engine, emulsion.
I. INTRODUCTION
Fossil fuels are one of the major sources of energy in the
world today. Their popularity can be accounted to easy
usability, availability and cost effectiveness. But the
limited reserves cause issue. Presently the world is
confronted with two major issues; fossil fuel depletion
and environmental degradation. Indiscriminate extraction
and high consumption of fossil fuels have led to reduction
in crude oil resources. The search for an alternative fuel
which promises a harmonious correlation with sustainable
development, energy conservation and management is a
big issue. We have a lot of processes for alternative as
solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, geothermal and a
lot but everyone has its own problems and one of the
alternatives is Biomass. Biomass is organic matter

produced by plant, both terrestrial (those grown on land)
and aquatic (those grown in water) and their derivatives.
It includes forest crops and residues crops grown
especially for their energy content on energy farms and
animal manure. Unlike coal oil, and natural gas, which
takes millions of years to form, biomass can be
considered a renewable energy source because plant life
renews and adds to itself every year and India with the
high rate of economic growth and increase in the
population is the significant consumer of energy
resources. India lacks in sufficient energy reserves and
dependent on oil imports, but India has an abundant
resource of vegetable oils. The use of vegetable oil in a
diesel engine is not a new concept. It was used in starting
by Rudolf diesel with the blend of peanut oil with diesel.
Vegetable oil has importance due to its easy availability,
renewability and environment friendly nature. However
major disadvantage of vegetable oil is its viscosity, which
is much higher than that of diesel. A lot of research has
been over and a lot is going on. Avinash Agarwal et al.
[3] carried out experiments on diesel engine running on
karanja oil and their blends. Even without preheating
engine was running successfully, they concluded that
performance and emission characteristics are well
comparable with that of diesel and also up to 50% with
and without preheating can be used in diesel engines.
Bajpai et al. [4] tested performance and emission
characteristics of karanja SVO blending with diesel and
concluded that without major engine modifications
blending up to 10 percentages can be utilized in the
existing engine. In order to study the effect of injector
opening pressure (IOP) on performance, emission and
combustion characteristics of diesel engine running on
blends of karanja. Gandhi pullagura [5] carried out
experiments on diesel engine using karanja oil with
enrichment of hydrogen and got brake thermal efficiency
was 11.8%, 27.6% and 34.4% for WPO-MEK, WPOMEK with 2lpm of hydrogen and WPO-MEK with 4lpm
of hydrogen respectively at full load and Siddalingappa R.
Hotti [6] carried the blending operation with karanja and
diesel and got highest output in 15% blend between diesel
and karanja and the objective of this experiment is to
Experimental Investigation of the Performance and Emission Parameters of Karanja Oil Blends with Diesel in a CI Engine
23
investigate the performance and emission parameters after

transesterified karnaja oil (KME) with blends with diesel.
II.
KARNAJA AND ITS PROPERTY
Petroleum and other bio products are the mixture of more

than four hundred hydrocarbons and nitrogen elements asnormal paraffin, iso-paraffins, olifins, aromatic paraffin,
cyclo paraffin and a lot. Karanja with the scientific name
Pongamia Pinnata is one of the forest-based tree-borne
non-edible oil with a production potential of 135,000
metric tons per year in India. It is one of the few nitrogen
fixing trees (NFTs), which produce seeds containing 30
40% oil and able to grow in bad sand and poor water able
conditions. Air dried karanja have approximately 19%
moisture, 27.5% fatty oil, 17.4% protein, 6.6% starch,
7.3% crude fibre and 2.4% fatty acid composition. A
single tree having a capacity of 10-900 kg seed (in wt. Per
year) means 900-9000 kg seed per ha. Karanja (69.6) has
quite more viscosity than diesel (3.06) so density is also
high et ag.[2]. In term of calorific values karnaja
approximately near to diesel and cetane number also
shows the difference due to viscous nature of molecules
so this causes the high emission of CO2 and nitro gases
NOx type gases and low performance parameters shown
clearly in table 1 which is for karanja property and shows
a clear description about karanja so we are using the
transesterification process to reduce the viscosity.
TABLE 1 : Karanja oil properties

PROPERTIES
DIESEL
KARANJA OIL
Viscosity at 30 C (cSt)
3.06
69.6
Density (kg m )
860
911
Flash point (C)
76
230
Calorific value (kJ/kg)
42,490
38,416
Cetane number
50
39
Pour point (C)
16
Carbon residue (%)
0.1
0.71
Production of MEK:
MEK used in this investigation was obtained from the
transesterification process of karanja oil. The sequence of
processes in production of MEK is presented in
Figure1.Karanja oil is mixed with methanol, and catalyst
sodium hydroxide (NaOH)[7]. The mixture is heated and
maintained at 65oC for one hour, while heating, the
solution is stirred continuously with stirrer. Two distinct
layers are formed, the lower layer is glycerine and the
upper layer is ester. The upper layer is separated with
moisture and the ester is removed by using calcium
chloride. Moisture content in the methyl ester is removed
by adding the silica gel crystal. In the figure 1 the process
of tranesterification is explained and in figure 2 and 3
represents the karanja tree and its fruits pictorial view.
Fige 1. Process for production of karanja methyl ester

(KEM).
Fig. 2: Karnaja tree
Fig. 3: Karnaja Seed
24 International Conference on Manufacturing

ufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)
TABLE -2- Engine Specification

Make
Kirloskar
Type of Engine
Four stroke, single

cylinder, DI diesel engine
Speed
1500 rpm
Bore
87.5 mm
Stroke
110 mm
Compression ratio
17.5
Method of cooling
Air cooled with radial fan
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

DISCUSSI
Performance Parameters:1.
Break thermal efficiency
Fig. 4: Karnaja fruit
The variation of break thermal efficiency with break

power is shown in fig 5 the break thermal efficiency
is moves around 18-14
14 with diesel and similar with
KEM emulsion respectively at full load. The break
thermal efficiency shows the variation in different
differe
proportions KEM10, KEM20, KEM30, KEM40 like
similar way as shown in figure 6.
Experimental Setup:
FUEL TANK
AIR TANK
GAS ANALYZER
35
30
BREAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
In the present work, we can divide the experimental setup

into two parts. First one is the process in which we are
doing the transesterification to get the KME (karanja
methyl ester ) and in the next one so the experiments were
carried out by using diesel and their various blends of
karanja methyl ester (KME10, KME20, KME30,KEM40)
with diesel at different load conditions for this we are
using the engine of kirloskar four stroke, single cylinder
diesel engine having 1500 rpm and rest the configurations
is shown
hown in table 2 and the experimental setup is shown in
the fig 5
25
20
DIESEL
KME10
15
KME20
10
KME30
5
KME40
0
0
ENGINE
BREAKE POWER(KW)
Fig. 6: variation
ariation of break thermal
ther
efficiency with
break power
Break specific energy consumption (BSEC)
Fig. 5: Experimental Setup
Variation of break specific energy consumption with

break power is shown in figure-7
Experimental Investigation of the Performance and Emission Parameters of Karanja Oil Blends with Diesel in a CI Engine
25
25
KME proportions due to low fuel injection and good

burning as we increase the load then the emission also
increased.
20
16
10
DIESEL
14
KME10
12
Hydro Carbon(ppm)
SEC
15
KME DIESEL
KME10
KME20
KME30
10
KME20
5
KME30
KME40
0
0
Brake Power(kW)
8
6
4
2
0
0
Fig. 7: Variation of specific energy consumption and

break power.
It is shown via graph on each case of proportion the
energy consumption is similar to diesel so it has a good
SEC compare to diesel because of cost and shows 10%
better.
Exhaust gas temperature:
2
4
6
Brake Power(kW)
Fig. 9: variation of hydrocarbon emission with break
power.
2. CO Emission:
The variation of carbon monoxide emission with break
power on different proportions of KME shown and shows
little bit equivalent reading for different proportions and
increment in CO emission.
The variation of exhaust gas temperature (EGT) with

break power is shown in fig6 and the graph shows that on
increment of break power the EGT is also increasing and
as we increase the proportion the EGT is increasing.
0.016
DIESEL
KME10
KME20
KME 30
KME 40
0.014
0.012
CO (ppm)
350
Exhaust gas Temperature
300
250
200
0.008
0.006
0.004
DIESEL
KME10
KME20
KME30
KME40
150
100
50
0
0.002
0
0
Break Power (KW)

0
Brake Power(kW)
Fig. 8: Variation of exhaust gas temperature and
break power
Emission parameters:
1.
0.01
Hydrocarbon emission:
The variation of HC with respect of break power is shown

in graph 7 and from figure we can observe that on
application of low load we can see that the HC is low for
Fig: 10- Variation of CO emission with break power in

KW.
3. CO2 emission:
The below graph shows the variation of co2 emission on
increment of break power on different proportions of
MEK and diesel for the it is quite clear that due to high
viscosity the co2 emission is quite high in case of MEK
and in proportions at highest load the diesel shows the 0.6
and in case of KME the values moves around 1.8 approx
and in low load the variation is quite low in both cases.
2.5
DIESEL
2
KME10
KME20
KME30
CO2%
1.5
KME40
1
0.5
The BSCE is also similarly shows the balance with

the reduction of .5 % extra fuel in KME case.
It shows overall 8-9 % increment in case of
proportional mixture of diesel and KME for
performance parameters.
In case of emission parameters emission is quite high
shows 5 % increment in NO case, little lower CO and
CO2 emission.
So the future perpective is to reduce the NO emission
and use the extra heat produced by engine in case of
high viscous fluid.
V.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
0
0
Brake Power(kW)
Fig. 11: variation of CO2 emission with break power.
The first author want to thank Mr. Venkateswarlu

Velisala and Mr. Gandhi Pullagura (Ass. prof. LPU) to
give directions, their support and help for research
initiative during the whole work. Special thank to my
parents and friends for their great hidden support and love
during the work.
4. NO emission:The biggest issue with the vegetable oils is NO emission

and in case of MEK it is clearly shown in graphs in case
of full load where the diesel NO emission is at 100 ppm
and in case of KME proportion value moves around 350
to 400 ppm which is quite high so this is workable part of
future.
450
DIESEL
KME10
KME20
KME30
KME40
400
NO(PPM)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
2
3
Brake Power(kW)
Fig. 12: variation of NO emission with break power
IV. CONCLUSION
The following conclusions are drawn from the results of
the investigation on the performance and emissions of a
single cylinder four stroke air cooled direct injection
diesel engine fuelled with KME in different proportion
with diesel.
The break thermal efficiency is shows parallel results

with diesel on full load.
VI. REFERENCES
Ganesan, V (2003). Internal combustion engine. 2nd
ed. New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill
[2] Pundir, B.P. (2007). Engine Emissions. New Delhi:
Narosa publishing house
[3] Avinash Kumar Agarwal. (2008). Karanja oil.
Experimental investigation of performance and
emission of Karanja oil and its blend in a single
cylinder agricultural diesel engine, p1-7.
[4] S. Bajpai, P. K. Sahoo and L. M. Das, Feasibility of
Blending Karanja Vegetable Oil in Petro-Diesel and
Utilization in a Direct Injection Diesel Engine, Fuel,
Vol. 88, No. 4, 2009, pp. 705-711
[5] R.Prakash1, Gandhi Pullagura2, R.K.Singh3and S.
Murugan4, Karanja oil. Effect of Hydrogen
Enrichment on thePerformance and Emissions of a
Diesel Engine Fueled with Bio-fuel Emulsions, vol 1
no1, 2011, p1-7.
[6] Siddalingappa R. Hotti, Omprakash Hebbal (2011).
Karanja oil. Performance and Combustion
Characteristics of Single Cylinder Diesel Engine
Running on Karanja Oil/Diesel Fuel Blends, p1-5.
[7] Saswat Rath. Author Guidelines for 8 of Bio-Oil
Blends in an Automotive Diesel Engine. Vol1 no 1 p
3-7.
[8] Dr. A. Rehman, Dr. R.M. Sarviya, Rajesh Kumar
Pandey. Investigation to ascertain the possibilities of
using non ediable karanja oil in CI engine with
various oil modifications. Vol 1 no 1 P 2-5.
[9] PCRA. http://www.pcra-biofuels.org/ Karanj.htm.
Karanja. 5th jan 2012
[10] Saswat Rath. Report on performance and emission
analysis of blends of karanja methyl ester in a CI
engine. B.Tech report paper. P 7-10
[1]
Low Carbon Future: Challenges and

Opportunities for Energy Sector
Iqbal Khan1, Ashish Sharma2
1
Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, AMU, Aligarh

Student, Department of Civil Engineering, AMU, Aligarh
1
khankalpi@gmail.com
2
technopreneur.ashish@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The need to address climate change while facilitating
continued economic growth and social progress is one of
the key challenges facing world leaders today. Energy is
critical to continued economic growth .It is essential that
we meet the challenge of reducing our reliance on fossil
fuels by improving the sustainability of large-scale power
stations and focusing on the role that smaller scale
decentralized energy generation can play. A step change
is needed in how we generate and supply electricity,
making a transition to decentralized energy and power
based on low and zero carbon technologies. This creates
a new role for local authorities, their communities and
stakeholders to be sustainable energy pioneers. Planning
and developing local energy solutions involves exploring
which combination of technologies makes most sense at
different scales looking at the opportunities for new and
existing building typologies and uses and the relationship
of a town or city to its rural hinterland. Planning provides
a crucial tool to help us prevent further damage to our
environment through the provision of secure and
sustainable energy supply and generation.
Keywords: Energy, Sustainability, Green house gases,
renewable, sustainable energy, reliable, efficient, zero
carbon technologies, Carbon capture and sequestration,
Smart grid technologies.
I. INTRODUCTION
Increasing urbanization and climate change belong to the
greatest challenges of the 21st century. Up to 80% of
global greenhouse gas emissions are estimated to
originate in urban areas. Therefore, low carbon city
strategies and concepts implicate large greenhouse gas
(GHG) mitigation potentials. At the same time, with high
population and infrastructure densities as well as
concentrated economic activities, cities are particularly
vulnerable to the impact of climate change and need to
adapt. Scarce natural resources further constrain the
leeway for long-term, sustainable urban development.
This paper on Low Carbon Future aims at tapping this
three-dimensional challenge and shall develop an

integrated strategy / roadmap, which balances low carbon
development, gains in resource efficiency and adaptation
to climate change. Towns and cities will require an energy
strategy in order to realise their 2050 vision of a low
carbon energy supply. This section explores the practical
steps required to develop an energy portfolio, including
the development of future scenarios, the identification of
energy technologies and the coordination and monitoring
of progress.
II.
TECHNOLOGY
Carbon Capture and Sequestration

There are certain key technologies that require rapid
development to offer medium term reductions. The
principle one is CCS without this technology, achieving
the targets described, will either be unfeasible or
significantly more costly. A broad portfolio of technology
investments is required, including solar, nuclear,
sustainable biofuels, IT and smart grid technologies, as
well as basic R&D for the third generation of lowemissions technologies. New mechanisms are required to
encourage low-emissions technology diffusion in
developing countries and to reduce barriers to intellectual
property access. Capture and storage of CO2 is defined by
most international bodies, including the UK Department
of Energy and Climate Change (DECC), as referring to
capture of CO2 from point sources combined with
geological storage of CO2.
While carbon capture and geological storage (CCS) can
make a significant contribution to carbon dioxide
abatement in the United Kingdom and abroad, there is
also the possibility of CO2 utilisation in building material
production, for fuels or in the chemical industry. This
paper explains that, in parallel to CCS, capture and
utilisation of CO2 (CCU) can contribute to a green
economy and suggests that possibilities for funding
technology development be considered.
Clean Development Mechanism
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of the

Kyoto Protocols flexible instruments and is designed to
mitigate climate change by encouraging investments in
low-GHG technologies in developing countries. The
CDM has succeeded in bringing clean energy technology
to some countries in the developing world. Yet many
projects have been weighed down by lengthy approval
processes and high transaction costs, meaning hundreds of
projects have been stopped at the starting gates. Those
that have succeeded have focused on a select group of
countries like China, Brazil and India, where existing
market potential is high.
Organic Waste Management

Biogas for heat and power generation can be produced on
a large-scale from organic waste by a process called
anaerobic digestion. A range of organic waste materials
can be used as the feedstock for anaerobic digestion
processes. large centralized anaerobic digesters have the
potential to utilize three distinct organic waste streams:
Municipal waste disposal authorities dealing with

household organic waste
Sewage sludge arising from wastewater treatment
Agricultural and food wastes from farmers and food

processors.
Municipal waste management should increasingly move

away from mass burn incineration towards mechanical
and biological treatment (MBT), which in many cases
incorporates anaerobic digestion to treat the organic
portion of the waste stream.
Biomass Handling and Distribution

Realizing the potential for biomass as a major source of
heat and power will depend on the development of
biomass fuel supply chains. Sources of biomass include
material from within the urban area - including tree
surgery waste from the local authority and commercial
wood waste as well as from the rural hinterland
including forestry residues and energy crops. The
collection and processing of different sources of biomass
requires coordination and planning in order to match
supply and demand. Large areas are required for handling,
storage and processing, as well as good transport links.
Small Hydro-Electric
The weirs and locks engineered into the inland waterway
networks can be used to generate electricity using hydroelectric turbines and waterwheels. Although the energy
available from these opportunities will often be small, a
series of installations along a waterway network could
make an important contribution to a town or citys energy
portfolio. Where there is a significant flow rate but no

weirs or locks, run-of-river turbines may have potential,
although they tend to have a relatively low output.
Geothermal Opportunities
Geothermal opportunities from warm produced water that
is already flowing to the surface as a result of existing oil
and gas operations exist in different parts of the
world.This is a regional opportunity for the development
of renewable energy using existing infrastructure.
Applications include the generation of over 20 megawatts
of electrical power and substantial space heating
applications for community buildings and possibly for
agricultural processes such as greenhouses and other
specialized crops. This opportunity warrants a focused
regional study to identify specific opportunities that
would build on existing infrastructure and local electrical
and thermal loads. Heat energy in the earths crust is a
combination of the original heat resulting from the
formation of the earth and heat generated from the decay
of radioactive isotopes.
The types of geothermal systems can be classified as
follows (Jessop 1998):
Hot Dry Rock: Hot dry rock refers to solid rock at a

very high temperature, generally deep in the earth
crust, but without the water needed to transport
geothermal energy to the surface. These systems are
under development in some areas of the world.
Dry Steam Resources: These reservoirs consist of

steam contained under pressure in porous rock
formations sealed by an impermeable caprock.
Hot Water Resources: Water in these reservoirs is

generally above 180 C. When water at this
temperature is produced to the surface, the pressure
drop in the well during transportation to the surface
allows part of the water to evaporate into steam. The
produced fluid is a mixture of saturated steam and
water that is used to produce electricity using a
turbine.
Warm Water Resources: Warm water reservoirs

range from 50 C to approximately 180 C.
Low Temperature Resources: At shallow depth,

saline aquifers and fresh ground water between 10
and 50C can be used by ground heat pumps for
space heating
Nuclear as an Alternative to Natural Gas

Nuclear energy has been proposed as an alternative to the
use of natural gas for steam generation and for the
production of power and hydrogen. A study is currently
underway investigating alternative energy options,
Low Carbon Future: Challenges and Opportunities for Energy Sector 29
including nuclear. The main barriers to the use of nuclear

energy are the need to transport steam over long distances
from a very large central reactor, long lead times and
capital cost for nuclear reactor approvals and
construction, and the relatively higher volumes of water
required for steam condensers in power generation and as
a feedstock for hydrogen production. The main
advantages of nuclear energy are reductions in the use of
hydrocarbon fuels and in GHG emissions.
Improving Energy Availability

Energy is a key driver of economic growth and social
progress. It is essential to fueling industry, powering
infrastructure, connecting goods, people and services to
markets, and delivering basic services such as heating,
lighting and cooking. For the billions of people without
access to modern energy services to escape poverty and
enter into productive economic activities, investments in
energy infrastructure (onand off-grid) are needed. The
IEA estimates that developing countries will need annual
electricity supply investments of approximately US$ 165
billion through 2010, increasing at about 3% a year
through to 2030.2 About half of the necessary financing is
readily identifiable, leaving an investment gap in the
energy sector of about US$ 80 billion per year. The IEA
estimates that international financial institutions, aid
donors and the private sector can close this gap by
approximately US$ 11 billion per year through additional
investments using existing financial instruments.
Carbon capture and utilization in the green

economy in developing countries
The application of the different processes and
technologies described in this research paper will vary in
relevance from country to country depending on a number
of factors. In countries like India the economic benefits of
CCU will be the driving force to balance the costs of
traditional CCS and this is already happening. Potential
suitability in other developing countries will be dependent
on a number of factors such as: Environment
geographical location, climate suitability, availability of
natural resources. Market demand for CCU products,
availability of technology, engineering expertise. Politics
incentives to reduce CO2 emissions, investment
climate, trade barriers.
Large amounts of solar radiation, and land availability,
particularly degraded land and deserts, provide suitable
conditions. An advantage of algal production is that it can
use saline or brackish water so there is no requirement for
fresh water sources. The market for a specific product
might be the driving force in other areas. Aggregates and
cements produced using CO2 and fly-ash from power
plants will be useful products in countries with large
amounts of construction taking place.
III. OPPURTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES

Many factors come into play to encourage a business to
invest in low- GHG energy solutions, not least the
strategy of the company and its ability to attract capital to
implement this strategy. For policy-makers to encourage
business to invest, they must understand what might
incentivize a business to do so. Commercial investments
are almost always made in dynamic, highly differentiated,
competitive environments, both internal and external to
the company.Money normally flows to where the highest
and quickest returns can be made. Key questions include:
How to most efficiently allocate private capital? How
long before there is a positive cash flow? What risks are
associated with the investment? How, where and when to
enter new markets? Project-based investments in
emerging and lower GHG energy technologies are some
of the more complex and risky forms of investment. They
are normally highly capital intensive and play into a
world where the average consumer is unwilling to pay a
premium for low GHG energy services. Each project
requires a detailed evaluation of the prospective rates of
return, investment and technological risks, as well as
sources of competitive advantage. Companies, financial
institutions and investors almost always employ different
processes and screening criteria to evaluate the
investment. The outcome of the analysis is a forecast of
the investments ability to deliver returns evaluated
against a host of risks and other possible uses of that same
capital. Every decision relies heavily on the expected
commercial return. Much can depend on market and cost
assumptions, as well as perceptions of risk. The basis for
such assumptions influences how these are accounted for
and will vary from company to company, sector to sector,
and country to country. A great opportunity for one
company or investor may be a step too far for another. An
absence of incentives, poorly defined investment and
regulatory frameworks, uncertain policy signals, and
market uncertainty, are just some of the factors that affect
overall risk profiles and possible returns.
IV. CONCLUSION
Various estimates indicate that abatement will have an
impact on the economy, but it is likely to be relatively low
significantly less, for example, than the recent oil price
rise. Costs would likely be financed by private sector and
government borrowing over time, and are modest
compared to normal capital replacement cycles; thus the
actual impact on GDP growth in a given year is likely to
be minimal or even positive. There will be major
investments, creating jobs and business opportunities, in
the move to a new low-carbon economy. For example,
over 2 million people are today employed in renewable
energy; investment in new environmental technologies
rose from $10 billion to $66 billion from 1998 to 2007.
Experience from past environmental issues such as acid
rain and CFCs indicates that costs are often overstated;

costs in both cases turned out to be less than a third of
original estimates. Pursuing energy security without
consideration for climate could, however, lead to negative
climate effects; notably from increased use of coal and
energy-intensive sources of oil such as tar sands.Pursuing
climate and energy security together would create far
more diverse energy supplies, greater scope for local
energy production, and reduced dependence on imported
oil and gas. The science has become more, not less,
alarming on the dangers of climate change as time has
passed. Incremental improvements in existing systems are
insufficient measures in the battle against climate change.
Many initiatives are well-intended, often in response to
government policies, but these small changes will seldom
contribute to the creation of a zero carbon society at the
speed and scale that is necessary. There is even a risk that
such incremental improvements might further lock society
into a high-carbon infrastructure, making necessary
reductions difficult or even impossible to achieve.
Fortunately a growing number of companies with
transformative solutions now view the creation of a lowcarbon economy as a business opportunity rather than as a
threat. These solutions deserve attention. The longer we
wait, the more expensive the reduction will be, the more
painful and abrupt the economic transformation, and the
more we will be required to spend on adaptation. Recent
US reports have shown that delaying the start of
emissions reductions from 2010 to 2020 will almost
double the annual rate of reductions required.
V.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
REFERENCES
Carbonate Triangle and Conventional Heavy OilLowest Greenhouse production Scenarios:An

Exploratory Study on Low carbon Futures by PTAC ,
March 2007
Scoping paper on Specification of the Pilot Studies
and Methodological Framework June 2011.
Report submitted to the G8 Hokkaido Toyako
Summit June 2008
Report on Investing in a Low-Carbon Energy Future
in the Developing World by The World Business
Council for Sustainable Development report
Report on Carbon Capture and Utilisation in the
green economy published by The Centre for Low
Carbon Futures in Jjuly 2011.
Cogeneration in Cement Industry

Vivek Aggarwal1, Suresh Pal2
1
Centre for Energy Studies, IIT Delhi; vivekmit1980@rediffmail.com

2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT Surat.
ABSTRACT
The cement production is an energy intensive industry
with energy typically accounting for 5060% of the
production costs. In order to recover waste heat from the
preheater exhaust and clinker cooler exhaust gases in
cement plant, single flash steam cycle, dual-pressure
steam cycle, organic Rankine cycle and the Kalina cycle
are used for cogeneration in cement plant. The paper will
document the economic and energy efficiency gains
obtained by utilizing cement plant waste heat to generate
electricity. The potential reductions in GHG emissions
will also be documented as the cogeneration reduces the
cement plants use of grid electricity. The project will also
explore mechanisms to address the technical and
engineering challenges involved in retrofitting
cogeneration facilities to an existing cement
manufacturing plant.
The objectives of this paper are to document the technical
and engineering challenges involved in retrofitting
cogeneration facilities utilizing cement kiln waste heat, to
characterize the energy efficiency gains obtained from the
installation of cogeneration facilities in a typical cement
plant, to disseminate the expertise of subsystem on
cogeneration technology and to encourage and facilitate
deployment of cogeneration technology including through
the possible retrofitting of an existing plant as a
demonstration site.
The paper starts with identification of gases, existing
system where there are no heat recoveries, with heat
recovery, factors considered while designing effective
system, features of the system & deals with flow sheet of
cogen.
I.
INTRODUCTION
The cement industry is an energy intensive industry. In

India the industry accounts for 10.3% of total fuel
consumption in the manufacturing sector. The energy
costs account for about 26% of the manufacturing cost of
cement. In terms of the primary energy usage about 25%
of the input energy is electricity while 75% is thermal
energy. The specific energy consumption varies from
about 3.40 GJ/t for the dry process to about 5.29 GJ/t for
the wet process. The best practice specific energy
consumption in India is 3.06 GJ/t while in some countries

of the world it is lower than 2.95 GJ/t. The higher specific
energy consumption in India is partly due to the harder
raw material and the poor quality of the fuel. Waste heat
recovery from the hot gases in the system has been
recognized as a potential option to improve energy
efficiency.
However
there
are
few
detailed
thermodynamic analyses of operating cement plants that
evaluate the option of waste heat recovery. This paper
builds up an energy balance for an operating plant and
estimates the power that can be generated from the waste
heat streams. The process of manufacture of cement can
be divided into three basic steps, preparation of raw
materials, pyroprocessing to produce clinker, and grinding
and blending clinker with other products to make cement.
The raw materials obtained from the quarry are crushed,
ground and mixed as slurry in the wet process and a
powder in the dry process. This mixture is then fed into a
calciner and preheater before being fed into the kiln, for
pyroprocessing (clinker formation). The kiln reaches
temperatures greater than 14500C. The clinker nodules
produced and any additives are then ground to the desired
fineness in the cement grinder. Pyroprocessing consumes
99% of the fuel energy while electricity is mainly used to
operate both raw material (33%) and clinker (38%)
crushing and grinding equipment. Pyroprocessing requires
another 22% of the electricity hence it is the most energy
intensive step of the production process.
A cogeneration system is the sequential or simultaneous
generation of multiple forms of useful energy (usually
mechanical and thermal) in a single, integrated system.
CHP systems consist of a number of individual
components prime mover (heat engine), generator, heat
recovery, and electrical interconnection configured into
an integrated whole. The type of equipment that drives the
overall system (i.e. the prime mover) typically identifies
the CHP system. Prime movers for CHP systems include
reciprocating engines, combustion or gas turbines, steam
turbines, micro-turbines, and fuel cells. These prime
movers are capable of burning a variety of fuels,
including natural gas, coal, oil, and alternative fuels to
produce shaft power or mechanical energy. Although
mechanical energy from the prime mover is most often
used to drive a generator to produce electricity, it can also
be used to drive rotating equipment such as compressors,
pumps, and fans. Thermal energy from the system can be
used in direct process applications or indirectly to produce
steam, hot water, hot air for drying, or chilled water for
process cooling.
choice between backpressure turbine and extractioncondensing turbine depends mainly on the quantities of
power and heat, quality of heat, and economic factors.
The extraction points of steam from the turbine could be
more than one, depending on the temperature levels of
heat required by the processes.
II.1.1 Back Pressure Steam Turbine
Fig. 1: Energy efficiency advantage of a cogeneration

system (UNESCAP, 2000)
II.
TYPES OF COGENERATION SYSTEMS
This section includes various types of cogeneration

systems: steam turbine cogeneration system, gas turbine
cogeneration system, and reciprocating engine
cogeneration system. It also includes a classification of
cogeneration systems on the basis of the sequence of
energy used.
A back pressure steam turbine is the simplest

configuration. Steam exits the turbine at a pressure higher
or at least equal to the atmospheric pressure, which
depends on the needs of the thermal load. This is why the
term backpressure is used. It is also possible to extract
steam from intermediate stages of the steam turbine, at a
pressure and temperature appropriate for the thermal load.
After the exit from the turbine, the steam is fed to the
load, where it releases heat and is condensed. The
condensate returns to the system with a flow rate which
can be lower than the steam flow rate, if steam mass is
used in the process or if there are losses along the piping.
Make- up water retains the mass balance.
The back-pressure system has the following advantages:
Simple configuration with few components.
The costs of expensive low-pressure stages of the

turbine are avoided.
Low capital cost.
Reduced or even no need of cooling water.
High total efficiency, because there is no heat

rejection to the environment through condenser.
II.1 Steam Turbine Cogeneration System

Steam turbines are one of the most versatile and oldest
prime mover technologies still in general production.
Power generation using steam turbines has been in use for
about 100 years, when they replaced reciprocating steam
engines due to their higher efficiencies and lower costs.
The capacity of steam turbines can range from 50 kW to
several hundred MWs for large utility power plants.
Steam turbines are widely used for combined heat and
power (CHP) applications. The thermodynamic cycle for
the steam turbine is the Rankine cycle. The cycle is the
basis for conventional power generating stations and
consists of a heat source (boiler) that converts water to
high-pressure steam. In the steam cycle, water is first
pumped to medium to high pressure. It is then heated to
the boiling temperature corresponding to the pressure,
boiled (heated from liquid to vapor), and then most
frequently superheated (heated to a temperature above
that of boiling). A multistage turbine expands the
pressurized steam to lower pressure and the steam is then
exhausted either to a condenser at vacuum conditions or
into an intermediate temperature steam distribution
system that delivers the steam to the industrial or
commercial application. The condensate from the
condenser or from the steam utilization system returns to
the feed-water pump for continuation of the cycle. The
two types of steam turbines most widely used are the
backpressure and the extraction condensing types. The
The back-pressure
disadvantages:
system
has
the
following
The steam turbine is larger for the same power

output, because it operates under a lower enthalpy
difference of steam.
The steam mass flow rate through the turbine
depends on the thermal load.
Consequently, the electricity generated by the steam is

controlled by the thermal load, which results in little or no
flexibility in directly matching electrical output to
electrical load. Therefore, there is a need for a two-way
connection to the grid for purchasing supplemental
electricity or selling excess electricity generated.
Increased electricity production is possible by venting
steam directly to the atmosphere, but this is very
inefficient. It results in a waste of treated boiler water and,
most likely, in poor economical as well as energetic
performances.
Cogeneration in Cement Industry 33
II.1.2 Extraction Condensing Steam Turbine

In such a system, steam for the thermal load is obtained
by extraction from one or more intermediate stages at the
appropriate pressure and temperature. The remaining
steam is exhausted to the pressure of the condenser, which
can be as low as 0.05 bar with a corresponding
condensing temperature of about 33C. It is rather
improbable that such low temperature heat finds useful
applications. Consequently, it is rejected to the
environment. In comparison to the back - pressure system,
the condensing type turbine has a higher capital cost and,
in general, a lower total efficiency. However, to a certain
extent, it can control the electrical power independent of
the thermal load by proper regulation of the steam flow
rate through the turbine.
II.2 Gas Turbine Cogeneration System

Gas turbine systems operate on the thermodynamic cycle
known as the Brayton cycle. In a Brayton cycle,
atmospheric air is compressed, heated, and then
expanded, with the excess of power produced by the
turbine or expander over that consumed by the
compressor used for power generation. Gas turbine
cogeneration systems can produce all or a part of the
energy requirement of the site, and the energy released at
high temperature in the exhaust stack can be recovered for
various heating and cooling applications (see Figure 4).
Though natural gas is most commonly used, other fuels
such as light fuel oil or diesel can also be employed. The
typical range of gas turbines varies from a fraction of a
MW to around 100 MW. Gas turbine cogeneration has
probably experienced the most rapid development in
recent years due to the greater availability of natural gas,
rapid progress in the technology, significant reduction in
installation costs, and better environmental performance.
Furthermore, the gestation period for developing a project
is shorter and the equipment can be delivered in a
modular manner. Gas turbines have a short start-up time
and provide the flexibility of intermittent operation.
Though they have a low heat to power conversion
efficiency, more heat can be recovered at higher
temperatures. If the heat output is less than that required
by the user, it is possible to have supplementary natural
gas firing by mixing additional fuel to the oxygen-rich
exhaust gas to boost the thermal output more efficiently.
II.2.1 Open-cycle gas turbine cogeneration systems

Most of the currently available gas turbine systems, in any
sector of applications, operate on the open Brayton (also
called Joule cycle when irreversibilities are ignored) cycle
where a compressor takes in air from the atmosphere and
derives it at increased pressure to the combustor. The air
temperature is also increased due to compression. Older
and smaller units operate at a pressure ratio in the range
of 15:1, while the newer and larger units operate at
pressure ratios approaching 30:1.
The air is delivered through a diffuser to a constantpressure combustion chamber, where fuel is injected and
burned. The diffuser reduces the air velocity to values
acceptable in the combustor. There is a pressure drop
across the combustor in the range of 1.2%. Combustion
takes place with high excess air. The exhaust gases exit
the combustor at high temperature and with oxygen
concentrations of up to 15-16%. The highest temperature
of the cycle appears at this point; the higher this
temperature is, the higher the cycle efficiency is. The
upper limit is placed by the temperature the materials of
the gas turbine can withstand, as well as by the efficiency
of the cooling blades. With current technology this is
about 1300C. The high pressure and temperature exhaust
gases enter the gas turbine producing mechanical work to
drive the compressor and the load (e.g. electric generator).
The exhaust gases leave the turbine at a considerable
temperature (450-600C), which makes high-temperature
heat recovery ideal. This is affected by a heat recovery
boiler of single-pressure or double pressure, for more
efficient recovery of heat. The steam produced can have
high pressure and temperature, which makes it
appropriate not only for thermal processes but also for
driving a steam turbine thus producing additional power.
II.2.2 Closed-cycle
systems
gas
turbine
cogeneration
In the closed-cycle system, the working fluid (usually

helium or air) circulates in a closed circuit. It is heated in
a heat exchanger before entering the turbine, and it is
cooled down after the exit of the turbine releasing useful
heat. Thus, the working fluid remains clean and it does
not cause corrosion or erosion. Source of heat can be the
external combustion of any fuel. Also, nuclear energy or
solar energy can be used.
II.3 Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration System

Reciprocating engines are well suited to a variety of
distributed
generation
applications,
industrial,
commercial, and institutional facilities for power
generation and CHP. Reciprocating engines start quickly,
follow load well, have good part- load efficiencies, and
generally have high reliabilities. In many cases, multiple
reciprocating engine units further increase overall plant
capacity and availability. Reciprocating engines have
higher electrical efficiencies than gas turbines of
comparable size, and thus lower fuel-related operating
costs. In addition, the first costs of reciprocating engine
gensets are generally lower than gas turbine gensets up to
3-5 MW in size. Reciprocating engine maintenance costs
are generally higher than comparable gas turbines, but the
maintenance can often be handled by in-house staff or
provided by local service organizations. Potential
distributed generation applications for reciprocating
engines include standby, peak shaving, grid support, and
CHP applications in which hot water, low-pressure steam,

or waste heat- fired absorption chillers are required.
Reciprocating engines are also used extensively as direct
mechanical drives in applications such as water pumping,
air and gas compression and chilling/refrigeration. While
the use of reciprocating engines is expected to grow in
various distributed generation applications, the most
prevalent on-site generation application for natural gas SI
engines has traditionally been CHP, and this trend is
likely to continue. The economics of natural gas engines
in on-site generation applications is enhanced by effective
use of the thermal energy contained in the exhaust gas and
cooling systems, which generally represents 60 to 70% of
the inlet fuel energy. There are four sources of usable
waste heat from a reciprocating engine: exhaust gas,
engine jacket-cooling water, lube oil cooling water, and
turbocharger cooling. Recovered heat is generally in the
form of hot water or low-pressure steam (<30 psig). The
high temperature exhaust can generate medium pressure
steam (up to about 150 psig), but the hot exhaust gas
contains only about one half of the available thermal
energy from a reciprocating engine. Some industrial CHP
applications use the engine exhaust gas directly for
process drying. Generally, the hot water and low pressure
steam produced by reciprocating engine CHP systems is
appropriate for low temperature process needs, space
heating, potable water heating, and to drive absorption
chillers providing cold water, air conditioning, or
refrigeration.
Heat recovery topping system: This type employs heat

recovery from an engine exhaust and/or jacket cooling
system flowing to a heat recovery boiler, where it is
converted to process steam / hot water for further use.
II.4 Other Classifications of Cogeneration Systems
Use of hot gases in existing system:
Cogeneration systems are normally classified according to

the sequence of energy use and the operating schemes
adopted. On this basis cogeneration systems can be
classified as either a topping or a bottoming cycle.
In cement plant the exit gases from Rotary kilns, preheater and Calciners are used to heat the incoming feed
material and gases are cooled to around 300 to 350 C in
4 stage pre-heater and then exhausted to the atmosphere.
The exhaust gas temp in case of 5 6 stage pre-heater can
be 200 300oC. Part of this gas is used in raw mills &
coal mills for drying purpose. The solid material i.e.
clinker coming out of the Rotary kiln is at around 1000 C
and is cooled to 100-120 C temperature using ambient
air. This generates hot air of about 260-300 C. Part of the
hot air generated is used as combustion air in kiln
furnaces & remaining is exhausted to atmosphere without
heat recovery.
II.4.1 Topping Cycle

In a topping cycle, the fuel supplied is used to first
produce power and then thermal energy, which is the byproduct of the cycle and is used to satisfy process heat or
other thermal requirements. Topping cycle cogeneration
is widely used and is the most popular method of
cogeneration.
Combined-cycle topping system: A gas turbine or diesel
engine producing electrical or mechanical power followed
by a heat recovery boiler to create steam to drive a
secondary steam turbine.
Steam-turbine topping system: The second type of
system burns fuel (any type) to produce high-pressure
steam that then passes through a steam turbine to produce
power with the exhaust provides low-pressure process
steam.
Gas turbine topping system: A natural gas turbine

drives a generator. The exhaust gas goes to a heat
recovery boiler that makes process steam and process
heat.
II.4.2 Bottoming Cycle

In a bottoming cycle, the primary fuel produces high
temperature thermal energy and the heat rejected from the
process is used to generate power through a recovery
boiler and a turbine generator. Bottoming cycles are
suitable for manufacturing processes that require heat at
high temperature in furnaces and kilns, and reject heat at
significantly high temperatures. Typical areas of
application include cement, steel, ceramic, gas and
petrochemical industries. Bottoming cycle plants are
much less common than topping cycle plants. The
bottoming cycle where fuel is burnt in a furnace to
produce synthetic rutile. The waste gases coming out of
the furnace is utilized in a boiler to generate steam, which
drives the turbine to produce electricity.
III. COGENERATION IN CEMENT

INDUSTRY
System with no Heat Recovery: In most of the cement

plants there is no cogen / heat recovery. The temperatures
normally observed are;
Rotary kiln gases 300 350C incase of 4 stage preheater.
Rotary kiln gases 200 300C in case of 5 6 stage preheater.
Clinker cooler gases 200 300C
Cogen System: The basic system designed for recovering

this heat consists of (a) Boiler:- combination of water tube
type boiler and economizers installed on various exhaust
gas streams (pre-heater exit, clinker cooler), (b) (i) steam
turbine driven electrical power gensets, (ii) Water / aircooled condenser and (iii) condensate tank & (iv)
necessary control system.
cooler in case of boiler safety / abnormal boiler

working conditions.
12. Pay back period lower: The system engineered
should have attractive payback periods satisfying the
investment criteria.
Typical Sequential Layout of hot streams in the system,
Energy Balance and power Generation in Cement Plant
Systems that are air cooled are little more expensive than
water cooled system.
Factors considered while designing the effective system:
1.
Avoidance of dust: Methods of avoiding

Deposition of Cement Powder on the Heat Transfer
Surface which otherwise results in fouling and lesser
heat recovery.
2. Design to deal Sticky dust/Abrasive gases:
Appropriate design of the system to perform against
gases Sticky dust from pre-heater and abrasive gases
from. Clinker cooler should be made.
3. Make surface free of dust: Methods of dislodging
deposited dust and keep the heat transfer surface
free of dust.
4. No gases to cold surfaces: Avoiding exposure of
the flue gases to cold surface of the equipment
during start-up or interruptions, otherwise these
results in condensation of the flue gas moisture and
when this moisture comes in contact with the
cement powder, cement gets set on the surfaces
which are difficult to remove. Hence slow build-up
of such patches results in choking of the system &
reduction in effectiveness of heat transfer surface.
5. Design to conserve water: Availability of the water
and its appropriate utilization to conserve the water
by designing the system judiciously.
6. Select correct electricals: Selection of appropriate
electrical power generation system to maximize the
power generation.
7. Reduce final exhaust temp to max. extent:
Bringing down the flue gas exhaust temperature to
sufficiently low level, so that less expensive method
of Gas cleaning (after Heat Recovery) of cement
powder separation from flue gases can be utilized.
8. Maintain Low Pressure drop: Keep flue gas
pressure drop in boiler low to economize on fan
power.
9. Configure / Locate boiler correctly: Utilize the
vertical elevation available (due to pre-heater
Cyclones already existing) while configuring
boilers.
10. Remove cement dust continuously: Easy &
continuous removal of cement dust separated in
boiler should be done.
11. Maintain Auto diversion / by pass: Automatic
diversion and bypass of hot gases to gas washer /
Fig. 2: Stream entering into the system
Fig. 3: Energy Balance
Fig. 4: The power Generation System
Cogen data for two cement plants in nalgonda district of

andhra pradesh (india)
Mass flow rate: 1,55,000 Kg / Hr

OR Volume flow rate: 1,20,000 NM3/hr
Type of filter : ESP 1,20,000
Dust Loading : 15 gm/m3
Temperature at filter exit : 260 2800 C
Temperature at clinker cooler exit : 3200 C
Nalgonda District of A.P. India has largest number of

cement plants in India. The typical data for two cement
plants of 1500 tpd & 2000 tpd for Co.gen / Waste Heat
Recovery (WHR) are given below:
Cement Plant -1: Capacity of 1500 TPD (Tonnes per Day)
b.
1. Heat Stream data:

a) Clinker Cooler air available for Heat recovery for
Power generation:
Mass flow rate: 92,000 Kg / Hr
OR Volume flow rate: 63,000 Nm3/hr
Pre-heater exhaust gases available for heat recovery

for Power generation.
Mass flow rate: 100000 Kg/ hr
Dust Loading : 65 gm/m3
OR Volume flow rate : 82,000
Temperature into heat recovery system : 300

3200C
Type of filter: Multi clones

Dust loading : 15 gm / Nm3
Composition of Pre heater exhaust gases: O2: 3%,

CO2: 30% and N2 : 67%.
Temperature at filter exit: 2800 3000 C
2.
Ambient air temperature: Average air dry bulb

temperature: 400 C
Site elevation: 100 m above sea level
Electrical Power specification of Plant grid: 6600
V, 50 Hz.
b) Pre heater exhaust gases available for heat recovery for

power generation.
3.
4.
Mass Flow rate: 85,000
OR Volume flow rate: 59,000
Dust loading : 65 gm /Nm3
5. Plant Data:
Temperature into heat recovery system : 300 3500C
Cement Production capacity : 2000 TPD.
Composition of Pre heater exhaust gases: O2 : 3%

CO2 : 28% and N2 : 69%.
Location : Nalgonda Dist, A.P. INDIA.
Plants Working Hours per annum : 7900
Present electricity resources : State Electricity

Board
Wetness of Raw Materials for clinker: less than

7%
Pre heater exhaust gases are used for raw mill and
coal mill.
2.
Ambient air temperature: Average air dry bulb

temperature: 400 C
3.
Site elevation: 100 m above sea level.
4.
Electrical Power specification of Plant grid: 6600

V, 50 Hz
5.
Plant Data:
Cement Production capacity : 1500 TPD
Location: Nalgonda Dist, (A.P.) INDIA.
Plants working Hours per annum : 7920 Hrs.
Present electricity resources of State Electricity

Board
Wetness of Raw Materials for clinker : less than 7%
Pre heater exhaust gases are used for raw mill and
coal mill.
Cement Plant 2 : Capacity of 2000 TPD

1. Heat Stream data:
a.
Clinker Cooler air available for Heat recovery for

Power generation:
Technical Specification of Heat Recovery System
IV. CONCLUSION
This is high time when cement industries must plan & go
for cogen which is requirement of the day & very
economical system / technology is available. It is also
beneficial for the companies from economic point of view
as it brings an opportunity to save valuable financial
resources. It is gathered that the capital cost is only Rs.50
60 Lacs / MW as against 4 6 crores / MW for
Conventional systems. The operating cost for above
cogen is only 20 30 paise / unit (KWh) as against Rs.4
6 per KWh by utility companies. Thus it is obvious that
with just an investment of 10% of the cost of conventional
systems cogen systems can be installed.
V.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
REFERENCE
W. Van Gool, Energy policy: fairly tales and

factualities, in: O.D.D. Soares, A. Martins da Cruz,
G. Costa Pereira, I.M.R.T. Soares, A.J.P.S. Reis
(Eds.), Innovation and TechnologyStrategies and
Policies, Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1997, pp. 93105.
[6]
Shaleen Khurana, Rangan Banerjee, Uday Gaitonde,

Energy balance and cogeneration for a cement plant,
Applied Thermal Engineering 22 (2002) 485494.
Dincer, M.M. Hussain, I. Al-Zaharnah, Energy and
exergy utilization in transportation sector of Saudi
Arabia, Applied Thermal Engineering 24 (2004)
525538.
C. Syred, W. Fick, A.J. Griffiths, N. Syred, Cyclone
gasifier and cyclone combustor for the use of
biomass derived gas in the operation of a small gas
turbine in cogeneration plants, Fuel 83 (2004) 2381
2392.
M.G. Rasul. W. Widianto , B. Mohanty, Assessment
of the thermal performance and energy conservation
opportunities of a cement industry in Indonesia,
Applied Thermal Engineering 25 (2005) 29502965.
Ryan Pletka, Biomass based power generation and
cogeneration within small rural industries of
Thailand, Black and Veatch corporation, Overland
park, Kansas, USA.
Effect of Compression Ratio, Fuels and Reactant

Temperature on the Combustion Irreversibilities
in Spark- Ignition Engine
Munawar Nawab Karimi1 Sandeep Kumar Kamboj2
1,2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology,

Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi (India)
mnkarimi64@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The growing concern for energy, economy, and
environment calls for an efficient utilization of natural
resources in developing useful work. Second law of
thermodynamics provides different perspective compared
with first law. This paper provides an overview of the
quantitative levels of chemical irreversibility and exergy
destruction during the adiabatic combustion at constant
volume by using unbalanced rate of exergy input with
second law of thermodynamics. The result of this study is
based on a spark ignition single cylinder combustion
engine at stoichiometric condition. The fuels examined
included iso-octane, methanol, ethanol and liquefied
petroleum gas. This study shows that exergy destruction
during combustion decreases with the increase in
reactant temperature and compression ratios. Exergy
destruction during combustion using exergy balance
approach for compression ratio range of 8 to 12 is found
to vary between 18.7 to 24.7%. Chemical irreversibilitys
calculated at the restricted dead state are found to be in
the range of 2.99 to 3.6% for different fuels.
Keywords: Combustion, Compression ratio, Exergy,
Chemical exergy, Ethanol, Methanol, LPG, Iso-octane,
I. INTRODUCTION
Combustion plays a very important role in energy
utilization process. Modern society is heavily dependent
on fossil fuels as a source of energy. Most of the world
energy needs are completed by the combustion of fossil
and other fuels. Combustion of fuels finds its importance
in different fields such as power production, heating,
transportation, process heating, petroleum, chemical,
glass, sugar industries and metal casting. During
combustion chemical energy of the fuel is converted into
thermal energy. The losses in a combustor that accounts
for the decrease in the thermal efficiency are due to
unburned fuel, incomplete combustion, and heat loss to
the surrounding across the combustor wall. Complete and
adiabatic combustion of fuel will increase the output of
the engine. The transportation sector and electricity

generating plants use the energy obtained from the
combustion for the generation of work 1.
Combustion of fuels is a very complex phenomenon and
it is highly thermodynamically irreversible process and
limits the conversion of fuel energy into useful energy
2, 3,4,5,6,7. Most of the combustion irreversibility is
contributed to the internal heat transfer from burned fuel
to the unburned fuel that is from products to the reactants.
Such heat transfer is inevitable in premixed and diffusion
flames where highly energetic molecules are free to
exchange energy with un-reacted fuel and air mixture. For
typical atmospheric combustion systems, about 1/3rd of
the fuel exergy becomes unavailable due to inherent
irreversibility in the combustor. Internal heat transfer,
chemical reactions and mass transfer during combustion
generates entropy and reduces the potential of the
products gases to do useful work but it is not a direct
energy loss from the combustion zone to the surrounding.
The losses due to process irreversibility can be calculated
using the second law analysis either from the rate of
entropy generation or from the unbalanced rate of energy
input 8.
Many works are available in the literature advocating the
importance of exergy based analysis for the performance
evaluation of thermodynamic systems 9,10,11,12.
According to them, energy based performance are often
misleading as they fail to identify deviation from reality.
The practical processes generate thermodynamic
irreversibilitys internal to them and results in a loss of
exergy even when there is no loss of energy external to
the system. Although a large amount of work has been
done on availability analysis of engines, turbines and
power plants, relatively little work has been done towards
the ideal combustion processes and a very less work has
been done in finding out the exergy destruction during
combustion of spark ignition engines by varying the
compression ratio and fuels.
I1.1 Previous work:
Effect of Compression Ratio, Fuels and Reactant Temperature on the Combustion Irreversibilities in Spark- Ignition Engine
39
Dunbar and Lior 9 examined the case of constant

pressure adiabatic process. Dunbar and Lior examined the
various contributions to the destruction of availability by
dividing the number of processes into a number of
hypothetical sub-processes. The sub-processes considered
in the analysis were (a) combined diffusion/fuel
oxidation, (b) internal thermal energy exchange, (heat
transfer), and (c) the product constituent mixing process.
The largest contribution to the destruction of availability
was found to be due to the internal energy exchange
within the system. The fuel considered by Dunbar and
Lior during their analysis were hydrogen and methane.
Caton 10 conducted an analysis of constant volume
combustion, with particular emphasis on the implications
of the results as applicable to the internal combustion
engines. Caton analyzed the combustion of iso-octane for
a range of reactant temperatures, pressures and
equivalence ratio. In general, the destruction of
availability decreased
with increasing reactant
temperatures and increasing equivalence ratios. The effect
of reactant pressure on the destruction of availability was
relatively modest, when compared with the other
parameters.
A significant contribution to second law analysis was
given by Caton 11,12 in several research works. He
used second law of thermodynamics to study sparkignition engine and his work was based on the use of a
comprehensive thermodynamic cycle simulation. In one
part of his study, he examined the effects of engine load
and speed on a number of performances, energy and
availability terms. He reported that availability displaced
to the cylinder wall through heat transfer (as percentage
of the fuel availability) range between 15.9% and 31.5%.
The net availability expelled with the exhaust gases
ranged between 21.0% and 28.1%. The availability
destroyed by the combustion process ranged between
20.3% and 21.4%. In addition, his study showed that the
mixing of the inlet charge with existing cylinder gases
was an additional mechanism for the destruction of
availability.
equivalence ratios due to increased concentrations of

incomplete products of combustion such as carbon
monoxide and hydrogen.
Caton 14 examined the exergy destruction during the
combustion process as a function of operating and design
parameters for a spark ignition engine for eight fuels. The
results of this study were based on spark ignition
automotive engine. Caton analyzed the combustion of isooctane, methane, propane, hexane, methanol, ethanol,
hydrogen, and carbon mono oxide as a function of speed,
load, equivalence ratio, start of combustion, combustion
duration, combustion rate parameters, exhaust rate
recirculation,
inlet
oxygen
concentration,
and
compression ratio. The exergy destruction was different
for different fuels. The lowest destruction (8.1%) was for
carbon monoxide and highest destruction (20.8%) was for
iso-octane.
To structure our discussion, we define a conceptual
isochoric combustion process. The objective of the
present study is to evaluate the exergy destruction during
combustion of four fuels that is ethanol, methanol, Isooctane and liquefied petroleum gas. The effect of the type
of fuel used and change in compression ratio is observed
on combustion irreversibilities.
II.
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
An actual four stroke fuel-air cycle for spark ignition has

been considered for the analysis. The analysis carried out
is for the exergy destruction during combustion only. The
complete SI engine cycle is shown in Figure.1. Process 12s is a reversible adiabatic compression, while process 12 is real compression process. The process 2-3 represents
combustion and process 3-4s is a reversible adiabatic
expansion, while 3-4 is an irreversible adiabatic process.
The exhaust is at a constant volume process 4-1.
Heywood [4] also contributed to the combustion process

analysis. He introduced a zero dimensional, quasidimensional and multidimensional model for a
combustion process modeling and calculation and he
focused especially on scavenging air inlet process and its
effects on overall combustion process.
Shapiro and Gerpen [13] extended their previous work
introducing a two-zone combustion model and applied
this model to both compression ignition and spark
ignition engines. This new model also included chemical
availability considerations and simplifications done in
previous work as chemical availability increases in
significance with increasing temperatures and richer
Fig. 1: (Four stroke SI cycle)

The constant volume combustion process is assumed to be
adiabatic. Since the process is considered to be adiabatic,
no exergy is transferred due to heat transfer. As the
system volume is closed; so no exergy is transferred
because of mass flows. Therefore, there is no exergy is

transferred during work transfer. Therefore, any change in
the exergy, during a change of state is solely attributed to
the combustion process. The analytical approach used in
this study follows from related work with engine cycle
calculations with the change in compression ratio 13.
Engine Specification Table 1.0:
Bore
Stroke length
Engine Speed
Length of connecting rod
Inlet valve opening
Inlet valve closes
Equivalence ratio
Fuels
Compression Ratio
Spark Time
100mm
74mm
3000rpm
160mm
30o BTDC
40o BTDC
1
Various
Various
26oBTDC
An entropy generation analysis was applied to SI engine

and an entropy generation calculation model was
developed. Mathematical formulation of the principle of
the non-conservation of entropy for a non- steady flow
process in a time interval t1 to t2 following the second law
of thermodynamics can be written as

(1)

Where mi and me respectively denote the amount of mass

across input port i and exiting across port e; (Qr)1-2
denotes the amount of heat transferred into the control
volume r on the control surface. Sgen 1-2 denotes the
amount of entropy generated in the control volume and S1
and S2 are the amounts of entropy in the control volume at
t1 and t2.
1) The following assumptions are made during constant

volume adiabatic combustion.
2) The thermodynamic system is the closed chamber
content.
3) The cylinder content is assumed to be spatially
homogeneous and to occupy two zones.
4) The fuel is assumed to be completely vaporized and
mixed with the reactant air.
5) The thermodynamic properties (including pressure
and temperature) are spatially uniform.
6) Variation of specific heat with temperature at
different process points has been incorporated.
7) Combustion takes place instantaneously.
II.2 Chemical equations:

The following chemical equations are used during
combustion of fuels at stoichiometric condition.
i) Methanol Fuel
CH3OH + 1.5O2 + 5.65 N2
CO2 +2H2O + 5.65N2
ii) Ethanol Fuel

C2H5OH + 3O2 + 11.28 N2
2CO2 +3H2O + 11.28N2
8CO2 +9H2O + 47N2
iv) LPG Fuel

0.8C8H18 + 0.2 C4 H10 + 5.3O2 + 27.32 N2
+4.2H2O + 27.32N2
III.1 Exergy balance approach:
- + ( )1-2 + S gen, 1-2 = S2 S1
II.1 Assumptions
iii) Iso-octane Fuel

C8H18 +12.5O2 + 47 N2
III. THERMODYNAMIC MODEL
3.2CO2
Fuel properties of methanol, ethanol, iso-octane, LPG

(mixture
of
propane
and
butane)
and
methane 15,16,17,18.
Table 1.0 Comparison of selected fuels properties:
Property
Methanol
Ethano
l
Isooctane
LPG
Propa
ne
75%
Chemical
formula
Molecular
weight(Kg/
kmol)
oxyzen
present (wt
%)
Stoichiome
tric air/fuel
ratio (AFR)
Lower
heating
value of the
fuel
(KJ/Kg)
Fuel exergy
(KJ/Kg)
CH3OH
But
ane
25
%
CH4
32.04
C2H5O
H
46.07
C8H18
C4H10
114.2
28
58.17
16.
04
49.9
34.8
6.47
9.0
15.2
15.34
17.
17
20000
26900
44300
45710
500
00
21100
28400
45500
47100
499
00
The entropy generation during the four key process of the

SI engine is calculated after applying the equation (1) and
the consequent exergy destruction is evaluated after using
the Gouy stodola theorem as
Edest = T0Sgen
(2)
41
The specific heat of the mixture at constant pressure is

find out by the relation
(CP)mix = !"
(3)
The specific heat of the mixture at constant volume is
finding out by the relation
(cv)mix = !" #
(4)
Where, the temperature T2 of the charge at the end of the
compression is given by
T2/T1 = (V1/V2)n-1 = (r)n-1
Where n is the polytropic index.
Process (2-3):
The exergy destruction during the process of heat addition
of constant volume (from heat source to the fuel) is given
by

eDest,2-3 = To {CV ln $
}
(5)
%
&'()
Where Qin =mf LHV of the fuel and

mf LHV = m Cv (T3-T2)
(6)
where m is the mass of the mixture..

