Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CECIRLY G. PUIG
Graduate Student, University of the Philippines Los Baos, Los Baos, Laguna;
A term paper as requirement of the course PPTH 141 Plant Disease Epidemiology.
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
susceptible Gros Michel variety with Cavendish cultivars, which continue to show
resistance to race 1 of Foc in these areas (Stover, 1990).
Cavendish cultivars remain the banana varieties of international trade. However,
these cultivars are not resistant to all strains of Foc. The subtropical race 4 strain of Foc
causes losses of Cavendish cultivars in the subtropical regions of the Canary Islands,
South Africa, Australia and Taiwan (Stover, 1990). More importantly, in the tropical
commercial and subsistence production regions of the Philippines, Indonesia, Taiwan,
Malaysia, and in the southern provinces of China, a new strain of Foc designated tropical
race 4 has caused widespread devastation (INIBAP, 2006). Alarmingly, the disease is
continuing to spread in these areas. Several incursions of this pathogen have also been
recorded in Australia (Northern Territory); however these outbreaks have all been
contained and have not reached the commercial growing regions situated on the eastcoast of the country (Walduck, 2002).
Tropical race 4 of Foc affects banana cultivars that comprise 80% of the worlds
banana production, including the important Cavendish and plantain subgroups (Ploetz,
2005). The tropical race 4 strain of Foc could cause significant damage to the major
world export production areas if introduced into Ecuador, Central America and
Colombia, which are based on Cavendish cultivars. As it stands, the tropical race 4 strain
poses a very real threat to the multi-billion dollar global banana trade, and the food
security of millions of subsistence farmers (Ploetz, 2005). Furthermore, the Cavendish
variety may risk the very same fate as Gros Michel, the cultivar it replaced nearly 50
years ago because of its susceptibility to race 1 of Foc.
independent growers (IG) since the multinationals can contain the disease. Now that IG
are the ones affected, the fast spread of the disease also scares the multinationals hence
everyone would like to put their efforts to address the disease. Region XI which grows
almost 60% of the total Cavendish started to be alarmed (Generalao, 2013).
Fusarium wilt, a soil-borne fungal disease in banana has been considered a threat
in the region, with Foc TR4 considered as the most devastating. It has already been
reported in China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Taiwan. Recently, it was reported that more
than 5,000 ha Cavendish farms in Davao region has been infected with Fusarium wilt.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Disease Symptoms
Fusarium wilt of banana can be described as a classic vascular wilt disease
causing disruption of water translocation, systemic foliar symptoms and plant collapse
(Jeger et al., 1995). It invades the vascular tissue (xylem) through the roots causing
discoloration and wilting. Externally, the first obvious signs of disease in most varieties
are wilting and a light yellow coloring of the lower older leaves, most prominent around
the margins. They eventually turn a bright yellow color with dead leaf margins (Fig. 1).
As the disease advances, more of the leaves become yellow and die. A skirt of dead
leaves often surrounds the pseudo-stem. In the advanced stages of disease, affected plants
may have a spiky appearance due to prominent upright apical leaves in contrast to the
skirt of dead lower leaves (Fig. 2).
Internally, symptoms first become obvious in the xylem (water conducting)
vessels of the roots and the rhizome. These turn a reddish-brown to maroon colour as the
individual vessels with perforated end walls through which the sap flows. Movement of
the spores with the sap flow is blocked temporarily when they become lodged at the end
walls. The spores then germinate and hyphae grow through the perforations into
adjoining vessels where further spores are produced. The plant is often able to prevent
preven
infection from successfully travelling to and entering the rhizome by the production of
gels and tyloses (a resistance mechanism) to seal off the infection. However, multiple
infections occur during the life of a plant and invariably one or more lead to its complete
invasion. The virulence of tropical race 4 on Cavendish bananas suggests that the
resistance mechanisms employed by the plant against this strain are not as effective as for
sub-tropical
tropical race 4. This strain generally only causes serious losses in a plantation
where the plants are under stress.
Fig. 5.. Disease initiation and life cycle of Foc in a banana plant.