The exergy destruction during the subsequent
combustion, which is the most concerned irreversible
process may be obtained after applying the exergy
balance over the engine combustion chamber as
e2 +eQ =e3 +eDest,comb
(7)
Where eQ is the amount of exergy associated with the heat
transfer qin and is given by
eQ = (1-To/T) mf LHV
e2 is the physical exergy of the charge before combustion,
and e3 is the sum of physical and chemical exergy of the
fuel air mixture after combustion .The equation 8 may
further be elaborated as
e Dest,comb = e2,physical e3physical e3,chemical + eQ
(8)
e Dest,comb = (e2, e3)ph e3ch + eQ
the term (e2, e3),ph physical for a closed system engine
combustion chamber is given by
(e2-e3)ph = u2-u3 +po (v2-v3) To (s2-s3)
(9)
and the term e3, chemical which is the chemical exergy of
the fuel is given by sum of the first two term of the
equation (11) is the reactive chemical exergy which is the
work produced due to reversible transition of the species
of the mixture from restricted dead state to the ultimate
dead state (environmental state), and the third term of the
equation (11) is the diffuse chemical exergy which is the

maximum work produced due to the difference of partial
pressures of the ambient species of mixture between the
restricted dead state and the partial pressures of the same
species at the environment state19. .
E3,chemical = ERe + EDiff
!" * + (,- . )
E3,chemical
=
+ /!" */ 01 To ln pj / pjo
/!" */ +/ (,- ./ )
(10)
The specific chemical exergy of the mixture e3 chemical

may be obtained as:
E3,chemical = E3,chemical / Mj Nj
(11)
Where Mj is the molecular weight and Nj is the number
of moles of species j of the combustion products of the
mixture.
In equation (10), the index i denotes the individual species
present in the mixture at restricted dead state and the
index j denotes the individual ambient species present in
the mixture that were formed from the species i through a
series of oxidation /reduction reactions, gi and gj are the
Gibbs free energies, Ni and Nj are the number of moles,pi
and pj are the partial pressure of the species denoted by
the species i and j respectively. pj,o is the partial pressure
of the ambient species of the environmental state and 02 is
the universal gas constant.

IV.1 Exergy destruction during combustion
The variation of exergy destruction during combustion
with the change in compression ratio of the engine is
shown in figure 2. It is found that exergy destruction
decreases significantly with the increase in compression
ratio for all four selected fuels. This is because higher
compression
26
Methanol
Ethanol
24
Exergy Destruction with
combustion ( %)
Process (1-2):
22
20
18
16
7
9
10
11
Compression Ratio
12
Fig. 2: Variations in exergy destruction with

combustion of various fuels.
13
Ratio increases, the combustion temperature and pressure

increases which results in the reduced exergy destruction.
This is due to the reduced losses associated with the
internal thermal energy exchange (heat transfer) in the
mixtures during the combustion process. It is also
observed that combustion irreversibilitys of methanol are
significantly lower than all the examined fuels which is
due to rich oxygen content. Similar to this, the exergy
destruction during combustion for ethanol is also less than
other hydrocarbons and comes next to methanol. Exegy
destruction in case of LPG is less than iso-octane and
close to ethanol. This is due to the reason that combustion
of LPG in gaseous state mixes faster with the air and
hence a lesser entropy would be generated due to mixing
which results in the lesser exergy destruction. At the
given compression ratio, the exergy destruction during
combustion of iso-octane is higher than all other four
fuels which is due to its complex molecular structure.
IV.2 Chemical exergy destruction:
Chemical exergy destruction (%)
4
3.75
3.6
3.25
3.28
3.12
2.99
2.75
2.5
Methanol
Ethanol
Iso-octane
LPG
Fig3 Type of fuels
V.
It is also found that exergy destruction during combustion

of iso-octane is highest in both the approaches and it is
lowest for the methanol. Availability of the products is
less than the reactants.
In general, the use of second law and availability analyses
provides deep insight and new perspectives on the
destruction of available energy due to combustion
processes. Significant implications of these results relate
to destroying the potential for useful work.
VI. REFERENCES
[1]
Fig.3 shows the chemical exergy destruction of the

various fuels. It is shown that chemical exergy loss of
methanol is significantly higher than the other examined
fuels and lowest for the iso-octane. A part of the fuel
exergy goes waste as chemical irreversibilities and this
loss is not recoverable in internal combustion engines.
3.5
compression ratio for all the fuels. Exergy destruction

during combustion varied between 19 to 24.5% with
exergy balance approach with a change in compression
ratio from 8 to 12. Chemical exergy destruction varies
from 2.99 to 3.6% for the different fuels examined.
CONCLUSION
A analytical examination of the exergy destroyed during

combustion of methanol, ethanol, LPG, and Iso-octane,
was completed for constant volume adiabatic process by
using exergy balance approach. The effect of the reactant
temperatures and compression ratios on the percentage of
exergy destroyed due to combustion process was
determined.
It is concluded that exergy destruction during combustion
decreases with the increase in reactant temperature and
Som SK, Datta A. 2008. Thermodynamic

irreversibilities and exergy balance in combustions
processes, Progress in Energy and Combustion
Science 14 : 351-376.
[2] Moran MJ, Shapiro HN. 1995. Fundamentals of
engineering thermodynamics.3rd ed. Wiley: New
York.
[3] Rakopoulos CD, Giakoumis EG. 2006. Second law
analysis to internal combustion engines operaton.
Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32: 247.
[4] Heywood JB. 1998. Internal combustion engine
fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York.
[5] Moran MJ. 1989. Avalability analysis a guide to
efficient energy use.corrected. The American Society
of Mechanical Engineers: New York.
[6] Cengel YA, Boles MA. 2008. Thermodynamics- an
engineering approach, 6th edition, (McGraw Hill,
New York).
[7] Bayraktar H, Durgun O. 2003. Mathematical
modeling of spark-ignition engine cycles, Energy
Sciences 25: 651-666.
[8] Daw S, Chakravarty K, Conklin J, Graves R. 2006.
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 31: 728736.
[9] Dunbar WR, Lior N. Sources of combustion
irreversibility. Combst. Sci. Technol. 1994. 103: 4161.
[10] Caton JA. 2000. A review of investigations using the
second law of thermodynamics to study internal
combustion engine, In: SAE paper no.2000-011081.Society of Automotive Engineers.
[11] Caton JA. 2000. on the destruction of availability
(exergy) due to combustion process with specific
application to internal-combustion engines, Energy
25: 1097-1117.
43
[12] Caton JA. 2000. Operating characteristic of a spark

ignition engine using the second law of
thermodynamics effects of speed and loads. , In: SAE
paper no.2000-01-0952.Society of Automotive
Engineers.
[13] Van Gerpen JH, Shapiro HN. 1990. Second law
analysis of diesel engine combustion. J. Eng. Gas
Turbines Power, 112: 129-137.
[14] Caton JA. 2010. Exergy destruction during the
combustion process as function of operating and
design parameters for a spark ignition engines,
International Journal of Energy Research.
[15] Sezer I. 2002. Experimental investigation of the
effects of blending methanol and MTBE with regular
gasoline on performance and exhaust emissions of SI
engine, M.S. Thesis, Karadeniz Technicat University
Trabzon, Turkey.
[16] Shenghua, L, Clemente E.R.C, Tiegang H, Yanjv W.

2007. Study of spark ignition engine fueled with
methanol/ gasoline fuel blends, Applied Thermal
Engineering 27 (11-12): 1904-1910.
[17] Bayraktar H. 2005. Experimental and theoretical
investigation of using gasoline and ethanol blends in
spark ignition engines, Renewable Energ 30: 17331747.
[18] Demirba A. 2005. Fuel properties of hydrogen,
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and compressed
natural gas for transportation, Energy Sources, Part
A: vol 27 October.
[19] Chavannvar PS, Caton JA. 2006. The destruction of
availability (exergy) due to the combustion process: a
parametric study, Journal of Power and Energy,
Proceedings of the Institutions of Mechanical
Engineers, Part A 220(7): 655-669.
Energy Audit of a Hospital

Suresh Pal1, Vivek Aggarwal2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT, Surat, Gujarat, India

Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Istitute of Technology, New Delhi, India
1
sureshpal14@gmail.com, 2vivekmit1980@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
Energy is a crucial input for the development process of
India. The need of the hour is therefore to meet the energy
needs in the most efficient and cost effective manner while
ensuring long term sustainability. Energy audit is the first
step to energy management of any organization or
industry. Energy audit means any process which identifies
and specifies the energy and cost savings. Such an audit
program will help to keep focus on variation which occur
in the energy costs, availability and reliability of supply of
energy, decide an appropriate energy mix, identify energy
conservation
technologies,
retrofit
for
energy
conservation equipment etc.
A substantial saving is possible through energy audit. The
paper highlights together the need for proper energy
utilization and the importance of energy audit in energy
conservation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Poverty reduction and economic growth are the prime
objectives of national policy. The standard of living of a
country can be directly related to per capita energy
consumption. India with over a billion people, produces
only 660 billion kWh of electricity and over 600 million
Indians, a population equal to the combined population of
USA and EU, have no access to electricity, and limited
access to other clean, modern fuels such as LPG and
kerosene. This constrained energy access is reflected, as
shown in figure-1, in the relatively low human
development index of India. Enhancing energy supply is
therefore a key component of the national development
strategy.Over the past decade, gains in both poverty
reduction and economic growth have been significant, and
supported by energy growth which has been significantly
lower than the economic growth.
The paper also emphases the methodology of energy

balance to achieve the said goal. The article highlights
the various concept of energy audit and its application for
improving the heat recovery using more energy efficient
processes, recycling of scrap and by-product, use of waste
heat of boiler, building design, use of more natural light,
operation of machine at peak efficiency etc.
We have carried out the field work for a reputed hospital
in Delhi by elaborate energy consumption measurement
for boiler, Air conditioners, Chillers and heating load
related areas. It consists of activities that seek to identify
conservation
opportunities
preliminary
to
the
development of an energy savings program.
An energy audit identifies where energy is being
consumed and assesses energy saving opportunities to
save money where it counts the most and suggest some
ways to implement the recommendation mentioned in
report to achieve desired energy efficiency.
Keywords: Energy Management, Energy Conservation,
Energy Audit, hospital
Fig. 1: Energy consumption is a prime driver of the

Human Development Index
The industrial sector consumes nearly half of the total
commercial energy available in India. This is basically
due to the fact that Indian industries are often energy
inefficient and have least concern for energy
conservation. Indian industry uses energy more
intensively than is the norm in industrialized countries.
While selected modern Indian units often display very
high efficiency that approaches world best practice levels,
the average intensity lags world best levels. Indian
industry has undergone a transformation since 1991, the
year the economy was opened to foreign investment and
Energy Audit of a Hospital 45
competition. Energy per unit of value added in the

industrial sector has declined since then. However, there
still remains considerable scope for continued
improvement of energy efficiency in Indian industry, and
for learning from both worldwide and Indian best
practices.
II.
ENERGY MANAGEMENT
The need of the hour is therefore to meet the energy needs

in the most efficient and cost effective manner while
ensuring long term sustainability. Hence the effective
energy management is no longer an option it is a
strategic business necessity.
The fundamental goal of energy management is to
produce goods and provide services with the least cost
and least environmental effect. The term energy
management means many things to many people. One
definition of energy management is:the judicious and
effective use of energy to maximize profits (minimize
cost) and enhance competitive positions. [2] Another
comprehensive definition is:the strategy of adjusting and
optimizing energy, using systems and procedures so as to
reduce energy requirements per unit of output while
holding constant or reducing total costs of producing the
output from these systems.
III. NEED OF ENERGY AUDIT FOR

ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Energy loss in any industrial process or plant is
inevitable; it is a foregone conclusion. But its economic
and environmental impacts are not to be taken lightly,
thus explaining the growing need for industrial energy
efficiency. Put simply, the Level of energy efficiency a
plant or process can achieve is inversely proportionate to
the energy loss that occurs; the higher the loss, the lower
the efficiency. Where and how do most of the losses
occur, how much energy is actually lost and are they
controllable or recoverable? The answers to these
questions remain well concealed in a black box where
once energy is input, we do not know what really happens
to it inside and how much the loss are. It is only when we
look into the black box and extract these details that we
are able to ascertain the performance of the overall or
process levels and respond more effectively to the
weaknesses in energy management. Overall energy losses
in a plant can result from losses due to designs that do not
incorporate energy efficient specifications such as heat
recovery option; operations that run on inefficient
methods; and poor or non-energy efficiency-conscious
maintenance programme.
The objective of energy management is to achieve and

maintain optimum energy procurement and utilization,
throughout the organization and:
To minimize energy costs / waste without affecting

production and quality.
To minimize environmental effects.
II.1 Energy Conservation & Energy Efficiency

While talking about the energy management, the two
concepts, which are commonly discussed, are Energy
Conservation and Energy Efficiency. Energy conservation
and energy efficiency are separate, but related concepts.
Energy conservation is achieved when growth of energy
consumption is reduced, measured in physical terms.
Energy conservation can, therefore, be the result of
several processes and developments, such as productivity
increase or technological progress.
On the other hand Energy Efficiency is achieved when
energy intensity in a specific product, process or area of
production or consumption is reduced without affecting
output, consumption or comfort levels. Promotion of
energy efficiency will contribute to energy conservation
and is therefore an integral part of energy conservation
promotional policies.
Fig. 2: Plant is like a Black Box

Reducing these losses will substantially increase the
plants efficiency, but we need data to identify and
quantify the losses and subsequently suggest suitable
techno-economic solutions to minimize the losses. This
data can be acquired through energy audits.
IV. ENERGY AUDIT

In general, energy audit is the translation of conservation
ideas into realities, by landing technically feasible
solutions with economic and other organizational

considerations within a specified time frame. As per the
Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Energy Audit is defined
as the verification, monitoring and analysis of use of
energy including submission of technical report
containing recommendations for improving energy
efficiency with cost benefit analysis and an action plan to
reduce energy consumption. An energy audit is an
inspection, survey and analysis of energy flows in a
building, process or system with the objective of
understanding the energy dynamics of the system under
study. Typically an energy audit is conducted to seek
opportunities to reduce the amount of energy input into
the system without negatively affecting the output(s).
IV.1 The Role of an Energy Audit

To Hospital the correct energy efficiency programs, you
have to know first which areas in your establishment
unnecessarily consume too much energy, e.g. which is the
most cost-effective to improve. An energy audit identifies
where energy is being consumed and assesses energy
saving opportunities - so you get to save money where it
counts the most. In the factory, doing an energy audit
increases awareness of energy issues among plant
personnel, making them more knowledgeable about
proper practices that will make them more productive. An
energy audit in effect gauges the energy efficiency of
your plant against best practices. When used as a
baseline for tracking yearly progress against targets, an
energy audit becomes the best first step towards saving
money in the production plant. In any industry, the three
top operating expenses are often found to be energy (both
electrical & thermal), labour and materials. If one were to
relate to the manageability of the cost or potential cost
savings in each of the above components, energy would
invariably emerge as a top ranker, and thus energy
management function constitutes a strategic area for cost
reduction. Energy audit will help to understand more
about the ways energy and fuel are used in any industry,
and help in identifying the areas where waste can occur
and where score for improvement exists. The energy audit
would give a positive orientation to the energy cost
reduction, preventive maintenance and quality control
programme which are vital for production and utility
activities. Such an audit programme will help to keep
focus on variations which occur in the energy costs,
availability and reliability of supply of energy, decide on
appropriate energy mix, identify energy conservation
technologies, retrofit for energy conservation equipment
etc
IV.2 Contents of an Audit

An energy audit seeks to document things that are
sometimes ignored in the plant, such as the energy being
used on site per year, which processes use the energy, and
the opportunities for savings. In so doing, it assesses the

effectiveness of management structure for controlling
energy use and implementing changes. The energy audit
report establishes the needs for plant metering and
monitoring, enabling the plant manager to hospitalalize
the practice and hence, save money for the years to come.
The energy audit action plan lists the steps and sets the
preliminary budget for the energy management program.
IV.2.1 Analysis of Energy Use

Identifying where energy is used is useful because it
identifies which areas the audit should focus on and raises
awareness of energy use and cost. The results of the
analysis can be used in the review of management
structures and procedures for controlling energy use.
Analysis of energy use can be done by installing sub
meters in different plant locations to pinpoint actual
energy usage per area. This is a good source data for
allocating energy use. The plant manager can also list all
equipment used and the corresponding operating hours.
With this information, he can create spreadsheet
information
and
generate
charts
useful
for
analysis.Important Points to Consider When Collecting
Site Load Data: Operating hours can be gathered from
plant personnel. It is important to ensure the accuracy of
this data because much of the potential for energy savings
lies on correct estimation of the equipments operating
hours. Duty cycle of Machines such as large electric
motors have varying loads and hence, different power
requirements. Finally determine actual power consumed
for electric power users, this is based on either 3-phase
current/voltage readings or power analyzer measurements
(e.g., direct kW which incorporates power factor). For
fuel users, tank readings of monthly consumption
estimates and flow meters with totalization can be sources
of measurement.
IV.2.2. Cost Benefit Analysis

The identified energy conservation opportunities should
be analyzed in terms of the cost of implementing the
project versus the benefits that can be gained. If we want
to, say, install a heat plate exchanger to recover waste
heat, we need to calculate the total cost of installation and
compare that with the savings we shall derive from
recovering waste heat. It makes sense to go on with the
project if there is a net positive benefit from the project.
IV.2.3 Action Plan to Set Implementation Priority

After passing the cost benefit test, an action plan should
be developed to ensure that the opportunities identified
and implemented. The action plan should include all the
major steps for implementing the opportunity as well as
the people responsible. Furthermore, there should be a
plan for monitoring the results.
IV.3 Audit Methodology
Laundry: 1000-1200 kg per hr at 5 kg/cm2.
IV.3.1 Preliminary Energy Audit Methodology
2 VAMS for air conditioning: 1350 kg/hr at 8.5

kg/cm2.
Heating load : 500 kg/hr at 8.5 kg/cm2( TSSU,CSSD,

Main Kitchen, AC space heating)
Preliminary energy audit is a relatively quick exercise to:
Establish energy consumption in the system.
Estimate the scope for saving
Identify the most likely and the easiest area for

attention
Identify immediate (especially no / low cost)

improvements/ savings
Set a reference point
Identify areas for more detailed study/ measurement
Preliminary energy audit uses existing, or easily

obtained data
IV.3.2 Detailed Energy Audit Methodology

A comprehensive audit provides a detailed energy project
implementation plan for a facility, since it evaluates all
major energy using systems. This type of audit offers the
most accurate estimate of energy savings and cost. It
considers the interactive effects of all projects, accounts
for the energy use of all major equipment, and includes
detailed energy cost savings calculations and project cost.
In a comprehensive audit, one of the key elements is the
energy balance. This is based on an inventory of energy
using systems, assumptions of current operating
conditions and calculations for energy use. This estimated
use is then compared to utility bill charges.
Detailed energy audit is carried out in three phases:
Phase I Pre Audit Phase
Phase II Audit Phase
Phase III Post Audit Phase
V.
DETAILED ENERGY AUDIT FOR A

HOSPITAL
After going through the different modules of a hospital,

major discrepancies found in the following areas.
V.1 Boilers and Steam Distribution System at

Hospital
Hospital having three no of steam boilers of 2 Tonnes
capacity each (Horizontal type fire tube boiler, sterling
make). One of two boilers in operation at one time
depending on the requirement of steam which is used for
following purposes.
A survey of the boiler and steam distribution /use steam

reveals following discrepancies due to which there is no
positive monitoring system for controlling the efficiency
of generation, distribution and use of steam:
No water meter for measuring the quantity of feed

water in the boiler.
No meter for the quantity of steam condensate

returned to boiler feed tank.
No temperature
temperature.
No meter for measuring quantity of steam going out

of the boiler.
No meter for measuring the LDO going from the

LDO service tank to boilers.
No instrumentation for the automatic blow down.
No meter for measuring the quantity of water

circulated for space heating.
gauge
for
measuring
steam
Under the above circumstances it is inferred that

awareness for energy conservation of abeam lacks in
totality,
During the course of survey, we noticed that 2 No. of
4dia pipes going from the plant room to the roof top of
6th floor were discharging huge quantity of steam into
atmosphere. The steam temperature was 1200C and the
velocity of flow was 6.12 m/sec.
The steam was traced to be emanating from main
condensate tank in the boiler room. Further investigation
revealed that if one boiler is running, the quantity of
steam loss is approximately 60 kg at 1 bar pressure and
double the quantity if 2 boilers are running ( Pressure of
flash steam might be moir near the place of origin in
basement of plant room) at a time.
The steam can be used in the laundry for direct injection
into washing machines. Annual saving due to this will be
120X60X7200/2000kg=25920 liters of LDO, Assuming
that 120 liter of LDO is used per hr to generate 2000kg of
steam per boiler. This is equivalent to Rs. 25920/X12=311040/- per annum (assuming LDO rate is Rs.12/per Liter.
V.1.1 Blowdown:
During the course of our study, it was observed that blow
down is restored to 3 min of each shift. While it is true
that blow down is necessary to remove the sludge for
precipitated salts, to prevent the scaling up of tubes and
tube plates on water side and to avoid priming and
carryover into steam mains but this has to be kept to the
minimum. The loss of heat due to blow down is shown in
the fig.3
Actual analysis of flue gas of boiler no 1 and boiler no 2

gave the following results:
Boiler No.1
Test 1
O2=5.9%
Co=8PPM
Efficiency = 87.7%
% excess air =40%
CO2=11.1%
Flue gas temperature=294.70C
Test 2
O2=6.1%
Co=9PPM
Efficiency = 87.4%
% excess air =41%
CO2=11.0%
Boiler No.2
Test 1
O2=4.7%
Co=3 PPM
Efficiency = 92%
% excess air =29%
CO2=12%
Fig 3 : Fuel wasted Vs Blow Down

Assuming that 7% of the blow down is being done (which
is our estimate) there is a fuel loss of 2%. This can be
reduced to 0.8% by restricting the blow down to 3.5%.
This way fuel can be saved about 1.2%
Assuming that one boiler is run round the clock through
the year, the fuel used will be 120X7200. The saving by
restricting
blow
down
to
3.5%
will
be
120X7200X1.2/100=10368 liters amounting to Rs.
124416/- per annum.
The possibility of the saving exists cent percent since with
almost 100% condensate recovery, feed water quality is
very good and blow down of 3.5% is quite sufficient. It is
recommended to install automatic blow down Control.
Test 2
O2=4.8%
Co=4 PPM
Efficiency = 92.1%
% excess air =30%
CO2=11.9%
Test results shown that the thermal efficiency of boiler no
2 is excellent while that the boiler no 1 is lower. This can
be improved by tuning the nozzle and reducing the excess
air to about 30% instead of present 41%.
If the efficiency is raised by min 4% tp 91.4% the saving
will be = (91.4-87.4)/91.4 A
Where A is original cost of LDO per anum.
V.1.2 Efficiency:
Heat losses from boiler are from flue gasse, loss from
outside of boiler referred to as radiation losses and by
blow down. Let us write this as per following equation:
Boiler thermal efficiency=100 %-( Flue gas losses %+
Radiation loss%+blow down loss %)
Assuming only 8 lacs as A (which is very fair and

minimum)
the
saving
will
be
=
800000X44/91.4=Rs.35010/-
V.2 Hot Water System

Hot water for supply to the hospital is heated in two
calorifiers by means of steam at 3.5kg/cm2 pressure which
is passed through the coil of heat exchanger. The steam
after condensation is returned to boiler feed tank. There

are two calorifiers- one for supply to podium and other for
supply to tower. Hot water circuit is pressurized by
compressed air and fresh water is taken in automatically
as and when pressure decreases below set limit.
Technical specification of clarifiers is as under
Podium calorifiers
Heat Transfer
Flow Rate
Maximum operating pressure
=
=
=
=
275000 kcal/hr
550 kg/hr for water
500 kg/hr for steam
4.5kg/cm2 for steam
3.0kg/cm2 for water
Heat transfer area
4.8 m2
Tower calorifiers
Heat Transfer
kcal/hr
330000
Flow Rate
kg/hr for water
6600
660
kg/hr for steam

Heat transfer area
V.3 Space Heating:

There are 2 Nos of calorifiers (1 working and 1 standby)
for heating water required for space heating. The flow rate
for steam is 1300 kg while water in it is 3000kg/hr heat
transfer is 715000Kcal/hr and area of heat transfer is 9.6
m2. The calorifiers are suitable for steam temperature of
1750C and water temperature of 750C. It has been
observed that there is no automatic control for controlling
the temperature of water and for operation of steam inlet
valve. Steam valve is opened and closed manual after
return water temperature is 500C. At times, the operator
from HVAC department (This system is installed in boiler
room but operated by HVAC staff whose location is quite
Away) forgets to close the valve even if temperature of
return water goes up to 600C resulting in wastage of
energy. We assume that we can save here equivalent of
1000 liters of LDO per annum by installing the automatic
control here. The saving expected is Rs. 1000X12= Rs
12000/- per annum.
VI. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

S.
No
.
Source/
Equip.
1.
Utilizati
on
of
waste
steam
2.
Blow
Down
6 m2
Hot water (600C for tower, 40-450C for podium) is taken

to hospital by means of motor pumps. (there are 3 pumps
for tower (2 running + 1 stand by) while there are two
pumps for podium (1 running ad 1 stand by).
The study shows that practically no automatic control
exists. Whatever control is there that does not work, for
instance, steam valve to calorifiers is operated manually
and is shut off manually, whenever the temperature is
reached. Further there is no water meter installed to
measure the quantity of hot water being sent to hospital.
Neither is return temperature monitored (Hot water
circulation being a closed circuit)
It is however, gathered from data given by some sources
in the hospital that approx. 500 kg of water is used by
podium and an equal quantity by tower per hour.
Since there is no automatic cut off for temperature a mere
30C of higher temperature than that required can result in
a substantial loss of energy. Assuming that 100 kg of
water is used together in podium and tower per hr the heat
loss for higher temperature will be = 1000X24X7200X3=
518400000Kcal.Which is equivalent to more than 51840
liter of LDO costing Rs. 51840X 12=Rs. 622080/- It is
therefore recommended that automatic control be installed
for opening and closing the steam valve.
3.
4.
Flue
gas
analysis
Regulat
ing hot
water
tempera
ture
5.
Chiller
No.1
6.
Chiller
No.2
Total
Action
Suggested
By utilizing
the waste
steam
washing
machine in
laundry
Proper
control of
blow down
Reducing
the % of
excess air
By
replacing
automatic
control
valve
By
investigatin
g
and
rectifying
the cause of
high
KW/Ton
By
investigatin
g
and
rectifying
the cause of
high
KW/Ton
Estimat
ed
investm
ent
Estimat
ed
Saving
Payb
ack
Peri
od
Rs.
50000/-
Rs.
311040/-
Rs.
150000/-
Rs.
124416/-
15
Nil
Rs.
35010/-
Imm
ediat
e
Rs.
150000/-
Rs.
622080/-
To be
ascertain
ed
Rs,
896400/-
Imm
ediat
e
To be
ascertain
ed
Rs.
1070000
/-
Imm
ediat
e
Rs.
350000/-
Rs.
305894-
1) Rs. 311040/- can be saved by utilizing the waste

steam going out to the atmosphere at top floor
(Utilizing the same in the washing machine in
laundry).
2) Rs.124416/- can be saved annually by reducing blow
down from 7% to 3.5%.
3) Rs. 35010/- can be saved by reducing the % of excess
air in boiler.
4) Rs. 622080/- can be saved by annually by replacing
automatic steam control valve.
5) Rs, 896400/- can be saved annually by investigating
and rectifying the cause of high KW/Ton of
refrigeration of Chiller No.1.
6) Rs.1070000/- can be saved annually by investigating
and rectifying the cause of high KW/Ton of
refrigeration of Chiller No.2.
VII. CONCLUSION
As the standard of living and human development index
of a country are directly related to the per capita energy
consumption, the enhancing energy supply has become a
key component of the national development strategy. But
because of limited resources of energy, the energy
management has become important to utilize the energy
most efficiently. So the effective energy management is
no longer an option it is a strategic business necessity.
Energy Audit is the key to a systematic approach for
decision making in the area of energy management. It
attempts to balance the total energy inputs with its use,
and serves to identify all the energy streams in a facility.
It quantifies energy usages according to its discrete
functions. Hence energy audit is an effective tool in
defining
and
pursuing
comprehensive
energy
management programme.
VIII. REFERENCES
[1]
Athtar, M.H., 1998, Boiler efficiency Assessment

and Emission Control (in Thermal Power station) M.
Tech Project CES, New Delhi.
[2] Bedi H.S., 1998 Efficiency Aspects in Thermal
Power Station Monitoring Turbine Cycle, One Day
Workshop On Energy Efficiency Management
System In Thermal Power Plant, Ntpi, Faridabad.
[3] Teleang A.D., 1999 Effective Energy Conservation
And Trouble Shooting In Thermal Power Plant By
Thermal Imaging, Three Days Workshop On
International Conference & Exhibition On Global
Power Requirements For 21st Century, The Hospital
Of Engineers And Mpseb, Jabalpur.
[4] Chakravarty, K.K., 1998 Energy Audit And
Conservation, One Day Workshop Efficiency
Management System In Thermal Power Plant Npti,
Faridabad.
[5] Kapoor L.M.,1998 Efficiency Management System
For Performance Optimization Of Thermal Plant,
One Day Workshop On Energy Efficiency
Management System In Thermal Power Plant Npti,
Faridabad..
[6] Rao, J. Srinivasa 1999, Energy Audit In Thermal
Power In Thermal Power Plant Stations Case
StudyM. Tech Project, Mechanical Engineering,
New Delhi.
[7] Sethi V.K.1997,Performance Monitoring And
Testing Some Newer TechnoiqueVidyut Bharti.
[8] Seti, V.K.1986,Mathematical Modeling And
Optimization Of Heat Rate Of A Thermal Power
Plant , Phd Thesis, Iit Delhi.
[9] Sixteen Electric Power Survey, 2000, Central
Electricity Authority, New Delhi.
[10] Technical Data Book Of Tau Devilal Thermal
Power Station (Tdtps) , Panipat.
[11] Singhal G.R.1998, Energy Audit In Thermal Power
Station in India, One Day Workshop on Energy
Efficiency Management System In Thermal Power
Plant Npti, Faridabad.
The Performance and Emission Characteristics of

Alcohol-Ether Gasoline Blends on SI Engine
K. Chendil Velan1, Anuj Raturi2
1,2
M Tech. I Year (Automobile Engg.) Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering,

Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
1
cendil_velan@rocketmail.com, 2anuj.mechanical19@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
properties of fuel and additives used in this research are

listed in Table 2.
Increased environmental concerns and depletion of fossil

fuel resources necessitate the search for a viable
alternative fuel for gasoline engines. Bio fuels are
renewable, can supplement fossil fuels, reduce green
house gas emissions and mitigate their adverse effects on
the climate resulting from global warming. However,
further reduction in engine emission becomes one of
major tasks in engine development. One promising
approach to solve this problem is to add the oxygenated
fuels in gasoline. In this research work, an attempt has
been made to analyze the effect of diethyl ether and
isopropyl alcohol as an additive at two different
proportions with petrol in a three cylinders, four stroke
naturally aspirated, vertical incline engine (25bhp @
3000rpm). The measured performance parameters are
brake thermal efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption
and engine exhaust emission of CO, CO2, HC and NOx.
Significant improvements in performance parameters and
exhaust emissions have been observed by the addition of
diethyl ether and isopropyl alcohol blends with gasoline.
Oxygenated fuel is nothing more than fuel that has a

chemical compound containing oxygen. It is used to help
burn more efficiently and cut down on some types of
atmospheric pollution. It can reduce harmful carbon
monoxide emission to great extent. In addition to being
cleaner burning, oxygenated fuel also helps cut down on
the amount of non renewable fossil fuels consumed. In
most recent years ethanol has become the additive of
choice for oxygenated fuel in many places around the
world. Hamdon and Jubra [1] using the ATD 34 engine
conducted performance test using different ethanolgasoline blends. The maximum percentage ethanol blend
used was 15 %. The best performance was achieved when
ethanol-gasoline blend was used, with the thermal
efficiency increasing by 4% under low speed conditions
and 20% at the high speed condition. Palmer [2] reported
that all oxygenated blends gave a better anti knock
performance during low speed acceleration. El-Kassaby
[3] studied that the effect of ethanol gasoline blends on SI
engine performance. The performance tests were
conducted using different percentages of ethanol-gasoline
blends upto 40% under variable compression ratio
conditions. Bata et al. [4] studied that the reduction of CO
emission is apparently caused by the wide flammability
and oxygenated characteristics of ethanol. Alexandrian et
al. [5] showed that ethanol-gasoline blended fuel instead
of gasoline alone, especially under fuel-rich conditions,
can lower CO and NOx emissions.
Keywords: SI Engine, Diethyl ether, Isopropyl alcohol,

emission, performance.
I. INTRODUCTION
Concerning the environmental aspects, rational and
efficient end use technologies are identified as key
options for achieving the Kyoto targets of greenhouse gas
emissions reduction. For the transport sector of the
European Union, energy savings of 5-10% in the medium
term and an aggregate of 25% in the long term(2020) are
targeted, with an expected cut of CO2 emissions by 8% by
the year 2010. Thus, the necessity to reduce the engine
emissions further becomes a major researching task in
developing an engine. In this research work, the addition
of Di-Ethyl Ether (DEE) and isopropyl alcohol has been
used as an oxygenated additive to gasoline. Each fuel or
additives used has its own fuel properties and when they
are combined together to form blends they constitute a
single fuel with a different property. The individual
In this research work the addition of Ethanol, Di-Ethyl

Ether (DEE) and isopropyl alcohol has been used as an
oxygenated additive in two different compositions to
Gasoline appears to be a promising approach to reduce
emissions especially. The compositions of I and II are
listed in Table 1. Their fuel properties are mentioned in
Table 3. Brent [6] said that low volatility of ethanol made
engine starting difficulty, especially at low temperatures.
Hence adding Diethyl ether to ethanol was demonstrated
as acceptable method to improve performance. Gulyamov
et al. [7] in Russia also suggests Diethyl ether for use as a
starting additive for alcohol based synthetic motor fuels.
Isopropyl alcohol is produce by combining water and
propene. There are two processes for achieving this: i) In

direct hydration via sulphuric acid process and Direct
hydration. The indirect process reacts propene with
sulphuric acid to form a mixture of sulphate esters.
Subsequent hydrolysis of these esters produces isopropyl
alcohol. Direct hydration reacts with propene and water in
gas or liquid phases, at high pressure in the presence of
solid of supported acidic catalysts. Both processes require
that the isopropyl alcohol be separated from water and
other by products by distillation.
Masoud [8] said that Diethyl ether is produced as a by
product of the vapour phase hydration of ethylene to
produce ethanol. Vapour phase dehydration of ethanol
over some alumina catalysts can give diethyl ether yields
of upto 95%.
The advantages of using Diethyl ether are,
a) They are noncorrosive than ethanol
b) They reduce ignition delay.
c) Ethers do not engage in hydrogen bonding with each
other.
Table 1: Compositions of blends
Contents
Gasoline
Ethanol
Isopropyl
Alcohol
Di Ethyl
Ether
Composition I
80%
10%
Composition Ii
80%
15%
5%
2.5%
5%
2.5%
Table 2: Comparison of Properties of additives with

Gasoline
Properties
Formula
BOILING
POINT Oc
DENSITY
Kg/L
FLASH
POINT Oc
Auto
Ignition
Temperatur
e Oc
Octane
Rating
Gasolin
e
Ethanol
Isoprop
yl
Alcohol
Diethyl
Ether
C8H18
C2H5O
H
C3H8O
C2H5OC2
H5
38-204
78.5
82.5
34.6
0.690.79
0.79
0.786
0.7134
-43
13
11.7
-45
257
423
399
170
80-90
108.6
106
>110
II.
PREPERATION OF BLEND
1) The blend is prepared on the basis of composition

mentioned.
2) The blend is checked for miscibility and prepared by
mechanical stirring process.
3) The stirring process is done for 5 10 minutes.
4) The speed of stirrer is regulated from 350-1000 rpm.
5) Both alcohols and ether were mixed for every one
and half minutes.
6) After the preparation of Blends their properties are
analysed. These properties of both the compositions
are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Properties of Composition I and Composition
II
Properties
Gasolin
e
Compositio
nI
Compositio
n Ii
Water content
0.05%
1.20%
1.92%
Density
0.710.77
0.7436
0.7468
Kinemativc
viscosity
@40oC
0.370.44
0.59
0.62
Ash
0.01%
Less than
0.001%
Less than
0.001%
Flash point
-43oC
-48oC
-46oC
Fire point
-40oC
-45oC
-42oC
Pour point
Below 60oC
-50oC
-50oC
Gross calorific
value
in
Kcals/kg
10726.3
2
10652
10514
Apprx
200
ppm
69 ppm
Ppm
Sulphur
content
III. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Both the blends namely composition I and composition II
are tested in comparison with petrol in a Three cylinder
vertical Inclined engine. The engine is coupled with eddy
current dynamometer and an electronically operated
control panel used to vary the load. It has the facility to
operate on two modes namely constant speed and constant
torque mode. It has the facility to control and load
externally and has the provision to record the speed and
torque fluctuations. The specifications of the engine are
listed in Table 4.
The Performance and Emission Characteristics of Alcohol-Ether Gasoline Blends on SI Engine 53
III.2. Brake thermal efficiency

Figure 2 shows the thermal efficiency versus engine brake
power for both blends. The Brake thermal efficiency for
gasoline fuel is also shown for reference.
25
GASOLINE
COMPOSITION I
20
BTE %
COMPOSITION II
15
10
Fig.1: Schematic Diagram of the experimental set-up.

(1)Engine, (2) Dynamometer, (3)Shaft, (4) Flywheel,
(5)Exhaust pipe, (6)Dynamometer Control unit,
(7)Gas Analyzer, and (8)Fuel measurement system.
Table 4: Engine specification

Type
Number of cylinders
Bore
Stroke
Displacement
Compression ratio
Cycle
Power
Speed
Orifice Dia
Cooling
Engine starting
system
Loading Device
Vertical inline engine

3
86.5 mm
72mm
796 cc
8.7:1
4 stroke
25 bhp at 3000 rpm
3000 rpm
31.75mm
Water
Hand electrical
Eddy current Dynamometer
2400
2600
2800
3000
SPEED rpm
Fig.2:Variation of Brake thermal Efficiency with

Speed
In composition I it is seen that the Brake thermal
efficiency is found to be sllightly higher than that of
gasoline and this may be because Diethylether has been
used upto 5% which is a starting fluid and could help in
for better combustion at initial speed range.For
composition II the brake thermal efficiency is more or
less constant throughout increasing speed range and hence
the overall efficiency is slightly higher than Composition
I and nearly equal to gasoline under certain operating
condition.
III.3 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

Figure 3 shows the brake specific fuel consumption
versus engine speed for gasoline fuel, Composition I and
Composition II blends. It is observed that the brake
specific fuel consumption for composition I increases and
that of Composition II decreases upto 2600 rpm. But after
this both compositions fuel consumption characteristics is
in contrast.
GASOLINE
COMPOSITION I
COMPOSITION II
0.6
SFC Kg/KWhr
The engine is started on no load condition and allowed to

idle for sometimes. The time taken for 10 cc of fuel
consumption is noted with stopwatch and fuel measuring
burette. Now the engine is gradually loaded to the desired
value. After allowing the engine to run at this load for
sometime in order to achieve steady state condition, the
time taken for 10 cc of fuel consumption is noted. The
readings are then tabulated for further calculation.
2200
0.5
0.4
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

3.1. Performance characteristics
The engine performance with Composition I and
Composition II blends is evaluated in terms of brake
specific consumption and brake thermal efficiency at
different loading conditions of the engine.
0.3
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
SPEED rpm
Fig.3.Variation of Specific fuel consumption with

speed
III.4. Emission Characteristics:

GASOLINE
III.4.1. Carbon monoxide (CO)
COMPOSITION I
COMPOSITION II
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
HC ppm
Fig.3 represents the influence of the composition I and

composition II on CO emissions. The CO emission for
composition I and Composition II was very lower
compared to Gasoline. This is because at the initial the
engine temperature is low and hence the CO level is
higher and when as the speed increases the CO level starts
decreasing until 2600 rpm which indicates that there is
complete combustion which combines carbon and oxygen
into CO2 perfectly. Later after 2600 rpm speed the CO
emission for both the composition blends remains to be
lower which is because of the amount of excess oxygen in
fuel reacting with carbon producing CO2.
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
SPEED rpm
GASOLINE
2.5
COMPOSITION I
CO % by vol
COMPOSITION II
Fig.5.Variation of HC emissions with speed
III.4.3. Nitrogen oxide (NOx)

Fig.6 represents the variation of NOx emissions with
speed for Composition I and Composition II with relative
to Gasoline. It is found that the level of NOx for both the
compositions are higher than that for gasoline.
1.5
1
0.5
GASOLINE
COMPOSITION I
COMPOSITION II
800
700
600
2400
2600
2800
3000
SPEED rpm
NOx ppm
2200
500
400
300
200
Fig 4.Variation of CO emissions with speed
IV.4.2. Hydrocarbon (HC)

Fig.4 represents the variation of HC emissions with speed
of both the compositions in comparison with Gasoline.
For composition I it is found that there is an decrease in
HC emissions at higher rate from the starting. This
decrement continues until 2600 rpm and then slightly
increases for Composition I and then continues in with
more or less constant level. For composition II the level
seems to be consistently decreasing at lower rate.This is
because since there are Oxygen containing blends the
oxygen reacts with Hydrogen molecules to form
H2O.Thus there is a reduction in HC emission to greater
extent.
100
0
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
SPEED rpm
Fig. 6: Variation of NOx emissions with speed

Due to more addition of Oxygen effective combustion
takes place at increasing range of speed. Hence the due to
this perfect combustion taking place in combustion
chamber the temperature of combustion chamber
increases and hence NOx emission also increases.
The Performance and Emission Characteristics of Alcohol-Ether Gasoline Blends on SI Engine 55
V.
CONCLUSION
The performance and emission characteristics of

COMPOSITION I and COMPOSITION II blends are
analyzed and compared. Based on the experimental
results, the following conclusions are drawn.
The brake thermal efficiency for composition II was
found to be increased by 3% compared to gasoline while
for composition I it was found to be decreased by 4%.
CO emission was decreased by 62% for composition I on
an average compared to gasoline and for composition II it
was about 87% reduction.
HC emissions decreased by 30% for composition I on an
average compared to gasoline and for composition II it
was found to be about 63% reduction.
NOx level was found to be increased by 50 and 63% for
both the compositions respectively.
Hence it is concluded that on the basis of performance
and emission characteristics Composition II is the
optimum blend.
VI. FUTURE SCOPE

Further research could be carried out in the reduction of
NOx as there was an increase. By use of certain additives
or effective way to cool the combusted products which
led to the higher NOx emission level could be
experimented.
As composition II showed positive result in performance
different blends could be tried for performance
improvement nearer to it.
VII. REFERENCE
[1]
Hamdan MA, Jubran BA.The effect of ethanol

addition on the performance of diesel and gasoline
engines. Dirasat 1986; XIII (10):229-44.
[2] Palmer FH. Vehicle performance of gasolione
containing oxygenates, paper C319/86. In:
International Conference on Petroleum Based Fuels
ans Automotive Applications.London: I. Mech. E
Conf, Publication 1986-11, MEP; 1986. P. 36-46.
[3] EL.Kassaby MM. Effect of using differential ethanolgasoline blends at different compression ratio os SI
engine. Alexandria Engng J 1993; 32 (3):AI135-42.
[4] Bata RM, Elond AC Rice RW, Emissins from IC
engines fuelled with alcohol-gasoline blends: a
literature
review.
Transactions
of
ASME
1989;111;421-31.
[5] Alexandrian M, Schwalm. Comparison of ethanol
and gasoline as automotive fuels. ASME papers 92wa/de-15, 1992.
[6] Brent Bailey, James Eberhardt, Steve Goguen, and
Jimell Erwin. Diethyl ether(DEE) as a renewable
Diesel Fuel.
[7] Y.M.Gulyamov, V.A.Gladkikh, Y.V.Stefan, and
V.D. Malykhin. Antiknock rating of alcohol based
synthetic motor fuels. Chem. Technol. Fuels Oils
2793-40,pp. 184-187,November 1991.
[8] Masoud Iranmanesh, J. P.Subrahmanyam and
M.K.G. Babu., 2008. Potential of Diethyl Ether as a
Blended Supplementary Oxygenated Fuel with
Biodiesel to Improve Combustion and Emission
Characteristics of Diesel Engines, SAE Publication
No. 2008-01-1805.
[9] G. Najafi, B. Ghobadian, T.T avakoli, D.R.
Buttsworth, T.F. Yusaf, M. Faizollahnejad.
Performance and Exhaust emissions of Gasoline
engine with ethanol blended gasoline fuels using
artificial neural network.
[10] M.Al-Hasan, Effect of ethanol-unleaded gasoline
blends on engine performance and exhaust emission.
Generalized Mechanism to Institute Energy

Management System
Pankaj Kamboj1, Shruti2
1
Senior Practice Specialist, Wipro Limited, Shivajinagar, Pune, Maharashtra, India.

University School of Management, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India.
lamba.shruti88@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The area of Energy Management is increasingly being
focused these days because of the alarming problems of
the world-wide energy crisis. Advancements in technology
have led to dissemination of energy saving measures used
in diversified form such as various Energy Management
Systems. Energy Management System in an Organization
is to put into practice as a rounded and efficient
management programme through the energy saving
monitoring, internal audits, continuous corrective actions
and various management reviews, which run by means of
examining each energy factor in the energy using process,
and carry out the purpose of the energy goal. Also in this
approach, reducing energy demand in all areas must be
combined with the search for the optimal operating point
that is consistent with productivity and quality targets,
and in line with imposed environmental emission limits.
Thus, the generated solution of EMS provides service
allocation plans with a minimized system cost or
economic penalties, a maximized system reliability level
and a maximized energy security.
I. INTRODUCTION
As per law of conservation of energy: There will always
be the same amount of energy in the universe, but once a
part of it is utilized it will be rendered useless. It will still
be there in the universe, but is hard to use. Moreover, the
indiscriminate use of limited natural resources and fossil
fuels, continual growth of population, deforestation and
other factors has led to increase in energy consumption
which acts as a catalyst to the mounting problem of world
wide energy crisis. The energy conservation and its
management is the major step we can all take towards
overcoming these alarming problems of the energy crisis
world-wide and is a necessary contribution to the
sustainability transition [1]. In this context, we have made
a Mechanism called as Energy Management System
which is used for implementing new and latest
technologies which is used for bringing down the levels
of energy consumption because it reduces the
organizations effect on the environment by consuming
lesser limited resources and reducing the generation of
harmful wastes. It is also believed that surrounding laws

will also favour the Organizations which possess sound
energy conservation credentials especially in terms of
Energy Management System [2].
II.
OBJECTIVE
The importance of Energy Efficiency is:"Energy is essential to economic and social development
and improved quality of life. Much of the world's energy,
however, is currently produced and consumed in ways
that could not be sustained if technology were to remain
constant and if overall quantities were to increase
substantially. The need to control atmospheric emissions
of greenhouse and other gases and substances will
increasingly need to be based on efficiency in energy
production, transmission, distribution and consumption,
and on growing reliance on environmentally sound energy
systems, particularly new and renewable sources of
energy. All energy sources will need to be used in ways
that respect the atmosphere, human health and the
environment as a whole [3].
The main problem which we have been meeting head-on
from the past few decades is the insufficient energy for
our sustenance because of the acute intensity of energy
production and its use which had resulted in the worldwide energy crisis [4]. Keeping in view of the above
context, the need of energy security is not only restricted
to domestic and industrial quarters but important policies
of the federal states also forms keeping in mind the
various aspects of energy security.
The above factors with the support of advanced
technology services have led to dissemination of energy
saving measures which is widely being practiced in
diversified form these days such as Energy Management
Systems. EMS is being deployed around the world to
improve the levels of energy security and to help reduce
the consumption of limited natural resources.
Energy Management System refers to systems which
manage the use of energy and in straight forward way it is
just finding the way to save energy. Energy Management
Generalized Mechanism to Institute Energy Management System 57
Systems implement new and latest technologies and

methods giving us an answer to the question How we can
save different forms of energy? Before moving forward
to initiate Energy Management System for an Industry we
have to know the nature of EMS to be implemented. So,
keeping in view of that perspective there are two main
nature of energy management:
the routine losses of energy can be conserved. Moreover

this system does not comply with the levels of energy
security and energy reliability. The system for the basic
processes is briefly discussed below as:-
Investigate Current Solution
Demand Management refer to the saving of energy

by controlling or managing the energy targets.
Set Objectives
Energy Efficiency refers to the quality improvement

of the apparatus or various systems used in various
energy consumption processes.
Set Target
So, we have to form EMS keeping in mind the most

favorable nature of Energy Management for a specific
industry considering the specific environment
Create & Evaluate Improvement Ideas
III. METHODOLOGY
Evaluation of Result
The primary goal of energy management is to minimize

energy costs and wastes without affecting production and
quality keeping in mind environmental concerns. The
term energy management has a different meaning to
different people. Our definition of energy management
is:The strategy of adjusting and optimizing energy, using
systems and procedures so as to reduce energy
requirements per unit of output while holding constant or
reducing total costs of producing the output from these
systems [5].
Energy management is a mission with a target. Very
concerted efforts in a planned manner are to be
undertaken to establish Energy Management Systems
which is used for the energy conservation. The main
concept behind the EMS is the energy which is to be
taken centrally on the control and managements in EMS,
the organizations ensure the concrete energy goal and
prepare the EMS for raising the energy efficiency and
lowering the levels of depletion of energy by identifying
the various dynamics responsible for it. The scope of
EMS will involve the whole mechanism of the product
realization because energy utilization in the organization
relates to the entire process of the product outcome. The
main object of control of EMS is mainly the factor that
can influence the consuming and using efficiency of
energy [6].
Both the Energy Management Systems discussed in paper
is based upon PDCA (i.e. Plan Do Check Act). In
this context, firstly the Basic Energy Management System
which can be implemented on a small-scale basis was
discussed. This system is highly economical and can be
used only in simple domestic and industrial processes
because it is highly ineffective on the grounds that only
Carry out Execution of plan
Basic Mechanism of Energy Management System

But with the advancements in technology introduced in
various processes in Industries and due to complex
behavior of the systems around us has led to transition
from this basic conventional mechanism to a latest
approach called as the Key - Step Approach which can
be of pivotal importance for the organizations these days.
Energy Management System in the form of the Key Step Approach is also based on PDCA and serves as a
quick guide for its stakeholders to extract its soul and
initiate Energy Management Programmes. This system is
an amalgamation of 2 mechanisms which when applied in
a sustainable manner can prove to be boon for an Industry
because it covers all the aspects of Energy Conservation
by providing optimum balance between Economical
costs, Energy Security and Energy Reliability. It consists
of the following series of steps:-
[A] EMS A General Mechanism

This mechanism shows the general approach for energy
conservation. It consists of five different stages and each
stage consists of various steps. These stages and steps are
general principles to conserve energy in an Industry and
Organizations. The following are the general principles
discussed as:
Energy Audit.
Energy Audit is the foundation on which energy

management process exists. Improper energy audit not
covering all the aspects of energy usages will never
results in sound energy management.
As per the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Energy Audit
is defined as - the verification, monitoring and analysis
of use of energy including submission of technical report
containing recommendations for improving energy
efficiency with cost benefit analysis and an action plan to
reduce energy consumption[5].
Depending on the level of audit the system needs, energy
audit will: o
Determine where and how energy is used within a

facility and areas of waste. Identify potential
opportunities to save money.
Quantify energy savings with implementation of

energy-saving projects.
Prioritize energy conservation projects by time,

cost, and return on investment. Identify existing
pollution levels and forecast improvement with
new systems.
The positive results of the above EMS General

Mechanism are to be arranged into the standard form
which can be kept as a record for future purposes so that
the gist of the result can be referred it in future also and if
required the process can be repeated cyclically for new
projects and objectives.
So from the above research we learnt that implementing
Energy Management Systems for the Industries and
Organizations to conserve the natural resources so that
future generations can be fruitful is at the heart of many
initiatives. Working in a sustainable environment and
endorsing sustainable operations is paramount today.
Moreover, controlling energy usage will have a direct
positive impact on the bottom line operational costs. With
such high and escalating costs of energy today, start of
many Energy Management System which generates
solution to provide desired energy resource, service
allocation plans with a minimized system cost or
economic penalties, a maximized system reliability level
and a maximized energy security [7].
Planning the Programme.

Set targets keeping in mind the future trends.
Prepare a policy statement which states various
plans and programs to be undertaken.
Implementation
Programme.
and
Operation
of
the
The force established in the planning step in terms

of policy should be implemented fully to ensure
smooth operation of the program as it was desired.
Monitor the Programme and make Corrective

Action.
The records of implementation of the program
should be closely monitored from time to - time so
that if some problem arises the appropriate steps
should be taken to get the desired result.
Management Review.
After the program is completed, the report of it is to
be presented before the Higher Authorities. Proper
analyses are to be done on the results of the
programs. Founding successful the activities are
repeated to form a cyclic movement.
Typical Energy Management System Diagram
IV. CONCLUSION
[B] EMS A Standardised Mechanism
Energy Management in short can be summed as,

eliminating unnecessary energy use, improving efficiency
Generalized Mechanism to Institute Energy Management System 59
of energy use, buying energy at lower cost, adjusting

operations to allow purchasing energy at lower
prices. The implementation of Energy Management
System and various Energy Conservation Policies can be
carried out as following: - firstly, Energy Audit is to be
conducted. Then, identify the various energy factors, after
the identification of all the energy factors analyses are
done among economic cost, system reliability and energysupply shortage. The operation of EMS is carried out by
specific system according to the systems relevant control
Process. The inspection and correction for already
implemented energy management system is carried out by
the Various departments concerned. Each of the
management policies should be regularly recorded by the
internal staff of concerned departments, and records are
compared with the standard conditions. Internal audit and
Management Reviews should be done after a certain
regular time interval so as to get the clear result of the
already implemented EMS and to introduce further
improvement measures for desired energy management as
needed from time to time. Moreover we have
discussed EMS Standardized Mechanism in which above
principles of General System can be repeated for new
projects and objectives cyclically because the energy
conservation process is never ending and goes on
throughout the life of an organization. Further, reducing
energy demand in all areas must be combined with the
search for the optimal operating point that is consistent
with productivity and quality targets, and in line with
imposed environmental emission limits. Reducing energy
use will not only lower the operating costs, but will also
improve competitiveness, increase profits and achieve
environmental protection. Also, we all should keep in
mind that Conserving energy is our collective
responsibility for a better tomorrow.
V.
[1]
[2]
[3]
REFERENCES
United Nations Industrial Development Organization

(UNIDO), Seminar on energy conservation in
rubber industry, p. 1, 5, 8-22, 23, The Energy
Conservation Center, Japan (ECC), 1998.
Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme
(EEBPP), Good practice guide 262, Practical tips for
energy saving in rubber processing industries, p. 2,
5, 16, Department of the Environment, UK, 2000.
United
Nations
Sustainable
Development,
Protection of the atmosphere, Agenda 21 - Chapter
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
9, 2000, http://www.un.org/esa /sustdev/agenda21

chapter9.htm.
Miller, Jr. G. Tyler, Living in the environment
Eleventh edition, p. 501, Brooks/Cole Publishing
Company, 2000.
Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Energy
Management and Audit, Chapter 3, p. 57, 58,
Ministry of Power, Govt. of India.
Fu Weidong, Hai Wei, Wang Kunya, Li Huoyin, Jia
Zhihao, A Method to Establish and Run
Management System for Energy, p. 1585, 1586,
1588, Energy Procedia 5, 2011.
United Nations Industrial Development Organisation
(UNIDO), Industrial Management: Issues Paper,
Prepared for Expert Group Meeting: Using Energy
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LLC.
The Futuristic Alternative Fuel-HCNG- A Review

Anuj Raturi1, K. Chendil Velan2, Hardik Vala3
1,2,3
M Tech. I Year (Automobile Engg.) Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering,

Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
1
anuj.mechanical19@gmail.com; 2cendil_velan@rocketmail.com, 3hardikvala@yahoo.co.in
I. INTRODUCTION
small amount of hydrogen to methane, resulting in a fuel

having much less harmful to the environment and faster
rate of burning than methane. Hydrogen has been
regarded as a future secondary fuel for power system due
to carbon-free operation. Rapid increase in the emission
of green house gases and very strict environmental
legislations are major motivating factors for the usage of
hydrogen in fuel cells and internal combustion engines. It
is an excellent additive to improve the combustion of HC
fuel due to its low ignition energy, high reactivity,
diffusivity, and burning velocity. The internal combustion
engines can be fueled with pure hydrogen or the mixtures
of HC fuels and hydrogen. As hydrogen has lower
volumetric energy density and higher combustion
temperature, pure hydrogen-fueled engine produces lower
power output and much higher NOx emissions than
gasoline-fueled engine at stoichiometric air-fuel ratio.
Blending of hydrogen with CNG provides a blended gas
termed as hydrogen-enriched natural gas (HCNG). HCNG
stands for hydrogen enriched compressed natural gas and
it combines the advantages of both hydrogen and
methane. HCNG allows customers early hydrogen
deployment with nearly commercial technology. It is
being treated as the first step towards future hydrogen
economy. Engines can be calibrated for lower NOx or
greenhouse gas emissions. Any natural gas engine is
compatible to run on HCNG and can do so with minimum
modifications. It also allows governments and agencies to
promote the use of hydrogen to greater number of people
at less cost. HCNG can help the hydrogen industry to
develop volume and transportation solutions while
reducing costs. HCNG can take advantage of existing
investment in natural gas infrastructure and also has much
higher volumetric energy storage density than pure
hydrogen.
In the last few years, the use of alternative fuel in internal

combustion engines has received renewed attention. The
uncertainty of petroleum-based fuel availability has
created need for alternative fuels. In recent years, an
emphasis on reducing pollutant emissions from
petroleum-based engines has motivated the development
and testing of several alternative fuels. However, it is
important to note that methane is a greenhouse gas with
high global warming factor. Hence, there is need to
enhance the combustion process of natural gas at lean
condition. One way of improving is by the addition of
However, as the hydrogen fraction increases above certain

extent, abnormal combustion such as pre-ignition, knock
and backfire occur. Due to the low quench distance and
high burning velocity, the combustion chamber walls
become hotter which causes more losses to the cooling
water. Therefore, the amount of hydrogen being added
should be optimized to compromise the gain and loss.
With the increase of hydrogen addition, the lean operation
limits extend and the mean brake torque decreases. This
view has been the accelerant behind the renewed interest
and recent progress in the research and development of
ABSTRACTS
Air pollution is fast becoming a serious global problem
with increasing population and its subsequent demands.
This has resulted in increased usage of hydrogen as fuel
for internal combustion engines. Hydrogen resources are
vast and it is considered as one of the most promising fuel
for automotive sector. As the required hydrogen
infrastructure and refueling stations are not meeting the
demand, widespread introduction of hydrogen vehicles is
not possible in the near future. One of the solutions for
this hurdle is to blend hydrogen with methane. Such types
of blends take benefit of the unique combustion properties
of hydrogen and at the same time reduce the demand for
pure hydrogen. Enriching natural gas with hydrogen
could be a potential alternative to common hydrocarbon
fuels for internal combustion engine applications. Many
researchers are working on this for the last few years and
the work is now focused on how to use this kind of fuel to
its maximum extent. This technical note is an assessment
of hydrogen enriched compressed natural gas usage in
case of internal combustion engines. Several examples
and their salient features have been discussed. Finally,
overall effects of hydrogen addition on an engine fueled
with hydrogen enriched com-pressed natural gas under
various conditions are illustrated. In addition, the scope
and challenges being faced in this area of research are
clearly described.
Keywords: alternative fuels, hydrogen enriched
compressed natural gas, natural gas, performance,
combustion and emission
The Futuristic Alternative Fuel-HCNG- A Review 61
HCNG engines. This paper gives a comprehensive review

of HCNG characterization, experimental investigation on
different internal combustion engines, merits, demerits
and challenges faced by HCNG.
II.
FUEL CHARACTERISTICS OF HCNG
When used in an internal combustion engine, even the

addition of small amount of hydrogen to natural gas (530% by volume) leads to many advantages, because of
some particular physical and chemical properties.
developed a new HCNG premixed system which was
used to blend desired amount of hydrogen into CNG.
According to Daltons partial pressure law, hydrogen
fraction was decided by the partial pressure of these two
fuels in HCNG tank. The influence of gas composition on
engine behavior can be adequately characterized by
Wobbe index. If the Wobbe index remains constant,
change in the gas composition will not lead to a
noticeable change in the air-fuel ratio and combustion
rate.The overall comparison of properties of Hydrogen,
CNG, 5% HCNG blend is given in tabs. 1 and 2 show the
characteristic values of the HCNG fuels with different
hydrogen fractions. Also, these confirm that the properties
of HCNG lie in between those of hydrogen and CNG.
There are a number of unique features associated with
HCNG that make it remarkably well suited in principle to
engine applications. Some of the most notable features
are:
1) Addition of hydrogen increases the H/C ratio of the
fuel. A higher H/C ratio results in less CO2 per unit
of energy produced and thereby reduces greenhouse
gas emissions.
2) Natural gas has low flame speed while hydrogen has
the flame speed about eight times higher (fig. 1);
therefore, when excess air ratio is much higher than
the stoichiometric condition, the combustion of
natural gas is not as stable as HCNG. The problem
encountered using natural gas is that the engine will
experience incomplete combustion. Adding hydrogen
to the fuel extends the amount of charge dilution that
can be achieved while still maintaining efficient
combustion.
3) Hydrogen also has a very low energy density per unit
volume and as a result, volumetric heating value of
the HCNG mixture decreases (tab. 2) as the
proportion of hydrogen is increased in the mixture.
4) Blends of HCNG ranging from 15-30% extend the
lean operating limit ensuring complete combustion
which reduces HC and CO emissions.
5) The laminar burning speed of hydrogen is nearly
eight times higher than that of natural gas, so the
addition of hydrogen can increase the burning
velocity of the mixture, and it brings some
advantages such as shorter combustion duration,
greater degree of constant volume combustion and
improved indicated thermal efficiency.
III. HCNG AS AN ENGINE FUEL

Application of blends of hydrogen and natural gas in
internal combustion engines started in the early 90.
During the last two decades, many experiments had been
conducted all over the world. All the experiments had
shown that the blends of hydrogen and natural gas reduce
the exhaust emissions of both regulated pollutants and
CO2 and increase the efficiency of a spark ignition (SI)
engine. (a registered trademark of Hydrogen Components
Inc.) project, comparative testing of three identical
vehicles (1991 Chevrolet 5.7 liter pick-up trucks) with
Hythane (15% hydrogen by volume, 85% NG) indicated
that the Hythane fueled vehicle was able to meet ultra low
emissions vehicle standards at sea level for NOx, CO, and
non-methane hydrocarbons. The usage of HCNG in lean
burn SI engines, using 0, 15 and 30% volumes of
hydrogen on a GM 5.71, V8 engine. With 15 and 30%
volume of H2, substantial reductions in NOx with some
HC penalty were observed as a result of very lean
combustion.Natural gas passenger car using natural gas
and HCNG blend on a chassis dynamometer according to
the European emission regulations, without any change on
engine calibration. Reduction of 19% CO emission was
observed with HCNG blend, while HC emissions
remained constant. A 70% increment was observed in
NOx emissions with HCNG. There is no significant
variation of fuel consumption on energy basis.
Combustion and emission characteristics of port injection
turbocharged (SI) engine fuelled with several H2-CNG
blend ratios (0-50%) under various ignition timings.
Results show that with increasing hydrogen addition, the
maximum brake torque (MBT) timing decreases and the
indicated thermal efficiency increases. MBT gets close to
top dead centre and the indicated thermal efficiency
increases with decreased load. The combustion duration is
reduced by increasing the hydrogen fraction in HCNG.
All the NOx, CO, and HC emissions tend to come down
with the increase of spark advance angle and soar with the
increase of load. Analyzed efficiency and emissions from
an engine fuelled using mixtures of natural gas and
hydrogen. It was reported that the brake thermal
efficiency for HCNG is greater than CNG for the same
excess air ratio () and the difference in brake thermal
efficiency between HCNG and CNG increases with
increasing excess air ratio. Results also show that NOx
emissions are significantly reduced by increasing the
excess air ratio and that of hydrogen addition to the CNG.
This leaning out may easily be achieved without any
substantial HC penalty. The scenario in HCNG fueled
engines comprehensively. From the results, it was
observed that, replacement of natural gas with HCNG was
found to have significant influence on engine
performance. Experimental results indicated that under
certain conditions, the maximum cylinder gas pressure,
maximum heat release rate increased with the increase of
hydrogen fraction. The beginning of heat release

Consumption g/km
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Carbondioxide
NG
HCNG10
HCNG10
Fuel
HCNG15
HCNG15
Blends
Fig 1: Variation of CO2 and fuel consumption for

different blends
Consumption g/km
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
NG
HCNG10 HCNG10 HCNG15 HCNG15
Blends
Fig 2: Variation of fuel consumption for different

blends
Emission g/km
advanced with the increase of hydrogen fraction. This

phenomenon was more obvious when fuel air mixture
was richer. At a given excess air ratio, more hydrogen
added would bring out more NOx emission due to the
higher combustion temperature. When excess air ratio
changed from 1.2 to 2.0, NOx emission could research to
an extremely low level. When excess air ratio was about
1.8, maximum cylinder pressure and maximum heat
release have got more significance rise due to hydrogen
addition compared to excess air ratio was 1.2. When spark
timing swept from 30 to 20 BTDC, the maximum
cylinder pressure reduced but NOx emission decreased at
the same time. It has been suggested that, when adding
more
re than 20% volume into CNG, lean mixture
combustion and ignition timing optimization could
significantly decrease NOx emission and maintain
relatively higher thermal efficiency under certain fixed
engine conditions. A new dedicated HCNG (30% H2 and
70% natural
tural gas by volume) heavy duty engine for heavy
duty transportation applications with lower NOx
emissions. Similar results obtained by many re
re-searchers
investigated the influences of hydrogen on the
performance and emission characteristics of a heavy dut
duty
natural gas engine. He pointed out that NOx reduction of
over 80% is possible by employing retarded spark timing
with the addition of 30 vol.% hydrogen with natural gas
under the condition of best thermal efficiency. The effect
of spark timing on enginess indicated thermal efficiency
and NOx emission. He concluded that at given indicated
thermal efficiency, NOx emission decreased as the
increase of hydrogen fraction under optimized SI timing.
Some of the results obtained in the 6 months test
campaign by them
hem are presented here in the form of bar
charts (figs. 1-3).
3). These figures give a very good
comparison of engine performance with different
operating conditions (excess air ratio, ignition timing)
using different hydrogen fractions in HCNG. The use of
HCNG
G can allow significant reduction of both global and
local pollution in short term and with limited economical
burden.
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
CO
NG
HCNG10
HC
HCNG10
NOx
HCNG15
HCNG15
Blends
Fig 3: Variation of CO, HC and NOx emission for

different blends
Natural gas-hydrogen
hydrogen mixing system and analyzed its
effects and feasibility by spectro analysis of the sampled
fuel gas mixture. It was confirmed that the developed
system can produce HCNG with accurate
acc
enough
blending ratio and is very suitable for HCNG engine
testing. Mixing process takes place at a relatively low
pressure which is good for safety operation. The effect of
hydrogen addition on early flame growth of lean burn
natural gas-air mixturess was investigated experimentally
and numerically. It has been reported that the initial
combustion process is significantly enhanced with
hydrogen addition for both laminar premixed and directdirect
injection turbulent combustion at lean mixture condition.
The enhancement of SI of lean natural gas-air
gas
mixtures
with hydrogen addition is ascribed to the increase of OH
and O mole fraction in the flames. performance optimal.
The comparison of optimized results and the original
CNG performance showed that CH4, CO, NOx, and BSFC
decrease by 70, 83.57, 93, and 5%, respectively.
The Futuristic Alternative Fuel-HCNG- A Review 63
IV. ADVANTAGES OF HCNG

From the review of literature available in the field of
HCNG usage, many advantages are noticeable. The
following are some of the benefits of using HCNG as
fuel.
1) It is usable with the existing CNG infrastructure. It
requires only small hydrogen storage and a column
for the mixing of hydrogen with natural gas.
2) Safety properties are similar to CNG. HCNG is safer
to handle than hydrogen, because of lower risk due to
very low energy content from hydrogen (only up to
30 vol.%).
3) It extends the lean misfire limit of CNG.
4) Minor modifications are required in the engine due
the moderate concentration of hydrogen in the fuel
mixture; the excellent anti-knock characteristics of
CNG are not under-mined.
5) The phenomenon of hydrogen embrittlement does not
occur with respect to the engine components. Hence,
no major change is anticipated in the fuel system and
engine components.
6) Hydrogen addition to natural gas can decrease
engines unburned hydrocarbons and NOx emissions
(by lean burn) and speed up the combustion process.
7) It improves the engine efficiency and lowers fuel
consumption.
NTP* air, [cms1]

Quenching gap in
0.064 0.152
NTP* air, [cm]
Normalized flame
1.0
1.5
emissivity
Equivalence ratio
flammability limit in 0.1-7.1 0.5-5.4
NTP* air
Methane number
0
76
Composition of
CNG: CH4 90.2%,
C2H6 8.5%, C3H8
0.6%, N2 0.6%,
butane 0.1%
0.203
0.2
1.7
1.7
0.7-4
0.7-3.8
80
3) Emission testing with more ranges of hydrogen in

HCNG blends.
4) Continuous availability of HCNG needs to be assured
before embarking on its major use in IC engines.
5) Continued engine performance, emissions and
durability testing in variety of engine types and sizes
need to be developed to increase consumer and
manufacturer confidence.
6) Development of less expensive quality tests.
Table 2: Properties of Different Blends
CNG
HCNG
10
HCNG
20
HCNG
30
H2 [vol.%]
10
20
30
1) HCNG storage and supply infrastructure.
H2 [mass%]
1.21
2.69
4.52
2) Efforts to be focused on responding to fuel system

performance, material compatibility.
H2
[energy%]
3.09
6.68
10.94
LHV [MJkg
1]
46.28
47.17
48.26
49.61
LHV
[MJNm3]
37.16
34.50
31.85
29.20
LHV
stoichometric
mixture
[MJNm3]
3.376
3.368
3.359
3.349
V.
CHALLENGES OF HCNG
Table 1: Properties of Different fuels

Properties
Limits of
flammability in air,
[vol.%]
Stoichiometric
composition in air,
[vol.%]
Minimum energy for
ignition in air, [mJ]
Auto ignition
temperature, [K]
Flame temperature in
air, [K ]
Burning velocity in
H2
HCNG
5
CH4
GASO
LINE
4-75
5-35
5-15
1.0 -7.6
29.53
22.8
9.48
1.76
0.02
0.21
0.29
0.24
858
825
813
501744
2318
2210
2148
2470
325
110
45
37-43
Properties
VI. 6. CONCLUSIONS
It is evident from the study made that it is advantageous
to use HCNG as a fuel in internal combustion engines.
Addition of hydrogen to CNG as a fuel in SI engines
gives significant and positive impact on efficiency,
especially close to the lean limit. HCNG makes it possible
to run the engine leaner, resulting in lower emissions of
CO2, CO and HC at certain and higher NOx emissions at
constant excess ratio. Future experimental developments

would prophesy the optimization of emissions of both
urban pollutants and CO2 along with the reduction of fuel
consumption for specific vehicle driving cycle finding the
best compromise after investigating a wider spectrum of l,
spark advance, compression ratio and percentage of
hydrogen in the blends. Finally, it has been concluded that
HCNG fuels pave the road for the use of hydrogen
vehicles in the future due to expensive after treatment
technologies. The entire paper discusses the application of
HCNG in SI engines; it could also be extended for CI
engines which would meet the toughest Euro-V norms yet
to be enforced in near future.A number of research works
are currently in progress to make HCNG as alternate for
Diesel engines with proper modifications.
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Nomenclature
[10]
Greek symbols
excess air ratio
equivalence ratio
Acronyms
BSFC brake specific fuel consumption
CNG compressed natural gas
ECE economic commission of Europe
GHG green house gas
HCNG hydrogen-enriched natural gas
LCV light commercial vehicles
LHV low heating value
LNG liquefied natural gas
LPG liquefied petroleum gas
MBT maximum brake torque
NG natural gas
PM particulate matter
VII. REFERENCE
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Kaslanantham Nanthagopal, Rayapati Subbarao,

Thangavelu Elango, Ponnusamy Baskar, and
Kandasamy
Annamalai,
Hydrogen
enriched
compressed natural gas a futuristic fuel for internal
combustion engines. Thermal Science, 2011, Vol. 15,
No. 4,pp. 1145-1154.
Bade Shrestha, S. O., Karim, G. A., Hydrogen as an
Additive to Methane for Spark Ignition Engine
Applications, International Journal of Hydrogen
Energy, 24 (1999), 6, pp. 577-586
Kavathekar, K. P., Rairikar, S. D., Thipse, S. S.,
Development of a CNG Injection Engine Compliant
to Euro IV Norms and Development Strategy for
HCNG Operation. SAE paper 2007-26-029, 2007
Naha, S, Briones, A. M, Aggarwal, S. K., Effect of
Fuel Blends on Pollutant Emissions in Flames.
Combustion Sciences and Technology, 177 (2005), 1,
pp. 183- 220
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
Sveen, M., Engine Characteristics of Emissions and

Performance Using Mixtures Natural Gas and
Hydrogen, Energy, 32 (2007), 4, pp. 482-489
Turns, S. R., An Introduction to Combustion:
Concepts and Applications, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill;
Boston, Mass., USA, 2000, pp. 158-159
Bell, S. R., Gupta, M., Extension of a Lean Operating
Limit for Natural Gas Fuelling of a Spark Ignition
Engine Using Hydrogen Blending., Combustion
Sciences and Technology, 123 (1997), 1-6, pp. 23-48
Munshi, S. R., et al., Hydrogen Blended Natural Gas
of a Operation of a Heavy Duty Turbocharged Lean
Burn Spark Ignition Engine, SAE paper 2004-012956, 2004
Hoekstra, R. L., et al., NOx Emission and Efficiency
of Hydrogen, Natural Gas, Natural Gas/Hydrogen
Blends, SAE paper 961103, 1996
Ma, F., et al., Combustion and Emission
Characteristic of a Port Injection HCNG Engine
under Various Ignition Timings., International
Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 33 (2008), 2, pp. 816822
Karner, D., Francfort, J., Freedom Car and Vehicle
Technologies Program Advanced Vehicle Testing
Activity, Arizonal Public Service, Alternative Fuel
(Hydrogen) Pilot Plant, US DOE; 2003
Ortenzi, F., Chesisa, M., Conigli., F., Experimental
Tests of Blends of Hydrogen and Natural Gas in
Light Duty Vehicles, HYSYDAYS 2nd World
Congress of Young Scientists on Hydrogen Energy
Systems. Turin, Italy, 2007, pp. 1-11
Collier, K., et al., Emission Results from the New
Development of a Dedicated Hydrogen Enriched
Natural Gas Heavy Duty Engine, SAE paper 200501-0235, 2005
Xu, J., et al., Experimental Study of a Single
Cylinder Engine Fueled with Natural Gas
Hydrogen Mixtures, International Journal of
Hydrogen Energy, 35 (2010), 7, pp. 2909-2914
Ma, F., et al., Experimental Study on Thermal
Efficiency and Emission Characteristics of a Lean
Burn Hydrogen Enriched Natural Engine,
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 32
(2007), 18, pp. 5067-5075
Technical Comparison between Hythane, CNG and
Gasoline Fueled Vehicles, Report by Energy Task
Force of the Urban Consortium, City and County of
Denver, Alternative Fuels Unit, 1992
Raman, V., et al., Hythane an Ultra Clean
Transportation Fuel, Proceedings, 10th World
Hydrogen Energy Conference, Cocoa Beach, Fla.,
USA, 1994
Unich, A., Morrone, B., Mariani., A., The Impact of
Natural Gas Hydrogen Blends on Internal
Combustion Engines Performances and Emissions.
SAE paper 2009 -24-0102, 2009
Exergy Analysis of Waste Heat Operated Combined

Power and Ejector Refrigeration Cycle
Munawar N Karimi1, Basant K Agrawal2
1,2
Department of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi- 110 025 (India)
ABSTRACT
A combined power and ejector refrigeration cycle for low
temperature heat sources is under investigation in this
paper. The proposed cycle combines the organic Rankine
cycle and the ejector refrigeration cycle. The ejector is
driven by the exhausts from the turbine to produce power
and refrigeration simultaneously. System performance
and exergy destruction on each component of combined
cycle are evaluated based on exergetic analysis .Results
show that the proposed cycle has a big potential to
produce refrigeration and most exergy losses take place
in the HRVG, ejector and condenser.
Nomenclature
E&
T
W&
H
m&
S
T
RC
ERC
exergy rate [kJ s-1]

absolute temperature [K]
work output [kJ s-1]
enthalpy [kJ kg-1]
mass flow rate [kg s-1]
entropy [kJ kg-1K-1]
temperature [0C]
Rankine cycle
ejector refrigeration cycle
Greek symbols
entrainment ratio
efficiency[%]
Subscript
A
E
C
D
HRVG
T
TV
P
d
n
m
pf
sf
absorber
evaporator
condenser
destruction
heat recovery steam generator
turbine
throttle valve
pump
diffuser
nozzle
mixing chamber
primary flow
secondary flow
I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, there are a great deal of waste heats being
released into environment ,such as exhaust gas from
turbines and engines, and waste heat from industrial plant,
which lead to serious environmental pollution. In
addition, there are also abundant geothermal resources
and solar energy available in the world. Low temperature
heat sources, such as solar energy, geothermal energy and
low temperature waste heat, exist in the world
extensively. Most of them cannot be utilized by the
conventional power machines eciently.
Detailed discussions on thermodynamic analysis of
ejector refrigeration cycle are reported by few of the
investigators (Yapici, 2007; Li and Groll, 2005;
Pianthong et al., 2007; Shankarlal and Mani, 2007).
exergy analysis of combined power and ejector
refrigeration cycle presented by Yipici et al.(2007) shows
that largest exergy destruction occurs in the heat recovery
vapor generator (HRVG) followed by the ejector and
turbine. A significant amount of heat is wasted to the
environment at the exit of HRVG, and these exhaust
losses destroy the net work producing potential
(decreased energy) and thereby result in reduced first and
second-law efficiency of combined power and ejector
refrigeration cycle.
It is pertinent to recover some of the thermal energy of the
exhaust in general and exergy in particular (since 100%
thermal recovery is prohibited from second law), which
would otherwise be wasted. Although much research
has been carried out on the combined power and
refrigeration cycle, most of them have combined
the Rankine cycle or Kalina cycle with absorption
refrigeration cycle, and a little attention has been
paid to the combination of Rankine cycle and the
ejector refrigeration cycle.
Although this refrigeration cycle has not very high
performance coefficient, it has some advantages
such as less movable parts and low operating,
installation and maintenance cost. In addition, the
ejector refrigeration cycle has the possibility of
using a wide range of refrigerants with the
system.
II.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED

CYCLE
The proposed system consists of Rankine cycle (RC) and

ejector refrigeration cycle (ERC) with only one heat
source. Fig.1 shows the simplified RC and ERC cycle.
Industrial waste heat gases (1) feed to the HRVG.
Superheated refrigerant vapor R123 is expanded in a
turbine to generate work. The turbine exhaust (5) is passes
through converging diverging supersonic nozzle of
ejector. The very high velocity refrigerant vapor at the
exit of the nozzle creates a very high vacuum at the inlet
Waste heat
industry
of the mixing chamber and extract secondary vapor (11)

into the chamber from the evaporator of ERC and this
causes cooling effect at evaporator of ERC. The primary
vapor (5) and secondary vapor (11) are mixed in the
mixing chamber. The mixed stream (6) is cooled in
condenser (C1). The saturated liquid (7) is divided in two
parts (8, 9), one part (9) is passed through throttling valve
(TV1) where pressure is reduced to evaporator pressure
(10) and feed to evaporator (E1), and second part (8) is
pumped by pump (P1) to the HRVG of RC cycle. The
industrial waste heat (2) coming out from HRVG, finally
exhaust to the environment.
from
Turbine
1
4
5
HRVG
11
To exhaust
EJ
EV
3
Cond.
TV
10
7
P1
9
Fig.1 Combined power-ejector-absorption refrigeration cycle

The following assumptions have been made for the
analysis of the proposed cycle;
1) The components of the cycle are in steady state, and
pressure drop in pipes and heat losses to the
environment in the HRVG, turbine, condensers and
evaporators are neglected.
2) The flow through the throttle valve is isenthalpic.
3) The condenser outlet state is saturated liquid
4) The evaporator outlet state is saturated vapor
5) Only physical exergies are used for the industrial

waste heat source and vapor flows.
6)
Kinetic, potential and chemical exergies of the

substances are neglected.
For the analysis, the specifications of the combined RC

and ERC cycle are given in Table 1. The key component
of this combined cycle is ejector and its performance is
dependent upon entrainment ratio which determines the
magnitude of mass flow rate of secondary refrigerant in
terms of mass flow rate of primary refrigerant coming out
from the turbine. The basic principle of the model was
introduced by Keenan et al.(1950) based on gas dynamics
Exergy Analysis of Waste Heat Operated Combined Power and Ejector Refrigeration Cycle 67
and formulated by Huang et al. (1999) and Ouzzane et

al.(2003) .The formulation and assumption of entrainment
ratio is based on mass, momentum and energy equations
which is recently developed by Dai et al.(2009) and may
be reported as
= n m d (h pf ,n1 h pf ,n 2,s ) /(hmf ,d ,s hmf ,m ) 1

'
'
(1)
The efficiencies of nozzle, mixing chamber, and diffuser

are reported in Table 1 and the required enthalpy values at
various state points of the ejector cycle for a given
refrigerant are taken from
III. EXERGY EFFICIENCY (EXERGY)

Since exergy is more valuable than energy according to
the second law of thermodynamics, it is useful to consider
both output and input in terms of exergy. The amount of
exergy supplied in the product to the amount of exergy
associated with the fuel is more accurate measure of the
thermodynamic performance of the system which is
defined as the ratio of exergy contained in the product to
the exergy associated with the fuel input and the exergy
efficiency of combined cycle may be reported as
exergy
Table 1: Main assumptions considered for the analysis

are as follows:
Environment
Temperature(OC)
Environment pressure
(MPa)
Turbine inlet pressure
range (MPa)
Industrial waste heat source
temperature range (OC)
Industrial waste heat source
composition
Turbine back pressure
range (MPa)
Turbine isentropic
efficiency (%0
Ejector evaporator
temperature (OC)
Condenser temperature
(OC)
Heat source mass flow rate
(kg s-1)
Pump isentropic efficiency
(%)
HRVG efficiency (%)
Pinch point temperature
difference (OC)
Nozzle efficiency (%)
Mixing chamber efficiency
(%)
Diffuser efficiency (%)
W& T + E& E 1 + E& E

E&
(2)
0.10135
E& 1 is incoming exergy with industrial waste heat

at HRVG, WT is the work output from turbine of RC,
E& is the change in exergy at ejector evaporator of
0.9 - 1.7
ERC and
ARC.
Where,
15
160 180
96.16N2, 3.59%O2,
0.23%H20, 0.02%
NO+NO2
0.22-0.3
85
E1
E& E 2 is the change in exergy at evaporator of
The basic equation of exergy destruction rate in the

components of RC, ERC & ARC are written as follows:
For HRVG
E& D , HRVG = T0 [m& g ( s 2 s1 )+ m& pf ( s 4 s 3 )]

For turbine
E& D ,T = m& pf [( hs 4 hs 5 ) T0 ( s 4 s 5 )] W& T
10
For ejector
35
E& D , Eje = T0 [ m& m ( s 6 ) m& pf ( s 5 ) m& sf ( s11 )]
20.0
(4)
(5)
For condenser-1
70
E& D,cond,1 = T0 (m& pf + m& sf )(s 7 s 6 )
100
For throttle valve-1
10.0
E& D ,TV 1 = T0 m& sf ( s10 s 9 )
90
For evaporator-1
85
E& D , E1 = T0 m& sf ( s11 s 10 )
85
(3)
(6)
(7)
(8)
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The second law analysis shows the departure of actual
process from the ideal process and thereby suggests
possible improvement in thermodynamic cycles and
processes. Since the analysis pinpoints the irreversibilities
in the various components and it should be minimized as
far as possible. However, there are other factors too, i.e.
economy, size etc., for the selection and design of any
equipment. In the case of condenser of ERC, HRVG of
RC, ejector of ERC and gas cooler of TRC, the heat
exchange process will be less irreversible if the
temperature difference between the two fluids is kept
small. However this leads to larger size of the
components. So there should be compromise between
allowable irreversibility, size and cost. So irreversibility
analysis is a very important tool for proper designing of
component, minimizing loses and maximizing overall

exergy efficiency of the combined cycle. The
thermodynamics properties of the working fluid
were calculated by REFPROP 6.01 developed by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology of
the United States. Exergy analysis has been
performed to e v a l u a t e the exergy losses in the
system as sho wn in fig. 2 it is found that 76.7% of
the total input exergy is lost: 41.6% due to the
irreversibilities in the components, 35.1% to the
environment in the boiler exhaust. The biggest
exergy loss d u e to the irreversibilities occurs in
heat addition processes, and the ejector causes
the next largest exergy loss. In addition, the
condensation process and turbine expansion
process also cause 9.3% and 2.96% exergy losses,
respectively.
Exrgy distribution (%)
50
40
30
35.1
22.2
20
15.8
9.3
10
2.96
0.14
0.2
ou
tp
ut
E
xe
rg
y
Ex
er
gy
ou
tp
ut
in
tu
rb
in
in
e
re
fri
ge
ra
tio
n
E
D
in
H
E
R
D
VG
in
co
nd
en
se
E
r
D
in
ej
ec
to
E
r
D
i
n
E
tu
D
rb
in
in
th
e
ro
at
tle
va
lv
e
ED
Ex
in
er
pu
gy
m
lo
p
st
in
ex
ha
us
t
1.1
13.2
Fig. 2 Percentage (%) of fuel exergy distribution in outputs,and

destructions for the combined cycle
The exergy analysis results can be used to guide
system performance improvement. The boiler
exhaust exergy loss c o u l d be re duced by
reducing the exhaust temperature. The exergy
losses in the boiler could be reduced by reducing
the heat transfer temperature difference. So, it
needs to reduce the boiler exhaust temperature
and increase the temperature of working fluid sent
to t h e boiler. But it would be at the expense of
more costly heat exchangers. The exergy loss in

the ejector is relatively large, and it could be
reduced by improving the ejector performance
using advanced design technique. The condensation
exergy loss could be reduced if the heat transfer
temperature difference could be reduced further.
In addition, using high efficiency turbine could
reduce the turbine exergy loss.
Exergy Analysis of Waste Heat Operated Combined Power and Ejector Refrigeration Cycle 69
V.
CONCLUSION
A novel
combined
power
and
ejector
refrigeration cycle is proposed, which combines
the Rankine cycle and ejector refrigeration cycle.
Exergy analysis is performed to evaluate the
thermodynamic improvement for this cycle. From
the d i s c u s s i o n s above, it can be concluded
that t h e amounts of exergy loss in the boiler and
ejector account for large percentage through
exergy analysis. Therefore, it is significant to
employ methods for reducing exergy losses of
these components. Thus the performance for this
combined cycle c o u l d be improved greatly.
VI. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Dai, Y., Wang, J., Gao, L., 2009.Exergy analysis,

parametric analysis and optimization for a novel
combined power and ejector refrigeration cycle.
Applied Thermal Engineering 29:1983-1990
Keenan, H.,Neumann, E.P.,Lustwerk,F.,1950. An
investigation of ejector design by analysis and
experiment.Journal
of
Applied
MechanicsTrasactions of the ASME 72:299-309.
Huang, B.J., Chang, J.M., Wang, C.P., Petronko,
V.A., 1999.A 1-D analysis of ejector performance.
International Journal of Refrigeration 22:354-364
Ouzzane, M., Aidoun, Z., 2003.Model development
and numerical procedure for detailed ejector analysis
and design.Applied Thermal Engineering 23:23372351
[5]
NIST Standard Reference Database 23, NIST

Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of
Refrigerants and Refrigerant Mixtures REFPROP,
Version 6.01,1998.
[6] Hasan, A A., Goswami, DY., Vijayraghvan, S.,
2002.First and second law analysis of a new power
and refrigeration thermodynamics cycle using a solar
heat source. Solar Energy 73(5):385-93.
[7] Goswami, D.Y.,Xu,F.,1999. Analysis of a new
thermodynamic cycle for combined power and
cooling using low and mid temperature solar
collectors. Journal of solar energy engineering 121
(2), 91-97.
[8] Yapici, R., 2007. Performance characteristics of the
ejector refrigeration system based on the constant
area ejector flow model, Energy Conversion and
Management 46:3117-3135.
[9] Yapici, R.Yetisen, C.C., 2007.Experimental study on
ejector refrigeration system powered by low grade
heat. Energy Conversion and Management 48:15601568.
[10] Li, D., Groll, E.A., 2005.Transcritical CO2
refrigeration cycle with ejector expansion device,
International Journal of Refrigeration 28:766-773.
[11] Pianthong,K.,Seehanam,W.,Behnia,M.,Sriveerakul,T,
Aphornratana,S.,2007.investigation and improvement
of ejector refrigeration system using computational
fluid dynamics technique. Energy Conversion and
Management 48:2556-2564
[12] Sankarlal, T., Mani, A., 2007. Experimental
investigation on ejector refrigeration system with
ammonia. Renewable Energy 32:1403-1413
Feasibility of Starting the Scramjet at Lower Velocities

Utkarsh K.K.1, Sayantan Bhattacharya2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jagannath University, Jaipur
1
utkarshkk@gmail.com 2bhattacharya.sayan91@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
When pressures and temperatures become so high in
supersonic flight that it is no longer efficient to slow the
oncoming flow to subsonic speeds for combustion, a
scramjet (supersonic combustion ramjet) is used in place
of a ramjet. Currently, the transition to supersonic
combustion generally occurs at a free stream Mach
number around 5.0 to 6.0 and in order to achieve these
velocities a number of Propulsion systems need to be
carried along with the Scramjet. This paper targets at
reducing the weight of the system by finding out the ways
to check the feasibility of starting the Scramjet at lower
velocities so the no. of propulsion systems that are
required to reach the starting velocity of Scramjet can be
reduced.
Keywords: Scramjet, Ramjet, Stream Thrust Analysis,
Static Temperature Ratio, Equivalence Ratio, Feasibility.
I.
WHAT IS A SCRAMJET?
A scramjet propulsion system is a hypersonic airbreathing engine in which heat addition, due to
combustion of fuel and air, occurs in the flow that is
supersonic relative to the engine. Thus, instead of
reducing the flow velocity to subsonic speeds, the demand
of the current era is to make combustion possible at
acceptable supersonic speeds and thus, the term

SCRAMJET was coined meaning Supersonic
Combustion Ramjet
II.
WHY SCRAMJET?
In a conventional ramjet, engine the incoming supersonic

airflow is decelerated to subsonic speeds by means of a
multi-shock intake system and diffusion process. Fuel is
added to the subsonic airflow, the mixture combusts and
then re-accelerates through a mechanical choke to
supersonic speeds.
By contrast, the airflow in a pure scramjet remains
supersonic throughout the combustion process and does
not require a choking mechanism. Modern scramjet
engines are able to seamlessly make the transition
between ramjet and scramjet operation.
III. CURRENT JET ENGINES IN USE

Ram jet
Turboprop
Pulsejet
Turbofan
Turbojet
All the above engines utilize Sub-Sonic Combustion of

fuel whereas the need of the hour is to carry out
combustion at supersonic levels of airflow.
Fig. 1 Representative Scramjet Engine
Feasibility of Starting the Scramjet at Lower Velocities 71
Why supersonic combustion?
A. Weight Reduction:
As flight Mach numbers increase beyond Mach 5, the use

of supersonic combustion can provides higher
performance (i.e. specific impulse) due to inlet efficiency
offset by higher Rayleigh losses associated with
combustion (Figure 3). Crossover points between ramjet
and scramjet operation indicate the benefits of operating
in ramjet until Mach 5-6. The process
ess of decelerating
airflow at flight Mach 6 to subsonic speeds for
combustion results in near-stagnation
stagnation conditions with
attendant high pressures and heat transfer rates. The
engine structural integrity dictates supersonic combustion
past Mach 6. Somewheree between Mach 5 and 6, the
combination of these factors indicates a switch to scramjet
operation. The physics beyond Mach 8 dictates supersonic
combustion.
It is essential to reduce the weight of an engine for better

performance ,the weight of the system can be reduce by
decreasing
ing the number of propulsion system ;if we
decrease the number propulsion system then the starting
mach number of the scram jet engine have to be reduce.
IV. OBJECTIVE
The goal of scramjet development is to give hypersonic
vehicle a more efficient alternative
ve to rockets which can
be used as a transition vehicle which can swap between
atmosphere and space travel.
V.
CHALLENGES
Air inlet
o excess-mass capture
o cruise performance
Combustor
o Piloting & flame holding
o Fuel injection & mixing
o Total pressure loss
Structure and material

o Passive cooled structure
o Regeneratively-cooled
cooled structure & thermal
management
Weight Reduction
B. Parameters
Static temperature T3/T0

Fuel selection
Fuel air ratio
0- Undisturbed or freestream conditions
External compression begin
1- External compression ends
Internal compression begins
Inlet or diffuser entry
3- Inlet or diffuser exit
Internal compression ends
Burner or combustor entry
4- Burner or Combustor exit
Internal expansion begins
Nozzle entry
9- Internal expansion ends
Nozzle exit
External expansion begins
10- External expansion ends
Fig. 2 Scramjet Reference Station Designations
C. Stream Thrust Analysis for examining Static

Temperature Ratio
This method requires more initial information and uses
the entire set of control volume conservation equations. It
leans heavily on momentum relationships. The Stream
Thrust Analysis method will be employed here, as it
accounts for the most engine parameters and influences
compared to other one-dimensional
dimensional flow analysis
methods.
Thermal efficiency
Temperature at engine exit
Velocity at engine exit
Fig. 3 Scramjet Control Volume Definition

1) Compression Component (Reference Stations 0 to 3):
Includes compression surfaces (internal and external),
isolator, intake, etc. up to the combustor entrance.
2) Combustion Component (Reference Stations 3 to 4):

Consists of the combustor and all parts that make
combustion happen including fuel injectors, etc. that lie
within the combustor.
3) Expansion Component (Reference Stations 4 to 10):
It includes all expansion surfaces after the combustor exit
up to the engine exit. With the component breakdown
established, it is now possible to step through the equation
set of this analysis method.
The cycle static temperature ratio (T3/T0) has a powerful

impact on the starting Mach number of a scramjet. As
shown above, T3/T0, the ratio of specific heats during
compression (c), and the free stream Mach number (M0)
are the only variables which determine the burner entry
Mach number (M3). The specific heat ratio can be
considered constant in the compression component. With
the requirement that M3>1 to ensure supersonic
combustion, lowering M0 can apparently be achieved by
lowering T3/T0. Therefore, T3/T0 has perhaps the greatest
impact on whether it is possible to lower the scramjet
starting Mach number. The maximum T3/T0 for a scramjet
with a starting Mach number of 3.50 to maintain
supersonic combustion is 1.25.
TABLE I: PERFORMANCE RESULTS FOR

T3/T0=1.25 AT M0=3.50
Ratio of combustor entrance pressure to freestream

pressure
Combustor entrance temperature
Cumbustor entrance velocity
Specific Impulse
Overall efficiency
Although a T3/T0 value exists for lowering the starting

scramjet Mach number to 3.50, the overall performance
values shown in Table 3.6 are quite low. Though scramjet
overall efficiencies are commonly around 50%, and are
often as low as 30%, the overall efficiency here is only
9%. This is a very low efficiency and one that severely
impedes any possible benefits for starting the scramjet at
M0=3.50. Also, the values of specific impulse and specific
thrust are significantly reduced with a value of T3/T0 this
low.
D. Analysis: Fuel Selection

Fuel selection plays a very important role not only in
engine design, but also on the impact that the propulsion
system has on the vehicle and mission design. In order to
analyze these selected fuels against each other to
determine their impact on the starting Mach number, it is
necessary to first establish a characteristic that will help to
distinguish between them. The purpose of fuel in a
propulsion system is, in the most basic sense, to convert
the chemical energy stored in the fuel to thermal energy
which can produce thrust [1]. It is therefore beneficial to
distinguish between the various fuels on a chemical level.
TABLE II: HYDROGEN FUEL ADVANTAGES
AND DISADVANTAGES
Hydrogen
fuel
Advantage
Disadvantage
Rapid Burning
Very low density
High mass-specific
energy content
Boil-off
problems
Shortest ignition
delay
Require largest
vehicle size
Fig. 4 Lowest starting mach number for hydrogen

ignition
TABLE III: HYDROCARBON FUELS

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Hydro
carbon
Fuels
Advantage
Disadvantage
Storable
Slow burning
11 times the storage

density of hydrogen.
Require quick
vaporization before
mixing
3.5 times more

energy content per
volume than
hydrogen
Exposing to high
temperatures can
result in coking.
Fig. 5 Lowest Possible Starting Mach Number for

Methane Ignition
Realistic ground
testing in existing
facilities is possible
The two types of fuels most generally applied to scramjet
designs are hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuels. Hydrogen
fuels are often favoured for flight above Mach 8-10
whereas hydrocarbon fuels are favoured for Mach number
ranges below 8.