The life cycle of Foc begins with the entry of the pathogen into the potential host
via the root tip. Substances produced by the host, in the region behind the zone of
elongation of the root meristem elicit a pathogen response which results in the
germination of chlamydospores. The germinated hyphae then infect the lateral roots and
progress to invade the xylem vessels. Further spread of most initial infections is usually
stopped in the xylem by the vascular occluding responses of the host, which include the
formation of gels, tyloses and the collapse of vessels. In susceptible cultivars, some of
these infections become established in the xylem and advance ahead of these defense
mechanisms. Microconidia are formed in the xylem vessels and are spread through the
vascular system of the plant, streaming to new sites where they germinate. Hyphae are
then produced, and this begins the invasion at this new site, thus repeating the cycle. In
resistant varieties, the initial pathogen-induced occlusion reaction is further enhanced by
the production of phenolic compounds, which lignifies these obstructions and limits the
pathogen to the infected vessels; no further colonization of the xylem vessels occurs
(Beckman 1969; Beckman 1987; Beckman 1990; Beckman and Keller 1977; Beckman
and Talboys 1981; VanderMolen et al. 1977).
Fig. 6. The life cycle of Foc in the soil and in its host.
Disease Control
removal of the material. However, due to the presence of suppressive soils in which
microbial populations suppress the pathogen population, and since infected rhizomes or
suckers may not exhibit external symptoms, the pathogen may still be moved in approved
planting material. In recent years, the use of certified disease-free tissue-cultured
plantlets, from an approved Quality Banana Approved Nursery facility, has become a
cost effective way of maintaining disease-free production. Tissue-culture plants also have
the added benefits of providing uniform growth and harvest times.
It is now generally accepted that the most effective means of controlling Fusarium
wilt is by host resistance. Since banana is a clonally propagated, perennial crop,
resistance must be enduring. Natural sources of resistance exist in wild species and
cultivars of banana, and also in synthetic diploids developed by breeding programs.
Biotechnology, mutation breeding and somaclonal variations are also being used to
produce resistant genotypes. These programs are likely to provide replacement clones in
the future. Since the Philippines does not have a banana breeding program, close
collaboration with international breeding and plant improvement programs is essential for
obtaining replacement clones in the future.
Disease management
Management of this disease in Davao region is based around three key strategies:
the early detection and containment of outbreaks of Fusarium wilt and application of
protocols to prevent introduction of Foc into disease-free production districts; (2)
adoption of disease management strategies to enable farms with Fusarium wilt to
maintain production, and (3) research to evaluate and develop long-term disease
management strategies for the Mindanao banana industry.
Local quarantine measures are in place in banana production areas to restrict the
movement of banana planting material (particularly suckers and rhizome pieces). Other
banana growers require permits to move planting material to initiate new plantations and,
if vegetative material is used (e.g. suckers or rhizome pieces) this must be from a
certified source of clean planting material.
CRITICAL REVIEW
The following are the summarized methods and strategies of control that
individual growers, plantation groups, joint effects of government/private/nongovernmental institutions employed or are currently employing against Fusarium wilt
disease in their banana plantation and their corresponding epidemiologic effects (Table
1):
Table 1. Methods/strategies of disease control in Fusarium wilt of banana and their
epidemiological effects
METHODS/STRATEGIES OF CONTROL
MAJOR EFFECT ON
A. Avoidance of the Pathogen
1. Use of disease-free tissue cultured planting materials
Xo
2. Modification of cultural practices
r
B. Exclusion of the Pathogen
1. Treatment of planting materials
Xo
2. Inspection and certification
Xo
3. Exclusion or restriction by plant quarantine
Xo
r
C. Eradication of the Pathogen
1. Biological control of plant pathogens
Xo
r
2. Crop rotation
Xo
3. Removal or destruction of diseased plants
Xo
r
4. Dipping to fungicide of the planting stocks
Xo
5. Drenching with fungicide on the planting holes as basal
Xo
treatment
D. Protection of the Plant
1. Modification of the environment
r
2. Modification of nutrition (fertilization)
r
E. Development of Resistant Host
1. Selection and breeding for resistance
a. Vertical resistance
Xo
b. Horizontal resistance
r
2. Somaclonal variation (multilines)
r
3. Resistance through nutrition
r
infected sheaths and there goes the pathogen propagule will be able to land in a new area
and would just wait for the right time (host, environment) to cause new destruction.
There are a lot of workers in a banana plantation and even visitors. There in and
out of the area will contribute to the pathogens spread. If they will be able to step in a
Foc-infested soil then they are carrying with them the pathogens propagule. As to where
they are tracking in the area, there they already have sown the pathogen. This is really
very critical in the workers in the farm. I suggest there should only be one entry and exit
point. They should step (by wearing rubber boots) in a disinfectant before entering the
banana area and whenever they go out, step again to a disinfectant before going to
another parcel of the banana plantation. Big plantations are doing this. But independent
banana growers are mostly not.