Ethane Ignition
Fig. 10 Lowest Possible Starting Mach

number for Octane Ignition
Fig. 7 Lowest Possible Starting Mach Number for JP10 Ignition
Methane is mentioned often as a fuel for a hypersonic

cruiser with Mach 6+ cruising speed and hydrogen is
applicable for Mach 8-10+ applications due of its high
energy content. However, neither hydrogen nor methane
is a feasible fuel for the current project, as their lowest
starting Mach numbers are 5.50 and 5.35, respectively,
therefore providing no ability to lower the starting Mach
number. JP-7 reduces the starting Mach number to 4.3,
and is a candidate fuel due to its wide availability and
engine cooling capabilities.
TABLE IV: SUMMARY OF LOWEST STARTING
MACH NUMBERS AND CORRESPONDING T3/T0
FOR ANALYZED FUELS

Hexane Ignition
Fig. 9 Lowest Possible Starting Mach

Number for JP-7 Ignition
Fig. 11 Lowest Possible Scramjet Starting Mach

number versus Ignition Temperature at
Stoichiometric Fuel-to-Air Ratios for Several Fuels
The result of the analysis is that JP-7 has been selected as

the best fuel for the current project and can reduce the
starting Mach number to 4.30 for a scramjet with the JP-7
stoichiometric fuel-to-air ratio.
Table VI: Stoichiometric Values
Table V: Performance Parameters with JP-7
The stoichiometric f is the fuel-to-air ratio which usually

results in the greatest liberation of sensible energy from
the breaking of molecular bonds.
1) In the variation of f :
When f is smaller than the fst, the available oxygen is not
fully used. When f is larger than the fst, fuel is wasted as
not all of it can be burned. In order to know the limits for
the variation of f, the equivalence ratio is used which is
given by:
As can be seen in this table as a result of selecting JP-7 as

the fuel, the performance values have increased
considerably over the values obtained with generic fuel
valuesthe overall efficiency (o) is now 29% versus the
9% obtained earlier.
Therefore, the fuel-to-air ratio has been varied across this

range for JP-7 fuel.
E. Analysis: Variation of Fuel-to-Air Ratio

Investigation the final key design parameterfuel to-air
ratiois needed to aid in lowering the starting scramjet
Mach number, as the selection of fuel did not succeed in
lowering the starting Mach number of a scramjet to Mach
3.50, but rather, only to Mach 4.30. Therefore, this
section will detail the analysis necessary to determine
whether the variation of the fuel-to-air ratio (f) from
stoichiometric will enable the reduction of the starting
Mach number to a lower value while maintaining
supersonic combustion.
Where, the fuel is expressed as CxHy.
Fig. 12 Max T3/T0 Possible with Supersonic Flow in

Combustor versus Fuel-to-Air Ratio for JP-7 Fuel at
Mach 3.5

Mach 4.0

Mach
4.5
From these figures, it is possible to tell the minimum achievable starting Mach number of a scramjet with JP-7 fuel and no
ignition system or fuel additives. As can be seen in Figure 3.14, a starting Mach number of 3.50 is not achievable, as the
ignition temperature required by JP-7 is not reached at the lowest fuel-to-air ratio possible within the equivalence ratio range.
However, a starting Mach number of 4.00 is possible, as shown in the Figure 13.
Fig. 15 Design Space: Fuel-to-Air Ratio versus Starting Mach number for JP-7 Fuel; Bounded by Minimum T3/T0
Necessary for JP-7 Ignition.
Compiling the data from Figures above and including the
lower limit of the required T3/T0 for JP-7 fuel to ignite,
the design space for a scramjet with JP-7 fuel, plotted
against the variation of f, is shown in Figure 3.17. A linear
trend line has been added in the plot, which, upon testing,
proves to be highly accurate compared to the onedimensional flow results. This equation approximates the
maximum value of f that can be used with JP-7 fuel while
maintaining supersonic combustion and ensuring JP-7
ignition when given a desired starting freestream Mach

number.
It is:
The design space suggests that the lowest possible starting

Mach number lies approximately between Mach 3.50 and
3.75. By utilizing the stream thrust analysis equations
iteratively, the minimum possible starting freestream
Mach number for a scramjet using JP-7 fuel and no
additives maintaining supersonic flow is found to be
M0=3.68. However, at this lowest limit of the design
space, there is relatively no room for error. To ensure that
the engine does not transition to subsonic combustion,
causing a normal shock wave to form in the combustor
thereby choking the engine, and to ensure that JP-7 is
actually ignited inside of the confines of the combustor,
the starting freestream Mach number of the scramjet will
be taken to be 4.00. Additionally, this starting Mach
number has the ability to operate with a fuel-to-air ratio of
0.03, which is above the normally stated minimum lean
value limit of 0.02 to maintain combustion.
VI. CONCLUSION
It is seen that if we reduce the value of T3/T0 (i.e. static
temperature) below the Critical Point, then the overall
efficiency falls below the datum line (i.e. it becomes 9%).
Therefore the manipulation of this parameter has a severe
drawback.
Now if we take the fuel under consideration and its
alteration result to an increase in the efficiency gradient
up to 20%, the efficiency gains a value of 29%. On
further moving ahead we observed that by changing the
fuel-air ratio we can even achieve the efficiency of 31%.
At this overall efficiency parameter, the corresponding
frees tream Mach no. achieved is of 4.0.
Our sheer efforts have enabled us to reduce the value of
the starting Mach no. to a value of 4.0, and thus, to some
extent, reduction in the value of weight of the system can
also be achieved.
TABLE VII: Final Key Design Parameters
ABBREVIATIONS
M
M0
M2
M3
M4
M10
T3/T0
c
b
e
f
fst
Tt0
Cp
Cp0
Cpc
Cpb
Cpe
p2
p3
p4
p10
S
T2
T3
T4
T10
no
nth
np
nc
nb
ne
nKE
Isp
R
hPR
g
Mach Number
Freestream Mach Number
Isolator Entry Mach Number
Burner Entry Mach Number
Burner Exit Mach Number
Expansion System Exit and Engine Exit Mach
Number
Ratio of Burner Entry Temperature to
Freestream Temperature
Ratio of Specific Heats
Ratio of Specific Heats for Compression
Ratio of Specific Heats for Burner
Ratio of Specific Heats for Expansion
Fuel-to-Air Ratio
Stoichiometric Fuel-to-Air Ratio
Equivalence Ratio
Stagnation Temperature of Freestream Air
Specific Heat
Specific Heat of Freestream Air
Specific Heat for Engine Compression
Specific Heat for Engine Burner (Combustor)
Specific Heat for Engine Expansion (Exit)
Static Pressure at Isolator Entrance
Static Pressure at Burner Entrance
Static Pressure at Burner Exit
Static Pressure at Expansion System Exit and
Engine Exit
Specific Fuel Consumption
Static Temperature at Isolator Entrance
Static Temperature at Burner Entrance
Static Temperature at Burner Exit
Static Temperature at Expansion System Exit
and Engine Exit
Overall Efficiency
Thermal Efficiency
Propulsive Efficiency
Inlet Compression System Efficiency
Burner Efficiency
Expansion System Efficiency
Kinetic Energy Efficiency
Specific Impulse
Perfect Gas Constant
Heat of Reaction
Acceleration due to Gravity
VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to first thank my research advisor, Mr. Utkarsh
K.K., for his guidance throughout the duration of this
project. I would like to thank Dr. Bhargava, Dr.
Shishodia, Mr. M.P. Singh and the Department of
Mechanical Engineering for their constant supervision
and valuable inputs.
I must gratefully acknowledge the constant support, love,

and encouragement my family has provided to me,
without which I would not be the person I am today.
[4]
VIII. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
Mathur, Tarun, Mark Gruber, Kevin Jackson, Jeff

Donbar, Wayne Donaldson, Thomas Jackson, and
Fred Billig. "Supersonic Combustion Experiments
with a Cavity-Based Fuel Injector." Journal of
Propulsion and Power, Volume 17, No. 6, NovemberDecember 2001: 1305-1312.
Curran, E.T., and S.N.B. Murthy. Scramjet
Propulsion. Vol. 189: Progress in Astronautics and
Aeronautics. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2000.
Canan, James W. "Breathing New Hope Into
Hypersonics." Aerospace America, November 2007:
26-31.
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
National Research Council, Committee on the

National Aerospace Initiative, Air Force Science and
Technology Board, Division on Engineering and
Physical Sciences. Evaluation of the National
Aerospace Initiative. Washington, DC: The National
Academies Press, 2004.
Bowcutt, Kevin G. "Multidisciplinary Optimization
of Airbreathing Hypersonic Vehicles." Journal of
Propulsion and Power, Volume 17, No. 6, NovemberDecember 2001: 1184-1190.
Seiner, John M., S.M. Dash, and D.C. Kenzakowski.
"Historical Survey on Enhanced Mixing in Scramjet
Engines." Journal of Propulsion and Power, Volume
17, No. 6, November-December 2001: 1273-1286.
Czysz, Paul A., and Claudio Bruno. Future
Spacecraft
Propulsion
Systems:
Enabling
Technologies for Space Exploration. Chichester, UK:
Praxis, 2006.
http:// www.wikipedia.org
Development and Test of Low Cost Catalytic

Converter from ZnO/CoO in the Form of Pellet
for Petrol Fuelled Engine
Charula H Patel1, Megha Sharma2
1
Assistant professor, C.U.Shah college of engineering and technology, Wadhawan city-363030

charulapatel@gmail.com
2
Assistant Professor, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh
msharma@amity.edu
ABSTRACT
Main focus of work is to develop low cost catalytic
converter from metal oxides readily available in the
market. Modern car are equipped with three way catalytic
converter. Which are made from Platinum group metals
(PGM) and Cerium oxide (CeO2). Platinum group metals
are identified as human health risk due to their rapid
emissions in the environment Aim of work is to use metal
oxides in Place of the PGM Group Metals and the oxide
which are required to import such as CeO2. In these work
catalytic converter is developed based on catalyst
materials consisting of metal oxides such as, Zink oxide,
and cobalt oxide in the form of pellet type. In which
Cobalt oxide replaces PGM.
Keywords: Catalyst; emission; PGM; ZnO/CoO.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Gasoline (spark-ignition) combustion engines are in use

for more than hundred years now, since the invention by
German engineer N.A. Otto in 1878. Though the engine
operation principle has basically remained the same, the
engines have undergone vast improvements since.
However, a perfect combustion is still not obtained.
Hence, together with large amounts of carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O) in the exhaust, also undesired
carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and
oxides of nitrogen can be found. With the increase of
health and pollution problems caused by the above
mentioned exhaust components, concern was raised in
society about the impact of the automotive pollution on
our present and future life. This has led to the introduction
of pollution control and significant advances in this field
over the last 30 years. [6] A catalytic converter is a device
that usually reduces the toxicity of exhaust emissions
generally from gasoline engines In order to meet
increasingly stringent restrictions on the emissions of
certain polluting gases by automotive internal combustion
engines; it is common nowadays for the exhaust systems
of such engines to include catalytic converters. The

exhaust gas from the engine passes through such
converters and pollutant gas constituents are converted
into less undesirable gases by the catalytic action of the
catalyst within the converter for venting to the
atmosphere. The catalytic converter looks like a muffler.
It is located in the exhaust system ahead of the muffler.
The platinum or palladiums are used as a catalyst (a
catalyst is a substance used to speed up a chemical
process) Apart from catalyst materials, CeO2 are also
added in the of three way catalytic (TWC) converter. As
hydrocarbons or carbon monoxide in the exhaust are
passed over the catalyst which are either in pallet form or
honeycomb, it is chemically oxidized or converted to
carbon dioxide and water. The nitrogen oxides (NOX) in
the exhaust gas are reduced to harmless nitrogen (N2) and
oxygen (O2). [3]
Among all the types of technologies developed so far, use
of catalytic converters is the best way to control auto
exhaust emission. The conversion of environmentally
unacceptable gases to N2, CO2 and H2O using catalysts
is a challenging task. Therefore, environmental catalysis
or exhaust catalysis has been growing as a new and broad
area of research in heterogeneous catalysis in the last
three decades. [15] Recent work shows that CeO2 and
PGM made catalytic converter proved more efficiency
among the others. The problem with this converter is the
PGM/CeO2 use as catalyst to control the pollution.[8]
The PGMs comprise the rare metals such as platinum (Pt),
palladium (Pd), rhodium (Rh), ruthenium (Ru), iridium
(Ir) and osmium (Os). All these materials have the
common properties like inert as regards biological
reactions or less chemical reactions; and to be immobile.
The Palladium and Platinum Ions are binding to lead
within the catalytic converter and the complex is being
released as a solid in the exhaust into the environment
Platinum content of road dusts can be soluble and
consequently it enters the waters, sediments, soil and
finally the food chain. PGMs have also been associated
with asthma, nausea, increased hair loss, increased

spontaneous abortion,
bortion, dermatitis and other serious health
problems in humans.[1]
D. Catalytic converter fabrication
In this investigation, a new type of catalytic converter

based on Coo/ZnO material has been developed with
pellets to oxidize/reduction emission from petrol engine.
The advantages of this catalytic converter are stated as
low-cost, domestically available.
The fabrication catalytic converter consist of few

components, namely the converter chamber, substrate. To
avoid thermal optimization
n and design validation
.converter was purchased from the market. Catalytic
converter used in study is of 2008 model Toyota corolla
provided by Walker. It is of Oval body and features of
OEM convers are as follow:
II.
CATALYST PREPARATION
A. Material selection for catalyst.

Zink oxide, and Cobalt oxide were used as metal oxide
catalyst. The pure cobalt oxide is used as reducing agent
and Zinc oxide as oxidizing agent.
B. Catalyst slurry preparation

Sodium silicate solution and carbide methyl cellulose
(CMC) were used as binder and pore former
respectively.100 grams
rams of sodium silicate solution was
added. into 1 kg of metal oxide(such as TiO2) water was
added
dded to make paste than 100 gm. of Sodium silicate
solution were added. The slurry then stirred well. 24
grams of CoO and 200 gm. of carbide methyl cellulose
(CMC) was gradually added. To ensure homogenization,
it milled for around 600 hours by using ball mill and then
left dried in sunlight for few hours. The figure 1(a) shows
the prepared catalyst slurry.
C. Pellets preparation
Pallets of approximate size Inch were prepared than
dried in sunlight for two day before calcination in a
natural gas fired openn air furnace. Calcination is a process
in which a material is heated to a high temperature
without fusing, so that hydrates, carbonates, or other
compounds are decomposed and the volatile material is
expelled. Calcination is a process in which a material is
heated to a high temperature without fusing, so that
hydrates, carbonates, or other compounds are decomposed
and the volatile material is expelled. Calcinations take 660
hours at a temperature of 500C
C with temperature
ramping upon 100C/min and holdingg time of a 300
minutes.
Fig. 1.(a) Slurry of ZnO/CoO(b) calcinated pallets of

ZnO/CoO
Material: Stainless steel
Color/Finish: Natural
Converter Case Material: Stainless steel
Product Fit: OE replacement
OEM converter was modified for the testing purposed.

Converter was cut from middle then Cordierite of ceramic
was taken out to use for comparison of test results. Than
oval shape flanged
langed were welded with the both segments
that is attached by bolts and nuts. So that during testing
catalyst made from different metal oxides can be replace
easily. In between the flange gasket were placed to
prevent leakage of the exhaust gases which are made from
high heat resist champion sheet. Tapping for the
temperature measurement was given to the converter by
welding the coupling of inch. at the inlet of the
converter. Similarly for the pressure drop measurement
inch coupling is wedded at the inlet
in of the converter and
at the outlet of the converter. One more tapping was made
for the inserting the probe of the gas analyzer.
In the chamber pellets catalyst were loaded in to the
catalyst camber in made of stainless steel wire mesh. With
the size of 8cm by 15 cm by 10 cm.
Fig. 2: Modified catalytic converter casing.
Development and Test of Low Cost Catalytic Converter from ZnO/CoO in the Form of Pellet for Petrol Fuelled Engine 81
III. CATALYTIC CONVERTER TEST ON

A PETROL ENGINE
OEM catco
ZnO/CoO P.
CO emission[% Vol]
All the tests experiments were conducted with 1.0L

gasoline engine 4 cylinder, 4-stroke. The Catalytic
converter made from metal oxide is connected to the
engine exhaust. Two-gas analyzer one tap is connected at
the Inlet off the Catalytic converter to Measure the
Exhaust gas from engine and other is connected at the
outlet of converter to measure the exhaust gases passing
after the converter. Thermocouple was attached to the
engine exhaust to measure the temp of exhaust gases at
the Inlet of Converter to find the effectiveness of
converter with the Temperature or response of converted
with temperature. U tube manometer was used to find the
Pressure drop through the catalytic converter. Engine
coupled to an electrical dynamometer to apply the load on
the engine for the testing.
without catco.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1100
1200
1500
1700
Engine speed [rpm]
Fig. 4: CO Emission Vs. engine speed (withoutcatco,

OEM and ZnO/CoO P converter)
Similarly Figure 6 and 7 are for HC Emission. Results for
the HC emission 392.5 ppm with Pellets, 582.5 ppm of
OEM and without catalytic convert 777.5 ppm.
Conversion efficiency of OEM 22.25% and Pellets
48.43% respectively. This can be attributed to the metal
oxides ZnO and CoO which play a key role in HC
oxidation. Similar result were achieved using ZnO as
catalyst in (D.Philips 1996)
OEM catco
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Figure 4 and Figure 5 shows the CO Emission versus
engine speed and conversion efficiency versus engine
speed Without converter engine produces 6.1 % Vol. all
the engine rang and OEM 3.875 %Vol. and with Pellets
1.375% Vol. all over the speed range without load.
Calculations show that the conversion efficiency for the
CO with pallets and OEM are 76.21%and32.78%
respectively. This is mainly due to the oxides ZnO/Coo.
And having porous form of pellets. Porous ceramic
material exhibit significant result in reduction of CO and
HC in while performed on gasoline engine.
(S.H.Amirnordin 2008).
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
CO Conversion effi.
Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of Experimental Setup.
ZnO/CoO P.
1100
1200
1500
1700
Engine speed [rpm]

Fig. 5: CO conversion efficiency versus engine speed
(OEM and ZnO/CoO converter)
In addition due to CoO containing catalyst calcinated at
higher temperature exhibited catalytic activity in CO
oxidation (U.S Patent 2007)
without catco
OEM catco
1200
HC emission[ppm]
1000
800
600
This is mainly due to the effects of metal oxide TiO2 and

CoO and having porous Pellets. In addition this effect can
be attributed to oxidation of CoO contain in catalytic
converter (Y.J.Mergler 1996). Lower efficiency with
same temperature compare to the Coo may attribute to the
reason that lighting off temperature of the OEM is around
380o. And below that the efficiency is almost zero at cold
start to 50% conversion efficiency at the lighting off
temperature. (P.Bera 2010)
400
200
0
1100
1200 speed1500
Engine
[rpm]
1700
Fig. 6: HC Emission Vs. engine speed (withoutcatco,

OEM and ZnO/Co O P converter)
Figures 9 show HC,CO emissions for different engine

operating conditions exhaust emissions for the catalytic
converters at engine operating condition with 1200 rpm
and 1 Kw. Load. It is found that HC Reduces from
680ppmto620ppm and 400ppm by OEM Catco and wire
mesh Catcorespectively.
Similar reductions of
COemissionsarefound6.4% Vol., 4.5 % Vol., 1.5% Vol.by
OEM and wire mesh Catco(s).
without catco
680
OEM catco
ZnO/CoO P.
620
600
350
400
200
ZnO/CoO P.
0
60.00
HC[ppm]
40.00
7
20.00
CO emission [% vol]
HC Conversion effi.
OEM catco.
800
HC emission[ppm]
Figure 8 shows the graphical presentation of the result of

engine test Temp of exhaust gas at Inlet to catalytic
converter versus CO catalytic conversion efficiency and
HC conversion efficiency. It show that the Tio2 Pellets
type converter having good efficiency compared to the
OEM at the same exhaust gas temperature.
0.00
1100
1200
1500
1700
Engine speed [rpm]

Fig. 7: HC conversion efficiency versus engine speed
(OEM and ZnO/CoO P.converter)
without catco
6.4
OEM catco
6
4.5
5
4
ZnO/CoO P.
3.3
3
2
1
OEM catco
OEM catco.
ZnO/CoO P.
ZnO/CoO P.
100
50
0
175 310 320 332
[Temperature [C]
HC Conversion effi.
CO Conversion effi.
0
CO[% vol]
Figure 9 CO and HC emission at1200 rpm & 1Kw. Load

(withoutcatco OEM and ZnO/CoO)
60
V.
CONCLUSION
40
20
0
Following conclusion have been drawn from the

present work
CoO/ZnO based catalyst and pellets catalytic

converter has been successfully developed.
The CO conversion efficiency of OEM and pellets

catalytic converter are 32.78% and 76.21%
respectively. Pellets reduces 43.43% higher than
OEM catalytic converter
175 310 320 332

Temperature[C]
Figure 8 CO and HC Catalytic Converter efficiency

versus Temperature
Development and Test of Low Cost Catalytic Converter from ZnO/CoO in the Form of Pellet for Petrol Fuelled Engine 83
The HC conversion efficiency of OEM and pellets

catalytic converter is 22.25% and 48.73%
respectively. Pellets reduces 26.48% higher than
OEM catalytic converter
Similar reduction (As OEM) of HCand CO is found

at 1kW and 1200 rpm.
Light off temperature for OEM and Pellets catco are

reduces than the OEM.
Hence CoO/ZnO oxides-based catalytic converter is

effective for petrol fuelled engine
VI. REFERENCES
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[2]
[3]
[4]
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exhausts catalysis. /Journal of the Indian Institute of
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Kevin S. 2003- Catalytic converter Theory,
operation and testing. Invasive Testing.,14-20
Costa M, Farias T.L.and Silva C.M-2006-Evaluation
of SI engine exhaust gas emissions upstream and
downstream of the catalytic converter/ Energy
Conversion and Management 47 ,28112828
Cornelius S.J-2001- Modelling and Control of
Automotive Catalysts/PhD thesis-Sidney Sussex
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and
Angline-2004-automotive
mechanics/Tata Mc-Graw-Hill Publishing,448-460
Eindhoven M.B.-2002-Modeling and Model-Based
Control of Three-Way Catalytic Converter/ PhD.
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(DISC),7-16
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monolithic ceramic catalysts. / Catalysis Today 41,
87-94
Forzatt P. and Lietti L. -1991 Catalyst deactivation. /
Catalysis Today 52 (1999) /165-181
Fournier, Paine J.A.and john b.-1996- conversion of
carbon monoxide using cobalt-based metal oxide
catalysts./US Patent No.5,502,019
John B Heywood- 1989-Internal combustion engine
fundamentals/ McGraw-Hill. Inc., 567-657.
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Catalytic
Characterization. Pure &App/. Chem., Vol. 63, No. 9,
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[14] Kapar J., Fornasiero P. and Hickey N.-2003Automotive catalytic converters: current status and
some perspectives/ Catalysis Today 77, 419449
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of CeO2-based oxides in the three-way catalysis/
Catalysis Today 50, 285-298
[16] krissadon sukramoon- 2002 - Reducing exhaust
emission from passenger car by suing three way
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A Study Using Temporal Analysis of Products/
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[18] Mergeta R. and Rosnerb G.-2001- Evaluation of the
health risk of platinum group metals Emitted from
automotive catalytic converters/ The Science of the
Total Environment 270 2001, 165-173
[19] Mohiuddin A. K. and Nurhafez M.-2005Experimental
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of
performance characteristic of catalytic converter
including simulation./International Conference on
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[20] Philip D, Mehar M, Gupta A, Khandare S S. -1996Fabrication and Testing of catalytic converter
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[21] Quan X.,Sun H. and Zhabg Y.-2008-Wire-mesh
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for simultaneous treatment of NPAC and lean NOx/
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Group Metals Review Articles Society of
Automotive Engineers, 1-6.
Performance Evaluation of Condenser in a

Coal-Fired Power Plant
Ravinder Kumar1, Research Scholar1
12
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,

Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology,
Murthal (Sonepat)-131039, India
1
rav.chauhan@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
The present paper deals with the performance analysis of
condenser of a coal fired power plant by making the
performance evaluation using probabilistic approach.
The present system of thermal plant under study consists
of four subsystems with three possible states: full
working, reduced capacity working and failed. Failure
and repair rates for all the subsystems are assumed to be
constant. Formulation of the problem is carried out using
Markov Birth-Death process using probabilistic approach
and a transition diagram represents the operational
behaviour of the system. A probabilistic model has been
developed, considering some assumptions. Data in
feasible range are selected from a survey of thermal plant
and the effect of each subsystem on the system availability
is tabulated in the form of availability matrices, which
provides various performance/availability levels for
different combinations of failure and repair rates of all
subsystems. Based upon various availability values
obtained in availability matrices and graphs of
failure/repair rates of different subsystems, performance
and optimum values of failure/repair rates for maximum
availability, of each subsystem is analyzed and then
maintenance priorities are decided for all subsystems.
Keywords: Stochastic analysis; Markov
Transition diagram; Availability matrices
I.
approach;
INTRODUCTION
There is a growing interest in availability analysis of

process plants. The process plants are large and complex
engineering systems. In this type of industry, which is
capital intensive, production is generally carried out on a
continuous basis. Therefore, production unit availability
(which is a function of both reliability and maintenance)
is very important and critical for smooth functioning of
the plants. Kumar et al. [1] carried out the analysis and
evaluation of overall as well as various subsystems
availabilities of the sugar plant using Markov modeling.
The analysis of working of production systems under
priority repairs was carried out only by a few researchers.
Singh [2] computed the state probabilities of a complex

system having four types of components with preemptive
repeat priority repairs. The priority in repair was given to
those components which works at 100% capacity, rather
than the standby component which works at reduced
capacity. Aven [3] presented some simple approximation
formula for the availability of standby redundant systems
comprising similar units that are preventively maintained.
The formulae were established using standard Markov
theory. The simulation showed that the formulae gave
very approximations for various preventive maintenance
regimes. Singh [4] formulated mathematical models for a
standby redundant complex system under preemptive
repeat repair policy; standby redundant complex system
having two classes with many components under
preemptive resume repair policy. Zhao [5] developed a
generalized availability model for repairable components
and series systems including perfect and imperfect repair.
The general distribution was assumed for a repaired
component. Jenson [6] emphasized on near future with
respect to reliability activities at the components as well
as at the system level. Nag C.N. [7] evaluated various
reliability parameters such as reliability, failure density,
failure rate & mean time to failure of a Hydraulic Unit.
Author also demonstrated the fault tree diagram for
determining the probable cause for any fault, which
occurred during its course of operation. Jolly [8]
calculated the reliability parameters such as Mean time
between failures, Mean time to repair, Availability &
Maintainability for different machines & described about
the design for maintainability. Grall et al. [9] presented a
predictive maintenance structure for a gradually
deteriorating
single-unit
system
[continuous
time/continuous state]. The proposed model was used for
optimal inspection & replacement decision in order to
balance the cost engaged by failure & unavailability of
the system. [10] Kiureghian and Ditlevson analyzed the
availability, reliability and downtime of system with
repairable components. Gupta et al. [11] described
performance modeling and decision support system of
feed water unit of a thermal power plant. Rajiv et al. [12]
discussed about availability analysis of bleaching system
of paper plant. Gupta et al. [13] carried out reliability and
availability analysis of ash handling unit of a steam
Performance Evaluation of Condenser in a Coal-Fired Power Plant 85
thermal power plant. Sanjeev et al. [14] discussed about

simulation and modeling of urea decomposition system in
a fertilizer plant.
'
P10 ( t ) + 2 P10 ( t ) = 2 P 2 ( t )
(11)
'
P11 ( t ) + 4 P11 ( t ) = 4 P 2 ( t )
(12)
'
Some of the salient features of the proposed model are as

follows:
1) The proposed model combines a strong mathematical
foundation with an intuitive graphical representation.
2) The transition diagram represents the possible states
of the system.
3) The proposed model provides an integrated modeling
and analysis framework for performance evaluation
of the condenser in a coal-fired plant.
II.
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The condenser consists of four sub-systems:

Cooling water pumps (W): Consist of two units working
in parallel. The system works with one unit in reduced
capacity.
Condenser (X): Consist of single unit.
Gland steam condenser (Y): Having single unit.
Initial conditions at time t = 0 are
Pi ( t ) = 1 for i = 0, otherwise Pi ( t ) = 0
The notations associated with the transition diagram
(Figure A) are as follows:
I.
W, X, Y, Z : Subsystems in good operating state
II.
W1, W2 : Indicates that W is working in reduced

capacity.
III
4, 5, 6, 7 : Indicates the failed state of W, X, Y, Z.
IV
i : Mean constant failure rates from states W, W1,

X, Y, Z to the states W1, W2, 5, 6, 7.
V.
i : Mean constant repair rates from states W1, W2,

5, 6, 7 to the States W, W1, X, Y, Z.
VII. Derivatives w.r.t. t
A. Assumptions and Notations

Failure and repair rates for each subsystem are
constant and statistically independent.
b) Not more than one failure occurs at a time.

c)
(13)
VI. Pi(t): Probability that at time t all units are good

and the system is in ith state.
Drain cooler (Z): Consist of single unit.
a)
P12 ( t ) + 3 P12 ( t ) = 3 P2 ( t )
A repaired unit is as good as new, performance wise.
d) The standby units are of the same nature and capacity

as the active units.
'
P0 (t) +(1 +2 +3 +4 )P0 (t) = 1P1(t) +2P3(t) +3P4(t) +4P5(t) (1)

'
P1 (t)+(1 +2 +3 +4 +1)P1(t) =1P0(t) +2P6(t)+3P7(t) +1P2(t) +4P8(t) (2)

'
P2 (t)+(1 +2 +3 +4 +1)P2(t) =1P1(t)+1P9(t)+2P10(t)+3P12(t)+4P11(t) (3)

'
P3 ( t ) + 2 P3 ( t ) = 2 P0 ( t )
(4)
B. Mathematical Analysis of the System

Probability consideration gives the following differential
equations (Eq. 1 Eq. 13) associated with the Transition
Diagram (Figure A).
C. Steady State Availability

The condenser is required to be available for long
duration of time. So, the long run or steady state
availability of the condenser is obtained by puttingd:dt
0 as t , into all differential equations (1) to (13). we
get:
( 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ) P0 = 1 P1 + 2 P3 + 3 P4 + 4 P5 (14)
'
P4 (t ) + 3 P4 (t ) = 3 P0 (t )
(5)
'
P5 ( t ) + 4 P5 ( t ) = 4 P 0 ( t )
(6)
'
P6 ( t ) + 2 P6 ( t ) = 2 P1 ( t )
(7)
'
P 7 ( t ) + 3 P7 ( t ) = 3 P1 ( t )
P9 ( t ) + 1 P 9 ( t ) = 1 P 2 ( t )
(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 1 )P2 = 1P1 + 1P9 + 2 P10 + 3P12 + 4 P11 (16)
(8)
'
P8 ( t ) + 4 P8 ( t ) = 4 P1 ( t )
'
(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 1 )P1 = 1P0 + 2 P6 + 3 P7 + 1P2 + 4 P8 (15)
(9)
(10)
2 P3 = 2 P0
3 P4 = 3 P0
(17)
(18)
4 P5 = 4 P 0
(19)
2 P6 = 2 P1
(20)
3 P7 = 3 P1
(21)
4 P8 = 4 P1
(22)
1 P9 = 1 P2
(23)
2 P10 = 2 P2
4 P11 = 4 P 2
(24)
(25)
3 P12 = 3 P2
(26)
various subsystems keeping in view the repair criticality

and we may select the best possible combinations of
failure and repair rates.

Table 1 to 4 and figure 1 to 4 reveals the effect of failure
and repair rates of Cooling water pump, Gland steam
condenser, Condenser and Drain cooler on the availability
of the condenser system.
V.
Let us assume,
P1 = L 1 P0 ,
P 2 = L 2 P0
P3 = k 2 P0 ,
The Decision Support System for condenser system has

been developed with the help of mathematical modeling
using probabilistic approach. The decision matrices are
also developed. These matrices facilitate the maintenance
decisions to be made at critical points where repair
priority should be given to some particular subsystem of
condenser system. Decision matrix as given in table 4
clearly indicates that the Cooling water pump is most
critical subsystem as far as maintenance aspect is
concerned. So, cooling water pump should be given top
priority as the effect of its failure and repair rates on the
unit availability is much higher than that of other subsystems. Therefore, on the basis of failure and repair
rates, the maintenance priority should be given as per
following order:
P 4 = k 3 P0 ,
P5 = k 4 P0 ., P6 = k 2 L 1 P0 , P7 = k 3 L 1 P0 ,
P8 = k 4 L 1 P0 , P9 = k 1 L 2 P0 , P10 = k 2 L 2 P0
P11 = k 4 L 2 P0 , P12 = k 3 L 2 P0
Where,
K1 =
L1 = 1 /(1 2 ) & L 2 = 1 /(1 2 )
K2 = 2 K
1 ,
2 ,
CONCLUSIONS
K4 = 4
3 ,
4
Now using normalizing conditions i.e. sum of all the

1) Cooling water pump
18
probabilities is equal to one, we get:
=1
2) Gland steam condenser
i=0
3) Condenser
1 + L1 + L 2 + K 2 + K 3 + K 4 + K 2 L1 + K 3 L1 + K 4 L1 + K 1 L 2 +
P0 =
K 2 L2 + K 3 L2 + K 4 L2
4) Drain cooler
VI. REFERENCES
Now, the steady state availability of condenser may be
obtained as the summation of all the working state
probabilities, i.e.
[1]
[2]
[ A V ] = P0 + P1 + P 2 = [1 + L 1 + L 2 ] P0
III. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

The failure and repair rates of various subsystems of
Condenser are taken from the maintenance history sheet
of thermal power plant. The decision support system deals
with the quantitative analysis of all the factors viz.
courses of action and states of nature, which influence the
maintenance decisions associated with the Condenser.
The decision matrices are developed to determine the
various availability levels for different combinations of
failures and repair rates. Table 1, 2, 3, 4 represent the
decision matrices for various subsystems of Condenser.
Accordingly, maintenance decisions can be made for
[3]
[4]
[5]
Kumar D. et al. (1988), Availability of the Feeding

System in the Sugar Industry, Microelectronics
Reliability, Vol. 28, No.6, pp. 867-871.
Singh I.P. (1989), A Complex System having Four
Types of Components with Preemptive Repeat
Priority Repairs, Microelectronics Reliability, Vol.
29, No.6, pp. 959-962.
Aven Terje. (1991), Availability Formula for
Standby Systems of Similar Units that are
Preventively Maintained, IEEE Transactions on
Reliability, Vol. 39, No.5, pp. 140-148.
Singh I.P. (1991), Pre-emptive Repeat Priority
Repairs and Failure of Non-Failed Component during
System Failure of Complex System, Micron
Reliability, Vol. 31, No. 213, pp. 261-264.
Zhao M. (1994), Availability for Repairable
Components and Series System, IEEE Transactions
on Reliability, Vol. 43, No.2, pp. 122-128.
[6]
Jensen F. (1995), Reliability: the Next Generation,

Microelectronics reliability, Vol. 35, No. 9-10, pp.
1363-1375.
[7] Nag N.C. (1999), Simulation of Reliability for
Hydraulic Power Unit [Maintenance of Air-Craft],
M. Tech. Thesis, G.N.D.E. College, Ludhiana,
Punjab.
[8] Jolly S. (2001), Reliability, Availability &
Maintainability Analysis of High Precision Special
Purpose Machine, M. Tech. Thesis, G.N.D.E.
College, Ludhiana, Punjab.
[9] Grall A. et al. (2002), Continuous-Time predictiveMaintenance Scheduling for a Deteriorating System,
IEEE Transactions on Reliability, Vol. R-51, No.2,
pp.141-150.
[10] Kiureghian A.D. and Ditlevson O.D. (2007),
Availability, Reliability & downtime of system with
repairable components, Reliability Engineering and
System Safety, Volume 92, Issue 2, pp. 66-72.
[11] Gupta, S., Tewari, P. C., & Sharma, A. K. (2008a),
Performance modeling and decision support system
of feed water unit of a thermal power plant. South
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
W1 x Y Z 6
WXyZ 4
[12]
African Journal of Industrial Engineering, 19(2), 125134.

Rajiv Khanduja et al., (2008), Availability Analysis
of Bleaching System of Paper Plant Journal of
Industrial Engineering, Udyog Pragati, N.I.T.I.E.,
Mumbai, India, Volume 32(1), pp. 24-29.
Gupta, S., Tewari, P. C., & Sharma, A. K. (2009b),
Reliability and availability analysis of ash handling
unit of a steam thermal power plant. South African
Journal of Industrial Engineering, 20(1), 147-158.
Sanjeev Kumar et al., (2009), Simulation Model for
Evaluating the Performance of Urea Decomposition
System in a Fertilizer Plant, International Journal of
Industrial Engineering and Practices (I.J.I.E.P.),
Volume 1(1), pp.10-14.
Shooman M.L. (1961), Probabilistic Reliability: An
Engineering Approach, McGraw-Hill Edition, New
Delhi.
Srinath L.S. (1998), Reliability Engineering, EastWest Press, New Delhi.
Ebling E.C. (2005), An Introduction to Reliability
and Maintainability Engineering, Tata Mcgraw-Hill
Edition, New Delhi.
wXYZ 9
W2 x Y Z 10
2
3
2
WxYZ 3
WXYZ
0
W1 X Y Z 1
W2 X Y Z 2
3
4
4
W2 X y Z 12
WXYz 5
W1 X y Z 7
Full Working State
W1 X Y z 8
Reduced State
Figure A: Transition diagram of condenser
Failed State
W2 X Y z 11
Table 1: Effect of Failure and Repair Rates of Condenser on Availability
0.005
0.0063
0.0076
0.0089
0.0102
Constant values
0.1
0.869340
0.869281
0.869210
0.869125
0.869027
2=0.0067, 2=0.1,
0.2
0.869389
0.869360
0.869324
0.869282
0.869233
3=0.0033, 3=0.2,
0.3
0.869406
0.869386
0.869362
0.869334
0.869301
4=0.01, 4=0.15
0.4
0.869414
0.869399
0.869381
0.869360
0.869336
0.5
0.869419
0.869407
0.869393
0.869376
0.869356
0.8695
Availability
0.8694
0.8693
0.8692
Series1
0.8691
Series2
0.869
Series3
Series4
0.8689
Series5
0.8688
Repair rate
Failure rate
Fig. 1: Effect of Failure and Repair Rates of Condenser on Availability

Table 2: Effect of Failure and Repair Rates of Gland steam condenser on Availability
0.0067
0.0084
0.0101
0.0118
0.0135
Constant values
0.1
0.869340
0.856679
0.844382
0.832432
0.820817
1=0.005, 1=0.1,
0.125
0.150
0.175
0.2
0.879585
0.886549
0.891592
0.895411
0.869187
0.877730
0.883936
0.888647
0.859032
0.869085
0.876410
0.881985
0.849112
0.860608
0.869012
0.875422
0.839419
0.852295
0.861737
0.868956
3=0.0033, 3=0.2,
4=0.01, 4=0.15
0.92
Availability
0.9
0.88
Series1
0.86
Series2
0.84
Series3
0.82
Series4
0.8
Series5
0.78
0.00670.00840.01010.01180.0135
0.1
0.125 0.15 0.175
0.2
Repair rate
Failure rate
Fig. 2: Effect of Failure and Repair Rates of Gland steam condenser on Availability
Table 3: Effect of Failure and Repair Rates of Drain cooler on Availability
0.0033
0.0037
0.0041
0.0045
0.0049
Constant values
3
0.2
0.869340
0.867831
0.866327
0.864829
0.863335
2=0.0067, 2=0.1,
0.275
0.350
0.425
0.5
0.872754
0.874717
0.875992
0.876886
0.871647
0.873843
0.875270
0.876272
0.870544
0.872971
0.874550
0.875658
0.869443
0.872101
0.873830
0.875045
0.868344
0.871233
0.873112
0.874433
1=0.005, 1=0.1,
4=0.01, 4=0.15
0.88
Availability
0.875
0.87
Series1
Series2
0.865
Series3
Series4
0.86
Series5
0.855
0.0033 0.0037 0.0041 0.0045 0.0049
Failure rate
0.2
0.275 0.35 0.425
0.5
Repair rate
Fig. 3: Effect of Failure and Repair Rates of Drain cooler on Availability
Table 4: Effect of Failure and Repair Rates of Cooling water pump on Availability
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
Constant values
4
0.15
0.869340
0.827657
0.784377
0.745399
0.710111
2=0.0067, 2=0.1,
0.20
0.888971
0.844857
0.810615
0.779039
0.749832
3=0.0033, 3=0.2,
0.25
0.896944
0.859378
0.830819
0.804096
0.779039
1=0.005, 1=0.1
0.30
0.902340
0.869340
0.844857
0.821716
0.799809
0.35
0.906234
0.876597
0.855179
0.834782
0.815335
1
0.9
Availability
0.8
0.7
0.6
Series1
0.5
Series2
0.4
Series3
0.3
Series4
0.2
Series5
0.1
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Failure rate
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
Repair rate
Fig. 4: Effect of Failure and Repair Rates of Cooling water pump on Availability
Alternative Fuels Available in India - The

Choice of Future Fuel
Rajesh Kumar Saluja1, Ritesh Kumar2, Sudeep Kumar Singh3
1,2,3
Astt. Prof. , Department of MAE, Amity School of Engg. & Tech., Bijwasan, New Delhi.
1
rajeshsaluja76@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The term Alternate Fuels is commonly used to identify
energy sources that are not of petroleum origin, have
respectively high heating value and their combustion
results in lower emission in comparison with petroleum
fuels.
Alternative fuels in general overcome the disadvantages
of the conventional fuels in many ways. The properties of
the Alternative fuels should be that they should be readily
available, easy in processing, easy in transportation to
the end user, cheap, abundant and above all they should
not affect engine performance in the form of brake
specific output and emissions.
The drive to find Alternative fuels to replace diesel and
petrol has resulted in plethora of different fuels which are
commercially available in significant quantities. There
are many options available but the problem lies in how to
make the alternative fuels commercially feasible to use
like fossil fuels.
To find the solution to the above problem there is lot of
study being done in India and therefore in this paper aims
in focussing on the study of this exclusive problem which
can be a topic of research.
Keywords: Alterantive
Hydrogen, Natural Gas.
fuels,
Biodiesel,
ethanol,
I. INTRODUCTION
Internal Combustion (IC) engines are life line of every
nation. They play an indispensable part in almost every
sphere of life. From Agriculture to the Industry, and from
transportation to power generation, IC engines have a
significant role in the overall development of any country.
If IC engines are the lifeline of our country, the fuel on
which they run is the life of the engines. Not only in India
but whole of the world is dependent on the fossil fuels
which, by and large, are depleting at a very fast rate.
India is the sixth [1] largest consumer of crude oil in the

world with the total crude oil consumption reaching up to
156 million tons [2] in the year 2007-08. The net import
burden due to crude oil the same year was Rs. 2727
billion [2]. In India the domestic supply of crude oil is
only 22% of the demand. This demand is expected to
increase by about 11% per annum. Not only is this;
adding seriousness to the problem is the volatility in the
prices of the crude oil. In the past 2 years the prices have
varied sharply first rising from 60 $/bbl to about 140 $/bbl
and then, down to 40 $/bbl.
Peak Oil phenomenon is of major concern. Peaking
predicts the rising cost of the fossil oils derived fuels
during the era of growing energy consumption. According
to the Peak Oil phenomenon, the demand of oil will
exceed the supply and this gap will continue to grow,
which could cause a growing energy crisis by the year
2015 or 2020.
Another concern is the fact that the use of the
conventional fuels directly contributes to the global
warming crises. The emissions of the fossil fuels contain
the carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxide of Sulphur
and Nitrogen which cause a serious pollution problem in
the world and especially in most populated country like
ours.
Also, the majority of the petroleum reserves are located in
the particular region of the earth i.e. in the Middle East.
There is a general concern that worldwide fuel shortages
could intensify the unrest that exists in the region, leading
to the further conflict and war.
Keeping in view the above points, we can say that India
must prepare itself to remain on the path of economic
growth and development and to sustain itself even if there
shortage of supplies from outside.
Alternative fuels in general overcome the disadvantages
of the conventional fuels in many ways. The properties of
the Alternative fuels should be that they should be readily
available, easy in processing, easy in transportation to the
end user, cheap, abundant and above all they should not
affect engine performance in the form of brake specific
output and emissions.
The drive to find Alternative fuels to replace diesel and

petrol has resulted in plethora of different fuels which are
commercially available in significant quantities. There are
many options available but the problem lies in how to
make the alternative fuels commercially feasible to use
like fossil fuels.
Alternative fuels for both spark ignition (SI) and
compression ignition (CI) engines have become very
important owing to increased environmental protection
concern, the need to reduce dependency on petroleum and
even socioeconomic aspects. Fuels that are most used at
present are natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
and biofuels, such as transesterified vegetable oils and
alcohols (bioethanol and methanol) and Hydrogen.
The study of alternative fuels considered for combustion
engines includes physiochemical properties of these fuels,
their sources and technological aspects of production, as
well as recent data on R&D work and application. These
have been discussed below.
NATURAL GAS: Natural gas (NG) is one of the most
important energy carriers today because it is available in
large quantities and its reserves are in same magnitudes as
the crude oil reserves. The use of natural gas as a fuel has
garnered interests since the beginning of 1990s. The
most favorable factor related to the availability of NG is
that unlike the crude oil resources, the resources of
Natural Gas are spread throughout the world, which
reduces the risk of an energy crisis. The main constituent
of the Natural Gas is Methane (80-98 %). Other
constituents are Ethane (1-8 %), Propane (about 2%),
Butane and Pentane (less than 1%). The Motor Octane
No. of NG is 130. It is non toxic, odourless and non
corrosive. It is lighter than air and is slightly soluble in
water. It is used as fuel in two forms:
diesel fuel dose is the Ignition source. However, in

application to SI Engines NG exhibits a long delay from
ignition to commencement of significant heat release [4]
that results from the substantially endothermic phase
during early development of combustion.
In comparison with diesel fuel, a CI engine fueled with
CNG has much lower emissions of NOx, PM, HC, and
also CO [5]. Kim et. al [6] made a comparison between
LPG and NG fuelled engines has been performed. Both
gases can be burnt under lean burn conditions, say upto
equivalence ratio, =1.6. Under Stoichiometric and lean
burn conditions NG has lower NOx, CO2, and NMHC
(Non Methane Hydrocarbons) emissions, but also a little
lower brake fuel conversion efficiency.
NG also gives less ozone formation than LPG due to
reduction of propylene (C3H6) in LPG. NG also results in
much faster combustion than under homogeneous
regimes, especially for short interval between injection
and spark ignition. This is because combustion efficiency
may be higher and total HC emissions lower (especially
unburned CH4) for a lean burning operation (=1.67).The
level of NOx and CO emissions in general was higher.
Application of NG to CI engines: Due to a low cetane
number, an NG engine demands injection of diesel fuel as
the pilot ignition fuel. Such engines are dual-fuel engines,
which need two fuel systems. Experimental studies [7 &
8] were carried out on turbo charged C I engine run in
dual-fuel mode with CNG as another fuel and the
following results were obtained:
1)
In general, for dual fuelling the cylinder pressure

and heat release rate are lower than for neat diesel
fuelling.
2) The Ignition Delay is longer for dual fuelling.
In its gaseous form (at ambient temperature and under a

high pressure of 20 MPa) it is called Compressed Natural
Gas (CNG).
3) The greater the pilot diesel fuel dose, the higher the
pressure in the cylinder and higher the rate of
pressure rise.
In its liquid form (cooled to a temperature of -1610C at

atmospheric pressure) it is called Liquefied Natural Gas
(LNG).
4) Smoke emissions are considerably reduced.
The potential for low gas emission indicates that Natural

gas would be preferred in city traffic. CNG vehicles run
more efficiently than gasoline powered vehicle, thereby
extending the life of the vehicle. Also in heavy vehicles,
CNG engines are also generally less noisy than
compression Ignition engines.
On account of physicochemical properties, in particular
the Octane No. and Cetane numbers, Natural Gas is a very
good fuel for SI Engines but its application for CI Engine
requires assisted Ignition (dual fuelling) in which the
5) NOx emissions are considerably reduced.

6) The brake fuel conversion efficiency is a little lower.
CNG fuelled engine has much lower unlimited
carcinogenic emissions in comparison with a gasoline
fuelled engines [9]
1) CNG fueled cars were tested in Slovakia [10] and it
was found that:
2) Lower CO2 and NOx emissions but a higher HC
emission.
3) Lower power of the engines (several percentages)
due to lower heating value.
Alternative Fuels Available in India - The Choice of Future Fuel 93
4) Lower acceleration of Cars by several percentages

perhaps due to lower power and heavier CNG
Tanks.
Presently CNG is being used as a fuel in various cities of
India, for example in Delhi, and has produced the desired
results. But still there are many points to be studied before
expanding its horizons as a future fuel of India.
1) How are NG reserves distributed in India?
2) How can CNG be utilized as a fuel for whole of India
and what steps should Government take or is
planning to take in order to make it available in most
of India?
3) What effect will be on the its price if the application
as a fuel is extended further?
4) What should be the effective distribution system for
CNG?
5) Proper safety standards
acceptability by people?
implementation
and
LQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS: LPG is a mixture of

Propane and Butane as the main constituents and is a bye
product of Natural gas purification and crude oil refining.
LPG is colorless, odourless, non-toxic (but can cause
asphyxiation), slightly soluble and biodegrades in soil,
water and air. LPG burns cleaner than petrol but its
resources are limited. Till date of all the alternative fuels,
LPG has largest percentage of converted vehicles.LPG
has one major advantage over CNG: the tanks do not have
to be pressurized and the fuel is stored as liquid. The fuel
offers all the advantages of CNG, including high octane
no. which means high compression and more efficient
engines can be used.
Application to SI Engines: On account of high Octane
number, LPG can be used as a Proper fuel for SI engines.
Gola et. al [11] made the comparison of the engine
performance and emission of engine fueled with LPG and
Diesel fuel is performed and in Dutczak et. al[12] studied
the process of filling the cylinder with mixture of air and
LPG. The conclusion of these two references can be given
as:
a)
Due to lower volumetric efficiency in the case of

mixing LPG and air before the entrance to the
engine cylinder, the LPG has a lower torque than
petrol at same speed.
b) Engine brake fuel conversion efficiency is a little

better than that of gasoline engine.
c)
The NOx emission is lower due to a lower

temperature of combustion.
d) The CO2 emission is a little lower.

e)
The HC emission is higher.
All of these results were obtained for the stoichiometric

mixture and engine without catalyst.
A comparison of car drivability and performance for
fuelling with LPG and Gasoline was carried out by
Romaniszyn [13]. In the Case of gasoline it was fitted
carburetor and a multipoint injection system. In the case
of LPG engine it was fitted with a mixer mounted in the
collecting pipe. In comparison with cars fitted with both
types of gasoline fuel system, the car with LPG engine
had worse drivieability and the torque of gasoline engine
was lower than that of LPG engine during acceleration for
the whole range of speeds.
Application to CI Engines: An investigation on the
application of the LPG to CI engines was carried out by
Luft [14]. The engine was fuelled with a lean
homogeneous mixture of LPG and air and pilot diesel fuel
was used for ignition. The final results of the studies by
Luft [14] can be stated as follows:
In comparison with the base diesel engine, the LPG
Engine has
a)
A higher torque and brake fuel conversion

efficiency
b) A lower smoke level.

c)
For some loads and speeds, lower CO (for high

loads) and NOx (for low and middle loads) levels.
Technology of this fuel is well established; as there are

already significant number of LPG powered vehicles on
the Indian road using the commercial LPG fuel commonly
known as Autogas. The major hazards of LPG [15] are
gross leakage under failure conditions of the main fuel
tank (pressure vessel) or piping, fugitive emissions while
refueling and the potential for small continuous leaks
from the installations.
BIOFUELS/ BIOFUEL BLENDS: Bio fuels is the
common term used for fuels produced from biomass
(material of biological origin), including plants associated
with agriculture, forestry and aquaculture, as well as plant
material that has been processed, such as paper and food
processing wastes. The most popular biofuels are
methanol, ethanol, vegetable oils and their derivatives.
Methanol: Methanol is commonly called wood alcohol.
As an engine fuel, it can be used as M100 (neat
methanol), but actually it is used as blends with gasoline.
Methanol is a good option as a blended fuel. To use the

Methanol blended Gasoline with higher concentration of
Methanol, a vehicle has to be adapted (eg. Higher
compression ratio, the intake system redesigned to
achieve sufficient vapourisation and materials and
lubricants must be resistance to the aggressive nature of
methanol). Methanol powered vehicles also require
special lubricant which is more expensive than typical oil
because it is produced in limited quantities.
Application to IC engines: A lot of work has been
carried out fuelling SI and CI engines. A survey of
applications of neat methanol and methanol-gasoline
blends has been done by Kowalewicz [16, 17] and later
with respect to combustion processes by Luft [18]. Their
experiments have showed results that the higher the
methanol content in the gasoline-methanol blends, the
higher the brake fuel conversion efficiency. Luft further
carried away the experiments to find out that Methanol is
a typical fuel for SI engines. In the last few years, interest
in alcohol as a fuel focused on ethanol (bioethanol
especially). It is worth remembering that Henry Fords
cars operated on ethanol fuel in 1880.
Ethanol: Ethanol is more flammable than gasoline. Neat
ethanol is rarely used as fuel. Usually it is mixed with
petrol as oxygenate to meet clean fuel requirements.
As an alternate fuel, ethanol is used as blend from 5% to
85%. Ethanol can also used with diesel fuel but it is more
effective if used as a dual fuel system [19] i.e. the ethanol
is injected separately in the cylinder whereas the diesel
fuel system remains unchanged. Benefits of such system
are:
a)
An increase in brake fuel conversion efficiency.
b) A decrease in CO2 and smoke emissions.

Government of India is also taking many steps for
promoting the bioethanol blends with gasoline. India, in
its biofuel policies[20] aims to use 20% blend of ethanol
with petrol and is taking the necessary steps required at all
levels. So, a very exhaustive analysis is required for this
fuel which we propose to carry out in this project.
Biodiesel: Biodiesel is the commonly used name for
monoalkyl (ethyl or methyl) esters of long chain fatty
acids derived from long chain fatty acids derived from
renewable lipids such as vegetable oils or animal fats. It is
produced in the process of transesterification from rape
oil, soyabeen oil, sunflower oil, canola oil, palm oil, etc.,
used oil such as cooking grease and many other fats.
Biodiesel is non toxic, biodegradable, not particularly
soluble in water and contains essentially no sulphur or
aromatics. It softens and degrades certain types of
elastomers and natural rubber compound, which can

impact fuel system components such as fuel seals pump
seals. Biodiesel, as all biofuels, costs more than the
petroleum based diesel fuel.
Biodiesel can be used in CI Engines with no
modifications to vehicles or their fuelling equipment. It
can be used in its pure form or in various blends with
conventional diesel fuels. Because of its excellent
lubricity biodiesel is often used as lubricity additive for
low sulphur diesel fuel [21]. A blend of as little as 2%
biodiesel can impart the lubricity required in rotory and
distributor type diesel fuel pumps.
A drawback of using neat biodiesel as a fuel is its low
temperature and biological stability as well as water
sensitivity. Blends with petroleum based diesel fuel
containing more than 20% of biodiesel show a increase in
low temperature kinematic viscosity. The data obtained
by American researchers [22] show that the most probable
scenario of biodiesel use are blends containing 20% of
this fuel in diesel fuels.
Yarbrough et al. [23] studied the performance of a diesel
engine with six variants of sunflower oil as fuel. They
reported that refined sunflower oil gives satisfactory
results and found that degummed and dewaxed vegetable
oil prevents engine failure.
They also concluded that raw sunflower oil cannot be a
fuel but modified sunflower oil can be used as a fuel for
diesel engines [23]. The use of sunflower, safflower and
rapeseed oils as liquid fuels was investigated by Bettis et
al. [24]. They found that engine power output to be
equivalent to that of diesel fuel, but long-term durability
tests indicated severe problems due to carbonization [24].
Strayer et al. [25] investigated the feasibility of using
degummed canola oil and high erucic rapeseed oil as
diesel fuel substitutes in small and large diesel engines.
They reported that specific fuel consumption and
particulate matter with these oils were higher and
concluded that the engine performance is better with
degummed canola oil when compared with crude canola
oil for 25 h of operation [25]. Pryor et al. [26] conducted
short and long-term engine tests using neat soybean oil in
a small diesel engine. Short-term tests with soybean oil
indicated the performance similar to that of diesel and
long-term testing could not be carried out due to power
loss and carbon build-up on the injectors. They concluded
that the soybean oil can be considered for short-term
operation only [26]. Ryan et al. [27] investigated the
injection and combustion properties of several vegetable
oils namely peanut oil, cottonseed oil, sunflower oil and
soybean oil. Performance characteristics, emission
characteristics and heat release of biodiesel were
investigated by Laforgia and Ardito [28]. The use of
rapeseed oil blends as fuel in an air-cooled, 300 cm3
indirect injection diesel engine was studied by Nwafor

and Rice [29]. It has observed that the power output was
less for neat rapeseed oil and increased with increasing
proportion of rapeseed oil in the blend [29]. Sapaun et al.
[30] reported that the power output for palm oil and diesel
blend was similar to that of diesel. Short-term tests using
palm oil showed no signs of adverse combustion chamber
wear or increase in carbon deposits or contamination of
lubricating oil [30]. Radu and Mircea [31] investigated
sunflower oil/diesel blend in a three cylinder, 33 kW DI
diesel engine. The vegetable oil/diesel blend has found to
be better for power development with modified injection
timing [31]. Niemi et al. [32] tested a turbo-charged fourcylinder direct injection diesel engine using mustard oil.
Their tests showed that the engine developed power equal
to that of diesel. However, they concluded that long-term
tests should be carried out [32]. Mc Donnel et al. [32]
investigated the use of semi-refined rapeseed oil as a
diesel fuel extender. They reported that the engine
performance was better for 25/75 rapeseed oil/diesel
blend. The use of rapeseed oils has found to shorten the
injector life due to carbon build up, even though there was
no wear on engine components or lubricating oil
contamination [32]. Al-Widyan et al. [33] studied the use
of ethyl ester of waste vegetable oil and diesel blends in
proportions of 75/25, 50/50, 25/75 as fuel in a naturally
aspirated direct injection diesel engine tested at different
speeds. The fuel economy was observed to be better.
They concluded that 75/25 blend of the esters of waste
cooking oil and diesel gives the best performance [33].
Bari et al. [34] presented results of performance and
durability tests of a diesel engine fuelled with crude palm
oil. They observed heavy carbon deposits in the
combustion chamber, wear of piston rings, and plunger
and delivery valve of injection pump, uneven spray
formation, scuffling of the cylinder lining, when the
engine has made to run with crude palmoil [34]. The
performance of diesel engine fuelled with jatropha oil and
its diesel blends had investigated by Pramanik [35].
Significant improvement in engine performance was
observed when compared to neat vegetable oil. The
specific fuel consumption was reduced due to decrease in
the viscosity of the vegetable oil. Acceptable thermal
efficiencies of the engine had obtained with blends
containing up to 50% of jatropha oil [36]. The blends of
rubber seed oil/Ramadhas et al. [36] investigated diesel in
proportion of 20/80, 40/60, 60/40, 80/20 in a 5.5 kW
single cylinder direct injection diesel engine. They
reported that blends up to 80/20 showed acceptable
thermal efficiency and specific fuel consumption.
Government of India had launched National Mission on
Biodiesel in 2004 and national biofuel policy in 2008,
have decided to promote the use of biodiesel obtained
from Jatropha curcus. Therefore in this project every
minute detail of Biodiesel from Jatropha will be analyzed
- from policy making to cost analysis, from production to
performance analysis and emission analysis, every aspect

of the Biodiesel is proposed to be studied minutely.
HYDROGEN: Research is progress to use H2 as an
alternate fuel in internal combustion (IC) engines and also
in the development of fuel cell powered vehicles. H2 can
be used as a sole fuel in SI engine but in CI engine H2
cannot be used directly due to its high self-ignition
temperature (858 K) compared to neat diesel (553 K).
Therefore it can be used with diesel as mixed fuel only
[37].
Experiments were conducted by N. Saravanan et al [38] to
study the performance and emission characteristics of a
DI diesel engine using hydrogen gas by means of
carburation technique and timed port injection (TPI)
technique with diesel as the mode of ignition. Based on
the experimental study the following conclusions are
drawn:
1) At full load the Specific Energy Consumption
decreases by 15% compared to baseline diesel in
TPI technique. This is due to uniform mixing of
hydrogen with air resulting in complete combustion
of fuel.
2) The brake thermal efficiency in TPI technique is
around 17% higher at full load compared to baseline
diesel at the flow rate of 20 l/min which is due to
better mixing of hydrogen with air.
3) The hydrocarbon emission is 67% lower in TPI
technique at the flow rate of 20 l/min. In carburetion
technique the HC is lowered by 11% for the flow
rate of 20 l/min when compared with diesel fuel.
4) The carbon monoxide emission is 80% lower in TPI
technique for the flow rate of hydrogen at 20 l/min.
In carburation technique 25% reduction were
observed.
5) The CO2 emission is 33% lower in TPI technique at
the flow rate of hydrogen of 20 l/min. In carburetion
technique 8% reduction in CO emission is noticed
for the flow rate of hydrogen of 20 l/min.
Today, the use of hydrogen as an automotive fuel is
primarily limited to experimental and prototype vehicles.
The problem with Hydrogen is its handling. Hydrogen is a
risk in handling and also the cylinder in which hydrogen
is stored is very bulky. The other hazards of hydrogen are
due to its small molecular size and its minimum ignition
energy. The small size means that hydrogen will easy
diffuse out through a system which is completely leak
tight to other gases. It can also induce blistering and
cracking of steels at elevated temperatures.
Hydrogen also has much higher flame speed than any
other gas, it has wider ignition limits, and also detonates
readily. Thus an ignition from hydrogen may result in

higher overpressure than the leakage of same mass of any
other fuel. Hence hydrogen presents different and
additional hazards compared with traditional fuels. Also
hydrogen readily disperses due to its very low density and
low molecular weight, it may detonate even if not
confined. This will produce overpressure effects much
greater than the traditional fuels.
In case of liquid hydrogen there is a problem of causing
hydrogen embrittlement of metallic components of the in
the system so this can be encountered by the appropriate
materials of construction.
II.
THE PARAMETERS THAT NEED TO

BE STUDIED
The research which is going on the various options

available is basically limited to the technical aspects of
the fuels viz. combustion and emission analysis. But the
choice of the future fuel for India depends not only on the
technical aspects but various economic, socio-political,
geographical and environmental conditions, and even
government interventions. How these factors play a part
in our study for the selection of future fuels is discussed
below.
1) Technical Aspects: While performing the study on
the technical factors the following qualities of the
fuels are noticed viz. the Calorific value, density,
flash point, chemical composition, combustion
analysis, emission analysis etc. All these things have
been observed very closely by the scientists and the
results have been derived from the experiments
performed. It is also being studied that what changes
in the engines need to be done to get the maximum
possible efficiency and work output.
2) Commercial Factors (Cost Factors): In lab, many
alternatives may look good, but on road, engineers
have a lot of work to do and energy companies have
new infrastructure to build before we can drive off
to a petroleum free future. And then there is a issue
of money. Generally, most of the discussions of
alternative energy take place in an alternative
universe where prices do not matter whereas
actually the price is an important aspect to be looked
into before the selection of the fuels.
For example, the biodiesel prices also depend upon the
seasonal availability and factors involved in growing,
processing and distributing it can contribute to the
frequent price fluctuations sometimes pushing the prices
even higher than the diesel.
Another factor that affects the price of the diesel is the
economics of scale. As more and more production will be
there, the competition will increase, hence increasing the

supply and reducing the prices.
3) Socio-Economic Factors: Many biodiesels are plant
based like Jatropha, Karanja etc. For example,
Jatropha oil is produced from the seeds of Jatropha
curcus, a plant which can grow on the waste lands
across India and oil is considered to be an excellent
source of bio-diesel. Large plots have been selected
by Govt. of India for Jatropha cultivation and will
provide much needed employment to the rural poor
of India. But the problem is whether the Indian
farmers, depending on the regions, are ready to
participate in this? We need to have another
agricultural revolution (after green revolution) by
which we can make the farmers understand the
importance of Jatropha cultivation. For this govt.
intervention is required and various policies need to
be made by the govt. and in this also lies another
challenge; Pushing of bio-fuels will inevitable lead to
competition between land available for fuel crops and
food crops. Therefore in the country like India where
population density is 245 against world average of
45, some strong policy measures will have to be
taken to make bio-fuels programme a success.
4) Environmental Factors: Various alternative fuels
have various emission characteristics. For example, a
particular fuel may reduce carbon monoxide emission
but nitrogen oxides emission increases What effect
are they going to have on the atmosphere is one of
the most important questions that should be kept in
mind before selecting or developing the future fuel.
5) Geopolitics and Government interventions:
Geopolitics does effects the supply of the fuel and
hence the price of the crude oil. The domestic
political consideration affects the price of the
agricultural feedstock. These conditions are often not
well understood and even more difficult to control
but they leverage a huge sway on availability and
cost of resources.
Government intervention is required as the future fuels
should be benefited from the government subsidies etc.,
so that there can be the encouragement in their processing
and use. It is a time when government should play a key
role in developing biofuel marketing in India.
Hence this factor also plays an important part in the
selection and development of the Future fuel of India.
The research can be done to characterize the Alternative
fuels from the point of view of their sources, properties,
methods of production and application to the combustion
engines. In this research, the exhaustive data pertaining to
the production, combustion, performance and emissions
of the Alternative fuels identified can be gathered from
the resources like premier Technical and Engineering

institutes and Government departments.
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samoczynnym zasilany mieszanina gazow propanbutan (LPG) i olejem napedowym. Wydawnictwo
Politechniki Radomskiej, Radom, Poland, 2002.
[15] G.R. Astbury, A review of the properties and hazards
of some alternative fuels, Process Safety and
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[17] Kowalewicz, A. Metanol jako paliwo do silnikow
spalinowych. Silniki Spalinowe, 1992, (34), 6072.
[18] Luft, S. Zastosowanie metanolu jako paliwa do
silnikow spalinowych w aspekcie procesow
spalania. III Seminarium Naukowe Procesow
Spalania, Wydawnictwo. Politechniki Radomskiej,
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fuelled with ethanol and diesel fuel. J. KONES,
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Munson, J. W., Dalai, A. K. and Reaney, M. J. using
the Munson ROCLE bench test. SAE paper 199901-3590, 1999.
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fuels on air quality and human health: Task 1. Report
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Compression ignition performance sing sunflower
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vegetable oil properties on injection and combustion
in two different diesel engines. Journal of the
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performances,
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and
heat
release
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oil as diesel fuel substitute. Journal of Power and
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LK, Niemi Seppo A. Performance and exhaust
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Hildige R. Results of engine and vehicle testing of
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Engineering 2002;216:78592.
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421.
Inverse Heat Transfer

Dhan Raj Thapa1, Medhavi Sinha2, Sidhant Verma3, Vicky Panwar4
1,2,3,4
Department of Mechanical &Automation Engineering , Amity School of Engineering & Technology, Amity University
Uttar Pradesh , Noida
Noida-201303, India. dazzy_raj0290@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the fundamental approach of Inve
Inverse
Heat transfer problems. Levenberg-Marquardt
Marquardt Method is
used for analyzing linear transient heat conduction of a
one dimensional
dimensional plate.This method based on modified
least square norms.. The initial boundary condition of the
problem is studied and different
ent stages of the Levnberg
LevnbergMarquardt method of parameter estimation have been
highlighted. This method is efficient for solving both
linear and non-linear
linear parameter estimation problem.
Application areas of Inverse heat transfer is focused.
I. INTRODUCTION
Inverse
verse heat transfer is an indirect method of estimating
the unknown parameters in thermal engineering. In the
recent years this technique is widely used in those areas
where the classical direct method cant be applied. Its
application is felt in almost alll branches of science and
engineering. The space program in late 50s and early
60s has played an important role in the growth of
solution technique for IHTP. For example, aerodynamic
heating of space is so high during reentry in the
atmosphere that the exact
xact surface temperature of the
thermal shield cannot be measured directly with
temperature sensors. Therefore temperature sensors are
placed beneath the hot surface of the shield and surface
temperature is recorded by inverse heat analysis. Inverse
analysis
is can thus be used in predicting the properties of
the material.
II.
INVERSE HEAT TRANSFE

TRANSFER
PROBLEM CONCEPT
Let us consider a 1D transient heat conduction problem in

a slab of thickness L. The temperature distribution in the
slab is initially F
.For time t > 0, heat flux
is
applied on the boundary
, and the boundary is
maintained at a constant temperature
.The
mathematical model of the problem is given below
cp
in 0< x < L, for t >0
at x = 0, for t > 0
(1)
( 2)
T=TL at x = L, for t > 0
(3)
T= F(x) at t = 0, for 0< x < L
(4)
The above equations determines the temperature

distribution T(x,t)) in the interior of the solid, as a function
of position and time. This is known as Direct problem.
Now in the above problem we consider that the boundary
condition f(x) at x = 0 is unknown and all the above
parameters in the above equation like ,cp,TL,k and F(x)
are known. In order to determine the boundary condition
f(x) at x = 0 we measure temperatures T(xmeas , ti) Yi at
different position xmeas and time ti till tf , where tf is the
final time. This is known as Inverse problem. The
mathematical modell of the problem is given below:
cp
in 0 < x < L, for t > 0
=? at x = 0, for t > 0
(5)
(6)
T=TL at x = L, for t > 0
(7)
T= F(x) at t = 0, for 0< x < L
(8)
T(xmeas, ti) Yi at x = xmeas for t = ti (i = 1,2,..I)
(9)
The main aim of the direct problem is to determine the

temperature distribution T(xmeas, t)
t in the solid when all
the other parameter is known. On the other hand the aim
of the inverse problem is to estimate one or more
unknown parameters from the knowledge of known
parameter. Thus in the direct problem the cause(boundary
condition f(x) ) is known
own and the effect(temperature
distribution T(xmeas , t)) ) is to be determined whereas in the
inverse problem the effect (temperature distribution
T(xmeas , t))
)) is known and the cause(boundary condition
f(x) ) is estimated.
III. CLASSIFICATIONS OF INVERSE

I
HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS:
Most of the earlier works on the solution of Inverse Heat
Transfer problems have been concerned with heat
conduction in one-dimensional
dimensional geometries. Recently more
work is done in the field of convection and radiation, and

also on the application of inverse analysis techniques to
multi dimensional problems.
Inverse Heat Transfer problems can be classified in

accordance with the heat transfer process, such as:
Heat Transfer includes, among others, the following

specific areas:
Estimation of the boundary shapes of the body.
Control and Optimization of the curing process of

rubber.[4,6]
Estimation of reaction function.
Monitoring radiation properties of reflecting surfaces

of heaters and cryogenic panels.[5]
Inverse heat transfer problems of conduction.
Inverse heat transfer problems of convection (forced

or natural).
Inverse heat transfer problems of radiation.
Inverse heat transfer problems of radiation in

participating medium.
Estimation of interface conductance

periodically contacting surfaces.
Inverse heat transfer problems of simultaneous

conduction and convection.
Estimation of inlet condition and boundary heat flux

in forced convection inside ducts.
Inverse heat transfer problems of simultaneous

conduction and radiation.
Inverse heat transfer problems of phase change

(melting or solidification).
Another classification can be based on the type casual

characteristics to be estimated. For example:
transfer
problems
of
V.
between
SOLUTION METHODS FOR INVERSE

HEAT TRANSFER PROBLEMS
There are various solution methods available for solving

inverse heat transfer problems.Out of these methods he
most effective methods are as follows:
Inverse heat
conditions.
boundary
Method 1: Levenberg- Marquardt Method for

Parameter Estimation.
Inverse heat transfer problems of thermo physical

properties.
Method 2 : Conjugate Gradient Method for

Parameter Estimation
Inverse heat transfer problems of initial conditions.
Inverse heat transfer problems of source term.
Method 3: Conjugate Gradient Method with Adjoint

Problem for Parameter Estimation.
Method 4: Conjugate Gradient Method with Adjoint

Problem for Function Estimation.
Inverse heat transfer problems can be one-dimensional,

two-dimensional or three dimensional. It also can be
linear or non-linear.
METHOD 1: LEVENBERG-MARQUARDT
METHOD FOR PARAMETER ESTIMATION
IV. APPLICATION OF INVERSE HEAT

TRANSFER
With the coming of new complex material it have become
difficult to analyses their thermo physical properties by
the use of conventional methods, as their thermo physical
properties are continuously varying with the temperature
and position. Also modern operations are getting more
and more complex and needed to be accurate so more
accurate estimation of thermo physical properties
operating under actual conditions is getting more
important. The Inverse Heat Transfer problem approach
can provide satisfactory answer for that.
The principal advantage of Inverse Heat Transfer is that it
enables to conduct experiment as close to the real
conditions as possible. Practical application of Inverse
The Levnberg- Marquardt method consists of few basic

stages which are as follows:
The Direct Problem
The Inverse Problem
The Iterative Procedure
The Stopping Criteria
The Computational Algorithm.
For the proper understanding of the above stages we

consider a linear transient heat conduction in a plate of
unitary dimensionless thickness. The initial temperature
of the plate is zero and the boundary walls at x=0 and x=1
Inverse Heat Transfer 101
are insulated. For t > 0 a heat source of strength gp(t) per

unit area is applied in the mid-plane x=0.5
0.5 as shown in
the figure.(1.1)
J = 1,2,,N is based on the minimization of the ordinary

least squares norm given by
(16)
S(P)=
Where
S = Sum of square error
PT = [P1,P2,.,PN ] = unknown parameter vector
Ti(P) = T(P,ti) = estimated temperature at time ti
Yi (P) = T(P,ti) = measured temperature at time ti
N = number of unknown parameters.
I = number of measurements, where I N
VIII. THE ITERATIVE STAGE

Fig(1.1) Heat flux
in the plate plaplane of the

plate.
In this stage we minimize the Eq.(3.1) with respect to

parameter [P1,P2,P3PN ] as follows:
The mathematical model of the above problem is given as

follows:
=0
17)
Expressing Eq(9) in matrix notation we have :

gp(t)(x-0.5)=
in 0 < x < 1 ,for t
>0
(10)
at x = 0 , for t > 0
(11)
at x = 1, for t > 0
(12)
for t = 0 , in 0 < x <1
(13)
VI.
(19)
THE DIRECT PROBLEM
In the direct problem the strength of heat source gp(t) is

known and the temperature distribution T
T(x,t) is to be
determined.
VII. THE INFERSE PROBLEM

In the inverse problem we place temperature sensors to
measure temperatures, Ti(P), at different position, xmeas
with respect to time. The unknown quantity gp(t) is to be
determined. Let us write gp(t)) in linear function as :
gp(t) =
(18)
jCj(t)
where
Pj = unknown parameter
Cj= trial function
(15)
Now we define the sensitivity matrix as:
J(P) =
(20)
Eq(19) can be written as:

-2JT (P) [Y-T(P)] = 0
(21)
Solving Eq(20) we get the unknown parameter P as:

Y
(22)
In the case of non-linear
linear inverse problem we use the
following iterative procedure to find the unknown
parameters:
(23)

The validity of the above equation depends on

If
the problem becomes ill-conditioned
conditioned. In such
situation another iteration procedure is adopted as
follows:
Check for stopping stages. If any one of the

Step8.Check
equation Eq(),Eq()and Eq() fulfill stop the iteration
procedure. If not replace k by k+1 and go to Step3.
XI. CONCLUSION
(24)
IX. THE STOPPING STAGE

The following equation can be used as a stopping criteria
for the iteration. These technique were suggested by
Deninis and Schnabel.
(23)
(24)
(25)
Here
user allotted tolerance and
Euclidean norm vector.
X.
is the
THE COMPUTATIONAL ALGORITHM

GORITHM
We consider
as a diagonal matrix such that:

(26)
The following steps are involved in computation of

Levenberg-Marquardt solution method:
Step1. Solution of direct problem given by

Eq(10),Eq(11),Eq(12),Eq(13) to obtain T(P k).
Step2. Calculate S(P k) from Eq(17)
Step3. Calculate the sensitivity matrix J

Eq(21)
Step3
Step4. Calculate new
Step5.Solve
.Solve the direct problem with recent
calculate T(P k+1) and S(P k+1).
Step5
Solve
the
Eq()
and
given by
calculate
by equation
to
The fundamental concept regarding IHTP is discussed.

Out of the four methods (Levenberg-Marquardt
(Levenberg
Method
for Parameter Estimation) is used. It is efficient for
solving linear and non-linear
linear parameter estimation. It is
based on the modified form of least square norms.
However difficulties may arrive in solving non-linear
non
problems where there can be large number of unknown
parameters
XII. REFERENCES
[1]
Alifanov, O.M., Determination of heat loads from a

solution of the Nonlinear Inverse Problem 1994.
[2] Alifanov, O.M, Inverse heat transfer problems,
problems
Springer-Verlag,
Verlag, New York, 1994.
[3] Beck, J.V, Blackwell, B. and St.Clair, C.R., Inverse
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Posed problems, Wiley
Interscience, New. York, 1977.
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heat conduction by iterative method. J Eng phys
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[5] Beck, J. V. and Arnold, K. J., Parameter
Par
Estimation
in Engineering and Science, Wiley Interscience 1985.
[6] Hadamard, J., Lectures on Cauchy's Problem in
Linear Differential, Yale University Press, New
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Heat-Conduction
Conduction by Iterative
Iterativ Alifanov, 0.M. and
M.V.V., "Solution of the Nonlinear Inverse Thermal
Conductivity Problem by the Iteration Method,26(4)
471-476,1975
[8] Tikhonov, A. N., "Solution of Incorrectly Formulated
Problems and the Regularization Method", Soviet
Math. Dokl. 4(6), 1624-1627.
1627. 1963.
[9] Tikhonov N., "Solution of Incorrectly Formulated
Problems
and
the
Regularization,
A.N.
"Regularization Method", Soviet Math.4(4),1035Math.4(4),1035
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MATERIALS & MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGIES
Impact of Machine Vision System in

Industrial Automation
Tushar Jain1, Dr. Meenu2
1
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India; tusharkaid@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor,Department of Mechanical Engineering,
National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India
ABSTRACT
I. INTRODUCTION
Computer vision is the enterprise of automating and

integrating a wide range of processes and representations
used for vision perception. It includes many techniques
that are useful by themselves, such as image processing
(transforming, encoding, and transmitting images) and
statistical pattern classification (statistical decision
theory applied to general patterns, visual or otherwise).
Moreover, it also includes techniques for geometric
modeling and cognitive processing. The field of computer
vision may be best understood by considering different
types of applications. Many of these applications involve
tasks that require either work in a hostile environment, a
high rate of processing, access and use of large databases
of information, or are tedious for people to perform.
Computer vision systems are used in many and various
types of environments from manufacturing plants, to
hospital surgical suits, and to the surface of Mars. For
example, in manufacturing systems, computer vision is
often used for quality control.
Machine vision provides innovative solutions in the

direction of industrial automation [10]. The introduction
of the automation has revolutionized the manufacturing
in which complex operations have been broken down
into simple step-by-step instruction that can be repeated
by a machine. In such a mechanism, the need for the
systematic assembly and inspection have been realized in
different manufacturing processes. These tasks have
been usually done by the human workers, but these
types of deficiencies have made a machine vision
system more attractive.. Our expectation from a visual
system is to perform the following operations: the image
acquisition and analysis, the recognition of certain
features or objects within that image, and the
exploitation and imposition of environmental constraints
[1]. A plethora of industrial activities have benefited
from the application of machine vision technology on
manufacturing processes. These activities include, among
others, delicate electronics component manufacturing
[32], quality textile production [3], metal product
finishing [37], glass manufacturing [28], machine parts
[20], printing products [36] and granite quality
inspection [33], integrated circuits manufacturing [21]
and many others. Machine vision technology improves
productivity and quality management and provides a
competitive advantage to industries that employ this
technology.
In this application, the computer vision system scans

manufactured items for defects and provides control
signals to a robotic manipulator to remove defective parts
automatically. Current examples of medical systems being
developed include: systems to diagnose skin tumors
automatically, systems to aid neurosurgeons during brain
surgery, systems to perform clinical tests automatically,
etc.
I.1 Overview on Machine Vision Systems

The field of law enforcement and security is also an active
area for computer vision system development with
applications ranging from automatic identification of
fingerprints to DNA analysis. The aim of this paper is to
show some of the most important vision-related topics
which can have a more or less direct impact on the
machine vision and industrial automation research fields.
The paper covers a general purpose computer or machine
vision systems with its industrial applications.
Keywords: C o m p u t e r V is i o n , M a ch in e V i s i o n ,
Industrial Vision S ystem Applications, I m a g e
Processing
Traditionally, visual inspection and quality control are

performed by human experts [24]. Although humans can
do the job better than machines in many cases, they are
slower than the machines and get tired quickly.
Moreover, human experts are difficult to find or
maintain in an industry, require training and their skills
may take time to develop.
There are also cases
or difficult, even for
applications, precise
repetitively extracted
were inspection tends to be tedious

the best-trained experts. In certain
information must be quickly or
and used (e.g., target tracking and
robot guidance). In some environments (e.g., underwater

inspection, nuclear industry, chemical industry etc.)
inspection may be difficult or dangerous. Computer
vision may effectively replace human inspection in such
demanding cases [21].
be able to differentiate between acceptable and

unacceptable variations or defects in products, while in
other applications, the system must enable users to solve
guidance and alignment tasks or, measurement and
assembly verification tasks.
Main Processor or Computer
Typically, an industrial inspection system computes

information from raw images according to the following
sequence of steps:
with Image Processing Software

Network Interface
Image
Processing
Hardware
1. Image acquisition: Images containing the required

information are acquired in digital form through cameras,
digitisers etc.
Camera(s)
Illumination
Manufacturing Process
Control
Systems
Robot(s), PLC(s) etc.
Fig. 1: A typical machine vision system.

Figure 1 illustrates the structure of a typical machine
vision system. First, a computer is employed for
processing the acquired images. This is achieved by
applying special purpose image processing analysis and
classification software. Images are usually acquired by
one or more cameras placed at the scene under inspection.
The positions of the cameras are usually fixed. In most
cases, industrial automation systems are designed to
inspect only known objects at fixed positions. The scene
is appropriately illuminated and arranged in order to
facilitate the reception of the image features necessary for
processing and classification. These features are also
known in advance. The results of this processing can be
used to:
Control a manufacturing process (e.g., for guiding

robot arms placing components on printed circuits,
painting surfaces etc.).
Propagated to other external devices (e.g., through a

network or other type of interface like FireWire) for
further processing (e.g., classification).
Characterize defects of faulty items and take actions

for reporting and correcting these faults and replacing
or removing defective parts from the production line.
The requirements for the design and development of a

successful machine vision system vary depending on the
application domain and are related to the tasks to be
accomplished, environment, speed etc. For example, in
machine vision inspection applications, the system must
2. Image processing: Once images have been acquired,

they are filtered to remove background noise or unwanted
reflections from the illumination system. Image
restoration may also be applied to improve image quality
by correcting geometric distortions introduced by the
acquisition system (e.g., the camera).
3. Feature extraction: A set of known features,
characteristic for the application domain, is computed,
probably with some consideration for non-overlapping or
uncorrelated features [29], so that better classification can
be achieved. Examples of such features include size,
position, contour measurement via edge detection and
linking, as well as and texture measurements on regions.
Such features can be computed and analyzed by statistical
or other computing techniques (e.g. neural networks or
fuzzy systems). The set of computed features forms the
description of the input image.
4. Decision-making: Combining the feature variables into
a smaller set of new feature variables reduces the number
of features. While the number of initial features may be
large, the underlying dimensionality of the data, or the
intrinsic dimensionality, may be quite small. The first step
in decision making attempts to reduce the dimensionality
of the feature space to the intrinsic dimensionality of the
problem. The reduced feature set is processed further as to
reach a decision. This decision, as well as the types of
features and measurements (the image descriptions)
computed, depends on the application. For example, in
the case of visual inspection during production the system
decides if the produced parts meet some quality standards
by matching a computed description with some known
model of the image (region or object) to be recognized.
The decision (e.g., model matching) may involve
processing with thresholds, statistical or soft
classification.
II.
MACHINE VISION COMPONENTS
The main components of a typical vision system have

been described [1,30,11,4]. Several tasks such as the
image acquisition, processing, segmentation, and pattern
Impact of Machine Vision System in Industrial Automation 5
recognition are conceivable. The role of im

imageacquisition sub-system
system in a vision system is to transform
the optical image data into an array of numerical data,
which may be manipulated by a computer. Fig. 2 shows a
simple block diagram for such a machine vision system. It
includes systems and sub-systems
systems for different processes.
The big rectangles show the sub-systems
systems while the parts
for gathering information are presented as small
rectangles in Fig. 1. As can be seen in Fig. 1, the light
from a source illuminates the scene (it can be an industrial
environment), and an optical image is generated by image
sensors. Image arrays, digital camera, or other means are
used to convert optical image into an electrical signal that
can be converted to an ultimate digital image. Typically,
cameras incorporating

ng either the line scan or area scan
elements are used, which offer significant
signi
advantages.
The camera system may use either charge coupled device
(CCD) sensor or vidicon for the light detection. The
preprocessing, segmentation, feature extraction and other
tasks can be performed utilizing this digitized image.
Classification and interpretation of image can be done at
this stage and considering the scene description, the
actuation operation can be performed in order to interact
with the scene. The actuation
on sub-system,
sub
therefore
provides an interaction loop with the original scene in
order to adjust or modify any given condition for a better
image taking.
Fig. 2: A simple block diagram for a typi

typical vision system operation [1]
III. OPERATIONS OF MACHINE

E VISION
SYSTEM
A visual system can perform the following functions: the
image acquisition and analysis, the recognition of an
object or objects within an object groups. As can be seen
in Fig. 1, the light from a source
ource illuminates the scene and
an optical image is generated by image sensors. Image
acquisition is a process whereby a photodetector is used
to generate and optical image that can be converted into a
digital image. This process involves the image sensing
sensing,
representation of image data, and digitization. Image
processing is a process to modify and prepare the pixel

values of a digital image to produce a more suitable form
for subsequent operations. The main operations
performed in the image processing are outlined
o
in Table
1. Segmentation seeks to partition an image into
meaningful regions that corresponds to part or whole
objects within the scene. Feature extraction in general
seeks to identify the inherent characteristics, or features,
of objects found within
hin an object. Pattern classification
classi
refers to the process in which an unknown object within
an image is identified
fied as being part of one particular group
among a number of possible object groups.
Table 1: General operations performed in the image processing

Point operation
Global operation
Brightness modification Histogram equalization

Contrast enhancement
Negation and
thresholding
Neighborhood
operation
Image smoothing
Image sharpening
IV. DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES AND

ENVIRONMENTS
The development of a machine vision system begins with
understanding the applications requirements and
constraints and proceeds with selecting appropriate
machine vision software and hardware (if necessary) to
solve the task at hand. Older machine vision systems were
built around low-level software, requiring full
programming control. They were based on simple frame
grabbers providing low-level interface capabilities with
other system components. They were also characterized
by low-level user interfaces, low-level image analysis
capabilities and difficulties in system integration and
maintenance. Eventually, machine vision inspection
systems became more modular, providing more abstract
capabilities for system development and maintenance and
reaching higher level of robustness.
Todays applications need environments that are
developed in short time and are adjusted to modifications
of the manufacturing process. In addition, the system
must be simple to operate and maintain. The key here is to
select an appropriate development environment providing
Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) or other programming
tools. Through GUIs and visual programming tools, even
non-vision experts but authorized users like e.g.,
manufacturing engineers, are allowed to interact with the
application and specify sequences of operations from
pull-down menus offering access to large pools of tested
algorithms. Programming is easier in this case, since the
algorithms are selected based on knowledge of what they
do and not on how they do it. The use of GUIs shifts the
effort of application development to the manufacturing
engineer from the programmer expert, as in the earlier
days of machine vision systems. This feature not only
results in faster and cheaper application developments,
but also allows addressing several applications with a
single piece of re-configurable software (i.e., the
application development tool).
V.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
In order to describe the applications of machine vision

systems; four categories of the visual inspection, process
control, parts identification, and robotic guidance and
Geometric operation
Display adjustment Image
wrapping Magnification
and rotation
Temporal
operation
Fame-based
operations
control mechanisms are considered. In this field, the most

significant task of the machine is for the automated visual
inspections (AVIs). The main concern of using machine is
to recognize that the part is well made according to the
specified qualifications. AVI and parts identification do
not contribute a significant role in the flexibility in
manufacturing, however have considerable role in the
automation task. On the other hand, vision systems in the
process control and robotic guidance can play important
role in achieving more flexibility in manufacturing
[13,14].
Interesting surveys specializing in a single application
field include among others for automatic PCB inspection
[24], for wood quality inspection[6], and for automatic
fruit harvesting[19]. Other important general reviews that
cover all the fields of visual inspection have been
published in [35], whereas model-based approaches to
visual inspection are considered in [19] and [7] and more
recently in [26, 12] and [13]. A classification of
automated visual inspection applications is presented
based on the type of images to be processed. Binary, grayscale, color, and range image systems are considered,
each one showing certain characteristics in the context of
the particular application field being used [26]. On the
other hand, machine vision systems are classified
according to the qualitative characteristics of the objects
or processes under inspection[13, 14]. Three classes are
presented, namely dimensional verification, surface
detection, and inspection of completeness.
V.1 Automated Visual Inspection

As described, the AVI does not enhance the flexibility of
the manufacturing line because the only use of this system
is for inspection, but the utilization of this system
considerably enhances the automation capability of
manufacturing process. The automated vision system can
be used for the purpose of measurements, gauging,
integrity checking, and quality control. In the area of
measurements and gauging, the gauging of small gaps,
measurements of the object dimension, alignment of the
components, and the analysis of crack formation are
common applications. Integrity checking in automotive
plants, food industry and other production lines is
performed by using such a vision system.
The medical and pharmacological products can be

inspected by the machine vision systems. Using such an
inspection method in the production line has increased the
speed and reliability of the inspections. For example,
during the automotive assembly, a vision guided robot
recognizes the orientation of the engine heads and picks
and places them correctly on the engine blocks. In another
case, a system examines the fiber optics assembly line. A
PC-based imaging system integrates hardware and
software to analyze the captured images for the possible
fiber blemishes, chips, and cracks. As an another example,
in aerospace industry, a vision-based robot using the selfcalibrating and self-teaching techniques has been reported
that punches rivets into the airplane metal sheets with the
high accuracy . A list of possible applications of AVI for
measurements and gauging and quality controls are given
in Table 2.[17]
Table 2: Possible operations for automated vision
inspection
Measurement and
gauging
Gauging of spark
plug gap
Measurement
of
belt width
Measurement
of
tool wear
Mark
alignment
and pick and place
component offset
Analysis of crack
formation
and
propagation
Calibration
inspection
automation
and
for
Integrity checking and quality

control
Automotive plants (enhances
inspection of automobile parts,
safety inspection of brake
assemblies, valve spring, piston
rings and rods, confirm switch
integrity, Check auto axle
assemblies,
asses
oil-seal
surfaces, inspect truck beds, check
laser welds, detects enginefuel
leakage)
Food industry (classify fruits,
grades moving products)
Checking
correct
printing
pharmaceutical labels
inspection, elimination of surface

defects in photographic film
webs)
Robot and vision
system assemble
diagnostic devices,
inspects and grades
rough
wooden
boards
Medical
and
pharmaceutical
plants
(validates
medical
containers, inspect tubes for
proper filling and sealing, ensures
medical pill qualities, ensures
product and packaging quality)
V.2 Process Control

Utilizing a vision system could help a better analysis,
control, tracking, and the issuing documents in different
applications. Applying vision system also can help the
analysis of the nozzle-plates, and monitoring production
process. It also provides on-line inspection and imaging
options for the biomedical, pharmaceutical, metal
finishing, lumber production, and also in the automotive
production assembly lines. Successful operations of the
vision system for the process control and tracking tasks
are shown in Table 3.[17]
Table 3: Example applications of vision systems for
process control
Process control
Speeds food processing and
high- speed sorting
Applying vision to nozzleplate analysis
Fiber analysis in the wood

panel industry
Event-capture system
monitor paper-making
process for breaks
and defects
Control of flatness in floatglass manufacturing
On-line inspection ensures

needle quality
Checks display pixels
Imaging options from

biomedical, pharmaceutical
to metal finishing and
lumber production
Shortens fiber-alignment
time
Issuing documents (driver

licenses, credit cards)
Smart cameras check fast

moving connector pins,
smart sensors automatically
perform multiple
inspections of piston rings
and rods
Robot/vision add flexibility

to auto-part manufacturing
(layered bin picking)
Tracks targets on missile

flights
(measuring the accuracy
and the p erformances)
Inspection and alignment of

wafers
Paint finish assessment

Production lines (inspection of
machined surfaces, roughness,
flatness edge damage and nicks,
inspect
bares
acrylic-sheet
defects,, inspects indexable insets,
cutting tools, real- time webinspection system finds steel
defect, steers package inspection,
automates
glass-machine-tool
inspection, network cameras
check components)
Electronic
and
electro-optic
industry (inspection of printed
circuit boards, microcircuits, fiber
optics connectors, semiconductor
V.3 Parts Identification

Parts identification and classification are one of the most
important applications of a vision system. Sorting of the
automotive castings, parts, and identifying and unloading
of parts from pallets are important applications. Sorting
and grading of the food and other products are another
example of such identification applications. Some typical
applicational examples for the identification and
classifications are listed in Table 4.[17]
Table 4: Typical Applications of Vision Systems for
Part Identification
Parts identification
Sorting of
castings
automotive
Sorting of
castings
automotive
Automobile well-to hob

assembly
Identification of car bodies

by outline
Automotive
wheel
assembly
Automatic decoration of
Chocolates
tyre-to-
Precision application of
car body seam-sealant
Sorting of fish by species,

size determination and
inspection
Unloading of automotive
crankshafts from pallets
Machine
barcode
identify
parcels
Identify license plate of

moving vehicles
vision
and
inspection
fast
moving
----
V.4 Robotic Guidance and Control

The automation process is based on the different robots,
which require guiding systems. Alignment and adjustment
processes also require smart guidance systems. In general,
in the automotive plants guidance of the robotic action is
performed by using the vision system as smart sensors for
position determination in the welding or other processes.
Table 5 gives a list of the possible applications of the
vision system for the robot guidance and control.[17]
Table 5: Typical Applications of Vision Systems in
Robotic Guidance and Control
Automotive windscreen
alignment and placement
High
precession
partmating
in
aerospace
applications
Seam
location
and
following for welding car
chassis members
Pattern-correct sewing in
textile manufacture
Acquisition of cylindrical
Smart vehicles (imaging a
objects from the bin (bin

picking)
Vision guided nuclear
fuel
subassembly
dismantling
target- rich environment)
----
VI. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

It is desirable to employ the automation technique to
improve the manufacturing production lines and the
resulting products with a high efficiency in order to stay
alive in the competitive world market. In order to
accomplish this automation in a more flexible manner, the
feature of flexibility must be added to the automation as
well. Thus, the automated flexible manufacturing is
recommended and flexibility is enhanced by building the
programmability to the automation, interlinking machines
and adapting the manufacturing process. The ultimate
goal is that the production machine must be equipped
with a vision system so that it can perceive changes to the
products and its environment and then react accordingly.
Also such a feature allows machine to accomplish hard
tasks such as imaging the complicated assemblies. As a
result, the vision-assisted automation can ensure that cost
saving follows from benefits such as the reducing work in
progress and the labor cost in the mass production
scheme.
VI.1 Development in Manufacturing Process

The ways that an industrial process can be justified
depends on the type of applications, however; in general,
improvements must be made in the safety and reliability
of the manufacturing process, in product quality, and
enabling technology for a new production process at a
minimum cost. In all mentioned processes, the integration
of a correct vision system can play an important role.
Such developed vision systems can offer a way to
perform the 100% inspection in order to improve the
safety of the process and also the reliability of the
manufacturing process. Examples are useful for the
aerospace and the defense industries, which require a
critical safety status. In the automotive and other
industries improved vision system using proper lighting
can be helpful to achieve the cost-effective and reliable
100% inspection for the assembly lines. Beside the fact
that a machine vision system can fulfill important
inspection function as described, these machines also can
be used to increase the degree of the flexibility of the
manufacturing processes. The importance of such a
parameter is given in a report by Bessant and Heywood
[5].
The degree of defining flexibility in the manufacturing
process is given by Bessant in which the variability in
products is presented as the scale of production. As one

increases the scale of production a more dedicated
automation in the mass production is requires. On the
other hand, any increase in the variety of products
requires the specialist skilled workers in very small batch
production. Now flexible manufacturing provides a means
to optimize the interrelation between these two processes.
Input parameters required for such advanced manufacturing that increases the flexibility factor, includes the new
technology and methodology. The technology consists of
the DNC, automated vehicle guided system (AGVs),
robotics, computers, etc., and the new methodology
considers the adoption of just in time (JIT), quality
control, group technology, value analysis, etc.
[5]
[6]
[7]
VII. CONCLUSIONS
A general-purpose machine vision system with its
industrial applications was described. The state of the art
in machine vision inspection research and technology is
presented. In the design and operation of a vision system,
the image formation and visual process, computational
methods and algorithms, depth information, image
representation, and modeling and matching must be
considered. On the other hand, the systematic
consideration is important in the efficiency and the
performance of the selected machine. The integration
possibility, robustness, ease of operation, and adding
intelligence into the system in order to make it a smart
system are features of the advanced machine vision
systems. The universal capability, PC requirement (self
contained), off-the-shelf hardware, connectivity and I/O
control options are the key factors in this respect. For any
production line and manufacture plant, there should be a
good reasoning for utilizing such a machine vision
system. Improvement in safety and reliability of the
products, improvement in the quality, and the introduction
and possibility of a technology for new productions are
key points in the support of the machine vision system.
The economic and logistic considerations are also crucial
factors, which justifies the utilization of a machine vision
system.
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A Study of Phase Change Material and Its

Applications in Textile Industry
Arbind Prasad1, Ashwani Kumar2, Amir Shaikh3
1,2,3
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Graphic Era University, Dehradun 248001 India
arbind.geit@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Phase change materials (PCM) take advantage of latent
heat that can be stored or released from a material over a
narrow temperature range. PCM possesses the ability to
change their state with a certain temperature range.
These materials absorb energy during the heating process
as phase change takes place and release energy to the
environment in the phase change range during a reverse
cooling process. Insulation effect reached by the PCM
depends on temperature and time. Recently, the
incorporation of PCM in textiles by coating or
encapsulation to make thermo-regulated smart textiles
has grown interest to the researcher. Therefore, an
attempt has been taken to review the working principle of
PCM and their applications for smart temperature
regulated textiles. Different types of phase change
materials are introduced.
This is followed by an account of incorporation of PCM
in the textile structure are summarized. Concept of
thermal comfort, clothing for cold environment, phase
change materials and clothing comfort are discussed in
this review paper. Some recent applications of PCM
incorporated textiles are stated. Finally, the market of
PCM in textiles field and some challenges are mentioned
in this review paper.
Keywords: Phase change materials; Clothing comfort;
Microencapsulation.
I. INTRODUCTION
Fundamental principles of science are now increasingly
employed for the manufacturing of innovative textile
products. One such principle is Phase Change, the
process of going from one physical state to another i.e.
from a solid to a liquid and vice versa. Fibre and textile
which have automatic acclimatising properties have
recently attracting more and more attention. This effect
could be achieved by using phase change material (PCM)
[1]. The technology for incorporating PCM microcapsules
[2] into textile structure
to improve their thermal performance was developed in

the early 1980s under NASA research programme. The
original intent was to use these fabrics in the astronauts
space suits to provide improved thermal protection
against the extreme temperature fluctuations in outer
space. From the original application of astronauts suits,
the PCM incorporated textiles taking the market place of
consumer apparel products.
Thermal energy storage (TES) is the temporary storage of
high or low temperature energy for later use. It bridges
the time gap between energy requirements and energy use
[3]. Among the various heat storage techniques of
interest, latent heat storage is particularly attractive due to
its ability to provide a high storage density at nearly
isothermal conditions. Phase-change thermal energy
storage systems offer other advantages, such as a small
temperature difference between storage and retrieval
cycles, small unit sizes and low weight per unit storage
capacity [4,5]. Phase change materials possess the ability
to change their state with a certain temperature range.
These materials absorb energy during the heating process
as phase change takes place, otherwise this energy can be
transferred to the environment in the phase change range
during a reverse cooling process [6].
The insulation effect reached by the PCM is dependent on
temperature and time; it takes place only during the phase
change (in the temperature range of the phase change) and
terminates when the phase change in all of the PCMs
would complete. Since, this type of thermal insulation is
temporary; therefore, it can be referred to as dynamic
thermal insulation. Numerous engineering application has
made the topic of melting of phasechange material in
enclosures one of the most active fields in heat transfer
research today [7]. Textiles containing phase change
materials react immediately with changes in
environmental temperatures, and the temperatures in
different areas of the body.
When a rise in temperature occurs, the PCM
microcapsules react by absorbing heat and storing this
energy in the liquefied phase change materials. When the
temperature falls again, the microcapsules release this
stored heat energy and the phase change materials solidify
again [8]. The thermal insulation capabilities of cold

protective clothing materials may be significantly
improved by the incorporation of Micro- PCM, these
capsules containing small amounts of PCM. Manufacturer
can now use phase change material to provide thermal
comfort in wide variety of garments. The use of phase
change materials, which absorb energy during heating and
release energy during cooling, improve the thermal
insulation capacity which differs significantly from the
insulation properties of any other material [9]. Currently
this property of PCMs is widely exploited in various types
of garments. PCM microcapsules could be directly
incorporated into fibres, and foams, or typically applied to
fabrics as a coating. In this article an account of PCM,
working principle with textile structure and the
application PCM incorporated textiles are reported.
II.
PHASE CHANGE PROCESSES
Latent heat storage is one of the most efficient way of

storing thermal energy. Unlike the sensible heat storage
method, the latent heat storage method provides much
higher storage density, with a smaller temperature
difference between storing and releasing heat [10]. Every
material absorbs heat during a heating process while its
temperature is rising constantly. The heat stored in the
material is released into the environment through a
reverse cooling process. During the cooling process, the
material temperature decreases continuously. Comparing
the heat absorption during the melting process of a phase
change material (PCM) with those in normal materials,
much higher amount of heat is absorbed if a PCM melts.
A paraffin- PCM, for an example, absorbs approximately
200 kJ/ kg of heat if it undergoes a melting process [10].
High amount of heat absorbed by the paraffin in the
melting process is released into the surrounding area in a
cooling process starts at the PCMs crystallization
temperature. After comparing the heat storage capacities
of textiles and PCM, it is obvious that by applying
paraffin-PCM to textiles their heat storage capacities can
substantially enhanced [6]. During the complete melting
process, the temperature of the PCM as well as its
surrounding area remains nearly constant.
The same is true for the crystallisation process; during the
entire crystallisation process the temperature of the PCM
does not change significantly either. Phase change process
of PCM from solid to liquid and vice versa is
schematically shown in Fig. 1. The large heat transfer
during the melting process as well as the crystallization
process without significant temperature change makes
PCM interesting as a source of heat storage material in
practical applications. When temperature increases, the
PCM microcapsules absorbed heat and storing this energy
in the liquefied phase change materials. When the
temperature falls, the PCM microcapsules release this

stored heat energy and consequently PCM solidify [10].
Fig. 1: Schematic representation of phase change

process.
III. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF PHASE

CHANGE MATERIALS (PCMS)Thermal energy storage is an essential technique for
thermal energy utilization [13]. For thermal energy
storage there are four alternatives viz. sensible heat
utilization, latent heat utilization, utilization of reversible
chemical heat, and utilization of heat of dilution. Material
has four state viz. solid, liquid, gas and plasma. When a
material converts from one state to another, this process is
called phase change. There are four kinds of phase
change, such as (a) solid to liquid (b) liquid to gas (c)
solid to gas and (d) solid to solid. Heat is absorbed or
release during the phase change process. This absorbed or
released heat content is called latent heat. PCM which can
convert from solid to liquid or from liquid to solid state is
the most frequently used latent heat storage material, and
suitable for the manufacturing of heat-storage and
thermo-regulated textiles and clothing.
Modes of heat transfer are strongly depends [14] on the
phase of the substances involve in the heat transfer
processes. For substances that are solid, conduction is the
predominate mode of heat transfer. For liquids,
convection heat transfer predominates, and for vapors
convection and radiation are the primary mode of heat
transfer. For textile applications, we will only consider the
phase change from solid to liquid and vice versa.
Therefore, the principle of solid to liquid phase change
and vice versa would be discussed. When the melting
temperature of a PCM is reached during heating process,
the phase change from the solid to the liquid occurs.
Typical differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) heating
thermo gram for PCM melting is schematically shown in
Fig.2. During this phase change, the PCM absorbs large
quantities of latent heat from the surrounding area. PCM
may repeatedly converted between solid and liquid phases
to utilize their latent heat of fusion to absorb, store and
release heat or cold during such phase conversions.
A Study of Phase Change Material and Its Applications in Textile Industry 13
V.
Fig. 2: Schematic of DSC heating thermogram of

PCM.
IV. DIFFERENT TYPES OF PCMS

Phase change materials are able theoretically to change
state at nearly constant temperature and therefore to store
large quantity of energy [17]. Using the thermal energy
storage (TES) of phase change material (PCM) which has
a melting point from 15 to 35 C is one of the most
effective ideas for effective utilization of this kind of
materials in textiles field. In addition to water, more than
500 natural and synthetic PCMs are known [18]. These
materials differ from one another in their phase change
temperature ranges and their heat storage capacities. The
required properties for a PCM for a high efficiency
cooling system with thermal energy system (TES) for
specific application [19] such as in textile fields are as
follow:
(i)
melting point between 15 and 35 C;
(ii)
large heat of fusion;
(iii) little temperature difference between the Melting

point and the solidification point;
(iv) harmless to the environment;
(v)
low toxicity;
(vi) non-flammable;
(vii) stability for repetition of melting and solidification;
(viiii) large thermal conductivity, for effective heat
transfer;
(ix) ease of availability;
(x)
low price.
a)
Hydrated inorganic salt.
(b) Linear long chain hydrocarbons.