During drought season or when there is scarcity of water that runs through the
drip irrigations in the plantation floors, there is an augmentation of boom sprayed
irrigation. The fear of this is that when the source of water is coming from a nearby
plantation river which in some way have catched some propagules of the pathogen.
There will be massive distribution of the propagules then when sprayed in the area.
The use of farm implements/machinery should be taken with utmost care because
they might have carried with them pathogen propagules and brought to the non-infested
area or vice-versa. So, before using in the new area, tires and its parts should be properly
cleaned and disinfested. That is IN and OUT protocol.
Well, the unavoidable spread of the disease was during the great flood of the area
mostly in ComVal province after the hit of typhoon Pablo. The previously non-infested
area the plants became infected after recovery of the typhoon and later on abandoned
because of the total damage brought by Fusarium wilt. Meaning, water is a successful
mean of disease spread.
The pathogen forms chlamydospores as a mean of survival. This activates with
the presence of the hosts exudates or from any alternate hosts. Therefore, alternate hosts
should be removed as they can serve as reservoir of inoculums.
Though banana growers and experts/scientists have not yet perfected the weapons
for this dreadful disease, proper identification (diagnosis) is essential for everyone
concerned in the banana industry and be reported at once for any sightings or early
chances of moving the pathogen. Fencing-off the area also signals to workers or visitors
to keep out, reducing the risk of movement of contaminated soil on boots, machinery or
in suckers.
Banana growers must not be tempted to use planting material from known
infected plantations, even if some rhizomes appear clean. If Foc has been identified at a
plantation, any movement of soil or plants from the affected block must be considered as
an unacceptable risk.
If disease-free areas are available for banana production it is vitally important not
to contaminate them through the lack of basic farm hygiene. The key to keeping diseasefree areas free from Foc is to minimize, if not remove, all opportunities for infested soil,
plant material or irrigation water (that may be carrying spores of the fungus attached to
soil particles) from entering the area. Risk minimization can be achieved in several ways:
Cleaning equipment, footwear and vehicles to avoid moving infested soil or plant
matter from an affected block to disease-free blocks;
Where practicable, isolating irrigation water that drains from diseased parts of a
plantation. Such drainage water may be carrying spores of Foc and should not be
used to irrigate new or disease free areas if possible. At this time no commercial
treatments are known for controlling Foc in irrigation water or water storages.
Educating farm workers about how the fungus is spread and providing posters or
other visual material to enable symptoms of Fusarium wilt to be recognized to aid
in early detection of new outbreaks.
Use of disinfectant applied to vehicles (particularly tyres and inside wheel arches)
as a foaming spray, which is then left for about 10 minutes to allow it to soak into
any soil that may still be attached before being rinsed off. It is also used in
footbaths for cleaning boots when moving between infected and disease-free areas
within and between properties.
LITERATURE CITED
AQUINO, A.P. (2013). Project Report: An Assessment of the Socio-economic Impact of
Fusarium Wilt Disease of Cavendish Banana at the farm level. PCAARRDDOST.
BANCROFT, J. (1876). Report of the board appointed to inquire into the cause of disease
affecting livestock and plants. Votes and Proceedings, 1877: Queensland.
CAREFOOT, G.L. and E.R. SPROTT. (1969). Famine on the wind. Angus and
Robertson: London.
GENERALAO, L.C. (2013). Panama Program Report. SMARRDEC-DOST-PCAARRD.
INIBAP. (2006). Panama disease. A renewed threat in Asia. In: Bioversity International:
Online http://bananas.bioversityinternational.org/content/view/87/74/lang,en/
JEGER, M.J., S. EDEN-GREEN, J.M. THRESH, A. JOHANSON, J.M. WALLER and
A.E. BROWNE. (1995). Banana diseases. In: Bananas and Plantains. (ed. S.
Gowen). Chapman and Hall: London. pp. 337-343.
JONES, D.R. (2000). Diseases of banana, abaca and enset. CAB International:
Wallingford, Oxon, UK.
PLOETZ, R.C. (2005). Panama disease, an old enemy rears its ugly head: parts 1 and 2.
In: Plant Health Progress, APSnet online.
STOVER, R.H. (1962). Fusarium wilt (Panama disease) of bananas and other Musa
species. Commonwealth Mycological Institute: Kew, Surrey, England.
STOVER, R.H. (1990). Fusarium wilt of banana: some history and current status of the
disease. In: Fusarium Wilt of Banana. (ed. RC Ploetz). APS Press: St. Paul, MN.
pp. 1-7.
WALDUCK, G. (2002). New varieties and quarantine help solve Panama riddle.
Australian Bananas 15, 16-17.