(c) Polyethylene glycol (PEG)
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY ENHANCER

FOR PCM:
One of the most commonly used PCMs in storing thermal

energy is the paraffin. The advantage of PCM storage
compared to sensible heat-storage systems, is its potential
to store large amounts of heat with only a small
temperature swing. However, PCMs have some
disadvantages, such as the low heat-conductivity of the
material [35]. The thermal conductivities of most PCMs
are too low to provide a required heat exchange rate
between the PCM and substrate. Therefore, thermal
conductivity enhancer would be useful to efficiently use
the thermal energy stored in the PCM [36]. The thermal
conductivities of PCM could be enhanced by using metal
filler, carbon nanofiber/ fiber fillers etc [3639]. Carbon
fibers have a strong resistance to corossion and chemical
attack, which make them compatible with most PCMs.
The thermal conductivities of carbon nano-fibers are
considerably high and their densities are less that 2260
kg/m3, which is lower than those of metals that are
usually used as additives [37]. Therefore, carbon
nanofiber (CNF)/fiber could be used as efficient thermal
conductivity enhancer for PCM useful for textile
applications. The CNF could be introduced into the PCM
by using shear mixing and melting techniques. It is
common knowledge in heat transfer that when lateral
surface area increases, the heat transfer rate increases. The
thermal properties of the modified PCM could enhanced
significantly by dispersing CNFs into it [37]. As a result
of this enhancement, the cooling rate during the
solidification process of the new nanocomposite increased
significantly by increasing the mass ratio of the CNFs.
The effectiveness of thermal conductivity enhancers
(TCEs) in improving the overall thermal conductance of
phase change materials (PCMs) has been studied by
Nayaket al. [40]. For the case of PCM with porous TCE
matrix, it was observed that inserting aluminum matrix
into Eicosane can offer an order-of-magnitude increase in
thermal conductivity and melting rate. Melt convection
has a considerable effect on the evolution of the solid
liquid interface.
VI. HOW PCMS WORKS IN TEXTILES

Before applying PCMs to textile structure, the PCMs
would be encapsulated in very small spheres to contain
them while in a liquid state. These microcapsules have
approximate diameters of between 1 lm and 30 lm. The
microcapsules are resistant to mechanical action, heat and
most types of chemicals. They react to temperature
fluctuations in the following way [16]: The temperature
rises: when temperature rises due to a higher ambient
temperature, the microcapsules react by absorbing heat.
The PCMs in the microcapsules melt. They draw heat
from their surroundings and store the surplus energy. The
temperature falls: when the temperature falls due to a
lower ambient temperature, they release the previously

stored heat. Interacting textiles structure with PCM
microcapsules for garment applications, the following
thermal benefits are realized [16]:
a cooling effect, caused by heat absorption of the

PCM
a heating effect, caused by heat emission of the PCM
a thermo-regulating effect, resulting from either the

heat absorption or heat emission of the PCM which is
used to keep the temperature of a surrounding
substrate nearly constant.
An active thermal barrier effect, resulting from either

heat absorption, or heat emission of the PCM which
regulates for instance, in a garment system the heat
flux from the human body into the environment and
adopts it to the thermal needs (i.e. activity level,
ambient temperature).
The treated fabric with 22.9% add-on of microcapsules is

capable of absorbing 4.44 J/g of heat if the microcapsules
(melamineformaldehyde
microcapsules
containing
eicosane were manufactured by in situ polymerization) on
the fabric undergo a melting process. The heat of
absorption by the microcapsules delays the microclimate
temperature increase of clothing. This leads to enhanced
thermo-physiological comfort and prevents heat stress
[58]. The impact of phase-change materials (PCM) on
intelligent thermal-protective clothing has been
investigated by Wang et al. [59]. In the heating process,
when the PCM layers temperature increases above the
PCMs melting point (28.0 _C), the PCM melts and
becomes liquid. During this process, thermal energy is
absorbed and stored. After all the PCM becomes liquid,
the temperature continually increases. When the PCM
layers temperature reaches 29.0 _C, the conductive
fabrics were powered off. The temperature of the PCM
layer then decreases after a short time. When the
temperature of the PCM layer decreases below 27.0 _C,
the liquid PCM becomes solid and releases heat energy.
In this process, the PCM acts as a thermal buffer material
by releasing stored heat. The electrical energy consumed
by the clothing assembly (nonwoven fabric coated with
PCM and having conductive layer) with PCM is about
30.9% less than that consumed by the clothing assembly
without PCM (nonwoven fabric, having conductive
Layer). Therefore concluded that a conductive fabric can
significantly increase the temperatures of the different
layers of the assembly and make the assembly warmer.
VII. HOW TO INCORPORATE PCMS IN

TEXTILES
The PCMs change phases within a temperature range just
above and below human skin temperature would be
suitable for application in textiles. This interesting

property of PCMs would be useful for making protective
textiles in all-season. Fiber, fabric and foam with PCMs
could store the heat body creates then release it back to
body, as it needs. Since the process of phase change is
dynamic; therefore, the materials are constantly changing
from a state to another depending upon level of physical
activity of the body and outside temperature.
The thermo-regulating characteristic is possible in
manmade fiber by adding PCM microcapsules to a
polymer solution prior to fiber extrusion. In the process,
PCM microcapsules are integrated inside the fiber itself.
Coating, lamination, finishing, melt spinning, bicomponent synthetic fiber extrusion, injection molding,
foam techniques are some of the convenient processes for
PCMs incorporation into the textile matrix.
(a) Fiber technology.
(b) Coatings
(c) Lamination
VIII. APPLICATIONS OF PCMS

INCORPORATED TEXTILES:
Space
The technology uses phase change materials, which were
first developed for use in space suits and gloves to protect
astronauts from the bitter cold when working in space.
Phase-change materials keep astronauts comfortable at
space.
Sports wear
From original applications in space suits and gloves,
phase change materials (PCM) are nowadays using in
consumer products as well. In order to improve the
thermal performance of active-wear garments, clothing
textiles with thermo-regulating properties are widely
used. The thermor egulating effect provided by these
textiles could be based on the application of PCM. It is
necessary to match the PCM quantity applied to the
active-wear garment with the level and the duration of the
activity for the garment use. Active wear needs to provide
a thermal balance between the heat generated by the body
and the heat released into the environment while engaging
in a sport. The heat generated by the body during sports
activity is often not released into the environment in the
necessary amount thus increasing thermal stress. When
phase change materials would incorporate in sports wear,
during physical activity, the wearers excessive body heat
increases and is absorbed by the encapsulated phase
change materials and released when necessary.
Snowboard gloves, underwear, active wear, ice climbing
and underwear for cycling and running are few more
examples of applications of PCMs in sports wear.
IX. MEDICAL APPLICATIONS

As the phase change materials interact with the
microclimate around the human body, responding to
fluctuations in temperature which are caused by changes
in activity levels and in the external environment.
Therefore, the textiles treated with PCM microcapsules
have potential applications in surgical apparel, patient
bedding materials, bandages and products to regulate
patient temperatures in intensive care units [74]. PEGtreated fabric may be useful in medical and hygiene
applications where both liquid transport and antibacterial
properties are desirable, such as surgical gauze, nappies
and incontinence products. Heat-storage and thermoregulated textiles can keep the skin temperature within the
comfort range, so they can be used as a bandage and for
burn and heat/cool therapy.
innovative new materials and integration of PCM into

garments requires, for example, the development of new
types of testing methods and standards. Furthermore, the
development of materials, such as their mechanical
properties, durability or functionality in various
conditions, may take a long time. The main challenge in
developing textile-PCM structures is the method of their
application. Encapsulation of PCMs in a polymeric shell
is an obvious choice but it adds dead weight to the active
material. Efficient encapsulation, yield of encapsulation,
stability during use and integration of capsules onto fabric
structure are some of the technological issues would be
considered. Another important challenges lies to the
textile community for this innovative textile in practical
use is the durability of PCM incorporated textiles in
repeated uses.
XI. REFERENCES
X.
MARKET FOR PCM IN TEXTIL

APPLICATIONS
From original applications in space suits and gloves,

phase change materials (PCM) are in consumer products,
nowadays. Microencapsulation of liquids and solids is an
innovative micro packaging technology which is opening
up new marketing opportunities for performance apparel
markets for making smart thermo-regulated textiles. In
textile processing, specially in the nonwovens business,
microencapsulated PCM are on the market already [66].
A narrow interpretation of smart textiles or smart
materials is when it shows a clearly defined reaction as a
result of a clearly defined stimulus. This namely holds
good for all smart textiles. Solutions were generated from
the conclusions drawn from innovation management and
marketing. The only appropriate definition says that
something is new if it has been categorized as something
new by the market [78]. Such textiles have integrated
technology or have new junctions or capabilities.
Applications range from the highly complex life support
systems to the convenient or fun, and from life saving
military uniforms to stain resistance or entertainment. The
main areas of focus for smart and interactive textiles are
the military, healthcare, and performance sportswear.
Definitely, PCM incorporated textile would take a major
role in future smart textiles segments. In todays
competitive market situation in world, the demand of
todays customer is to get comfort in cloth, which is to be
worn in different situations from daily wear to functional
wear. Phase change materials are the source to be
incorporated in textile material to add value i.e. comfort
to wearer [79]. 17. Challenges and opportunities Phase
change materials found in todays consumer
products originally were developed for use in space suits
and gloves to protect astronauts from extreme temperature
fluctuations in space. There are many challenges facing
the use of this new innovative material. The use of
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polyethylene/paraffin hybrid as a form-stable phase
change material, Journal of Applied Polymer Science
99 (4) (2006) 13201327.
[44] Y.B. Cai YB, Y. Hu Y, L. Song L, Q.H. Kong QH,
R. Yang R, Y.P. Zhang YP, Z.Y. Chen, W.C. Fan,
Preparation and flammability of high density
polyethylene/paraffin/organophilic montmorillonite
hybrids as a form stable phase change material,
Energy Conversion and Management 48 (2) (2007)
462469.
[45] Y.B. Cai, Y. Hu, L. Song, H.D. Lu, Z.Y. Chen, W.C.
Fan, Preparation and characterizations of HDPE
EVA
alloy/OMT
nanocomposites/
paraffin
compounds as a shape stabilized phase change
thermal energy storage material, Thermochimica
Acta 451 (12) (2006) 4451.
Study of Influence of Atom Sizes on Martensite

Microstructures in Copper-Based Shape Memory Alloys
Ashwani Kumar1, Arbind Prasad2, Amir Shaikh 3
1,2,3
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Graphic Era University, Dehradun 248001 India
kumarashwani.geu@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Materials matter! Advances in materials have driven the
development of human civilization and are a key factor in
most modern technological progress. Material properties,
material processing issues, or material costs are the
limiting factor in the design or performance of almost all
systems around us computers, aircraft, automobiles,
transportation infrastructure, prosthetics and other
biomedical devices, to name just a few. Engineers,
scientists, and managers in all technological sectors often
must make material selection decisions based on a variety
of considerations, including properties, performance,
environmental impact, and cost. Material failures or
inappropriate material selection decisions are often a
factor in tragic loss of human life or financial losses for
corporations.
Keywords: Smart materials, Shape memory effect;
Martensite; Phase alloys.
I.
INTRODUCTION
A series of alloy systems exhibit a peculiar property

which involves the repeated recovery of macroscopic
shape of material at different temperatures. The study of
such materials, which are often called smart materials due
to their capacity of responding to changes in the
environment, is a field of research in rapid evolution. The
origin of this phenomenon lies in the fact that the material
changes its internal crystalline structure with changing
temperature.
Copper-based beeta phase alloys are widely used as a
shape memory component in devices. On cooling from
high temperature, these alloys undergo a displacive
transition which has a close packed-structure following
two ordering transitions. This transition is called
martensitic transition and responsible for the shape
memory effect. The martensitic structures in beeta phase
alloys are closely related to the austenitic structures and
inherit the order in the parent phase due to the displacive
character of transition.
In case these alloys are deformed in a temperature range

in martensitic condition they change in shape and recover
the undeformed original austenitic shape on heating over
the reverse transition temperature after removing the
strain. These materials regain the deformed shape on
cooling to the martensitic state and cycle between
deformed and undeformed shapes on cooling and heating.
Therefore, this property is called reversible shape memory
effect.
The {1 1 0} type plane of parent which is the basal plane
for martensite is subjected to the hexagonal distortion
with martensite formation on which atom sizes have
important effect. In case the atoms occupying the lattice
sites have the same size, the hexagon becomes regular
hexagon otherwise the hexagon undergoes a distortion in
case atom sizes are different. Due to this distortion, the
spacing differences, d, between particularly selected
pairs of diffraction planes providing a special relation
between miller indices become different zero and can be a
measure of the ordering degree in martensite. The
decrease in spacing difference leads to disordering in
martensite.
II.
SMART MATERIAL
The terms smart or intelligent are used for materials

which exhibit peculiar in some aspects, such as the ability
to cover the desired shape of materials at different
temperatures. Shape memory alloys are a typical class of
smart materials and undergo the displacive transformation
called martensitic transition on cooling from high
temperatures. Copper-based shape memory alloys can be
easily deformed by an external force in martensitic
condition and cover the deformed shape on removal of
applied force, and recover the undeformed original shape
on heating over the reverse-transformation temperature
after removing the applied force.
III. CYCLE OF DEFORMATION IN A SHAPE

MEMORY ALLOYS
Shape memory alloys are deformed in a temperature
range in martensitic condition they change in shape and
recover the undeformed original austenitic shape on
Study of Influence of Atom Sizes on Martensite Microstructures in Copper-Based Shape Memory Alloys 19
heating over the reverse transition temperature after

removing the strain. These materials regain the deformed
shape on cooling to the martensitic state and cycle
between deformed and undeformed shapes on cooling and
heating.
Fig. 1. Cycles of a shape memory spring: (a) original

shape; (b) deformation; (c) removal of stress in
martensitic condition; (d) heating over the austenite finish
temperature; (e) cooling below the martensite finish
temperature; (f) heating.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

Two copper-based ternary shape memory alloys were
selected for investigation. These alloys were labeled as
Alloy 1 and Alloy 2, and the alloy compositions are as
follows, respectively:
Alloy 1: Cu26.1%Zn 4%Al (in weight).
Alloy2: Cu11% Al6%Mn (in weight).
The martensitic transformation temperature of these

alloys is over the room temperature and both alloys are
entirely martensitic at room temperature. Specimens
obtained from these alloys were solution treated for
homogenisation in the beeta phase field (15 min at 830 C
for the Alloy 1 and 20 min at 700 C for the Alloy 2), then
quenched in iced-brine and aged at room temperature.
Powder specimens for X-ray examination were prepared
by filling the alloys.These specimens were then heated in
evacuated quartz tubes at 830 C for 15 min and
immediately
quenched
into
iced-brine
for
homogenisation.
V.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
When the copper-based shape memory alloys are cooled

below a critical temperature called martensite start
temperature, Ms, the martensitic transformation occurs
and martensite forms as plates in groups of variants. It
enables the shape memory alloys to deform under low
stresses by variant coalescence because the total shape
change on transformation becomes nearly zero for the
group [9]. Martensite structure includes martensite

variants, and the main characteristic properties of
martensite are the prevalence of groups of essentially
parallelsided plates. The individual martensite plates are
initially either very thin or parallel-sided, and grow in
broader units of two or four plates.
Fig.3. (a) An optical micrograph showing the self

accommodating martensite plates formed in two grains of
Alloy 1 (230) and (b) an electron micrograph showing
the fine martensite structures in Alloy 2 (90,000).
An optical micrograph taken from Alloy 1 and an electron
micrograph taken from the quenched specimen of Alloy 2
are seen from Fig. 3(a) and (b), respectively. As seen
from these figures, the main characteristic properties of
martensite are the prevalence of groups of essentially
parallel-sided plates. As seen from Fig. 3(a), the growth
units of two or four plates constitute self-accommodating
system, and their junction
Planes with the matrix are the conventional habit planes,
whereas their internal junction planes are twin planes of
the martensite lattice [10,12]. Beeta Phases of copperbased alloys are metastable and they are very sensitive to
the thermal treatments due to this property.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
It can be concluded from the above results that the copper
based shape memory alloys are very sensitive to the
ageing treatments. The basal plane of martensite is
subjected to the hexagonal distortion by means of Bain
distortion with martensite formation on which atom sizes
have important effect. In case the atoms occupying the
lattice sites have the same size, the basal plane of
martensite becomes regular hexagon; otherwise the
deviations occur from the hexagon arrangement of the
atoms.
VII. REFERENCES
[1]
R. Gotthardt, J. Van Humbeeck (Eds.), Proceedings

of the International Conference on Martensitic
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
Transformations, ICOMAT 95, Lausanne,

Switzerland, J. Phys. IV 5 (C8) (1995).
J. Beyer, A. Bottger, J.H. Mulder (Eds.),
Proceedings of the IVth European Symposium on
Martensitic Transformations, ESOMAT 97,
Enschede, The Netherlands, J. Phys. IV 7 (C5)
(1997).
O. Adiguzel, Martensite ordering and stabilization in
copper based shape memory alloys, Mater. Res. Bull.
30 (6) (1995) 755760.
A. Aydogdu, Y. Aydogdu, O. Adiguzel, The
influence of ageing on martensite ordering and
stabilization in shape memory CuAlNi alloys,
Mater. Res. Bull. 32 (5) (1997) 507513.
H.W. Kim, A study of the two-way shape memory
effect in CuZnAl alloys by the thermomechanical
cycling method, J. Mater. Process.Technol. 146 (3)
(2004) 326329.
N. Siredey, A. Eberhardt, Fatigue behavior of Cu
AlBe shape memory single crystals, Mater. Sci.
Eng. A 290 (1/2) (2000) 171179.
J. Fernandez, X.M. Zhang, J.M. Guilemany, Aonecycle training technique for copper-based shape
memory alloys, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 139 (1/3)
(2003) 117119.
M.A. Morris, High temperature properties of ductile
CuAlNi shape memory alloys with boron additions,
Acta Metall. Mater. 40 (1992) 15731586.
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
N. Kayali, S. Cakmak, E. Artunc, O. Adiguzel,

Cycling effects on transformation behaviour in shape
memory CuZnAl alloys, in: Proceedings of the
ICOMAT 95, Lausanne, Switzerland, J. Phys. IV 5
(C8) (1995) 895900.
N. Kayali, S. Ozgen, O. Adiguzel, Ageing effects on
ordering degree and morphology of 18R-type
martensite in shape memory CuZnAl alloys, Mater.
Res. Bull. 32 (5) (1997) 569578.
O. Adiguzel, Observation of ageing effects in a shape
memory CuZnAl alloy, Turkish J. Phys. 13 (1989)
171179.
R.D. James, K.F. Hane, Martensitic transformations
and shape-memory materials, Acta Materiala 48
(2000) 197222.
J.L. Pelegrina, R. Romero, Calorimetry in CuZnAl
alloys under different structural and microstructural
conditions, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 282 (2000) 1622.
A. Aydogdu, Y. Aydogdu, O. Adiguzel, Long term
ageing behaviour of mertensite in shape memory Cu
AlNi alloys, J. Mater. Process. Technol., in press.
O. Adiguzel, L. Chandrasekaran, A.P. Miodownik,
The role of ordering in the loss of shape memory in
some copper-based alloys, in: E. Hornbogen, N. Jost
(Eds.),
Proceedings
of
The
Martensitic
Transformation
in
Science
andTechnology,
Informationsgesellschaft,Verlag, Germany, 1989, pp.
109114.
Mechanical and Microstructural Characterization of

Friction Stir Welded Joints of AA7039
Chaitanya Sharma1, Dheerendra Kumar Dwivedi2, Pradeep Kumar3
1,2,3
Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department, I.I.T., Roorkee, Uttarkhand, India-247667

1
chaitanya.sharmaji@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In this investigation precipitation hardening Al-Zn-Mg
alloy AA7039 was friction stir welded in order to
elucidate the effect of FSW on microstructure and
mechanical properties of the base metal. The mechanical
properties of the weld joint were found lower than the
base material. The joint efficiency of friction stir welded
joint was 76.6 %. The microstructure and other unique
features associated with different zones of FSW joints
were studied by optical and scanning electron
microscopy. The weld nugget showed fine dynamically
recrystallized (5.59 times smaller) grains while HAZ
showed coarsened grains (2.75 times larger) than the
base metal. Fracture of weld joint occurred from
minimum hardness region of the WNZ. SEM study of
fracture surfaces revealed that fracture morphology was
brittle.
Keywords: Aluminum alloys, friction stir welding,
microstructure, mechanical properties
I.
INTRODUCTION
The medium strength Al-Zn- Mg alloys such as AA7039

are especially suited for applications requiring welding
due a good resistance to hot tearing and low quench
sensitivity [1]. The absence of Cu increases resistance to
hot cracking at the expense of strength and limited
amount of solute elements in these alloys as compared to
other higher strength 7000 series aluminium alloys results
in quite low quench sensitivity[2]. AA7039 which gains
strength from precipitation hardening of MgZn2 has good
combination of strength and toughness at room and
cryogenic temperature. Owing to resistance to hot
cracking and superior mechanical properties this alloy is
used for military (transportable bridges, armor plates,
military vehicles) and other structural (road tankers,
railway transport systems and cryogenic pressure vessels)
applications [3].
The application of friction stir welding (FSW) for joining
difficult to fusion weld precipitation hardening aluminum
alloys has gained wide spread acceptance for
transportation, rail, marine and aerospace applications[4].
FSW is a solid state process in which joining of the
material is due to plastic deformation, extrusion and

forging at temperatures below melting point. FSW avoids
the melting and formation of weld pool therefore prevents
the formation cast dendritic weld structure responsible for
poor joint properties along with absence of shielding
gases, filler material, arc and fumes. FSW results in
reduced residual stresses and distortion due to lower
thermal flux [5, 6]. Large number of research papers are
available in the literature on various aspects of friction stir
welded aluminum alloys such as material flow,
microstructure and mechanical properties, effect of
process parameters, fatigue and corrosion behaviour [714]. Literature review reveals that not much information
is available in open literature on the mechanical behaviour
of AA7039 [15-17] therefore, in this present study
AA7039 Al alloy was friction stir welded to
experimentally examine the effect of FSW on
microstructure, mechanical properties of the developed
joints.
II.
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
The chemical composition and mechanical properties of

AA 7039 base metal in T6 condition, 5 mm thick
extruded plates are given in Tables 1. Friction stir welding
of AA7039 plates of size 300 X 50 mm2 was performed
in single pass parallel to plate extrusion direction on
modified vertical milling machine (HMT India, 7 H.P.
and 635 rpm). The welding and tool geometry parameters
used for the production of weld joints are enlisted in
Table 2. FSW tool was made of die steel and had flat
shoulder with truncated conical pin having anticlockwise
thread of 1mm pitch. Weld joints were inspected visually
for voids, cracks and other surface defects.
Thereafter, FSW joints were subjected to three point bend
test to reveal the presence of subsurface defects. Electromechanically controlled UTM (H25K-S, Hounsfield) was
used for conducting tensile tests in triplicate using
specimens prepared according to ASTM E8M guidelines
[17]. A Vickers microhardness tester (VHM-002V Walter
UHL, Germany) was used for measuring the variation of
hardness across the joint with a load of 1 N and 30 s dwell
time.
Table 1: Chemical composition and mechanical properties of AA 7039 aluminium alloy
Chemical composition (wt%)

Al
Zn
Bal. 4.69
Mg
Mn
Fe
Si
Cu
2.37
0.68
0.69
0.31
0.05
Mechanical properties
Ultimate tensile
strength (MPa)
414
Yield strength
(MPa)
328
Elongation
(%)
Microhardness
(Hv)
15.1
135
Table 2: Tool dimension and welding parameters used for friction stir welding of AA 7039 aluminium alloy
Tool dimensions
Shoulder diameter Pin diameter (mm)
(mm)
Top
Bottom
16
Welding parameters
Pin length
(mm)
Welding speed
(mm/min)
Rotary speed
(rpm)
Tool tilt
(degrees)
4.7
190
635
2.5
Microstructure of FSW joints etched in Kellers reagent

was observed using a light optical microscope (Leica,
Germany). Average grain sizes of Al present in base
metal and different zones of FSW joints were determined
using Image J, image analyzing software. The fracture
surfaces of the tensile tested specimens were investigated
by a FE-SEM (FEI-Quanta 200).
shoulder and base metal generated frictional and

deformation heat, generated temperatures are high enough
to locally soften the base metal. This softened metal is
transported via extrusion from the front of the tool to the
back where it is forged to form a joint. The combination
of severe mechanical and thermal stresses transformed the
coarser grain (44.3, m) structure of base metal into fine
and equiaxed grain (7.92 m) structure in WNZ (Fig.2 b).
III. MICROSTRUCTURE
The cross section perpendicular to welding direction of
weld joints is shown in Fig.1. The weld joint showed a
weld nugget of trapezoidal shape whose dimension at top
and bottom are 17.35 mm and 4.12 mm. The dimensions
of weld nugget are slightly larger than tool shoulder and
pin diameter. Little amount of flash was also observed on
the top surface of the weld joint.
RS
Flash
WNZ
TMAZ
HAZ
AS
BM
The region adjacent to WNZ is TMAZ which showed

deformed parent grains of average width 51.4 m. The
base metal grains were deformed, bent and elongated in
upward flow pattern. Second phase particle (MgZn2) were
visible in this zone (Fig.2 c). HAZ experienced thermal
cycle and showed coarsened (122.11 m) grains than the
base metal because of dissolution of fine strengthening
precipitate. The grains were found 5.59 times smaller in
WNZ, 1.16 and 2.75 time lager in TMAZ and HAZ
respectively than the base metal.
Fig. 1: Perpendicular cross section of weld joint

The microstructure evolution in FSW weld joints is
shown in Fig.2 (a-d). FSW resulted in the formation of
weld nugget zone (WNZ), thermo mechanically affected
zone (TMAZ) and heat affected zone (HAZ) in the base
metal due to severe thermal and mechanical stresses
(Fig.2 a).
The weld nuggets invariably showed fine recrystallized
equiaxed grains because of severe plastic deformation and
high temperature sufficient to cause dynamic
recrystallization caused by rotation and traversing of FSW
tool during welding. Rubbing action between tool
BM
WNZ
TMAZ
HAZ
Mechanical and Microstructural Characterization of Friction Stir Welded Joints of AA7039 23
IV. MICROHARDNESS
Recrystallized
grains
Al
MgZn2 precipitates
Deformed Al grains
The tensile properties of the FSW joints were dependent

on microhardness variation across the weld cross section
and presence of weld defects. Therefore microhardness
was measured at the mid plane in transverse direction to
know the influence of FSW on base metal microhardness
and strength. The recorded microhardness profiles for
base metal as well as for FSW weld were shown in Fig.3.
The average microhardness in the WNZ, TMAZ, and
HAZ of FSW joint were 106.2, 120.2 and 114.8 Hv
respectively and were significantly less than base metal
(135 Hv). FSW weld joint showed low microhardness of
106.2 Hv in the WNZ which increased to maximum value
(129 Hv) in the TMAZ. Microhardness again falls to low
value in the HAZ before gradually reaching the base
metal microhardness. The microhardness distribution had
W shaped asymmetrical profile with distinct hardness
maxima and minima usually observed for peak hardened
heat treatable aluminum alloys. The more severe material
deformation on advancing side than retreating side [8]
leads to higher temperature on AS resulting in somewhat
lower microhardness values on AS than RS due to smaller
extent of dissolution/coarsening of strengthening
precipitate. From the microhardness profile it is evident
that FSW produced a softened region comprising entire
weld zone but extent of softening was more in the centre
of the weld joint extending 3 mm on each side from the
joint line. The microhardness minima (93 Hv) were
located in the WNZ ~2 mm from weld centre towards the
advancing side.
140
Hardness maxima
Coarsened Al grains
Microhardness (Hv)
130
120
TMAZ
RS
AS
110
WNZ
100
90
HAZ
Base metal Hardness minima

FSW joint
80
70
-15
-10
-5
Distance from weld centre (mm)
10
15
Fig. 3: Microhardness profile of FSW joints

Fig. 2: Microstructure evolutions in FSW joint, (a)
Different FSW zones, (b) Fine recrystallized grains in
WNZ, (c) Deformed grains in TMAZ, and (d)
Coarsened grains in HAZ.
V.
TENSILE PROPERTIES
Tensile properties of FSW joints and base metal were

obtained by conducting transverse tensile tests and were
summarized in Table 3. FSW joints showed lower
mechanical properties than the base metal (Refer table 3).
Base
metal
FSW
joint
Elongation Efficiency
(%)
Efficiency
Strength
(%)
Elongation (%)
Yield Strength (MPa)
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength (MPa)
Condition
Material
Table 3: Tensile properties of FSW weld joints of

AA7039
414
328
15.1
317.3
226.4
9.7
76.6
64.2
Yield and ultimate tensile strength of FSW joints was

found to be 23.4 and 31.1% lower than the base metal.
The dissolution/overaging of strengthening precipitates in
WNZ/HAZ of FSW Joints is responsible for the loss of
strength of the weld joints. The % elongation of FSW
joints (9.7%) was found 35.8% lower than the base metal
(15.1%). Joint strength efficiency (the ratio of weld
strength to base metal strength) and elongation efficiency
(ratio of % elongation of weld to that of base metal) [19]
of FSW joints of AA7039 aluminum alloy was 76.6 and
64.2 %. These results suggested that decrease in ductility
is more severe than strength of weld joints. Jata et al. [12]
reported 25 -30 % reduction in the strength and 60%
reduction in the elongation for friction stir welded 7050
alloy. The results are strikingly similar to our results.
They attributed same to dissolution of strengthening
precipitates in WNZ and coarsening in HAZ.
SEM micrographs of fractured surfaces of tensile

specimens of base metal and FSW joints are shown in
Fig. 5. Base metal has undergone ductile fracture and
fracture surface were covered with fine dimples of
varying size and shapes (Fig. 2a). Some deep voids and
enlarged dimples were also observed on the base metal
fracture surface. The fracture surface of the weld joint did
not show the presence of dimples. It has undergone brittle
fracture which is characterized by the presence of layered
featureless surface which is supported by lower %
elongation (35.8%) of the weld joints than the base metal.
The brittle fracture of the FSW joints may be due to poor
metallurgical bonding at the root of the weld owing to
lower heat input.
VI. FRACTURE SURFACES

Transverse tensile testing resulted in fracture of weld
joints from minimum hardness region of WNZ having
lower tensile strength adjacent to TMAZ on AS. The
photograph of the fractured weld joints is shown in Fig.4.
Fracture surface were flat and perpendicular to the applied
load. Necking was not observed at the end of fractured
tensile samples. Liu et al. [10] reported fracture of FSW
joints of 2017-T351 near or at the interface between WNZ
and TMAZ.
WNZ
AS Fracture location
RS
Fig. 4: Fractured tensile specimen
Fig. 5: Fracture morphology of (a) base metal, and (b)

FSW weld joints
Mechanical and Microstructural Characterization of Friction Stir Welded Joints of AA7039 25
VII. SUMMARY
FSW weld joint showed fine equiaxed grains in WNZ,
deformed grains in TMAZ and coarsened grains in HAZ.
The grains were found 5.59 times smaller in WNZ, 1.16
and 2.75 times larger in TMAZ and HAZ respectively
than the base metal. Mechanical properties of the weld
joints were found lower than the base metal. The
reduction in tensile strength and elongation of FSW joints
were found to be 23.4 - 31.1% and 35.8% than the base
metal. FSW softened weld joint which had microhardness
less than the base metal. FSW joints fractured from
minimum hardness region of the WNZ adjacent to TMAZ
on the AS and fracture morphology was brittle.
VIII. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
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Cooling
Transformation
(CCT)
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ASM Handbook Volume 2. Properties and
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materials, ASM international material park, USA:
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Threadgill et al.. FSW of aluminium alloys,
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Rhodes CG, Mahoney MW, Bingel WH. Effects of
FSW on microstructure of 7075 aluminium, Scripta
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processing, Material science and Engineering R,
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welding of aluminum, Welding Journal, 229s-237s
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size on the temperature rise and material deformation
in FSW, International journal of advance
manufacturing technology, 45:889-895 (2009).
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R.A, Bingel W.H. Properties of FSWed 7075 T651
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Al, Metallurgical & Materials Transaction A, 29 A:

1955-64 (1998).
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properties & fracture locations of FSWed joints of
2017-T351 Al alloy, Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 142: 692696 (2003).
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on microstructure and
fatigue of Al alloy
7050-T7451.
Metallurgical
&
Materials
Transaction A, 31: 218192 (2000).
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M. Jariyaboon, A. J. Davenport, R. Ambat, B. J.
Connolly, S. W. Williams and D. A. Price. The
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Chaitanya Sharma, D. K. Dwivedi, Pradeep Kumar.
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Finite Element Analysis of Hard Turning: A Review

Kunal Saurabh1, Sudhir Kumar Singh2, A.M.Tripathi3, Subham Sharma4
1, 2, 3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Skyline Institute of Engineering and Technology,

Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh -201303, India
4
Department of Mechanical & Automation Engineering, Amity School of Engineering & Technology,
Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida-201303, India
indiagreat2903@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the study of hard turning in various
AISI harden steels which was analyzed with the finite
element method (FEM) under non-linear conditions.
Various Commercial finite element softwares were
employed in finite element analysis. Workpiece material
was modeled for flow stress condition where tool was
struck on workpiece. Frictional interaction along the toolchip interface was modeled with various frictional laws.
Simulations were performed to predict the predictive
nature of tool and gave different predictive nature from
conventional turning.
Keywords: Hard turning, AISI harden steels, FEM.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Hard turning is a surface finish process which substitutes

to grinding process. In hard turning, hardened material of
HRC 45 and above is finished to a surface quality
comparable to grinding process.
Hardened steels, especially stainless tool steels have wide
applications in the missile case, aircraft forging, structural
parts, mould and die, cannon recoil, springs, bearings,
transmission shafts, fan shafts in commercial jet engines,
hydraulic hoses and bolts [1]. In hard turning, the cutting
tool such as Ceramics, Carbide and Cubic Boron Nitride
(CBN) is exposed to harden material surface. The
generation of cutting stresses and temperatures play vital
role due to the hardness of the steels to be machined. The
use of this technique has been limited due to high cost of
the cutting tool inserts. The development and
improvement of carbide cutting tools has made hard
turning more widely used. When hardened steel is
machined, its surface may undergo phase transformation
due to the heat generated which may cause the white layer
formation in machined surface. The chip formation occurs
due to by large plastic deformation and stress distribution
is generated near the workpiece and tool contact area.
In manufacturing, hard turning is one of processes which
encompassing a broad range of technologies and
techniques. Hard turning operation is very important
process in the manufacturing industry and generally

described as a mechanical process of materials cutting by
using specified tools. Hard turning is defined as a process
to remove metal in the form of chips using single or
multiple wedge-shaped cutting tools to produce the
desired shape. There are two types of machining process
namely conventional and modern machining. In
machining process, the machining performance is an
indicator to describe the quality of the manufactured
product which consists of surface roughness, cutting
force, material removal rate, and tool wear.
To check out the premature failure of tool and the life of
the insert, the simulation of stress distribution is vital.
Basically, hard turning is a 3-Dimensional surface
finishing process. Due to simplification of the 2Dimensional over 3-Dimensional, hard turning process
has been studied in 2-Dimensional. FEM simulations have
been made by various researchers using different analyses
software as ABAQUS, DEFORM, ADVANT EDGE,
LS_PREPOST, ANSYS in explicit analyses. The
advantage of the finite element method in the study of
machining is that various material model and various
complex boundary conditions can be simulated. The use
of FEM in modeling of machining gives better predictive
results where analytical models cannot handle variables as
edge radius, chip breaking, and variation in stresses,
strain, and temperature.This review paper will present
predictive nature of hard turning process.
This paper divided into four sections. In section 1, briefly
discuss definition of hard turning, machining and ability
of FEM. Section 2 revealed the previous works on FEM
for prediction of machining performance. Section 3
presents the FEM components and important for
prediction of machining performance. The conclusion and
future work are presented in section 4.
II. PREVIOUS WORKS ON FEM

COMPONENTS FOR PREDICTION OF
MACHINING PERFORMANCE
Study on the prediction of machining performances with
running condition between tool and workpiece. These
conditions have been analysed by various researches
Finite Element Analysis of Hard Turning: A Review 27
works in which hard turning always show better surface

finishing process than turning.
B. Fnides, H. Aouici and M. A. Yallese [2] observed that
in hard turning process, cutting force increased with
increase. It decreased with increase in cutting speed. The
feed force is the largest among all three resolved force.
The radial force is the lowest.
In thermal analysis of hard turning, Tugrul Ozel and Erol
Zeren [3], during simulation analyses of low carbon steel
as AISI 1045, AISI 4340 and Ti6Al4V alloy found that
the heat generated at deformation zone and at tool chip
interface is conducted to the cutting tool. Temperature
rises in the deformation zones are high and reach to a
steady state very rapidly.
This rapidly checks of temperature led the formation of
white layer on machined surface. This white layer
formation is a vital problem in hard turning. Pradip
Majumdar, R. Jayaramachandran, S. Ganesan
[4]
observed that during the simulation by carbide tool and
workpiece increased in temperature distribution of the
tool has the maximum temperature occurred at the tool
chip interface.
W. Grzesik and P. Nieslony [5] used Lagrangian finite
element formulation to predict the thermal behaviour in
negative rake angle cutting of AISI 1045 medium carbon
steel with P20 uncoated and CVD-TiC/Al2O3/TiN coated
tools and found that simulation option and input thermophysical data of the tool materials which are decisive
factors in obtaining proper temperature values in both
primary and secondary deformation zones. Temperature
distribution patterns have some visible physical analogies
to the reduced von Mises stresses and tool-chip contact
behaviour. The differences in thermal behaviours of
uncoated and coated tools can be related to the intensity
and fluctuation of the heat fluxes in the seizure region
Mason D. Morehead and Yong Huang [8] focused on the

formation of saw-toothed/segmented in manual hard
turning analysis of AISI 52100 material with PCBN tool
and observed that segmentation spacing always increases
with cutting speed and feed rate.
Yigit Karpat and Tugrul Ozel [9] observed in their
simulation that the stress distribution on tool were directly
influenced by change in cutting velocity, feed, coefficient
of friction and tool edge-type. The chamfered and hone
tool which different coefficient of factor generates
different axial force, cutting force, thrust force. By using
DEFROM software they simulated the effective stress on
hone PCBN tool.
P. J. Arrazola and T. Ozel [10] used ABAQUS/Explicit to
simulate the machining of AISI 52100 steel with PCBN
tool. Work material flow around the chamfer geometry of
the cutting edge was simulated with constant feed rate and
cutting speed which focused on temperatures and tool
stresses distributions on localized region of tool and
workpiece contact. The maximum value of stress that
appeared in the tool was at the central zone of the chip
width.
As hard turning is non-linear and dynamic simulation
problem, many researchers modulated the simulation with
Explicit Analyses to get the solution in restriction time
where time is defined in between time interval. This is
one of the major limitations in Explicit Analyses which
can be overcome by Implicit Analyses. Implicit has more
capability where problems are characteristically more
stable numerically and more exact solution is granted in
any type of meshing. But in explicit analysis uniform
mesh density is required.
III. FEM COMPONENTS AS PREDICTION

TECHNIQUES OF HARD MACHINING
PERFORMANCE
In ABAQUS/Explicit analyses Christian Hortig, Bob

Svendsen [6] during simulation of chip formation during
high-speed cutting focused that generated chip are nonhomogenous and the formation shape of chip are sawtoothed/segmented. The similar condition was obtained
Raviraj Shetty, Laxmikanth Keni, R. Pai and V. Kamath
[7].
Finite Element Method is ability to performing simple and

fast solution to predict the machining performance on
hard turning. The discussion on FEM as hard turning to
predict machining performance shows that the analysis
components have contributed most in the predictive
nature.
They carried out finite element analysis in

ANSYS/Explicit to investigate the mechanism of chip
formation during machining of DRACs (Discontinuously
reinforced aluminium composites) with CBN tool. They
observed the formation of saw toothed discontinuous
chips under various cutting condition like medium and
high cutting speeds.
In workpiece and tool modelling, Hong Yan, J. Hua, R.

Shivpuri [11] have simulated that the machining of
hardened steel AISI H13 is modeled as an orthogonal
cutting process assuming plane strain conditions. In their
simulation, they have been showed that hard turning
model have low depth of cut having denser meshing at
contact point of tool and workpiece. The selection of
element of workpiece and tool is observed to be free
element.
This can be expressed by means of the following

formulation:
Fig. 1: Finite element model of orthogonal turning of

hardened steel in, Hong Yan, J. Hua, R. Shivpuri
model
In friction modelling of chip and tool, L. Filice, F. Micari,
S. Rizzuti, D. Umbrello [12] have studied that there are
various contact anaylsis for chip and tool contact. In early
metal cutting analysis, friction conditions at the toolchip
interface were neglected or the simple Coulombs law
was considered on the whole contact zone, using a
constant coefficient of friction
= .n
Being the frictional stress and n the normal one.
Another well known friction model is the constant shear
model, which neglects altogether the low stress variation
of with n. In this case, a constant frictional stress on
rake face is assumed, equal to a fixed percentage of the
shear flow stress of the working material k
= m .k.
A more realistic model is related to the actual distribution
of stresses on the rake face. The latter is rather
complicated and it is typically non-linear. According to
Zorev, the normal stress decreases from the tool edge to
the point where the chip separates from the tool. On the
contrary, the frictional stress is equal to the shear flow
stress near the tool edge and then decreases. According to
this distribution the existence of two distinct regions on
the rake face was proposed, as shown in Fig. 2.
(x )= .n (x)
when <k,
(x )= k
when k.
[12]
In flow stress analysis of chip and tool region, various

flow stress model have been discussed. W. Grzesik and P.
Niesony [5] have been discussed that power law model
has been used in thermal modelling of the cutting process
between AISI 1045 carbon steel and carbide tools. Feng
Jiang, Jianfeng Li, Jie Sun, Song Zhang, Zhongqiu Wang
and Lan Yan [13] have used modified power-law model
to find out effect of critical strain. They have observed
that flow stress may not increase when the critical strain is
reached. So, the cut-off value of strain was proposed to
modify the material constitutive model.
In chip criterion, flow stress in ABAQUS/Explicit
analysis P. J. Arrazola and T. Ozel [10] have used to
simulate the machining of AISI 52100 steel with PCBN
tool. Work material flow around the chamfer geometry of
the cutting edge was simulated with constant feed rate and
cutting speed which focused on temperatures and tool
stresses distributions on localized region of tool and
workpiece contact.
In hard turning process, FEM is relevant and important to
be applied in prediction of machining performance in
harden steel process. In compare of FEM in conventional
turning, FEM of hard turning is differ and gave by the
effective nature of turning in negative rake angle and low
depth of cut.
The surface finishing of harden steel is always better due
to low depth of cut and low thickness of workpiece. In
compare to conventional turning, tools use in harden
steels of workpieces have always hard than conventional
tools. In regarding of future works, hard turning is used
for better surface finishing for harden steels.
IV. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

As a conclusion, the machining performance is an
indicator to describe the quality of the manufactured
product. Several common machining performances
include surface roughness, cutting force, material removal
rate; tool life, tool-wear, and flank-wear are discussed.
The prediction of surface roughness, cutting force, and
tool life in machining is a challenging task. Prediction is
very important in machining process in order to produce
the desired product. The desired product quality can be
obtained and improved by predict the machining
performance before start the actual process.
Fig. 2: Stresses distribution on rake face in L. Filice, F.
Micari, S. Rizzuti, D. Umbrello model
Finite Element Analysis of Hard Turning: A Review 29
V.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
REFERENCES
Lalwani D.I, Mehta N.K. and Jain P.K,

Experimental Investigation Of Cutting Parameters
Influence On Cutting Force And Surface Roughness
In Finish Hard Turning Of MDN250 Steel, Journal
Of Materials Processing Technology, 3, pp 167-179
(2008).
B. Fnides, Aouici,H. and Yallese, M.A (2008)
Cutting Forces And Surface Roughness In Hard
Turning Of Hot Work Steel X38CRMOV5-1 Using
Mixed Ceramic, ISSN 1392 - 1207. Mechanika. pp
73-78
Arrazola, P.J. and. Ozel,T Numerical Modelling Of
3D Hard Turning Using Arbitrary Lagrangian
Eulerian Finite Element Method, International
Journal Of Machining And Machinability Of
Materials, 4, pp 1-14 (2008)
Majumdar.Pradip, Jayaramachandran. R, and S.
Ganesan, Finite Element Analysis Of Temperature
Rise In Metal Cutting Processes, Applied Thermal
Engineering, 4, pp 21522168 (2005)
Grzesik. W, Niesony. P FEMbased thermal
modelling of the cutting process using power law
temperature dependent concept, Archives of
Materials Science and Engineering, 29, pp 105-108
(2008).
Hortig, Christian, and Svendsen, Bob Simulation of
chip formation during high-speed cutting Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 186, pp 6676
(2006)
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Shetty. Raviraj, Keni. Laxmikanth, Pai. R, and

Kamath,V Experimental and Analytical Study On
Chip Formation Mechanism In Machining Of Dracs,
ARPN Journal Of Engineering And Applied
Sciences, 3(5), pp 27-32 (2008)
Morehead, Mason D. and Huang, Yong Chip
Morphology Characterization and Modeling in
Machining Hardened 52100 Steels, Machining
Science and Technology, 11, pp335354 (2007)
Karpat,Yiit and zel,Turul 3-D FEA Of Hard
Turning: Investigation Of PCBN Cutting Tool MicroGeometry Effects, Transactions Of NAMRI/SME,
35, pp 1-8 (2007)
Arrazola,P.J. and. Ozel,T Numerical Modelling Of
3D Hard Turning Using Arbitrary Lagrangian
Eulerian Finite Element Method, International
Journal Of Machining And Machinability Of
Materials, 4 (1), pp 1-14 (2008)
Yan. Hong, J. Hua. J,Shivpuri. R Numerical
simulation of finish hard turning for AISI H13 die
steel, Science and Technology of Advanced
Materials, 6, pp 540547, (2005)
L. Filicea, F. Micarib, S. Rizzutia, D. Umbrello, A
critical analysis on the friction modelling in
orthogonal machining International Journal of
Machine Tools & Manufacture, 47, pp-709714
(2007).
Feng Jiang, Jianfeng Li, Jie Sun, Song Zhang,
Zhongqiu Wang, Lan Yan Al7050-T7451 turning
simulation based on the modified power-law material
model Int J Adv Manuf Technol, pp 1-10 (2009).
Optimisation of Process Parameter in Ultra-Precision

Diamond Turning of Polycarbonate Mmaterial
V.K. Saini1, D. Sharma2, S.K. Kalla3, Tulsi Chouhan4
Department of Mechanical Engineering IMS Engineering College, Ghaziabad
1
vksainig@gmail.com; 2durgeshrsharma@gmail.com;
3
skkalla@yahoo.com; 4c_tulsi@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACT
This research deals with the study on surface finish of
diamond turned polycarbonate work material for getting
the optical surface. Optical and physical properties of the
polycarbonate are discussed, how this material is suitable
for making better lenses. Recently, ultra-precision
machining using a single crystal diamond tool has been
developing very rapidly, especially in the fields of
production processes for optical or magnetic parts such
as magnetic discs, laser mirrors, polygon mirrors and
copier drums and various shapes of lenses. As a result, it
has been successfully extended to machine various soft
materials, generating mirror-like surfaces to sub-micron
geometric accuracy with the ultra-precision CNC
machine and the single crystal diamond tool. This
research highlights the optimum parameters established
through experimental investigations for the best surface
finish. The investigation carried out at various
parameters. An attempt has been made to drive an
empirical formula from the practical surface finish versus
tool feed rate, depth of cut and RPM.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Recently, ultra precision diamond turning has been

developing very rapidly, especially in the production of
certain types of optical, opto-electronic and mechanical
elements. In diamond turning, the intended shape and
surface produced depend on machine tool accuracy and
other machining parameter. The operating parameters of a
precision machining process on a given piece of material
will vary considerably depending on production rates
required, work piece and machine characteristics, and all
other process variables such as coolant, tool condition,
depth of cut, tool feed rate. Tool feed rates, cutting
speeds, and depth of cut are typically much lower in
diamond turning process compare to turning with
conventional machining tools. The main machining
parameters are tool feed rates, spindle speed and depth of
cut. The tool feed rate is normally expressed in terms of
either distance travelled by the tool per unit time
(mm/min) or distance travelled per unit rotation
(mm/revolution). It is most common to see the distance
per revolution as it is directly related to the anticipated
theoretical surface finish. For a given tool feed rate, larger

the tool nose radius, lower the roughness and the better
the optical surface finish. The surface quality depends to
great extents on the material characteristics like: grain
size, micro structure or crystal boundary, crystal
uniformity and annealing procedures adopted.
II.
OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH
Generally lenses are made of glass. The manufacturing

processes for glass and plastic optics are entirely
different. Glass lenses are made by a grinding and
polishing process whereas precision plastic lenses are
made by injection-moulding. Nowadays polycarbonate
has been widely employed in the industrial sector. The
use of polycarbonate with superior characteristics has
increased in several sections such as equipment of
precision, electronics and optics.
Due to the need of high dimensional accuracy and good
surface finish in the optics, polycarbonate lenses should
be produced by means of machining (Diamond Turning)
processes instead of moulding processes. Moulding
process is economical when mass production is required.
But when the production requirement is small, then the
moulding process is not economical. When the objective
is to produce lenses from polycarbonate with high
dimensional accuracy and small in number it is applied
the machining process as final operation. In this case,
diamond turning is expected to be economically viable to
produce the optical components from polycarbonate using
Single Point Diamond Turning machine.
III. POLYCARBONATE WORK PIECE

MATERIAL
Polycarbonate (PC) is a type of polyester where the
carbonate ester groups have been linked with aromatic
groups. This structure gives a material with high melt
viscosity and resistance to high temperatures. The
material is one of the engineering thermoplastics and was
first commercially developed over 35 years ago. General
purpose polycarbonate is one of the toughest, most
versatile engineering polymers. Its chemical structure is
Optimisation of Process Parameter in Ultra

Ultra-Precision
Precision Diamond Turning of Polycarbonate Mmaterial 31
nanometer, the units have to be consistent with other

parameters of the formula but any units will work. f is the
feed per revolution, expressed
Fig. 1: Chemical structure of PC

The term Polycarbonate describes a polymer which is
composed of many ("poly") identical units of bisphenol A
connected by carbonate-linkages
kages in its backbone chain.
Chemically, a carbonate group is a di-ester
ester of carbonic
acid. The result is a polymeric chain as can be seen in the
scheme below:
Fig. 3: Calculating the height of the cusps
Fig. 2: Polycarbonate chain

Polycarbonate exhibits a high strength and hardness with
good toughness.
hness. The stiffness is very good and is only
slightly influenced by temperatures up to 140OC. Stability
properties are also very good at high temperatures.
Abrasion resistance is satisfactory at low loading. The
basic material is glass-clear and is thus transparent
ransparent in all
colours and is available self-coloured.
coloured. Polycarbonate has
a high refractive index of 1.586. Transparent grades show
up to 89% transparency in the visible spectrum.
IV. SURFACE FINISH IN TURNING

RNING
In the manufacturing process, an absolute smoot
smooth and flat
surface cannot be achieved. The machine elements or
parts retain the surface irregularities left after in
manufacturing. The surface quality is of importance to the
designer, so that he will be able to specify correctly those
surfaces, which willl provide optimum properties for
service, life, appearance, performance, reliability and
desired function. Achieving the required surface finish for
a job depends on setting the cutting parameters, such as
cutting speed, feed, DOC, and tool radius. The mac
machining
process produces a periodic surface structure directly
related to the tool radius and feed rate. The theoretical
diamond turned surface is described in fig. 3. The formula
displayed in the figure for calculating the height of the
cusps is
h = f2/8R
Where, h is peak-to
to valley height of the periodic surface
defect, usually expressed in micro inch, micrometer,
For example in mm, per revolution. R is the tip radius of

the tool, expressed for example in mm. For example, if a
surface is diamond turned using a spindle seed of 300
rpm, a feed of 7.5 mm/min, and a 5 mm tool nose radius:
(7
.5
300
8 5
h = 15.6 nm
V.
EQUIPMENT USED FOR THE

T
RESEARCH
V.1
.1 Single Point Diamond Turning Machine
The single point diamond turning machine (Nano form
250 precision diamond turning machine from TaylorTaylor
Hobson) is
Fig.4: Nano form

orm 250 from TaylorHobson
Taylor
Single Point Diamond Turning Machine used during this
research. It is precisely numerical controlled machine and
used to fabricate the optical components. The capabilities

of the machine are given below:
Contact Profilometer
Form Talysurf Series 2 PGI
8.6 nm position feedback
Diamond Conical Tip
X to Z squareness 0.50 arc seconds
Tip radius 2 m
X horizontal straightness 0.30 m over 350 mm

traverse Z horizontal straightness 0.20 m over 250
mm traverse
Vertical Range 10 mm
Stylus Movement speed .5 mm/min
Stylus Force 2mgF
V.2 Diamond Tool

During the research a sharp single point diamond tool is
used. The diamonds is brazed to a steel shank. The edge is
then formed through grinding and polishing. Figure shows
a single crystal diamond tool which used during
experiments. The Single Crystal Diamond Tool
capabilities and specification are as follows:
Extreme level of sharpness
Minimal tool wear
Cutting Edge quality
Edge waviness quality
Low coefficient of friction and thermal expansion
High thermal conductivity
Specifications of Diamond tool
Nose radius of 0.5 mm
100 arc and 0 rake angle
Controlled waviness of 0.40 m.
Front Clearance 10
Fig.5: Single Point diamond tool
Fig. 6: Form telysurf to measure Surface roughness
V.4 Selection of material

The polycarbonate material is chosen for the
investigation, because it is having very good optical
quality, thermal stability at higher temperature. The
weathering resistance of PC is in general adequate.
Polycarbonate has high optical clarity and extreme impact
strength. Its discovery provided industry with a material
that exceeds the technical properties of any product in its
class. It is virtually unbreakable and offers high heat
resistance. Three grades of PC (CT303400 PC sheet 12
mm thicknesses, CT303450 PC sheet 25mm and
commercially available 7 mm thickness sheet) is diamond
turned and surface is analyzed and found that the quality
of diamond turned surface of PC grade (CT303450 PC
sheet 25mm and commercially available) was not good
and not included in the further study. PC grade
(CT303400 PC sheet glass-clear 12 mm thicknesses) is
clear transparent material tried for the optical surface
finish for further work.
VI. EXPERIMENTS AND DISCUSSION
V.3 Measure of Surface roughness
Preparation of work piece
Form TelySurf from Taylor-Hobson is used for measuring

surface roughness. The capabilities of Form telysurf is as
follows:
Work piece is made circular (25mm diameter) and 12 mm

thickness. Both the face of work piece kept flat, because
flat face turning is done during the research.
Optimisation of Process Parameter in Ultra-Precision Diamond Turning of Polycarbonate Mmaterial 33
VI.1 Trial runs at different feed, doc and RPM

Initially the work piece of commercially available
Polycarbonate is used for experiment. The work piece is
cut to the above mentioned dimension and prepared for
diamond turning. Before diamond turning the work piece
is placed on the vacuum chuck and centering is done for
all the trial run. So, to understand the behavior of the
diamond turned PC few experiments are done on different
feed, doc and RPM. From the above trial run I could find
that turning of the PC is peculiar and understand the
behavior of the material with respect to variable RPM,
feed rate and depth of cut. This grade of PC is giving the
dull surface after diamond turning. In the next few
experiments I have used the third grade (CT303400 PC
sheet glass-clear 12 mm thicknesses) which has shown
better results. For further research I have used CT303400
PC sheet glass-clear 12 mm thicknesses.
VI .2 Surface roughness with respect to variable

Feed rate
Feed rate is most important parameter and variation of
this have a great impact on the surface finish. Theoretical
surface finish depends on feed rate and tool radius. Depth
of cut 2 m ad RPM 1000 kept constant and tool feed rate
is varied from 0.5 m/rev to 5.0 m/rev. the results of the
experiments are as follows.
Table No: 1. Analysis of surface roughness with
respect to variable feed rate
Trial
Run
Feed
(micron/rev)
1
2
3
4
5
0 .5
1 .0
2 .0
3 .0
4 .0
Depth of
cut
(micron)
2
2
2
2
2
RPM
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
Surface
Roughness
(nm)
5 4 .8
9 1 .9
8 6 .7
1 7 3 .5
1 8 2 .6
Surface Roughness
@ Doc = 2.0 m, RPM = 1000
F ig .7 : Turning of polycarbonate work piece by

diamond tool
From the above experiments, it is observed that the
surface finish is going down as we reduce feed. The
surface roughness is 54.8 nm at feed 0.5 m where the
depth of cut is 2 m and 1000 RPM was maintained. It is
investigated that although look of the surface was good
but it is not of optical quality at these parameters. We
have varied the depth of cut at feed rate of 0.5.

depth of cut
Ta ble 2 . Surface roughness with respect to variable
doc
Trial
Run
Feed
(micron/rev)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 .5
0 .5
0 .5
0 .5
0 .5
0 .5
0 .5
0 .5
0 .5
Surface roughness(nm)
Surface roughness(nm)
130
100
70
40
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
Feed (m/rev )
Graph No: 1. Surface roughness with respect to

variable Feed
RPM
Surface
Roughness
(nm)
1 1 7 .5
5 8 .2
5 4 .8
5 8 .2
1 0 5 .4
6 2 .8
5 8 .7
9 2 .7
7 9 .5
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
Surface Roughness
@ feed=0.5m/rev, RPM=1000
190
160
Depth of
cut(doc)
(micron)
1 .0
1 .5
2 .0
2 .5
3 .0
5 .0
8 .0
1 0 .0
1 5 .0
120
100
80
60
40
0
10
Depth of cut (m)
12
14
Gra p h no : 2 . Surface roughness with respect to

variable depth of cut
16
Modified Profile
SF Result 6 - R/5x0.8mm/2CR/300/LS Line

pc 3000 2 .5 - 23.1mm/Admin/fts
29/01/04 12:25:15
29/01/04 12:14:53
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
-0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
-0.4
From the last experiment we have seen that the depth of

cut 2 m giving the better surface. During this experiment
feed rate 0.5 m/rev and depth of cut remained unchanged
and RPM varied from 800 to 4000, to get the further
better surface on the work piece.
Ta ble No : 3 . Surface roughness with respect to
RPM
Trial
Run
Feed
(micron
/rev)
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Depth of
cut
(micron)
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
RPM
800
1000
1300
1500
2000
3000
4000
Surface
Roughness
(nm)
26.3
54.8
31.0
35.5
37.0
25.4
74.0
Surface Roughness
@ feed = 0.5m/rev,doc= 2m
80
surface roughness
70
microns

RPM
at 800 RPM also but it is not economical. At RPM 1500

we have observed the star pattern on surface of PC. So,
RPM 3000, Feed 0.5 m/rev and depth of cut 2 m are
the optimum parameters where optical surface is
achieved.
microns
From the above experiments, it is observed that the

surface finish is depending on the depth of cut but its
behavior is different. As we increase the doc from 1m to
2 m the roughness decrease from 117 nm to 54 nm and
again increase the roughness on of doc. Same is again
repeated on 8 m doc. The surface roughness is 54.8 nm
at feed 0.5 m/rev where the depth of cut is 2 m and
1000 RPM. But it is investigated that surface is not
optical at these parameters, the surface quality was dull
after 10 m doc and there no use of increasing the doc
more than 10 m.
-0.4
71.8 72.0 72.2 72.4 72.6 72.8 73.0 73.2 73.4 73.6 73.8 74.0 74.2 74.4 74.6 74.8 75.0 75.2 75.4 75.6 75.8
millimetres
Fig. 8: Form telysurf measuring Surface roughness
VII. EMPIRICAL FORMULA FOR

PRACTICAL SURFACE ROUGHNESS
An attempt has been made to drive an empirical formula
from the practical surface finish versus tool feed rate,
depth of cut and RPM. Surface roughness plays an
important role in product quality and manufacturing
process planning. This study focuses on developing an
empirical model for surface roughness prediction in finish
diamond turning. The model considers the following
working parameters: feed, RPM and depth of cut. A data
fitting technique, regression analysis is applied in
developing the empirical model. The values of surface
roughness predicted by this model are then compared with
observed values. Diamond turning of polycarbonate
experiments and tests of hypothesis demonstrate that the
model developed in this study have a satisfactory
goodness of fit. A popularly used model for estimating the
surface roughness value is as follows (Groover 1996, p.
634 and Boothroyd and Knight 1989, p. 166):
60
50
Ra =
40
30
20
10
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

RPM
Gra p h No .3 : Surface roughness with respect to

RPM
Analysis of turned work piece at different RPM is carried
out. Output result is shown in above table. By
experiments we have seen that polycarbonate surface
turned to the surface finish of below 25 nm, which is
achieved at RPM 3000. A good surface finish is achieved
f2
32r
(1)
Where Ra = ideal arithmetic average (AA) surface

roughness (nm), f= feed (m /rev), and r = cutter nose
radius (mm). The above model assumed a relatively large
nose radius and slow feed. For a zero nose radius and a
relatively large feed, the following model is
recommended (Boothroyd and Knight 1989, p. 168):
Ri =
f
4 x (cot + cot )
(2)
Where and is the major and end cutting edge angle,

respectively. Shaw (1984) presented a case when the feed
lies between the above two. Denoting the peak-to-valley

roughness by Rth, then
f
=
r
2 Rth Rth
Rth
(
) 2 + sin + (
1+ cot ) cot
r
r
r
(3)
During this study, empirical model has been developed

based on diamond turning experiments, and it includes
feed, spindle speed, and depth of cut. In the study, the
necessary physical knowledge of the system is absent or
incomplete and consequently no mechanistic model is
available. In these circumstances, an empirical model has
to be developed to locally approximate the relationship
between outputs and inputs based on observed data. This
empirical model may be appropriate only under certain
conditions or for certain material (may be only
polycarbonate).
VII.1 Regression modeling
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
a
2
Where Ra= surface roughness (the arithmetic average) in

nm, f = feed in m/rev, d = depth of cut in m, and s =
RPM and C is a coefficient.
For simplicity, Equation (4) is rewritten as:
y = C x1a1 x2 a2 x3 a3
Value
Standard
error
t-ratio
Prob (t)
225.5099
484.3744
0.465569
0.6478
a1
0.568186
0.089507
6.347971
0.00001
a2
0.142289
0.136557
1.04198
0.31291
a3
-0.15948
0.301711
-0.5286
0.60434
Table 4. Observed values
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Feed
(micron
/rev)
0.5
1.o
2.0
3.0
4.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Depth of
cut
(micron)
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
2.0
2.5
5.0
8.0
10
RPM
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
Empirical formula is derived from the above results.
Ra = 225.51
f 0.568d 0.142
s 0.159
(5)
Where y is the estimated surface roughness value after

getting terms a1, a2, and a3 estimates of the parameters
respectively. In addition, x1, x2, and x3 are the feed
(m/rev), depth of cut (m) and RPM, respectively.
Trial
No.
79.5
26.3
54.8
31
35.5
37
25.4
74
Variable
(4)
1000
800
1000
1300
1500
2000
3000
4000
Table 5. Regression Variable Results
Surface
Roughness
(nm)
54.8
91.9
86.7
173.5
182.6
58.2
117.5
54.8
58.2
62.8
58.7
92.7
Where f is feed in m/rev, d is depth of cut in m and s is

rpm.
200
180
Surface roughness (nm)
15
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
To establish the prediction model, a data fit software

package Oakdale Engineering version 8.0 is used to
perform the regression analysis using the above
experiments data (table 4).
A functional relationship between surface roughness and

the independent variables under investigation is
postulated by:
Ra = C f
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Observed valve
160
140
Calculated value
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Trial No
Graph.4. Deviation of fitted values from observed

values
The magnitude of impact of each term on the surface
roughness is studied based on the value of their
coefficients. The model suggests with statistical evidence
the following order of importance in determining the

surface roughness: the feed (most important), RPM
(second), then the depth of cut. In the experimental
studies provides the interaction plot (graph.5) for an indepth investigation of the impact of the three terms in the
model given in Table 6, suggests that a lower feed
working with polycarbonate material would lead to a
smaller Ra value. Finally, implies that a smaller depth of
cut working with a higher speed would create a better
surface. The above formula provides the best result to
predict the surface finish at any given parameter (Feed
rate, DOC and RPM). Comparison of practical surface
finish and calculated surface finish is given in table No. 6.
Sur
fac
e
rou
ghn
ess
(n
m)
Trial No Graph.5 Deviation of fitted values from

observed values
Table 6. Summarizes the Regression Analysis Results
Trial
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
X1 value
0.5
1
2
3
4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
X2
value
2
2
2
2
2
1.5
1
2
2.5
5
8
10
15
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
X3
value
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
800
1000
1300
1500
2000
3000
4000
Y
value
54.8
91.9
86.7
173.5
182.6
58.2
117.5
54.8
58.2
62.8
58.7
92.7
79.5
26.3
54.8
31
35.5
37
25.4
74
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
The flat surface of polycarbonate work material is
diamond turned at various turning parameters. The
following are the conclusions results from experiments
and investigation.
1) Suggests that a lower feed working with
polycarbonate material would lead to a smaller Ra
value.
2) Optimum turning parameter are suggested where we
get the optical surface finish.
Calc
value
55.78386
82.70839
122.6283
154.3985
181.8158
53.5465
50.54465
55.78386
57.58347
63.5523
67.94779
70.13982
74.30543
57.80482
55.78386
53.49788
52.29076
49.94585
42.81832
44.7188
Residual
% Error
Abs Residual
-0.98386
9.191608
-35.9283
19.10147
0.784212
4.653498
66.95535
-0.98386
0.616528
-0.7523
-9.24779
22.56018
5.194567
-31.5048
-0.98386
-22.4979
-16.7908
-12.9458
-16.4183
29.2812
-1.79537
10.00175
-41.4398
11.00949
0.42947
7.995701
56.98328
-1.79537
1.059327
-1.19792
-15.7543
24.33677
6.534047
-119.79
-1.79537
-72.5738
-47.2979
-34.9888
-84.3241
39.56919
0.983861
9.191608
35.92827
19.10147
0.784212
4.653498
66.95535
0.983861
0.616528
0.752295
9.247794
22.56018
5.194567
31.50482
0.983861
22.49788
16.79076
12.94585
21.41832
29.2812
Tool feed rate

Depth of cut
RPM
:
:
:
0.5 m/revolution
2 m
3000
3) The surface roughness achieved is below 25 nm at

the above given parameters using old diamond tool.
Surface finish can be further improved using new
diamond tool.
4) An empirical formula is developed for predicting
surface roughness of diamond turned polycarbonate
at different turning parameters (feed rate, depth of cut
and RPM). Empirical formula is derived as follows.
f 0.568 d 0.142
Ra = 225.51
s 0.159
Where f is feed in m/rev, d is depth of cut in m and s is
rpm.
IX. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Theodore T Saito, 1978, Diamond turning of optics:

The Past, the Present, and the exiting Future Optical
Engineering, Vol.17 No.6, p570 573.
K.A. Risbood, U.S. Dixit, A.D. Ahasrabudhe, 2003,
Prediction of surface roughness and dimensional
deviation by measuring cutting forces and vibrations
in turning process Journal of Materials Processing
Technology 132, 203214
Puertas Arbizu, C.J. Luis Prez, 2003, Surface
roughness prediction by factorial design of
experiments in turning processes Journal of
Materials Processing Technology 143144, 390396
Thimmaiah G. Kumbera, John A. Patten, And Harish
P. Cherukuri Numerical simulation of ductile
machining of silicon nitride
Paulo A. Beltra O,Y Anthony E. Gee, John Corbett,
Roger W. Whatmore, Christopher A. Goat and Susan
A. Impey, 1999, Single Point Diamond Machining
of Ferroelectric Materials Journal of the European
Ceramic Society 19, 1325 --1328
Hyu Choi, Jeong-Du Kim, 1999, Development of
monitoring system on the diamond tool wear
International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture 39, 505515
K.Q. Xiao, L.C. Zhang, 2002, The role of viscous
deformation in the machining of polymers
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences Vol. 44,
23172336
Kobayashi, Akira, 1967, Ultra precision Machining
of Plastics, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Alauddin, M., 1995, Plastics and their machining
Journal of Material Processing Technology, V.54,
pp.40 46,
Michael Ban, 1995, Handbook of optics, Vol-I, Mc
Graw Hill Inc. pp. 41.141.13,
Gufran S. Khan, Ramgopal VS, KD Chatopadhyay,
PK Jain, 2003, Effect of feed rate in single point
diamond turning of aluminum- 6061 alloy Indian
journal of engineering & Material Sciences Vol. 10,
pp.123-130
Carr, J. W; Feger, C., 1993, Ultra precision
Machining of Polymers, Precision Engineering, v. 4,
pp. 221-235,
[16]. Graham T. Smith, Sringer-verlag CNC
machining Technology cutting fluid and work
holding technologies, pp. 112-113
[14] Steven W. Henry, 2002, A Thesis in Instrumentation

for tool wear evaluation Master of Science,
Pennsylvania State University
[15] J. L. C. Salles M. T. T. Gonalves, 2003, Effects of
Machining Parameters on Surface Quality of the
Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene
(UHMWPE) Matria, Vol 8, No1, pp. 1-10
[16] Whitehouse DJ, 2003, Hand book of Surface and
Nano metrology Institute of Physics Publishing,
Bristol and Philadelphia, pp. 703 719
[17] T.R.Thomas, 1998, Trends in surface roughness
International Journal of Mechanical Tools
Manufacturing, Vol 38 No5-6, pp. 405 411,
[18] Chang- Xue (Jack) Feng, 2001, An Experimental
Study of the impact of turning parameters on Surface
roughness Paper No, 2036, Proceedings of Industrial
Engineering Research Conference
[19] Donald G. LeGrand and John T. Bendler, 2000,
Handbook of Polycarbonate Science and
Technology Publisher: Marcel Dekker.
[20] Xuejun Zhang, Yunkun Zhang, 1997, Study on
surface quality of a diamond turned oxygen- free
high-conductance copper reflector used in a highpower CO2 laser Optical Engineering, Vol.36 No.3,
pp. 825 830.
[21] B. Bulla, F. Klocke, O. Dambon, 2012, Analysis on
ductile mode processing of binderless, nano
crystalline tungstencarbide through ultra precision
diamond turning, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, Vol. 212, pp. 10221029
[22] De Ping Yu, Yoke San Wong, Geok Soon Hong,
2011, A novel method for determination of the
subsurface damage depth in diamond turning of
brittle materials, International Journal of Machine
Tools & Manufacture Vol. 51 pp. 918927
[23] Ge Yingfei, Xu Jiuhua, Yang Hui, 2010, Diamond
tools wear and their applicability when ultraprecision turning of SiCp/2009Al matrix composite.
Wear vol. 269 pp. 699708
[24] JiwangYan, Zhiyu Zhang,Tsunemoto Kuriyagawa.
2009, Mechanism forbonded silicon carbide,
International Journal of Machine Tools &
Manufacture, vol. 49 pp. 366374
[25] A.G. Mamalis S.N. Lavrynenko, 2007, On the
precision single-point diamond machining of
polymeric materials, Tools & Manufacture vol. 5, pp.
241252
[26] Philippe Revel, Hatem Khanfir, Fillit, 2006. Surface
characterization of aluminum alloys after diamond
turning, Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
vol. 178 pp. 154161
[27] B.M. Lane, M. Shi, T.A. Dow, R. Scattergood, 2010,
Diamond tool wear when machining Al6061 and
1215 steel, Wear, vol. 268 pp. 14341441
Modification of Hardfacing Alloy of Crusher Used in

Sugarcane Industry to Reduce Wear
A. Doomra 1, A.P.S. Sethi2, S.S. Sandhu3
1
M.Tech Student, Mechanical Engineering Department, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur

Engineering College, Fatehgarh Sahib, India.
er.doomra@gmail.com
2
Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department,
Baba Banda Singh Bahadur Engineering College, Fatehgarh Sahib, India.
apssethi@gmail.com
3
Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department,
Quest Group of Institutions, Mohali, India.
ersandeepsandhu@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Experimental investigation carried out to study the
influence of different weld surfacing treatments on the
chilled cast iron which was specially cast for this
particular research work. Five number of filler electrodes
of different chemical composition were selected with an
objective of enhancing the abrasion resistance of base
material i.e. chilled cast iron. Shielded metal arc welding
process was used in the flat position to lay down various
weld beads on the base material. Attempts were also
made to study the influence of using buffering layer. Two
different types of buffering layers were used so as to find
out the most suitable hardface deposit that would possess
maximum hardness and hence improved abrasive wear
performance. Pin-on-disc wear testing machine was used
to measure the wear rate. Vickers hardness testing
machine was used to measure the microhardness.
Scanning Electron Microscopy was used to analyse the
abrasive wear performance and presence of carbides
respectively so as to establish a co-relation between
microhardness and microstructure. The data generated
through this study is useful for specific application where
rollers are given a hardfacing treatment using welding in
the sugar mill industry.
Keywords: Hardfacing, SMAW process, abrasive wear
resistance, microhardness.
I.
INTRODUCTION
India has emerged as the largest sugar cane and sugar

producing country in the World. The sugar cane industry
of India occupies an important place in the economic and
social life of the country [1]. Improving productivity and
reducing the cost of production are important

considerations underlying various modifications in the
techniques of manufacture in sugarcane industry. It was
noticed that there is wear at a high rate on the crushing
roller used for crushing of sugarcane although arching is
applied on the crushing roller which is technically termed
as Hardfacing. The hardfacing of alloys is applied on the
tips and flanks of the crushing roller grooves. Hardfacing
not only improves feeding of sugarcane but also increases
resistance to wear of roller shell and results in gain in
capacity of the plant [2]. Hardfacing process is repeated
every year because of high wear rate. In industry where
production rate is high, in-process hardfacing is required
and for this the plant has to be stopped.
In view of the situation present investigation, has been
initiated to identify the most suitable hardfacing deposit
from among five commercial electrodes and its effects on
the wear behaviour of the hardfacing deposits. Buffer
layer has been introduced to reduce the effect of dilution
and cracking. Considerable variation in the life on the
hardfacing deposited was experienced with different types
of electrodes.
II.
EXPERIMENTAL DETAIL
II.1 Materials and welding parameters

The substrate material was chilled cast iron which was
casted in the form of plates with dimension
250x250x12mm. The composition of substrate is taken
same as the composition of crushing roller used in
sugarcane industry. Fig. 1 shows the casting of substrate
and Fig. 2 shows the actual picture of crusher used in
sugar mill Industry.
Modification of Hardfacing Alloy of Crusher Used in Sugarcane Industry to Reduce Wear 39
Table 1: Composition of electrodes

Electrode No.
Electrode Name
Electrode Size
Current (amps)
Preheat temperature.
EL 1
Zedalloy 350
4mm x 450 mm
140-180
1100C
EL 2
Zedalloy 550
4mm x 450 mm
140-180
1100C
EL 3
Ultra 7016
4mm x 450 mm
140-180
1500C
EL 4
Lotus 73
4mm x 350 mm
120-150
1500C
EL 5
Hardalloy III
4mm x 350 mm
140-180
1500C
EL 6
Essen (electrode used

by the industry)
4mm x 450 mm
120-160
1500C
Table 2: Welding parameters

Electrode
zedalloy 350
zedalloy 550
ultra 7016
Lotus
hardalloy 3
C
0.3
0.4-0.7
0.08
0.3
0.6
S
0.03
-0.4
---
MN
0.4-0.7
0.2-0.4
1.2
1.0
0.35
P
0.03
-0.02
---
SI
0.2-0.4
0.2-0.45
0.02
.01
0.4
CR
2.5-3.5
6-7.8
8.0
4.5-6
6.5
Mo
-0.5-0.8
--0.55
V
-0.4-0.7
--0.45
Five number of filler electrodes of different chemical

composition were selected with an objective of enhancing
the abrasion resistance of base material i.e. chilled cast
iron. Selections of electrodes were based on the variation
of percentage of Chromium and Carbon content from the
available hardfacing electrodes. The composition of
various selected electrodes is mentioned in Table 1. The
electrodes are baked at the 3000C for 2 hours before
depositing on the plates. Buffer layer is introduced
between the deposits to minimize performance losses due
to dilution [3]. Selection of buffer electrode was made on
the basis of microhardness test conducted on the bead
deposited by selected electrodes.
Fig. 1 Chilled cast iron substrate
Fig. 2 Crushing roller
Welding parameters strongly influence microstructure and

wear properties of the deposits [4], so a proper care has
been taken while considering the welding parameters.
Table 2 shows the welding parameters as mentioned by
the electrode manufacturers within which the deposits
were made. Two types of electrodes were selected to be
used as buffer layer. Overlay of weld beads of selected
electrodes were deposited on the buffer layer with
different combination and deposit of electrode which is
used by the sugarcane industry is also made so the
comparison can be made with the selected electrodes.
Shielded metal arc welding process was used in the flat
position to lay down various weld beads on the base
material [2,5]. Weaving pattern with 25% of overlap was
adopted to lay the beads.
desired size i.e. 8mm dia & 10-15mm height, were cuts
from the plates by electro-discharge machining as shown
in Fig. 4. Pins were then polished with 1000 grit abrasive
paper followed by Al2O3 polishing. During the test all the
pins were made to slide over the rotating disc at
1000r.p.m. To establish more precise relation, same load
and time is used for all the specimens as wear rate
increases with increase in load [7]. Wear rate is measured
after every 30 seconds for 5 minutes and wear loss in
specimen was determined by measuring the weight of
each specimen before and after wear test.
Fig. 3 Substrate plate with the deposits

Table 3: Combination of electrodes deposited
Plate
Bead
Buffer Layer
P1
Ultra 7016 (EL3)
P1
Ultra 7016 (EL3)
P1
Ultra 7016 (EL3)
P1
P2
P2
D
A
B
Ultra 7016 (EL3)

Lotus 73 (EL4)
Lotus 73 (EL4)
P2
Lotus 73 (EL4)
P2
Lotus 73 (EL4)
Overlay
Electrode
Zedalloy
550
(EL2)
Hardalloy
3
(EL5)
Zedalloy
350
(EL1)
Lotus 73 (EL4)
Ultra 7016 (EL3)
Zedalloy
350
(EL1)
Hardalloy
3
(EL5)
Zedalloy
550
(EL2)
Eight different combinations of buffer electrodes and

hardfacing electrodes were obtained as mentioned in
Table 3, further which were tested and compared to
analyse better type of hardfacing electrode.
Fig. 4 Pins for wear test
II.4 Microstructure Investigation

Scanning Electron Microscope was used to analyse the
microstructure of specimen. The SEM is used to generate
high-resolution images of surface of objects and to show
spatial variations in chemical compositions. The SEM is
also widely used to identify phases. The JSM-6610LV
low vacuum SEM was used for testing of the samples.
Images at 1000x were taken for analysing the microstructural behaviour.
II.2 Microhardness Test

The micro hardness of the hardfacing deposit is taken by
Vickers hardness testing machine using 20kg weight.
Hardness of deposited layer was determined by using
average of 3 measurements taken on the surface. This test
was performed to get a rough estimation of wear
resistance [3,6].
II.3 Wear Test

Wear and Friction Monitor Tester TR-201 make M/s
DUCOM Bangalore India, conforming to ASTM G99
standard was utilised for evaluating the wear resistance of
the hardfacing electrodes. Wear test specimen (pins) of
Fig. 5 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The chemical composition of each hardfacing deposit as
given in Table 1 shows considerable variations among the
deposit. Such variation in deposit composition arises from
different brands of electrodes used.
The result obtained during pin-on-disc wear test is shown
in Fig. 7(a)-7(i). It shows the graph between wear rate and
time. The mass loss of all the specimens was calculated
and shown in Fig. 8 and the results obtained during
microhardness test of various specimen is shown in Fig.
9.
Fig. 6(d) Sample P1D
Fig. 6(a)-(i) Scanning electron micrographs of worn
surface for all specimens
Fig. 6(a) Sample P1A

Fig. 6(e) Sample P2A
Fig. 6(b) Sample P1B

Fig. 6(f) Sample P2B
Fig. 6(c) Sample P1C
Fig. 6(g) Sample P2C
P1C1
90
85
80
75
70
65
P1C1
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
Fig. 7(c) Wear V/s Time Sample P1C

Fig. 6(h) Sample P2D
Fig. 7(a)-7(i)
7(i) Wear rate Vs time graph for all the
specimens
P1D3
60
40
20
P1D3
0
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
Fig. 6(i) Sample of ESSEN (electrode used by industry)
Fig. 7(d) Wear V/s Time Sample P1D
150
P2A2
100
100
50
0
50
P2A2
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

0
P1A2
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
Fig. 7(a) Wear V/s Time Sample P1A
Fig. 7(e) Wear V/s Time Sample P2A2
P1B2
P2B2
15
10
5
P1B2
0
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
Fig. 7(b) Wear V/s Time Sample P1B
85
80
75
70
65
60
P2B2
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5

Fig. 7(f) Wear V/s Time Sample P2B
P2C1
1000
824
100
600
50
P2C1
737
707
800
425
642
453
384
303
277
400
200
ESSEN
Fig. 7(g) Wear V/s Time Sample P2C
P2D
P2C
P2B
P2A
P1D
P1C
P1A
P1B
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
VICKER HARDNESS
P2D2
Fig. 9 Vickers Hardness No. for all specimens.
85
80
75
70
65
P2D2
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
Fig. 7(h) Wear V/s Time Sample P2D2
ESSEN
150
100
50
ESSEN
0
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
Fig. 7(i) Wear V/s Time Sample used by industry
Fig. 8 Wear loss during pin-on-disc

disc wear te
test for all
specimen.
The results obtained are analysed and co-related

co
with the
results of electrode deposit used by the industry.
No clear relation has been found between the hardness of
the deposit and the wear rate as the hardness of sample
P1A is maximum among all the specimens where as wear
loss is not minimum and for sample P1D the hardness is
high as well as the wear loss is also high. The wear loss
for the sample P2C is minimum among all the specimens
but its hardness is not maximum. It indicates that hardness
can only give a rough estimate but not the exact
prediction. This serves to emphasize that microstructure is
more important than hardness in determining wear
resistance.
The worn out surfaces were
re observed under Scanning
Electron Microscope to analyse the surface micrographs
and to establish the possible mechanism of material
removal. Microstructure of different samples deposited
with different combination of commercially available
hardfacing and selected buffer electrodes are shown in
Fig. 6(a)-6(h)
6(h) and the microstructure of electrode deposit
used by the industry is also shown in Fig. 6(i). It was seen
that there is constant wear with little pits on the surface of
sample P1A give high wear resistance.
resist
Under cut was
found in sample P1B. Pits were found in sample P1C and
P1D which cause high wear loss on the samples. Severe
damage and more undulations are high for sample P2A
which increases the wear rate [8]. Constant wear is seen
in the sample P2B. Uneven wear was found in sample
P2C. Microcutting is another prevalent mechanism of
material removal, more material loss is observed as
compared to micro-ploughing.
ploughing. This is because in micromicro
cutting, more material loss is produced as material loss is
equal to the volume of wear groove produced, whereas in
micro-ploughing,
ploughing, the abrading particles and material is
continuously displaced sideways adjacent to the groove
produced [7].
It was also seen that different hardfacing electrodes have

wide variation in wear resistance and such variation is
mainly attributed to variation in deposit chemistry,
particularly the carbon content, chromium %age and
microstructure, e.g. types and volume fraction of carbide
and matrix structure deposits [3]. Although hardfacing
consumables are promoted on the basis of deposit
hardness but hardness can give only rough estimate. Thus
it is assumed that wear due to abrasive particles
progresses by preferentially abrading the matrix due to
abrasion and gradually pick and dig up the matrix. This
action raises the primary carbides, the proportion of
matrix region decreases and wear resistance improves.
On comparison with the microstructure and wear
resistance between the electrode used by the industry and
selected combination of electrodes it was found that four
types of combination selected during our investigation
gives better results than the electrode used by the
industry.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The present data has proved to be more effective
alternative as compared to existing hardfacing procedure
being followed by sugarmill industry for hardfacing of
roller.
The wear resistance performance of following alternative
combinations of electrodes (shown in the descending
order, top being the best) was found to be better than
electrode used by sugarmill industry.
Sr. No.
Buffer Layer
Overlay Electrode
Lotus 73
Hardalloy 3
Ultra 7016 E
Zedalloy 550
Ultra 7016 E
Hardalloy 3
Lotus 73
Zedalloy 350
V.
[1]
REFERENCES
Kulkarni, D.P., Book on Sugar cane manufacture in

India, The Sugar Technologist Association of India.
[2] Wienese, A., Mill roll arcing in the south african
sugar industry, Proceedings of The South African
Sugar Technologists, (1993)
[3] Chatterjee, S., and Pal, T.K., Wear behaviour of
hardfacing deposit on cast iron, Wear, 255, pp.417425 (2003).
[4] Badisch, E., and Kirchgabner, M., Influence of
welding parameters on microstructure and wear
behaviour of a typically NiCrBSi hardfacing alloy
reinforced with tungsten carbide, Surface and
Coating Technology, 202, pp.6016-6022 (2008).
[5] Pradeep, G.R.C., Ramesh, A. and Durga Prasad, B.,
A review paper on hardfacing process and
materials, International Journal of Engineering
Science and Technology, 2(11), pp.6507-6510
(2010).
[6] Buchely, M.F., Guitierrez, L.M. Leon, and Toro, A..
The effect of microstructure on abrasive wear of
hardfacing alloys, Wear, 256, pp.52-61 (2005).
[7] Dasgupta, R., Thakur, R., Yadav, M.S., and Jha,
A.K., High stress abrasive wear behaviour of a
hardfacing alloy: effect of some experimental
factors, Wear, 236, pp.368-374 (1999).
[8] Gurumoorthy, K., Kamaraj, M., Prasad Rao, K.,
Sambasiva Rao, A., and Venugopal, S.,
Microstructural aspect of plasma transferred arc
surfaced Ni-based hardfacing alloy, Material
Science and Engineering, 456, pp.11-19 (2007).
[9] Coronodo, J.J, and Caicedo, H.F., The effect of
welding processes on abrasive wear resistance for
hardfacing deposits, Tribology International, 42,
pp.745-749 (2009).
[10] Buchnana, V.F., and McCartny, D.G., A comparison
of abrasive wear behaviour of iron-chromium based
hardfaced coating deposited by SMAW and electric
arc spraying, Wear, 264, pp. 542-549 (2008).
[11] Foroulis, Z.A., Guidelines for the selection of
hardfacing alloys for sliding wear resistant
applications, Wear, 96, pp.203 218 (1984).
Effect of Weld Groove Design on the Distortion of

304 L Butt Joint in Boiler Drums
A. Sharma1, J.S. Oberoi2, S.S. Sandhu3
1
M.Tech Student, Mechanical Engineering Department,

er.dishu@gmail.com
2
Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department,
jsoberoi@gmail.com
3
Associate Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department,
Quest Group of Institutions, Mohali, India.
ersandeepsandhu@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
In this study, the effects of geometric configurations of
butt joints i.e. double V groove, double U groove and UV
groove of AISI 304L of thickness 12mm by using Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) are investigated. The
magnitude of transverse shrinkage stress and distortion
generated during welding under the unrestrained
conditions of butt joints is the main objective of the study.
The effect of groove design on mechanical properties such
as yield strength, hardness, impact strength and
metallurgical properties are also studied. In the case of
VV groove design it was found that the transverse stress
and cumulative deflection have the lowest value.
It is was found that the UV groove design had the
maximum ultimate and yield tensile strength, VV groove
had the highest impact strength. Vickers hardness value
of all the groove design was measured. Micro structural
studies were carried out using conventional microscopic
tools which revealed a lot of useful information for
correlating the microstructure with mechanical properties
due to heating and cooling of the HAZs and the

contraction of the weld metal as it cools from a molten
state to ambient temperature is an unavoidable feature of
welded joints.
The stress derived from this shrinkage results in
distortion.[4] The joint design plays a vital role in the
integrity of the welded structure and also helps in
reducing distortion.[3] In this study, the effects of
geometry configurations double V groove, double U
groove and UV groove closed butt weld samples will be
welded by using GTAW process.
The effect of groove design on the distortion of the
welded joint is studied and mechanical properties such as
yield strength, hardness, impact strength and metallurgical
properties are also studied to understand the variation in
the mechanical properties and distortion in the welded
plates. Attempts are made to get the better grove design
which produce less distortion and improved mechanical
properties.
II.
Keywords: Groove Design, Distortion, AISI 304 L, Butt
Joint, GTAW.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Welding is reliable and efficient joining process in which

the coalescence of metals is achieved by fusion. Localized
heating during welding, followed by rapid cooling, can
generate shrinkage stresses in the weld and in the base
metal. Shrinkage stress produces both tensile and
compressive residual stress in different zones of the
welded structure [2].Formation of residual stress may
result in initiation of fatigue cracks, stress corrosion
cracking, or other types of fracture. Therefore, it is
important to understand the magnitude of shrinkage stress
and distortion generated during welding. Residual stress
EXPERIMENTAL DETAIL
II.1 Materials and welding parameters

The boiler shells are made up of stainless steel 304 L as it
has good corrosion resistance properties so AISI 304L is
selected as the base material for the study. The chemical
composition of the base material is shown in table
2.1[5].Welding of stainless steel plates was done on a
Tornado TIG 315 DC. The thickness of the boiler shell is
up to 30mm. According to ASME-IX [1], the welding
procedure is same to weld the plates of thickness ranging
from 12 mm to 30 mm, therefore 12mm thick plates were
chosen for the experiment and three groove design
Double U, Double V and UV had been taken. The line
diagram is shown in figure 2.1The picture of each is
shown in the figure2.2
Table 2.1: Chemical composition of base material

%C
0.30
%Mn
2.00
%P
0.045
%S
0.30
%Si
0.75
%Ni
8.00
- 12.00
%Cr
18.00 -20.00
%N
0.10
Table: 3.1 Results of distortion

Groove
Type
Welding
Process
UU
GTAW
VV
GTAW
UV
GTAW
Weld
pass no
2 on both
side
2 on both
side
2 on both
side
Welding
current
in Amp
Welding
voltage
in V
Travel
speed In
mm/min
Heat
Input
in KJ
Transvers
e
shrinkage
in mm
Transve
rse
stress in
Mpa
Comulat
ive
distortio
n In mm
150
25
102
2.20588
0.232
220.4
150
25
108
2.08333
0.231
219.45
150
25
105
2.14286
0.232
220.4
Fig. 2.1: Line diagram of different welding grooves
Fig. 2.3: Avoid Distortion
Fig. 2.2: Different welding groove

In Double V groove bevel angle of 30o, root face of 2mm
and root gap of 2 mm was taken, in double U angle of
20o, root face of 2mm and root gap of 2mm was taken,
UV groove is prepared by combination of V on one side
and U on the other side of the plate. Stainless Steel plates
were cut by power hacksaw and then machined by shaper
machine to obtain the required dimensions, and then Vgrooves of angle 60o were prepared on the milling
machine and U grooves were formed on the shaper
followed by grinding. During the GTAW process, in order
to ensure that plates do not distort, plates were held
during welding as shown in figure 2.3
At first the welding is done on the base plate using
different welding parameters and the different weldings
were obtained on the plate. Best welding was selected by
the visual inspections and die penetration test.
The welding parameters selected are shown in the table

2.2. After the welding plates were welded they are
allowed to cool down at the room temperature. The figure
of welded plate is shown in Figure 2.4
Fig. 2.4 Welded UV Groove
Effect of Weld Groove Design on the Distortion of 304 L Butt Joint in Boiler Drums 47
Table 2.2 Selected Welding parameters

Parameters
GTAW
Voltage
25 V
Current
150 A
Type of Polarity
DCSP
Travel Speed in mm/Min.
100-110
Filler Metal
304L
Dia. in mm of Filler Metal
1.2
0.2322
0.232
0.2318
0.2316
0.2314
0.2312
0.231
0.2308
0.2306
0.2304
UU
VV
UV
Fig. 3.2 Transverse shrinkage in mm

III.1 Distortion:
Distortion was calculated using height gauge and gauge
blocks on the surface plates. Effect of groove design on
transverse shrinkage and cumulative deflection is shown
in Table 3.1. Fig. 3.1 shows the variation in cumulative
distortion with weld welding groove design of the butt
welded plates. This was observed that double V groove
has least cumulative distortion.
The cumulative distortion is high in groove design then
the double U or UV groove design. Cumulative distortion
UV groove is also at the acceptable parameters but is
slightly higher than the Double V groove this is because
the area of the weld design is increased in UV groove. Fig
3.2 shows variation of transverse shrinkage of different
groove designs. Fig 3.3 shows variation of transverse
shrinkage stress of different groove designs
220.4
220.2
220
219.8
219.6
219.4
219.2
219
218.8
UU
VV
UV
Fig. 3.3 Transverse Stress in Mpa
III.2 MECHANICAL TESTING

III.2.1 TENSILE TEST
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
UU
VV
UV
Fig. 3.1: Cumulative distortion in mm
A transverse tensile test specimen was cut from a welded

butt joint (at right angle to the weld direction) and is used
to determine the transverse tensile strength. Tensile test
performed on universal tensile testing machine is carried
out by gripping both the ends of test specimen in the
tensile testing machine and increasingly applying the load
till it fractures. Table 3.2 show the compression of the
ultimate tensile strength, yield strength and percentage
elongation. In this test it is observed that the ultimate
tensile strength of all the grooves is more than the base
material and it is maximum for UV groove. All the
fracture has happened at the base metal and joint
efficiency of each groove is more than 100% Fig 3.4
shows the stress strain graph of double U groove, Fig 3.5
shows the stress strain graph of double V groove and Fig
3.6 shows the stress strain graph of UV groove.
Fig. 3.4 stress strain graph of double U groove
Fig. 3.5: stress strain graph of double V groove
Table. 3.2 Results of Tensile Test
Type
Base
metal
Specimen
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(Mpa)
Percent
elongation
Location of
fracture
Yield
strength
Joint
efficiency
Specimen 1
464
24.32
Base metal
160
Specimen 2
458
26.43
Base metal
162
Specimen 1
486.9
12.37
Base metal
188
124%
Specimen 2
482.4
13.21
Base metal
192
118%
Specimen 1
475.71
22.40
Base metal
174
112%
Specimen 2
478.6
20.6
Base metal
178
116%
Specimen 1
492.2
17.93
Base metal
185
119%
Specimen 2
488.6
16.64
Base metal
183
121%
UU
VV
UV
Table 3.3 Results of Vickers Hardness Test

UU Joint
SPOT NO
UV Joint
SPOT NO
WELD
453.3
VV Joint
SPOT NO
WELD
399.1
WELD
383.8
462.7
396.2
390.2
428.2
418.6
376.2
409.3
419.2
403.6
418.7
406.4
378.8
groove as the heat input in the double U groove is more

and the dendrite formed in the welded joint is of fine
grain size. Hardness value of Double V groove has the
least value.
500
400
UU Joint
300
UV Joint
200
VV Joint
100
UU Joint
Fig. 3.6 stress strain graph of UV groove
III.2.2 Charpy Impact Test
Impact Strength Specimen 1

Average Impact Strength
300
200
100
0
VV
Hardn Value
Fig. 3.8 Comparison between the Hardness
The tests were conducted on Impact testi

testing machine.
Three specimens are prepared from
om each groove design
and base metal, size 10 x 10 x 57 mm with 2mm V notch.
The specimens were cut at right angle to the weld
direction [6], so we have total 12 specimens on which
Charpy Impact Strength Tests were performed at room
temperature. Fig 3.7 shows the values for the impact
strength. Impact strength of all the groove designs were
found more than the base metal. Impact strength of
Double V groove has the highest value.
UU
UV Joint
1
UV
Base metal
III.3
.3 METALLURGICAL STUDIES
First the polishing was done on the emery papers having
grade 600, 800, 1000.Emery paper 600 grade removes the
large scratches from the surface of the material. Emery
paper 800 grade removes the fine scratches from the
surface of the material .Emery paper 1000 grade removes
the very fine scratches from the surface of the material.
Finally the polishing is done with velvet paper using
alumina powder and diamond gel. After the polishing
etching was done using acetone [8]. Microstructures of all
the samples and the base metal have been shown figure
3.9 - 3.15. In base metal microstructure of unaffected base
metal shows the elongated grains which is clearly
indicating that it is a rolled product because the grains are
elongated
ted in nature. In double V groove fusion boundary
is shown clearly & nucleation has taken place and growth
is the columnar dendrite. In UV groove Dendritic growth
is more as compared to double V groove as there is more
heat input in UV groove as compared to
t double V. In
Double U heat input increases Dendritic Arms Grows
which is shown in microstructure. In the weld metal zone
of Double U groove has dendritic growth network and
coarse grain structure interspacing between the adjacent
dendrites.
Fig 3.7 Values

alues for Impact strength of groove designs
III.2.3 Hardness
The hardness test gives an idea of the resistance to wear
of the weld metal. Hardness values can give information
about the metallurgical changes caused by welding [7].
Vickers Hardness test had been used to find the hardness
value of the tested samples. Load applied 1000 gm and
time 10 sec. The Vickers hardness value of the different
groove design is given in Table 3.3. Figure 3.8 shows the
comparison of hardness. Hardness is more in Double U
Fig.: 3.9 Microstructure

icrostructure of the Base Metal
Fig. 3.10: Microstructure of the Fusion Boundaries of

double V groove
Fig. 3.13: Microstructure of the weld metal of UV

groove
Fig. 3.11: Microstructure of the weld metal of double

V groove
Figure 3.14 Microstructure of the Fusion Boundaries
of double U groove
Fig. 3.12: Microstructure of the Fusion Boundaries of

UV groove
Fig. 3.15: Microstructure of the weld metal of double

U groove
IV. CONCLUSIONS
1)
Double V groove has least cumulative distortion.

Cumulative distortion UV groove is also at the
acceptable parameters.
[3]
2)
Heat generated in double U groove is maximum.
3)
During tensile test all the samples were failed from

the base metal which concludes that the joint
efficiency of all the groove is above 100% and it is
highest for the UU groove i.e. 124 %.
[4]
4)
The impact strength of Double V groove was

highest.
[5]
[6]
5)
UV groove was found to be better than the Double

V and Double U groove because it has maximum
ultimate tensle strength, comparable impact
strength and finer micrograin structure than the
Double V and less distortion, less tensile shrinkage
and less heat input than double U groove.
V.
[1]
[2]
[7]
REFERENCES
ASME section 1X
Devakumaran, K., Ravi Reddy, M., and Ghosh, P.K.,
Experimental Investigation On The Transverse
Shrinkage Stress And Distortion Generated In Butt
[8]
Welded Joints, International Symposium of

Research Students on Materials Science and
Engineering,(2004)
I.Sattari-Far, I., Farahani, M.R., Effect of groove
weld shape and pass number on residual stress in butt
weld pipes, International journal of pressure vessel
and piping, 86, pp.723-731(2009).
H. Long, H., Gery, D., Carlier, A., Maropoulos, P.G.,
Prediction of welding distortion in butt joint of thin
plates, Materials and Design, 30, pp.4126
4135(2009).
Atlas Steels Australia.
Woei-Shyan Lee, W.S., Cheng, J.I., Lin, C.F., and
Liu, C.Y., Dynamic Mechanical Properties and
Fracture Behavior of a 304L Stainless Steel GTAW
Joint
under
Shear
Conditions,
Materials
Transactions, 44(12), pp. 2637 2645 (2003).
Puzzolante,
Scibetta
R.M.,
Chaouad
and
Vandermeule, W., Tensile and low-cycle fatigue
properties of solution annealed type 316L stainless
steel plate and TIG-weld exposed to 5 dpa at lowtemperature (42C).
Mousavi S.A.A.A., Miresmaeili, R., Experimental
and numerical analysis of stress distribution in TIG
welding process for 304L stainless steel, Journal of
material processing technology, 208, pp.383394(2008).
Predicting Tensile Strength of Double Side

Friction Stir Welded 6082-T6 Aluminium Alloy
by a Mathematical Model
S.Gopi 1, P.Saravanan2, K.Manonmani3, V.Sritharan4
1
Dept. of Production Engineering, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore 641013, Tamilnadu, India.
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore 641013, Tamilnadu, India.
gooobi@gmail.com
2,3,4
ABSTRACT
This work presents the formulation of mathematical
model with process parameters and tool geometry to
predict the response, joint strength of double side Friction
Stir Welded aluminium alloy 6082-T6. The welding was
carried out on 8mm Aluminium alloy plates. The process
parameters considered were tool rotational speed or
spindle speed, welding speed and shoulder penetration;
and the tool geometry considered were pin profile and
shoulder profile. Five factors, five levels central
composite design was used to determine the number of
experiments. Tensile strength of the welded specimens
was tested and its correlation with process parameters
was assessed. Mathematical model had been developed to
predict the tensile strength using Response Surface
Methodology at 95% confidence level and it was
validated using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).
I.
INTRODUCTION
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is a solid state joining

process that was invented in 1991 at The Welding
Institute in the United Kingdom [1]. In this a nonconsumable rotational tool with pin and shoulder shaped
to provide required weld properties is inserted in between
abutted edges of plates to be joined and traverse along the
joint line. Joint is created by stirring the material of the
two pieces by the tool pin. Plastic deformation caused by
the pin and friction between the base material and tool
shoulder creates heat that softens the basic material, thus
easies the stirring process. There is no melting of the base
material involved. The process is especially well suited to
butt and lap joints in aluminium. Production of
components of aluminum alloys is not very complex;
joining of these materials can sometimes cause serious
problems [2]. Lack of structural transformations in solid
state; excellent thermal and electrical conductivity cause
problems in fusion and resistance welding of aluminum
alloys [3, 4]. That led to the welding of aluminium by
friction stir welding. Since aluminium is difficult to weld
by arc processes, but is very simple to weld by Friction
Stir Welding. The advantages of Friction Stir Welding are
such as no filler material required, no fumes, no porosity,

no shielding gas required, very low distortions and free
from porosity or blowholes compared to joints produced
by using conventional welding processes. The process
FSW has been widely used in the aerospace, shipbuilding,
automobile industries and in many applications of
commercial purpose.
Most Friction Stir Welding processes are carried out on
only one side of the joint. The tool is made to pass on
only one side of the joint interface. It creates defects such
as root defect, which is defined as an area at the bottom of
the joint that is not welded. The bottom of each joint was
not stirred and left unwelded. This defect weakens region
of the welded zone responsible for all tensile and bending
failure [5]. Also material with greater thickness requires
lengthy tool pin and greater force causes deflection of the
tool leads to the damage of the tool. To avoid these
defects and to prevent the tool damage double side
friction stir welding was carried out. In double side
friction stir welding first pass is carried out along the
interface for approximately half of the material thickness.
Then the specimen is turned back and clamped for the
second pass of the tool. Important process parameters for
friction stir welding are spindle speed, welding speed,
shoulder penetration, pin profile and shoulder profile.
Many research works were reported in studying the effect
of process parameters in Friction Stir Welding of
Aluminium alloys. In this study of Friction Stir welding
process three important process parameters spindle speed,
welding speed and shoulder penetration; and two tool
geometries shoulder profile and pin profile are
considered.
II.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Milling Machine and Parameters

The experiments are carried out on conventional HMT
FN2V vertical milling machine [6] with capacity of 7.5
Hp and 1800 rpm. Process parameters such as spindle
speed, welding speed, shoulder penetration; probe profile
and shoulder profile are considered. After several trials,
Predicting Tensile Strength of Double Side Friction Stir Welded 6082-T6 Aluminium Alloy by a Mathematical Model 53
the range of tool rotational speed and welding speed are

taken from 700 rpm to 1500 rpm and 0.8 mm/sec to 4
mm/sec respectively. Shoulder penetration is gradually
increased in five steps of 0.04 mm from 0 mm to 0.16
mm.
Table 1: Process Parameter with their range and
values at five levels
Process
Parameters
Range
Levels
(2)
(1)
(0)
(1)
(2)
Spindle
Speed (SS)
700 to
1500
70
0
90
0
11
00
13
00
15
00
Welding
Speed
0.8 to
4.0
0.8
1.6
2.4
3.2
4.0
0.0 to
0.16 mm
0.0
0
0.0
4
0.0
8
0.1
2
0.1
6
Probe
Profile
Probe
profile
TR
SQ
PN
H
X
HP
Shoulder
Profile
-10 to
10
10
-5
10
Shoulder
Penetration
tool has two parts namely shoulder and pin. In this study
shoulder diameter of 12mm and pin diameter of 4mm is
used [8]. Table 1 shows the tool geometry in detail. The
pin profiles are cut by spark erosion with WEDM
machine and others including inward and outward taper of
the shoulders are obtained in CNC turning center. The
tools are oil hardened to bring 60-62 HRC and tempered
to bring back its original strength.
Fig. 1 - Various Tool Profiles

Trial runs are conducted to find the upper and lower limit
of process parameters, by varying one of the parameters
and keeping the rest of them at constant values. Feasible
limits of the parameters are chosen in such a way that the
joint should be free from visible defects. The upper limit
of a factor is coded as +2 and lower limit as -2. The
intermediate coded values are calculated from the
following relationship.
Xi = 2 [2X- (Xmax +Xmin)] / (Xmax - Xmin)
(1)
Where Xi is the required coded value of a variable X; and

X is any value of the variable from Xmin to Xmax. Xmin is
the lower limit of the variable and Xmax is the upper limit
of the variable. The selected process parameters with their
limits, units and notations are given in Table 1.
FSW Tool Design and Manufacturing

Non-consumable tools made of high carbon high
chromium steel are used to fabricate the joint because of
its high strength, high hot hardness, easy to process, easy
availability and low cost [7]. This study uses five pin
profiles namely triangle (TR), square (SQ), pentagon
(PN), hexagon (HX), and heptagon (HP). Friction stir tool
of above five pin profiles are shown in the Fig. 1. Each
pin profile has five different shoulder angles of -50, -100,
00, +50 and +100. These 5 x 5 combinations of friction stir
tools were used for conducting experiments. Friction stir
Friction Stir Welding of 6082 T6 Aluminium Alloy

The 6xxx-group is high strength Al-Mg-Si alloys that
contain manganese to increase ductility and toughness.
Aluminium alloy 6082 has the highest strength among the
6000 series alloys with excellent corrosion resistance
property. Alloy 6082 is known as a structural alloy. In
plate form, 6082 alloy is most commonly used for
machining. The addition of large amount of manganese
controls the grain structure which in turn results in a
stronger alloy. Chemical composition and mechanical
properties of AA6082 are provided in table 2 and table 3
respectively.
Response Surface Method

Engineers often wish to determine the values of the
process input parameters at which the responses reach
their optimum. Response Surface Method (RSM) is one
of the optimization techniques [9, 10] currently in
widespread use in describing the performance of the
welding process and finding the optimum of the responses
of interest. When all independent variables are
measurable, controllable and continuous in the
experiments, with negligible error, the response surface
can be expressed by
y = f (x1, x2,, xk)
(2)
Actual
Batch
Referen
ce
Typical
Actual
Batch
Fe
Cu
Mn
Mg
0.7
1.3
0.5
0
0.1
0
0.4
1.0
0.6
1.2
1.0
0.20
<0.0
2
0.48
0.65
Cr
Ni
0.25
<0.01
Zn
0.2
0
<0.0
1
0.01
Ti
Pb
Ultima
te
Streng
th
271.64
-1
-1
100.398
92.7
-1
-1
-1
-1
101.051
93.3
-1
-1
-1
-1
100.942
93.2
-1
-1
104.644
96.6
-1
-1
-1
-1
98.002
90.5
-1
-1
101.704
93.9
-1
-1
101.595
93.8
-1
-1
102.249
94.4
-1
-1
-1
-1
98.002
90.5
1
01
-1
-1
101.704
93.9
-1
-1
101.595
93.8
-1
-1
102.249
94.4
-1
-1
98.655
91.1
-1
-1
99.309
91.7
-1
-1
97.022
89.6
102.902
95.0
11
21
31
41
51
61
98.655
91.1
0.10
98.111
90.6
-2
99.309
91.7
98.437
90.9
0.02
92
02
-2
98.437
90.9
12
22
98.873
91.3
-2
98.329
90.8
32
42
98.546
91.0
-2
102.466
94.6
52
62
103.120
95.2
101.378
93.6
72
82
101.378
93.6
101.378
93.6
93
03
101.378
93.6
101.378
93.6
13
2
101.378
93.6
Hardn
ess
Densi
ty
(%)
(HRB)
(g/cm
3)
70
-1
Elonga
tion
10.5
-1
-2
<0.01
Melt
ing
Point
(C)
(MPa)
108.2
82
71
81
Table 3: Mechanical Properties of the 6082 Alloy

Yield
Streng
th
(MPa)
Joint Efficiency (%)
Typical
Si
Tensile Strength (Mpa)
Referen
ce
Shoulder Profile (SP)
Table 2: Chemical Composition of the 6082 Alloy

(wt%)
Pin Profile (PP)
The test was designed based on a five factors at five

levels; central composite rotatable design with full
replication consisting of 32 experimental runs allowed the
prediction of mathematical model and the influence of
parameters on the mechanical properties. The Friction stir
welding input variables are welding speed, spindle speed
shoulder penetration, pin profile and shoulder profile.
Statistical software Minitab was used to code the
variables and to establish the design matrix to obtain the
required equation.
Shoulder Penetration (PE)
(3)
Welding Speed (WS)
y = bo +biXi +biiXii2+bijXiXj+
Spindle Speed (SS)
Table 4: Design table and Experimental value of

Tensile Strength
Exp. No.
Where, k is the number of independent variables. To

optimize the response y, it is necessary to find an
appropriate approximation for the true functional
relationship between the independent variables and the
response surface. Usually a second-order polynomial Eq.
(2) is used in RSM.
2.70
555

The Welded specimens are fabricated as per the American
Society for testing of materials (ASTM E8) standards to
evaluate the tensile strength of the joints [11]. Tensile
strength of the FSW joints is evaluated by conducting test
in TUE-CN-1000 Universal Testing Machine. Aluminium
6082-T6 Alloy is cut to dimension 200 mm x 76 mm x 8
mm. Square butt joint configuration is prepared to
fabricate FSW joints with the non-consumable HCHCr
tool. The fixture shown in Fig. 2 is specially designed to
arrest the material in longitudinal and traverse direction.
The central composite design is used to design

experiment, material welded according to specification of
welding parameters. The friction stir welding is
performed in conventional milling machine. And the
corresponding tensile strength has been measured by
conducting tensile test. During tensile testing, the
specimen is broken at heat affected zone as shown in Fig.
3. This shows that the bond formed between the two
plates is good. The results of the tensile tests are tabulated
and are used as input for creating the mathematical model.
The test results are shown in the table 4. The results from
the tensile tests are given as input to the Minitab software
for getting the mathematical model to predict the tensile
strength.
TSRSM = 101.048 + 0.77 (SS) + 0.53 (WS) - 0.34 (PE) 0.36 (PP) + 0.65 (SP) - 0.42 (SS)2 0.30 (WS)2 - 0.35
(PE)2 - 0.40 (PP)2 + 0.68 (SP)2 + 0.14 (SS x WS) + 0.14
(SS x PE) + 0.14 (SS x PP) 0.14 (SS x SP) 0.14 (WS x
PE) 0.14 (WS x PP) + 0.14 (WS x SP) 0.14 (PE x PP)
+ 0.14 (PE x SP) +0.14 (PP x SP) --------------- (4)
Fig. 2 Welding Fixture
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) has been performed to

identify statistically significant mathematical model.
Table 5 shows the results of ANOVA indicate that the
developed mathematical model is highly significant to
predict TS of FSW joints. Effects of interaction between
process parameters are not significant. The determination
coefficient R2 indicates goodness of fit for the model. In
this case, R2 = 97.96% indicates that only < 2% of total
variations are not explained by the model.
Total
Fig. 3 - (a) Specimen before Tensile Test and (b)
Specimen after Tensile Test
10
11
7.437
3
6.271
1
0.296
4
3.478
9
6.378
0
38.26
8
6 38.26
8
31 109.7
74
R2 = 97.96%
P value
37.18
6
31.35
5
2.964
Mean sum of squares
Sum of squares
5
F ratio
Linear
terms
Square
terms
Interactio
n terms
Residual
error
Lack of fit
Degrees of freedom
Source
Table 5: ANOVA for Tensile Strength
2.14
0.136
1.80
0.193
0.09
1.000
Contour Plot of TS vs PE, SS
Surface Plot of TS vs PE, SS
2
98
99
100
101
102
103
PE
TS
<
>
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
104
104
102
TS
100
2
-1
98
0
PE
-2
0
-2
-1
0
SS
-2
2
SS
-2
2
Contour Plot of TS vs PE, WS
Surface Plot of TS vs PE, WS
2
98
99
100
101
102
103
PE
TS
<
>
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
104
104
102
TS
100
2
-1
98
0
PE
-2
0
2
WS
-2
-2
-1
0
WS
-2
Contour Plot of TS vs PE, PP
Surface Plot of TS vs PE, PP
2
98
99
100
101
102
103
PE
TS
<
>
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
104
104
102
TS
100
2
-1
98
0
PE
-2
0
-2
-1
0
PP
-2
2
PP
-2
2
Contour Plot of TS vs PE, SP
Surface Plot of TS vs PE, SP
2
98
99
100
101
102
103
PE
TS
<
>
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
104
104
102
TS
100
2
-1
98
0
PE
-2
0
SP
-2
-2
-1
0
SP
-2
2
Fig. 4 : Contour and Surface plots for various parameteral influences on tensile strength
Effects of Spindle Speed (SS)

Tensile strength increases with the increase in the spindle
speed. Tensile strength reaches the maximum value at the
spindle speed of 1300 rpm. It has smaller variations
between 1100 rpm to 1500 rpm. On further increase of the
spindle speed from 1300 rpm, the tensile strength
decreases due to re-precipitation leading to coarse grain
structures in the weld zone [8]. At low spindle speeds,
frictional heat generation is less which results in the poor
plastic flow of materials. Therefore lower tensile strength
is observed. At higher spindle speeds, frictional heat
generation is high which enhances the plastic flow of
materials. Therefore spindle speed at a range of 11001500 rpm gives better results. Fig. 4 shows the effect of
the spindle speed and shoulder penetration on the tensile
strength of the joint. Tensile strength in the region 0.04
mm to 0.08 mm penetration with 1100 rpm to 1500 rpm
spindle speeds, gives better results due to the combination
of higher penetration with lower speeds and lower
penetrations with higher speeds. In higher speeds,
frictional heat is high so lower penetrations are sufficient
to provide better results of tensile strength. In lower
speeds, frictional heat is low therefore higher penetrations
offer the secondary heat thereby increasing the plastic
flow of materials.
Effects of Welding Speed (WS)

The increase in the welding speed leads to the increase in
the tensile strength up to the maximum value. Further
increase in the welding speed decreases the tensile
strength. At the highest welding speed of 4.0 mm/sec and
lowest welding speed of 0.8 mm/sec, the lower tensile
strengths are observed. This is due to the increased
frictional heat and insufficient frictional heat respectively
[12]. The optimum welding speed is 3.2 mm/sec which
has the maximum tensile strength. Fig. 4 shows the effect
of the welding speed and shoulder penetration on the
tensile strength of the joint. Tensile strength in the region
0.04 mm to 0.12 mm penetration with welding speed
around 3.2 mm/sec gives better results. In higher welding
speeds, frictional heat is low; so higher penetrations will
increase the plastic flow of materials thereby providing
better results of tensile strength. In lower welding speeds,
frictional heat is high therefore lower penetrations are
sufficient for better results of tensile strength.
Effects of Shoulder Penetration (PE)

The increase in shoulder penetration leads to the increase
in the tensile strength up to the maximum value. Further
increase in the shoulder penetration decreases the tensile
strength. At the highest shoulder penetration and lowest
shoulder penetration, lower tensile strengths are observed.
This is due to the increase in plunge depth of tool and
lowest frictional heat respectively [13]. Higher
penetration leads to increase the plunge depth/ plunge
force. This offers excess heat generation and more

plasticized zone around the probe and region under the
shoulder. Lower penetration lowers the area of contact of
frictional surfaces. This reduces the plunge force and
frictional heat generation. The shoulder penetration at
0.08 mm exhibits maximum tensile strength.
Effects of Tool Pin Profile (PP)

Pentagonal pin profile provides the higher tensile strength
comparing to the other profiles. The tool pin profile with
flat faces produces pulsating effect and better plastic flow
of materials [14]. Therefore the tool profiles like square,
pentagon also produce the joint with increasing order of
tensile strength. Tool profiles like hexagon, heptagon
have the higher number of face edges which is almost the
same as the profile of cylinder. Hence there is no
pulsating effect which leads to the poor tensile properties.
Fig. 4 shows the effect of the various pin profiles and
shoulder penetration on the tensile strength of the joint.
Tensile strength in the region 0.04 mm to 0.12 mm
penetration with square and pentagon gives better results.
The cross sectional area of probe in stirring zone for the
profiles of square, pentagon and hexagon are in the
increasing order. Square profile has the lesser cross
sectional area so lower penetration is sufficient to
overcome the frictional resistance for better stirring. In
hexagonal profile, cross sectional area of frictional
surface is high therefore higher penetration is required.
Pentagon profile has the cross sectional area in between
square and hexagonal profiles hence intermediate
penetrations are sufficient for better results of tensile
strength.
Effects of Tool Shoulder Profile (SP)

The inward and the outward shoulder profiles provide
better results of tensile strength comparing with the flat
profile [15]. The outer shoulder profile provides
increasing order of tensile strength while comparing to the
inward profile. This is due to the close forging of the
material at the nugget area. The optimum shoulder profile
for maximum tensile strength is 5 outward taper. Fig. 4
shows the effect of the shoulder profile and shoulder
penetration on the tensile strength of the joint. Tensile
strength in the region 0.04 mm to 0.12 mm penetration
with 5 shoulder profile gives better results. Shoulder
profile of 5 outward will have the better results of tensile
strength for the wide range of penetration from 0.04 mm
to 0.12 mm. Maximum tensile strength is concentrated at
5 shoulder profile with 0.08 mm shoulder penetration.
Single Side FSW Vs Double Side FSW

In double side friction stir weld the FSW tool size is
reduced to half a size of the tool that has been employed
in single side friction stir welding. The pin/probe diameter
of the tool is taken nearly equal in thickness of the
material to be welded in single side weld. This has been

selected by considering the tool stiffness and tool life.
VI. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
a) Single side friction stir weld
[4]
[5]
b) Double side friction stir weld

Fig. 5: Macro structure of single and double side
friction stir welded specimen
Where as in double side weld two passes has been
performed to fabricate the joint. So the size of the
pin/probe is reduced to half the thickness. This reduces
the weld bead to half the size; consequently the thermomechanically affected zone and heat affected zone are
reduced massively. Finally mechanically sound joint
closure to keyhole weld is obtained. Fig.5 shows the
macrostructure of single side and double side friction stir
welds. From the tensile tests, it has been observed that the
joint efficiency is increased to 5-10%.
IV. CONCLUSION
Response surface method can be effectively used to
develop the mathematical model to predict the tensile
strength of the friction stir welded 6082-T6 aluminium
alloy joints at 95 confidence level. The process
parameter 1300 rpm spindle speed, 3.2 mm/sec weld
speed and 0.04 mm shoulder penetration exhibited higher
tensile strength on the fabricated joints. Same way the
Square pin profile and 50 shoulder profile of tool
geometry exhibited higher tensile strength. The weld zone
in double side friction stir weld is reduced to a narrow
keyhole; which increases the joint strength.
V.
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the Departments of Production

Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Civil
Engineering of Government College of Technology,
Coimbatore, India for extending the facilities to carry out
the investigation.
[15]
Thomas. W.M, Nicholas. E.D, Needham. J.C,

Murch.M.G, Templesmith.P and Dawes.C.J, G.B.
Patent, Application No.9125978.8 (December 1991)
Jha.A.K, Murty.S.V.S.N, Diwakar.V and Sreekumar.K,
Metallurgical analysis of cracking in weldment of
Propellant tank, Engineering Failure Analysis, 10(3):
265-273
Huang.G and Kouc.S, Partially melted zone in
aluminium welds liquation mechanism and directional
solidification, Welding Research Supplement, May
2000, 113-120
Adamowski.J and Szkodo.M., Friction Stir Welds
(FSW) of aluminium alloy AW6082-T6, Journal of
Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing
Engineering, vol 20, Issue 1-2 (2007)
Armagan Arici and Tamer Sinmaz., Effects of double
pass of the tool on friction stir welding of polyethylene,
Journal of Material Science, 40, pp. 3313-3316, (2005)
Milton.T, and Mynors.D.J, utilisation of engineering
workshop equipment for friction stir welding, Journals
of Materials processing Technology, 177 (2006) 336339
Vijayan.S.J and Murugan.N, Influence of tool pin on
the metallurgical and mechanical properties of friction
stir welded Al-10 Wt% TiB2 metal matrix composite,
Materials and Design 31(2010), 3585-3589
Elangovan.K and Balasubramanian.V, Predicting
tensile strength of friction stir welded AA6061
aluminium alloy joints by a mathematical moder,
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Montgomery.D.C., 2001. Design and Analysis of
Experiments, 5th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New
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Box GEP, Hunter.W.H and Hunter.J.S. Statistics for
experiment, John Wiley Publication, New York, (1978)
ASTM-E08-04,Standard testing of metallic materials,
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Won Bae Lee, Mechanical properties related to
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1700-5
Ouyang.J.H and Kovacevic.R, Material flow during
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51-63
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International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture
49 (2009) 814-823
Implementation of Green Manufacturing: A review

Ashok Kr. Dargar1, Nitin Upadhye2, Hemant Chouhan3
1,2,3
ASET, Amity University Uttar Pradesh

dargarashok@rediffmail.com, 2nupadhye@gmail.com, 3hemant.chouhan78@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
In the context of green manufacturing, it is essential that
the organizations has to identify critical success factors
(CSFs), which should be given special attention for
ensuring
successful
implementation
of
green
manufacturing practices, which will identify the status of
organization on the road to the green organization. In the
present paper based on the extensive review of literature
some CSFs are identified.
I. INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing companies are under increasingly diverse
and mounting pressures due to more sophisticated
markets, changing customer choice and global
competition. The market for products is becoming
increasingly international. Thus, in order to compete in
global markets, manufacturers necessarily need to acquire
excellent performance. To know the excellent
performance, measurement is important. Therefore,
Performance measurement is a prerequisite to any
improvement efforts in enterprises in order to sustain the
improved performance and if possible, improve it further.
An enterprises measurement system strongly affects the
behavior of people, both inside and outside. If
organizations are to survive and prosper in information
age competition, they must use measurement systems
derived from their strategies and capabilities [1].
According to the statistics, approximately 70%
environment pollution is from manufacturing industry that
exhausts toward the earth resource annually about 5.5
billion tons of harmless and 700 million tons of harmful
waste resulting into around 178 thousand peoples to die in
pollution and 3.5%-8% loss of GDP. Just to give an
estimate of the extent of the harm caused by our daily
activities alone here are a few examples. An air
conditioner (2.5 tonne) emits 3 gms of carbon dioxide
(CO2), a microwave oven generates 1.3 grams of CO2
and a geyser emits 3.3 gms of carbon, an hour. A car that
gives a mileage of 10 Km/L of petrol leaves 2.32 gms of
CO2 per liter. But individuals and corporate are either
ignorant about this, or if aware, do little about it. A recent
survey conducted by KPMG India among 70 business
leader across verticals like power, automobile, metal, oil
& gas, paper, fertilizers, cement, white goods, media,
Business Process Outsourcing, Information Technology,
retail, mining, logistics, Banking and Financial Services
Industry , construction and breweries found that 83% of

them believe they have fair to good understanding on the
issue of climate change and 48% regard it as an important
issue, which needs to be near the top of the countrys
business agenda. But the irony of the fact is only 21%
have measured there carbon foot print which is one of the
first steps towards going green. The experts' general
viewpoint of how to resolve the pollution problem of the
environment that was produced in manufacturing industry
is that the manufacturing must start from the source to
implement Green Manufacturing. It is general reaction to
the global "environmental crisis", i.e., rapid growth of
economic activity and human population, depletion of
natural resources, damage to ecosystems and loss of
biodiversity. The appearance is that our growing use of
the earth has exceeded the sustainable limits of the earth
importantly because of continually increasing investment
in diminishing resources, associated with goods and
services. Green manufacturing is considered a means of
doing that while maintaining quality of life by using
clever design to substitute less harmful products and
processes for conventional ones. Melnyk and Smith [2]
defined green manufacturing as a system that integrates
product and process design issues with issues of
manufacturing planning and control in such a manner as
to identify, quantify, assess, and manage the flow of
environmental waste with the goal of reducing and
ultimately minimizing environmental impact while also
trying to maximize resource efficiency. As enterprises
introduce green manufacturing system they need new
method of performance measurement to control and
improve
their
plants.
Traditional
performance
measurement systems are invalid for the measurement of
green manufacturing practices, as they do not supply the
business with the required information to compete in their
industry. As traditional performance management systems
are based on management accounting, they are primarily
concerned with cost [3]. But in todays manufacturing
environment, cost-based measures are no longer the only
basis for decision-making. Enterprises now require
performance measurement systems that are based on
strategic, tactical and operational parameters.
II.
BACKGROUND
The performance measurement literature has had two

main phases. The first phase began in the late 1880s and
went through the 1980s. In this phase the emphasis was
on financial measures such as profit, return on investment,

return on sales and productivity. The second phase started
in the late 1980s as a result of changes in the world
market. Companies began to lose market share to
overseas competitors who were able to provide higher
quality products with lower costs and more variety. To
regain a competitive edge companies not only shifted
their strategic priorities from low cost production to
quality, flexibility, short lead-time and dependable
delivery, but also implemented new technologies and
philosophies of production management such as TQM,
TPM, JIT, CIM, FMS etc. The implementation of these
changes revealed that traditional performance measures
have many limitations and the development of new
performance measurement systems is required for success
[3, 4]. The characteristics of emerging performance
measures have been discussed recently.
The characteristics that have been mentioned includes
measures related to manufacturing strategy; primarily
non-financial measures i.e. operational so that these
measures can provide managers, supervisors and
operators with information required for daily decision
making. As a result, time based performance
measurement systems have been developed to help
companies control and improve their operations. But these
time based performance measurement systems solely
concentrate on time and neglect other operational
performance measures such as cost, quality, delivery etc.
Without controlling and improving these operational
measures companies will not be able to compress time [3,
5]. To overcome the limitations researchers developed the
Performance Measurement Questionnaire and Balanced
Scorecard respectively. These performance measurement
systems also not clearly defined critical success factors
and associated performance measures that are related to
company strategy and objectives. In the current business
environment, they may not be appropriate for firm
adopted green manufacturing practices.
III. IDENTIFICATION OF CRITICAL

SUCCESS FACTORS
An extensive review of literature [8-15] has been done for
the purpose of identification of the critical success factors.
Total twelve critical factors have been identified. Table1
shows these CSFs. Some of these are briefly discussed as
follows.
Table 1: Critical Success Factors for Green
Manufacturing
S. No.
Critical Success Factors
1.
Top management commitment
2.
Knowledge Management
3.
Employee Training
4.
Green Product and Process Design
5.
Employee Empowerment
6.
Environmental Health and Safety
7.
Supplier and Material Management
8.
Production Planning and Process Control
9.
Quality
10.
Cost
11.
Customer Environment Performance

Requirement
12.
Customer Responsiveness and Company

Growth
III.1 Top Management Commitment

Commitment is about generating human energy and
activating the human mind. Without it, the
implementation of any new initiative or idea would be
seriously compromised [6]. Commitment from top
management is like a framework for environmental
improvement.
Top
management
decides
the
environmental policies to establish, the level of training
and communication required. Without a solid framework,
it is almost impossible to motivate employees to take
effective steps for environmental improvement.
It is necessary that management provides a commitment
to environmental improvement efforts by adopting a
formal EMS. An EMS provides a format that allows
management the ability to better control the companys
environmental impacts [7]. An EMS includes
documentation of commitment and policy, planning,
implementation, measurement and evaluation, and review
and improvement [8]. Management commitment must
include a culture that encourages innovation and risk
taking. Values, norms, attitudes, and behaviors that
promote environmental improvement efforts have to be
supported.
III.2 Employee Training

The term training refers to the acquisition of knowledge,
skills, and competencies as a result of the teaching of
vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to
specific useful competencies. Environmental management
requires a well-trained workforce not only to keep pace
with a changing regulatory landscape but also to satisfy
our goal to have the best trained environmental engineers
in the world. It forms the core of apprenticeships and
provides the backbone of content at technical institutions.
Basic training is required to implement sustainability in
the organization and to maintain, upgrade and update
skills throughout working life. People within many
Implementation of Green Manufacturing: A review 61
professions and occupations may refer to this sort of

training as professional development [9, 10].
III.3 Green Product and Process Design

In the design for environment process, designers may
look at the source, makeup, and toxicity of raw materials;
the energy and resources required manufacturing the
product; and how the product can be recycled or reused at
the end of its life. Balanced with other product
considerations such as quality, price, producability, and
functionality, eco-designed products are environmentally
and economically viable alternatives to traditional
products. Smart green design creates products that use
less energy and natural resources; products that can be
recycled easily or reused; and products that promote
energy and materials efficiency in consumers lives.
Consumer environmental awareness has increased, and
some consumers have translated their resulting
environmental concern into actively purchasing green
products [11]. Companies have attempted to respond to
the growing environmental concern of consumers with the
introduction of a variety of green products [12].
Promotion of these green products attempts to influence
green consumer behavior and stimulate green product
purchase.
III.4
Customer
Requirement
Environmental
Performance
Social environmental responsibility is a vital management

function and appears to be important for the success of
any business. The last decade or so has witnessed a
radical change in consumer preferences towards green
products with the emergence of green consumers
provoking market mechanisms for environmentally
friendly organizations and new product innovations [12].
The net result is that technically, the green market
segment exists and firms are responsive to this green
consumer demand. With businesses questioning the role
served by environmentalism and in light of the rapidly
accelerating number of green consumers, marketers have
continued to grapple with the question of understanding
consumers comprehension on green labels. While
consumers environmental concerns have moved into
mainstream marketing, it is useful from a marketing
perspective to investigate how consumers make informed
choices about green products. Arguably, the initial
perception that one forms about a product is, in part, by
exposure to information initiated by the marketer
including media advertising and/or the information
provided on product labels. There are existing studies that
indicate a demand for, and an awareness of, information
regarding environmental product attributes [13].
III.5 Customer Responsiveness and Company

Growth
Corporate reputation on environmental issues may affect

consumers perceptions to the extent that product sales
and relative competitive advantage could be affected.
Customer responsiveness depends on quality of service
received to them, reliability of delivery time, and
flexibility of urgent delivery. Increase in market share due
to green image of company, reputation of the organization
in the market, increase in number of customer due to
green image of the company; can help companies to turn
toward sustainability. Recent surveys reflect direct link
between sustainability and companys growth, going
green is no longer a burden to the company but a boon
[4].
IV. DIRECTIONS FOR GREEN

MANUFACTURING IMPLEMENTATION
To develop an approach to green performance
measurement implementation, a model must be outlined
that can separate the different levels at which performance
measurement can be undertaken and also illustrate the
areas that should be covered by green performance
measurements. The successful implementation of green
manufacturing requires to rank and priorities various
factors an organization faces everyday. A systemic
relationship can be developed by using Interpretive
Structural Modeling (ISM) among these factors. ISM
provides a means by which order can be imposed on the
complexity of these variables. The insight from the model
will help decision-makers to design their own framework
to implement Green Manufacturing in their company. In
general, performance measurement can occur at the
traditional three levels:
The strategic level, performance indicators that can

tell an organization about the soundness of their
strategic decisions. While these strategic decisions
and directions they advocate impact the extent to
which
the
organization
operates
in
an
environmentally friendly way, there generally tends
to be fewer performance indicators at this level.
The tactical level, which can be said to encompass

issues like which suppliers are used, which overall
manufacturing technologies are utilized, etc. As the
performance indicators at the strategic level, these are
important in setting boundaries for the actual
operations of the organization.
The operational level, measurement of the

performance of the operations and business processes
of the organization. This is by far the level in need of
the highest number of performance indicators and
which in practice determines the environmental
impact of the company.
V.
CONCLUSION
This paper presented critical success factors and

corresponding performance measures of green
manufacturing which appears to capture most of the
important aspects of GM as recommended by todays
researchers
and
practitioners.
Direction
for
implementations of these factors is also presented in this
paper. It will help the learning organizations to achieve
green status, which is the need of the hour in the present
globalize competitive environment.
VI. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Maskell, B. Performance measurement for world

class manufacturing: a model for American
companies, Productivity Press, Cambridge, USA,
1991.
Melnyk, S. A. and Smith R.T., Green Manufacturing,
SME Publication, 1996.
Ghalayini, A.M. and Noble, J.S., The changing basis
of performance measurement, International Journal
of Operations and Production Management, 16(8),
1996, 63-80.
Digalwar, A.K., and Metri, B.A., Performance
measurement
framework
for
world
class
manufacturing, International Journal of Applied
Management and Technology, 3(2), 2005, 83-101.
Kennerley, M. and Neely, A., Measuring
performance in a changing business environment,
International Journal of Operations and Production
Management, 23(2), 2003, 213-229.
Argyris, C, Empowerment: the emperors new
clothes, Harvard Business Review, 76(3), 1998, 98105.
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
Digalwar, A.K. and Sangwan, K.S. Development and

Validation of Performance Measures for World Class
Manufacturing Practices in India, Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Systems, 6(1), 2007, 21-38.
Lin, B., Jones, C. and Hsieh, C., Environmental
practices and assessment: a process perspective,
Industrial Management & Data Systems, 101(2),
2001, 71-80.
Gurau, C and Ranchhod, A. International green
marketing- A comparative study of British and
Romanian firms, International Marketing Review,
22(5), 2005, 547-561.
Boyle, C., Considerations on educating engineers in
sustainability", International Journal of Sustainability
in Higher Education, 5(2), 2004, 147-155.
Smith, A., How green is my valley, Marketing and
Research Today, 18(2), 1990, 76- 82.
Kangun, N., Carlson, L. and Grove, S.J. (1991),
Environmental advertising claims: a preliminary
investigation, Journal of Public Policy & Marketing,
10 (2), 1991, 47- 58.
Haddock, J. (2005), Consumer influence on internetbased corporate communication of environmental
activities: the UK food sector British Food Journal,
107(10), 2005, 792-805.
Hervani, A. A. and Helms, M. M., Performance
measurement for green supply chain management,
Benchmarking -An International Journal, 12(4),
2005, 330-353.
Isaksson, R., Total quality management for
sustainable development- process based system
models, Business Process Management Journal,
12(5), 2005, 632-645.
Current Research Trends in Wire Electric

Discharge Machining: An Overview
Rajeev Kumar1, Anmol Bhatia2
1
Research Scholor Sant Longwal Institute of Engineering & Technology,

Longwal-148106, Distt.Sangrur (PB.) India; lovelyrajeev@gmail.com
2
P.G Scholar Department of Mechanical Engineering AITM, 70 KM Stone
Delhi Mathura Road Distt. Palwal, Haryana-121102
ABSTRACT
The developments in the material science lead to the
development of advanced engineering materials such as
super alloys, composites and ceramics. These materials
are hard and difficult to machine, and often poses
impediments in smooth machining with traditional
machining processes such as turning, milling, drilling and
grinding. Nontraditional Machining techniques are being
successfully utilized to machine such advanced materials.
Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM ), a
nontraditional machining process, cuts the stock by
means of gap being burned through material by heat
produced by electrical spark between the work piece and
a wire which are immersed in a dielectric fluid, which
acts as a coolant and flushes away the debris.
The purpose of the present review, therefore, is to put
forward a summary of the published work for the current
state of knowledge in the underlying mechanism for
machining advanced materials and to suggest guidelines
for future work.
Keywords: Advanced Material, WEDM, Optimization,
Mathematical modeling.
materials such as metals, metallic alloys, graphite, or even

some ceramic materials, of any hardness [1-3]. Many
Wire-EDM machines have adopted the pulse generating
circuit using low power for ignition and high power for
machining. However, it is not suitable for finishing
process since the energy generated by the high-voltage
sub-circuit is too high to obtain a desired fine surface, no
matter how short the pulse-on time is assigned [4].
As newer and more advance as well as exotic materials
are developed, and demand of more complex shapes ,
conventional machining operations will continue to reach
their limitations and the increased use of wire EDM in
manufacturing will continue to grow at accelerated rate
[5].
WEDM is considered as variants of the conventional
EDM process, which uses an electrode to initialize the
sparking process. However, WEDM utilizes a
continuously travelling wire electrode made of thin
copper, brass or tungsten of diameter 0.05-0.30 mm,
which is capable of achieving very small corner radii. The
wire is kept in tension using a mechanical tension
providing device reducing the tendency of producing
inaccurate parts.
I. INTRODUCTION
Wire Electrical discharge machining (WEDM) is a
nontraditional, thermoelectric process which erodes
material from the work piece by a series of discrete sparks
between a work and tool electrode immersed in a liquid
dielectric medium. Melting and vaporization due to
electrical discharge removes minute amounts of the work
material, which are then ejected and flushed away by the
dielectric. The schematic representation of the WEDM
cutting process is shown in Figure 1.Wire electrical
discharge machining (WEDM) is a specialized thermal
machining process capable of producing accurately
machined parts with different hardness or complex
shapes, which have sharp edges that are very difficult to
be machined by conventional machining processes. At
present, WEDM is a widely used technique in industry for
high-precision machining of all types of conductive
Fig.(1):Schematic representation of WEDM cutting

process
I.1 Overview of WEDM

In 1974, D.H. Dulebohn applied the optical-line follower
system to automatically control the shape of the
components to be machined by the WEDM process. its
popularity rapidly increased in 1975 , as the process and
its capabilities were better used by the industry. It was
only towards the end of the 1970s, when computer
numerical control (CNC) system was initiated into
WEDM, which brought about a major evolution of the
machining process (Ho et. al., 2004).
Its broad capabilities have allowed it to encompass the
production, aerospace and automotive industries and
virtually all areas of conductive material machining.
So, in order to prevent the ionization of water, an ion

exchange resin is used in the dielectric distribution system
to maintain the conductivity of water. In order to produce
taper profile, the wire electrode has to be tilted. This is
achieved by displacing the upper wire guide (along U-V
axis) with respect to the lower wire guide. The path
information of X-Y table and U-V table is given to the
controller in terms of linear and circular elements via NC
program.
II.2 WEDM Equipment

Fig. (2) Shows an WEDM machine.
This process is widely applied not only in tool and diemaking industry, but also in the fields of medicine,
electronics, and the automotive industry [6].
II.
WIRE ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE

MACHINING (WEDM)
Basic fundamental of WEDM process & process

parameters and other material removal methods have been
explained in this section.
II.1 Process
Fig. (2) WEDM machine
The WEDM machine tool comprises of a main worktable

(X-Y) on which the work piece is clamped; an auxiliary
table (U-V) and wire drive mechanism.
II.3 WEDM process parameters:
The main table moves along X and Y-axis and it is driven

by the D.C servo motors. The travelling wire is
continuously fed from wire feed spool and collected on
take up spool which moves though the work piece and is
supported under tension between a pair of wire guides
located at the opposite sides of the work piece.
Pulse on Time
The lower wire guide is stationary whereas the upper wire

guide, supported by the U-V table, can be displaced
transversely along U and V-axis with respect to lower
wire guide. The upper wire guide can also be positioned
vertically along Z-axis by moving the quill.
A pulse generator unit is generating a series of electrical
pulses which is applied between the work piece and the
travelling wire electrode, to cause the electro erosion of
the work piece material. As the process proceeds, the X-Y
controller displaces the worktable carrying the work piece
transversely along a predetermined path programmed in
the controller. While the machining operation is
continuous, the machining zone is continuously flushed
with water passing through the nozzle on both sides of
work piece. Since water is used as a dielectric medium, it
is very important that water does not ionize.
Effects of process parameters such as electrical & nonelectrical parameters on the various performance
measures are described in this section.
The pulse on time is referred as Ton and it represents the

duration of time in micro seconds, s, for which the
current is flowing in each cycle (Figure 3.9). During this
time the voltage, VP, is applied across the electrodes.
The single pulse discharge energy increases with
increasing Ton period, resulting in higher cutting rate.
With higher values of Ton, however, surface roughness
tends to be higher. The higher value of discharge energy
may also cause wire breakage.
Pulse off Time

The pulse off time is referred as Toff and it represents the
duration of time in micro seconds, s, between the two
simultaneous sparks (Figure 3.9). The voltage is absent
during this part of the cycle. With a lower value of Toff,
there are more number of discharges in a given time,
resulting in increase in the sparking efficiency. As a
result, the cutting rate also increases.
Current Research Trends in Wire Electric Discharge Machining: An Overview 65
Using very low values of Toff period, however, may

cause wire breakage which in turn reduces the cutting
efficiency. As and when the discharge conditions become
unstable, one can increase the Toff period. This will allow
lower pulse duty factor and will reduce the average gap
current.
Flushing Pressure
Flushing Pressure is for selection of flushing input
pressure of the dielectric.
High input pressure of water dielectric is necessary for
cutting with higher values of pulse power and also while
cutting the work piece of more thickness. Low input
pressure is used for thin work piece and in trim cuts.
Servo feed
Servo feed setting decides the servo speed; the servo
speed, at the set value of SF, can vary in proportion with
the gap voltage (normal feed mode) or can be held
constant while machining (with constant feed mode).
Recast layer in WEDM

Fig. (3):Series of Electrical Pulses at the Inter
Electrode Gap
Peak Current
The peak current is represented by IP and it is the
maximum value of the current passing through the
electrodes for the given pulse.
Microscopic study of the machined components reveals

three kinds of layers e.g. recast layer, heat affected zone
(HAZ) and converted layer.
If the molten from the work piece is not flushed out
quickly, it will resolidify & harden due to cooling effect
of dielectric & gets adhere to the machined surface. This
thin layer is called recast layer.It is extremely hard &
brittle.
Spark Gap Set Voltage

The spark gap set voltage is a reference voltage for the
actual gap between the work piece and the wire used for
cutting.
Wire Feed
Wire feed is the rate at which the wire-electrode travels
along the wire guide path and is fed continuously for
sparking. It is always desirable to set the wire feed to
maximum. This will result in less wire breakage, better
machining stability and slightly more cutting speed.
Wire Tension
Wire tension determines how much the wire is to be
stretched between upper and lower wire guides. This is a
gram-equivalent load with which the continuously fed
wire is kept under tension so that it remains straight
between the wire guides. More the thickness of job more
is the tension required. Improper setting of tension may
result in the job inaccuracies as well as wire breakage.
Pulse Peak Voltage

Pulse peak voltage setting is for selection of open gap
voltage. Increase in the VP value will increase the pulse
discharge energy which in turn can improve the cutting
rate.
III. APPLICATION OF EDM

EDM can be employed to machine any material
independent of their hardness, toughness; brittleness etc.
provided it has some minimum electrical conductivity.
Hardened steel dies are manufactured by this process
other than aerospace, automobile, tools, & machine tool
components. It is also used for making through holes &
miniature holes. It can be used for making dies for
molding, stamping, coining, forming, etc. it can also be
employed for tiny holes (Say,-50 micron) and micro size
slots.
A very common application of EDM process is removal
of broken drills, taps, reamers, pins etc.
IV. RESEARCHES IN THE AREAS OF WEDM

Scott et. al. [7] developed mathematical models to predict
material removal rate and surface finish while machining
D-2 tool steel at different machining conditions. It was
found that there is no single combination of levels of the
different factors that can be optimal under all
circumstances. Tarng et. al. [8] formulated a neural
network model and simulated annealing algorithm in
order to predict and optimize the surface roughness and
cutting velocity of the WEDM process in machining of
SUS-304 stainless steel materials.
Spedding and Wang [9] attempted to model the cutting

speed and surface roughness of EDM process through the
response-surface methodology and artificial neural
networks (ANNs). Murphy and Lin [10] developed a
combined structural-thermal model using energy balance
approach to describe the vibration and stability
characteristics of an EDM wire. High-temperature effects
were also included resulting from the energy discharges.
The thermal field was used to determine the induced
thermal stresses in the wire.
An equilibrium and eigen value analysis (for small
vibrations about the computed equilibrium) showed that
the transport speed influenced the stability of the straight
equilibrium configuration. The wire had an extended
residency time in the kerf and the wire. Lin et. al. [11]
proposed a control strategy based on fuzzy logic to
improve the machining accuracy. Multi-variables fuzzy
logic controller was designed to determine the reduced
percentage of sparking force. The objective of the total
control was to improve the machining accuracy at corner
parts, but still keep the cutting feed rate at fair values. As
a result of experiments, machining errors of corner parts,
especially in rough-cutting, could be reduced to less than
50% of those in normal machining, while the machining
process time increased not more than 10% of the normal
value. Puri and Bhattacharyya [12] performed analysis of
wire-tool vibration in order to achieve a high precision
and accuracy in WEDM with the system equation based
on the force acting on the wire in a multiple discharge
process. It was clarified from the solution that the wire
vibration during machining got mainly manipulated by
the first order mode (n = 1). Also, a high tension without
wire rupture proved always beneficial to reduce the
amplitude of wire-tool vibration. Lin and Lin [13]
reported the use of an orthogonal array, grey relational
generating, grey relational coefficient, grey-fuzzy
reasoning grade and analysis of variance to study the
performance characteristics of the WEDM machining
process. The machining parameters (pulse on time, duty
factor and discharge current) with considerations of
multiple responses (electrode wear ratio, material removal
rate and surface roughness) were effective. The greyfuzzy logic approach helped to optimize the electrical
discharge machining process with multiple process
responses.
The process responses such as the electrode wear ratio,
material removal rate and surface roughness in the
electrical discharge machining process could be greatly
improved. Tosun et. al. [14] investigated the effect and
optimization of machining parameters on the kerf (cutting
width) and material removal rate (MRR) in wire electrical
discharge machining (WEDM) operations.
Based on ANOVA method, the highly effective
parameters on both the kerf and the MRR were found as
open circuit voltage and pulse duration, whereas wire

speed and dielectric flushing pressure were less effective
factors.
The results showed that open circuit voltage was about
three times more important than the pulse duration for
controlling the kerf, whereas open circuit voltage for
controlling the MRR was about six times more important
than pulse duration. Sarkar et. al. [15] developed a feed
forward back-propagation neural network to model
WEDM machining process. A feed forward neural
network of type 6-15-3 was adopted to model the process.
Twenty-seven such optimal parametric combinations
were identified out of 15625 combinations. The three
most important measures of the process performance
parameters cutting speed, surface roughness and wire
offset were considered. The model was capable of
predicting the response parameters as a function of six
different control parameters, i.e. pulse on time, pulse off
time, peak current, wire tension, dielectric flow rate and
servo reference voltage. It was observed that the surface
quality decreased as the cutting speed increased and it
varies almost linearly up to a surface roughness value of
2.44 m and a cutting speed of 2.65 mm/min. Beyond this
value of cutting speed, surface roughness deteriorated
drastically. Ramakrishnan and Karunamoorthy [16]
considered three response characteristics, e.g. MRR, SR
and wire wear ratio (WWR) for a WEDM process and
determined the optimal process settings by optimization
of multiple response signal-to-noise (MRSN) ratio, which
is the logarithmic transformation of the sum of the
weighted normalized quality loss of individual response
variable. Manna and Bhattacharyya [17] established
mathematical models relating to the machining
performance criteria like MRR, SR, spark gap and gap
current using the Gauss elimination method for effective
machining of Al/SiC-MMC. Mahapatra and Patnaik [18]
developed relationships between various process
parameters and responses like MRR, SR and kerf by
means of non-linear regression analysis and then
employed genetic algorithm to optimize the WEDM
process with multiple objectives. Ramakrishnan and
Karunamoorthy [19] developed artificial neural network
(ANN) models and multi response optimization technique
to predict and select the best cutting parameters of wire
electro-discharge machining (WEDM) process. Inconel
718 was selected as work material to conduct experiments
and brass wire of 0.25mm diameter was used as tool
electrode. Experiments were planned as per Taguchis L9 orthogonal array.
Experiments were performed under different cutting
conditions of pulse on time, delay time, wire feed speed
and ignition current. It was found that the pulse on time,
delay time and ignition current had more influence than
wire feed speed on the performance characteristics
Current Research Trends in Wire Electric Discharge Machining: An Overview 67
considered in the study. An MRR was improved with

increase in pulse on time and ignition current. But the
surface quality of the work specimen was affected
adversely with increased value of pulse on time and
ignition current
V.
SUMMARY
In this paper, an overview of WEDM process, WEDM

equipments, process parameters and applications are
being discussed. This review is done based on previous &
recent research on WEDM. This paper is essential for the
development in the research to WEDM process.
The review of the research trends in optimization of
WEDM of super alloys, ANN model & multi response
optimization to predict & select cutting parameters of
WEDM, and analysis of wire-tool vibration in order to
achieve a high precision and accuracy in WEDM with the
system equation based on the force acting on the wire in a
multiple discharge process, use of an orthogonal array,
grey relational generating, grey relational coefficient,
grey-fuzzy reasoning grade and analysis of variance to
study the performance characteristics of the WEDM
machining process and a knowledgebased system (KBS)
has designed to select an optimal setting of process
parameters and diagnose the machining conditions for
WEDM.
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
VI. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
K.H. Ho, S.T. Newman, S. Rahimifard, R.D. Allen,

State of the art in wire electrical discharge machining
(WEDM), International Journal of Machine Tools
and Manufacture 44(2004), 1247-1259.
A. Gatto, L. Luliano, Cutting mechanisms and
surface features of WEDM metal matrix composite,
Journal of Material Processing Technology 65 (1997)
209-214.
I. Puertas, C.J. Luis, A study on the machining
parameters optimization of electrical discharge
machining, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, 143-144 (2003) 521-526.
Y.S. Liao, J.T. Huang, Y.H. Chen, A study to achieve
a fine surface finish in Wire-EDM, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology 149 (2004) 165171.
T.A. Spedding, Z.Q. Wang, Study on modeling of
wire EDM process, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology 69 (1997) 8-28.
Yan Mu-Tian, Lai Yi-Peng (2007) Surface quality
improvement of wire-EDM using a fine-finish power
supply. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 47:16861694.
Scott, D., Boyina, S., Rajurkar, K.P. (1991),
Analysis
and
optimization
of
Parameter
Combination in Wire Electrical Discharge
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
Machining, International Journal of Production

Research, 29, 2189-2207.
Tarng, Y. S., Ma, S. C., Chung, L. K. (1995),
Determination Of optimal cutting parameters in wire
electrical discharge machining, International Journal
of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 35, 1693-170.
Spedding, T. A., Wang, Z.Q. (1997), Study on
modeling of wire EDM process, Journal of
Materials Processing Technology, 69, 8- 28.
Murphy, K.D. and Lin, Z. (2000), The influence of
spatially no uniform temperature fields on the
vibration and stability characteristics of EDM wires,
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 42,
1369-1390.
Lin, C.T., Chung, I.F., Huang, S.Y. (2001),
Improvement of machining accuracy by fuzzy logic
at corner parts for wire-EDM, Fuzzy Sets and
Systems, 122, 499511.
Puri, A.B. and Bhattacharyya, B. (2003), Modeling
and analysis of the wire-tool vibration in wire-cut
EDM, Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
141, 295301.
Lin, J.L., Lin, C.L. (2005), The use of grey-fuzzy
logic for the optimization of the manufacturing
process,
Journal
of
Materials
Processing
Technology, 160, 914.
Tosun, N., Cogun, C. and Tosun, G. (2004), A study
on kerf and material removal rate in wire electrical
discharge machining based on Taguchi method,
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 152,
316-322.
Sarkar, S., Mitra, S., Bhattacharyya, B. (2005),
Parametric analysis and optimization of wire
electrical discharge machining of -titanium
aluminide alloy, Journal of Materials Processing
Ramakrishnan, R. and Karunamoorthy, L. (2006),
Multi response optimization of wire EDM
operations using robust design of experiments,
International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Manna, A. and Bhattacharyya, B. (2006), Taguchi
and Gauss elimination method: A dual response
approach for parametric optimization of CNC wire
cut EDM of PRAlSiCMMC, International Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 28, 6775.
Mahapatra, S. S. and Patnaik, A. (2007),
Optimization of wire electrical discharge machining
(WEDM) process parameters using Taguchi
method, International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, 34, 911-925
Ramakrishnan, R. and arunamoorthy, L. (2008),
Modeling and multi-response optimization of
Inconel 718 on machining of CNC WEDM process,
Journal of materials processing technology, 2 0 7,
343349.
Trends in the Field of Rapid Prototyping

Manu Srivastava1, Dr. Sachin Maheshwari2, Dr. T.K. Kundra3
1
TRF, MPAE Division, Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology, New Delhi; manyash@gmail.com
2
Professor and Head, MPAE Division, Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology, New Delhi.
3
Mechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi.
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews the need for development of optimal
strategies in the field of part deposition orientation and
layout planning of the rapid prototyping processes. Both
the part deposition orientation and layout orientation go
a long way in optimizing any RP process by optimizing
the quality of the components produced and the cost of the
RP process respectively. The paper attempts to recognize
the various factors affecting the accuracy and cost
effectiveness of the RP components at various design
stages and attempts to figure out the possible corrective
measures. It also outlines the need for the requirement of
apt and better data exchange and representation
techniques for further advancement in the area of rapid
prototyping. The FDM technique is compared with other
prominent RP processes and the possible corrective
strategies to overcome the shortcoming of FDM
(especially anisotropy) are reviewed. Finally the paper
outlines the advancements in the field of tailoring of
material properties using FDM technique.
I. INTRODUCTION
Rapid Prototyping (RP) technology is one of the fastest
emerging manufacturing technologies. There are
numerous interesting arenas of RP technologies
optimization including slicing algorithms, process

parameters, modeling and simulation, part orientation,
packing problem, optimal selection of RP technology,
tailor made component fabrication etc.
II.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Layered manufacturing (LM) or rapid prototyping or

Solid Freeform Fabrication (SFF) is a fabrication method
whereby artifacts are constructed by depositing material
layer by layer under computer control. LM complements
conventional manufacturing methods of material removal
and forming. A host of LM technologies are available
commercially. A few of them are: Stereolithography
(SLA) by 3D Systems, Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) by
DTM Corp., Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) by
Stratasys Corp., Solid Ground Curing (SGC) by Cubital,
and Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) by Helisys.
In addition, several LM processes are under development
at various universities.
The professional literature in RP contains different ways
of classifying RP processes. However, one representation
based on German standard of production processes
classifies RP processes according to state of aggregation
of their original material and is given in the figure below:
Fig. 1: Classification of RP processes [7]
Trends in the Field of Rapid Prototyping 69
The process starts with 3D modeling of the product and

then STL file is exported by tessellating the geometric 3D
model. In tessellation various surfaces of a CAD model
are piecewise approximated by a series of triangles and
co-ordinate of vertices of triangles and their surface
normals are listed. The number and size of triangles are
decided by facet deviation or chordal error. These STL
files are checked for defects like flip triangles, missing
facets, overlapping facets, dangling edges or faces etc.
and are repaired if found faulty. Defect free STL files are
used as an input to various slicing softwares. At this stage
choice of part deposition orientation is the most important
factor as part building time, surface quality, amount of
support structures, cost etc. are influenced. Once part
deposition orientation is decided and slice thickness is
selected, tessellated model is sliced and the generated data
in standard data formats like SLC (stereolithography
contour) or CLI (common layer interface) is stored.
A defect less STL file is used as an input to RP software

like QuickSlice or RPTools for further processing. At this
stage, designer has to take an important decision about the
part deposition orientation. The part deposition
orientation is important because part accuracy, surface
quality, building time, amount of support structures and
hence cost of the part is highly influenced (Pandey et al.,
2004b).
This information is used to move to step 2, i.e., generation

of physical model. The software
that operates RP systems generates laser-scanning paths
(in processes like Stereolithography, Selective Laser
Sintering etc.) or material deposition paths (in processes
like Fused Deposition Modeling). This step is different
for different processes and depends on the basic
deposition principle used in RP machine. Information
computed here is used to deposit the part layer-by-layer
on RP system platform. The generalized data flow in RP
is given in figure 3. The final step in the process chain is
the post-processing task. At this stage, generally some
manual operations are necessary therefore skilled operator
is required. In cleaning, excess elements adhered with the
part or support structures are removed. Sometimes the
surface of the model is finished by sanding, polishing or
painting for better surface finish or aesthetic appearance.
Prototype is then tested or verified and suggested
engineering changes are once again incorporated during
the solid modeling stage.[7]
Fig. 2: RP Process Chain [7]
Fig.3: Generalized Illustration Of Data Flow In RP.[7]

(After Gebhart, 2003)
III. FACTORS EFFECTING THE ACCURACY

AND COST EFFECTIVENESS OF THE
RAPID PROTOTYPING PROCESS:
Accuracy of a model is influenced by the errors caused
during tessellation and slicing at data preparation stage.
Decision of the designer about part deposition orientation
also affects accuracy of the model. During part deposition
generally two types of errors are observed and are namely
curing errors and control errors. Poor surface quality of
RP parts is a major limitation and is primarily due to
staircase effect. [7]
Selection of part deposition orientation is one of the
crucial decisions taken before slicing the part and
initiating the process of deposition for a particular RP
process. This decision is important because it has
potential to reduce part building time, amount of supports
required, part quality in terms of surface finish or
accuracy and cost as well. Selection of part deposition
orientation is process specific where in designer and RP
machine operators should consider number of different
process specific constraints. This may be a difficult and
time consuming task as designer has to trade-off among
various conflicting objectives or process outcomes. For
example better part surface quality can be obtained but it
will lead to increase in the building time. Pandey et al.
(2004b) handled conflicting situation of the
abovementioned two objectives and proposed use of
multi-objective genetic algorithm for finding out optimum

part deposition orientations (pareto optimal solutions) for
FDM process. In their work, amount of support structures
were also minimized implicitly. Thrimurthullu et al.
(2004) converted multi-objective problem into single
objective problem and then solved by using real coded
genetic algorithm. Singhal et al. (2005) made an attempt
to find out optimum part deposition orientation for SL
process by using optimization tool box of MATLAB 6.5
for minimizing overall part surface roughness. Except
these, researchers suggested to find out a suitable part
deposition orientation for objectives like maximum
accuracy, minimum building time, support structure or
cost. A through review of the various part deposition
orientation studies has been done by Pandey et al.
(2004a). Pham and Demov (2001) discussed guidelines
for selection of part deposition orientation for SL and SLS
processes.[7]
For improving the cost effectiveness and productivity of
any RP process, it is important to efficiently utilize the
build volume of the RP machine to produce multiple good
parts is a single set up. Therefore the need exists to
generate efficient 3D layout of multiple similar/dissimilar
parts in RP machine build volume. The problem with
layout planning is that it has some unique features, viz.
the parts can be of any shape, complexity and can be built
inside cavities of larger parts. Literature suggests that
criterion to be considered (singly or in weighted fashion)
for evaluating and ranking goodness of a layout plan
(composite mega part) include build height, staircase
effect, volume of support structures, part area in contact
with support structures,etc. It is highly required to
develop a comprehensive methodology for optimal layout
planning of parts for RP considering various constraints
like build time, part quality, support structures,etc..[11]
IV. COMPARISON OF FDM WITH

SLA AND 3 DP
FDM has numerous strengths that make it an attractive
candidate for rapid manufacturing. The greatest advantage
that FDM has over SLA and 3DP is that a wide variety of
materials can be used to create parts. The first
commercialized material for FDM was a grade of
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) plastic, but many
other engineering structural materials are now available,
including polycarbonate, polyphenylsulfone, polyester,
and a wax material for investment casting [9]. In addition,
several studies have been conducted where FDM or
modified FDM technology was used to create parts using
ceramic [4], metal [5], and biomedical materials [6]. In
contrast, SLA and 3DP have greater restrictions on build
materials (SLA, for example, builds parts by curing a
light-sensitive polymer with an ultraviolet lightso build
materials must possess this light sensitivity). Since FDM
can use high performance engineering materials, FDM
parts are much stronger, more durable, and have greater

stability (i.e. parts do not warp or curl with time or
changes in environment) than parts produced using SLA
or 3DP. In addition, FDM is capable of better dimensional
accuracy than most other RP technologies and is cheaper
to install and maintain than SLA or 3DP [8, 9].
The strengths of FDMespecially part strength,
durability, and material flexibilitymake a strong case
for its use in rapid manufacturing compared to other RP
systems. However, there are significant issues that must
be resolved before FDM can make the transition to rapid
manufacturing. Current FDM systems produce parts with
a rougher surface finish than other RP technologies, and
FDM parts often suffer from both surface defects and
internal defects [8]. Another key issue is the part
anisotropy that results from deposition process. Stiffness
and strength are much greater along the axial direction of
each deposited road than across roads or between layers,
where loads are carried by the bond strength between
material roads rather than the material itself. A diagram
illustrating this anisotropy is shown in Figure 5. The
effects of this anisotropy can be mitigated by adjusting
the part build orientation and tool-path so that the roads
are oriented in the direction of part loading, but any
incidental or unforeseen transverse loads could result in
the failure of the part. This anisotropy is a major concern
if FDM is used to make functional parts, and any
improvements to the interlayer or inter-road bond strength
will greatly improve part performance.
V.
ADVANCES IN THE FIELD OF RAPID

PROTOTYPING
With recent advances in Solid Freeform Fabrication

(SFF), the ability to fabricate parts with Local
Composition Control (LCC).is becoming a reality,
opening the door to creating a whole new class of parts
with graded compositions. Despite the advanced
capabilities of these SFF machines, access to this new
technology is limited by how information is represented,
exchanged, and processed. Designers need new CAD
tools to capture their ideas as models with graded
compositions and manufacturers need algorithms capable
of converting these models into machine instructions for
their fabrication.
Two main opportunities to facilitate the long term growth
in the field of RP that have been realized in recent years
are:
The capability to process material at virtually any

point in space-facilitating greatly increased capability
for shape and materials complexity.
Well-defined
decomposition
methods
into
manufacturable elements-facilitating design-for-
Trends in the Field of Rapid Prototyping 71
manufacture, process planning and separation of

design and manufacturing activities.[1]
To fully realize these opportunities, several constraints
must be overcome, including:
Representation schemes that include geometry and

materials and CAD systems that better support part
and assembly design for LM.
Generalized CAD model decomposition methods that

suit an increasing variety of LM processes.
Process planning and manufacturability assessment

methods that operate on the CAD representations and
decomposed models.
Design methods that enable exploration of new

design concepts that leverage LMs unique shape and
material complexity capabilities. [1]
To address these shortcomings, there is a stringent need to

develop new methods for the design, representation,
exchange, and processing of models with graded
composition.
Obtaining optimal strategies to the aforementioned areas

would go a long way in leaping forward to rapid
manufacturing and bringing rapid prototyping and rapid
manufacturing at par with the conventional manufacturing
process techniques.
VII. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
VI. CONCLUSION
From the above literature review, it is clear that there are
a numerous areas such as process selection, material
selection, layout planning, volume modeling, simulation
which require advanced and newer approaches despite the
current technological advancements in the field of RP. It
is also clear that are several research issues which need to
be addressed in RP especially in layout planning and part
deposition planning. A probable solution to the
aforementioned discussion would be to find optimal
strategies for obtaining good part deposition of the parts
in the machine volume by improving part accuracy,
improving surface quality, reducing the build time,
reducing amount of support structures and cost subject to
RP process constraints, , good packing by minimizing
build time and requirement of support structure volume,
maximize machine volume utilization and produce high
quality plate subject to RP process constraints;
formulating some basic build rules to aid designers in
order to improve the strength of the parts made on the RP
machine by controlling parameters like: Bead width, Air
gap, Model build temperature, Raster orientation, color,
etc. subject to RP process constraint; developing better
frameworks for designing and manufacturing functionally
gradient products; develop a framework to reduce
anisotropy in the products manufactured by fused
deposition modelling technique at the design stage itself
subject to RP process constraints, developing a
framework to reduce anisotropy in the products
manufactured by fused deposition modelling technique at
the design stage itself.
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
Debasish Dutta, Fritz B Prinz, David Rosen Lee

Weiss, Layered Manufacturing: Current Status and
Future Trends.
John Michael Brock, Michael Montero, Dan Odell,
Shad Roundy, Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM):
Material Properties Characterization.
Wohlers, T.T.,Rapid Prototyping, Tooling &
Manufacturing State of the Industry, Annual
Worldwide Progress Report, Wohlers Report, p. 13.,
2003.
Bellini, A., Shor, L. and Gueri, S., New
developments in fused deposition modeling of
ceramics, Rapid Prototyping Journal, Vol. 11 No.4,
(2005)
Masood, S.H., and Song, W.Q., Development of new
metal/polymer materials for rapid tooling using
Fused deposition modelling, Materials and Design,
No. 25, 2004.
Yan, Y., Rendong, W., et. al., Biomaterial forming
research using RP technology, Rapid Prototyping
Journal, Vol. 9 No. 3, 2003.
Pulak M. Pandey, Rapid prototyping technologies,
applications and Part deposition planning
Grimm, T., Fused Deposition Modelling: A
Technology
Evaluation,
Time
Compression
Technologies, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 1-6, 2003.
Mcmains, S., Layered Manufacturing Technologies,
Communications of the ACM, Vol. 48.
[10] Seth collins partain ,Fused deposition modeling
with localized pre-deposition heating using forced
air.
AS Gogate , SS PandeyIntelligent layout plan for
Rapid prototyping
T.R. Jacksona, H. Liua, N.M. Patrikalakisa,U, E.M.
Sachsb, M.J. Cimac ,Modeling and designing
functionally graded material components for
fabrication with local composition control
Engineered Materials Handbook, Vol. 2,Engineering
Plastic, ASM International,1988.
Test Method for Tensile Properties of Polymer
Matrix Composite Materials, ASTM D3039-76,
1976.
Test Method for Compressive Properties of Rigid
Plastics, ASTM D695-96, 1996.
Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics,
ASTM D638-97, 1997.
[17] Box, G., Hunter, W. and Hunter, J., Statistics for

Experimenters: An Introduction to Design, Data
Analysis, and Model Building, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1978
[18] FDM (System Documentation, Stratasys, Inc) ,FDM ,
1998.
[19] Montero, M., Odell, D., Roundy, S., Ahn, S.H. and
Wright, P.K.,Material Characterization of Fused
Deposition Modeling (FDM) Process, Rapid
Prototyping and Manufacturing Conference, Society
of
Manufacturing
Engineers,
May
15-17,
Cincinnati,2001.
[20] Wohlers,
T.T.,Rapid
Prototyping,
Tooling
&Manufacturing State of the Industry, Wohlers
Report 2003;Annual Worldwide Progress Report,
Wohlers Associates, Inc., Fort Collins, CO,2003
[21] Mcmains, S., Layered Manufacturing Technologies,

Communications of the ACM, Vol. 48 No. 6., 2005
[22] Bellini, A., and Gueri, S., Mechanical
characterization of parts fabricated using fused
deposition modeling, Rapid Prototyping Journal,
Vol. 9 No. 4. (2003)
[23] Chua, C.K., Leong, K.F., Rapid Prototyping:
Principles and Applications in Manufacturing, World
Scientific,2000
[24] Hanser Gebhardt, A., Rapid Prototyping, Gardner
Publications, Inc., Cincinnati. 2003.
[25] Pandey, P.M., Reddy N.V., Dhande, S.G, Slicing
Procedures in Layered Manufacturing: A Review,
Rapid Prototyping Journal 9(5), 2003a.

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International Conference

Department of Mechanical & Automation Engineering,

First Impression: 2012

Department of Mechanical & Automation Engineering,

International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence

i International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)

MANFEX 2012 Organization

Dr. Ashok K. Chauhan

Maj. Gen. K. Jai Singh

Prof. (Dr.) Balvinder Shukla

Prof. Vivek Kumar

Prof. Nitin Kumar Upadhye

Mr. Hemant Chouhan

ii International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)

iii International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)

Departmental Organizing Committee

Mr. R.K. Tyagi

Dr. Abhinav Gupta

Mr. Gaurav Gupta

Mr. Rahul Sindhwani

Ms. Nazma Ehtesham

Mr. Manmit Saikia

Mr. Harendra Singh

Mr. Swet Chandan

Mr. Vikas Salyan

Mr. Ashok Kr. Dargar

Mr. Anoop Kr. Shukla

Mr. R.R. Vishwambaram

Ms. Punjlata Singh

Mr. Ajay Sharma

Mr. Kuldeep Kumar

Mr. Mahendra Verma

Ms. Meeta Sharma

Mr. Narendra Singh

Mr. Shubham Sharma

Col. D.K. Sharma

Mr. Ram Pravesh

Mr. R.P.S. Sisodia

Ms. Medhavi Sinha

Mr. Kuldeep Narwat

Ms. Anu Kamal

Mr. Naveen Kumar

Student Organizing Committee

Student Head Coordinator

Student Head Coordinator

Tarun Kumar Chenani

Technical Committee Coordinator

Registration Committee Coordinator

Registration Committee Coordinator

Hospitality Committee Coordinator

Hospitality Committee Coordinator

Accommodation Committee Coordinator

Event Management Committee Coordinator

iv International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)

Message from Director General (ASET)

Dr. Balvinder Shukla

v International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)

To interact with key specialists in diversified fields.

To share innovative ideas amongst the participants.

Design and Development

vi International Conference on Manufacturing Excellence (MANFEX 2012)

Finite Element Modeling of an Improved Extrusion Process for

Finite Element Modelling and Burst Pressure Analysis of